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EDUCATION AND SKILLS
«
2001
Knowledge and Skills for Life
FIRST RESULTS FROM PISA 2000
Knowledge
Are students well prepared to meet the challenges of the future? Are they able to analyse, reason and
communicate their ideas effectively? Do they have the capacity to continue learning throughout life? These
and Skills for Life
are questions that parents, students, the public and those who run education systems continually ask.
Knowledge and Skills for Life provides some answers. It assesses how far students near the end of FIRST RESULTS
compulsory education have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full FROM PISA 2000
participation in society. It presents evidence on student performance in reading, mathematical and
scientific literacy, reveals factors that influence the development of these skills at home and at school,
and examines what the implications are for policy development.
The report shows considerable variation in levels of knowledge and skills between students, schools and
countries. The extent to which the socio-economic background of students and schools affects student
performance varies. Some countries have managed to mitigate the influence of social background and
EDUCATION AND SKILLS
some have done that while achieving a high overall mean performance. This is a noteworthy achievement.
Knowledge and Skills for Life
Will other countries take up the challenge?
The data underlying this report are available at www.pisa.oecd.org.
The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a collaborative process
among the 30 Member countries of the OECD and some non-OECD countries, bringing together
scientific expertise from the participating countries and steered jointly by their governments on the
basis of shared, policy-driven interests. PISA is an unprecedented attempt to measure student
achievement across all OECD countries and some non-OECD countries, as is evident from some of
its features:
– The literacy approach: PISA aims to define each domain (reading, mathematics and science) not
merely in terms of mastery of the school curriculum, but in terms of the knowledge and skills
needed for full participation in society.
FIRST RESULTS FROM PISA 2000
– A long-term commitment: Over the decade to come, it will enable countries regularly and
predictably to monitor their progress in meeting key learning objectives.
– The age-group covered: By assessing 15-year-olds, i.e. young people near the end of their
compulsory education, PISA provides a significant indication of the overall performance of school
systems.
– The relevance to lifelong learning: PISA does not limit itself to assessing students’ knowledge and
skills but also asks them to report on their own, self-regulated learning, their motivation to learn
and their preferences for different types of learning situation.
All OECD books and periodicals are now available on line
www.oecd.org
www.SourceOECD.org
ISBN 92-64-19671-4
96 2001 14 1 P
-:HSTCQE=V^[\VV: Programme for International Student Assessment
+NOWLEDGE AND 3KILLS FOR ,IFE
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ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into
force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
shall promote policies designed:
– to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of
living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the
development of the world economy;
– to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries in the
process of economic development; and
– to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in
accordance with international obligations.
The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries
became Members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan
(28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973),
Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland
(22nd November 1996), Korea (12th December 1996) and the Slovak Republic (14th December 2000). The
Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD
Convention).
Publié en français sous le titre :
CONNAISSSANCES ET COMPÉTENCES : DES ATOUTS POUR LA VIE
PREMIERS RÉSULTATS DE PISA 2000
© OECD 2001
Permission to reproduce a portion of this work for non-commercial purposes or classroom use should be obtained
through the Centre français d’exploitation du droit de copie (CFC), 20, rue des Grands-Augustins, 75006 Paris,
France, tel. (33-1) 44 07 47 70, fax (33-1) 46 34 67 19, for every country except the United States. In the United States
permission should be obtained through the Copyright Clearance Center, Customer Service, (508)750-8400,
222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA, or CCC Online: www.copyright.com. All other applications for
permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this book should be made to OECD Publications, 2, rue André-Pascal,
75775 Paris Cedex 16, France.
&/2%7/2$
!RE STUDENTS WELL PREPARED TO MEET THE CHALLENGES OF THE FUTURE !RE THEY ABLE TO ANALYSE REASON AND
COMMUNICATE THEIR IDEAS EFFECTIVELY $O THEY HAVE THE CAPACITY TO CONTINUE LEARNING THROUGHOUT LIFE
0ARENTS STUDENTS THE PUBLIC AND THOSE WHO RUN EDUCATION SYSTEMS NEED TO KNOW THE ANSWERS TO THESE
QUESTIONS
-ANY EDUCATION SYSTEMS MONITOR STUDENT LEARNING IN ORDER TO PROVIDE SOME ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS
#OMPARATIVE INTERNATIONAL ANALYSES CAN EXTEND AND ENRICH THE NATIONAL PICTURE BY PROVIDING A LARGER
CONTEXT WITHIN WHICH TO INTERPRET NATIONAL RESULTS 4HEY CAN SHOW COUNTRIES THEIR AREAS OF RELATIVE STRENGTH
AND WEAKNESS AND HELP THEM TO MONITOR PROGRESS AND RAISE ASPIRATIONS 4HEY CAN ALSO PROVIDE DIRECTIONS FOR
NATIONAL POLICY FOR SCHOOLS CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL EFFORTS AND FOR STUDENTS LEARNING #OUPLED WITH
APPROPRIATE INCENTIVES THEY CAN MOTIVATE STUDENTS TO LEARN BETTER TEACHERS TO TEACH BETTER AND SCHOOLS TO
BE MORE EFFECTIVE
)N RESPONSE TO THE NEED FOR INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE EVIDENCE ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE THE /%#$
HAS LAUNCHED THE 0ROGRAMME FOR )NTERNATIONAL 3TUDENT !SSESSMENT 0)3! 0)3! REPRESENTS A NEW
COMMITMENT BY THE GOVERNMENTS OF /%#$ COUNTRIES TO MONITOR THE OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN
TERMS OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ON A REGULAR BASIS AND WITHIN A COMMON FRAMEWORK THAT IS INTERNATIONALLY
AGREED UPON 0)3! AIMS AT PROVIDING A NEW BASIS FOR POLICY DIALOGUE AND FOR COLLABORATION IN DEFINING AND
OPERATIONALISING EDUCATIONAL GOALS n IN INNOVATIVE WAYS THAT REFLECT JUDGEMENTS ABOUT THE SKILLS THAT ARE
RELEVANT TO ADULT LIFE )T PROVIDES INPUTS FOR STANDARD
SETTING AND EVALUATION INSIGHTS INTO THE FACTORS THAT
CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCIES AND INTO HOW THESE FACTORS OPERATE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
AND IT SHOULD LEAD TO A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF OBSERVED SKILL SHORTAGES "Y
SUPPORTING A SHIFT IN POLICY FOCUS FROM EDUCATIONAL INPUTS TO LEARNING OUTCOMES 0)3! CAN ASSIST COUNTRIES
IN SEEKING TO BRING ABOUT IMPROVEMENTS IN SCHOOLING AND BETTER PREPARATION FOR YOUNG PEOPLE AS THEY ENTER
AN ADULT LIFE OF RAPID CHANGE AND DEEPENING GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE
0)3! IS A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT BRINGING TOGETHER SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE FROM THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
STEERED JOINTLY BY THEIR GOVERNMENTS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED POLICY
DRIVEN INTERESTS 0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PROJECT AT THE POLICY LEVEL THROUGH A "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES
%XPERTS FROM PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES SERVE ON WORKING GROUPS THAT ARE CHARGED WITH LINKING THE 0)3!
POLICY OBJECTIVES WITH THE BEST AVAILABLE SUBSTANTIVE AND TECHNICAL EXPERTISE IN THE FIELD OF INTERNATIONAL
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES 4HROUGH PARTICIPATING IN THESE EXPERT GROUPS COUNTRIES
ENSURE THAT THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS ARE INTERNATIONALLY VALID AND TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE CULTURAL
AND CURRICULAR CONTEXTS OF /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES THAT THEY PROVIDE A REALISTIC BASIS FOR MEASUREMENT
AND THAT THEY PLACE AN EMPHASIS ON AUTHENTICITY AND EDUCATIONAL VALIDITY 4HE FRAMEWORKS AND ASSESSMENT
INSTRUMENTS FOR 0)3! ARE THE PRODUCT OF A MULTI
YEAR DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND WERE ADOPTED BY
/%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES IN $ECEMBER
+NOWLEDGE AND 3KILLS FOR ,IFE PRESENTS THE INITIAL RESULTS OF 0)3! )T CONTAINS EVIDENCE ON THE PERFORMANCE
IN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY OF STUDENTS SCHOOLS AND COUNTRIES PROVIDES INSIGHTS INTO
THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE SKILLS AT HOME AND AT SCHOOL AND EXAMINES HOW THESE
FACTORS INTERACT AND WHAT THE IMPLICATIONS ARE FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT
&/2%7/2$
0)3! REVEALS CONSIDERABLE VARIATION IN LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS SCHOOLS AND COUNTRIES
)T SHOWS THAT THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS EXERTS AN IMPORTANT INFLUENCE
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ALTHOUGH THIS IS MUCH LESS MARKED IN SOME COUNTRIES THAN IN OTHERS -ORE
IMPORTANTLY SOME OF THE COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE BEEN MOST SUCCESSFUL IN MITIGATING THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL
DISADVANTAGE ARE AMONG THOSE WITH THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF OVERALL STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4HESE COUNTRIES
DEMONSTRATE THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO ACHIEVE HIGH QUALITY WHILE MINIMISING INEQUALITY 4HEY DEFINE AN
IMPORTANT CHALLENGE FOR OTHER COUNTRIES BY SHOWING WHAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO ACHIEVE IN TERMS OF BETTER STUDENT
PERFORMANCE
0)3! SUGGESTS THAT SCHOOLS CAN MAKE AN IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE (OWEVER IT WILL REQUIRE FURTHER ANALYSIS
TO IDENTIFY PRECISELY HOW SCHOOL RESOURCES POLICIES AND PRACTICES INTERACT WITH HOME BACKGROUND AND
INFLUENCE STUDENT PERFORMANCE ! SERIES OF MORE DETAILED THEMATIC REPORTS WILL BE PUBLISHED IN AND
IN PURSUIT OF A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF HOW COUNTRIES AND SCHOOLS CAN RESPOND )N THE MEANTIME THE
MERE FACT THAT HIGH
QUALITY LEARNING OUTCOMES ARE ALREADY A REALITY FOR MOST STUDENTS IN SOME COUNTRIES IS
IN ITSELF AN ENCOURAGING RESULT THAT SUGGESTS THAT THE CHALLENGES AHEAD CAN BE TACKLED SUCCESSFULLY
4HIS REPORT IS THE PRODUCT OF A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT BETWEEN THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! THE EXPERTS
AND INSTITUTIONS WORKING WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM AND THE /%#$ 4HE REPORT WAS
PREPARED BY THE /%#$ $IRECTORATE FOR %DUCATION %MPLOYMENT ,ABOUR AND 3OCIAL !FFAIRS PRINCIPALLY BY
!NDREAS 3CHLEICHER IN CO
OPERATION WITH !LETTA 'RISAY "ARRY -C'AW #LAUDIA 4AMASSIA 2ICHARD * 4OBIN
AND * $OUGLAS 7ILLMS WHO PLAYED A LEADING ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF #HAPTER 4HE DATA UNDERLYING
THE REPORT WERE PREPARED BY THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 2AYMOND !DAMS AND #HRISTIAN
-ONSEUR AT THE !USTRALIAN #OUNCIL FOR %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPORT WAS STEERED
BY THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES CHAIRED BY %UGENE /WEN OF THE .ATIONAL #ENTER FOR %DUCATION
3TATISTICS IN THE 5NITED 3TATES !NNEX # OF THE REPORT LISTS THE MEMBERS OF THE VARIOUS 0)3! BODIES AS WELL
AS THE INDIVIDUAL EXPERTS AND CONSULTANTS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THIS REPORT AND TO 0)3! IN GENERAL
4HE REPORT IS PUBLISHED ON THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE 3ECRETARY 'ENERAL OF THE /%#$
*OHN 0 -ARTIN %UGENE /WEN
$IRECTOR FOR %DUCATION %MPLOYMENT #HAIR OF THE 0)3! "OARD OF
,ABOUR AND 3OCIAL !FFAIRS /%#$ 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
#HAPTER 4HE /%#$ 0ROGRAMME FOR )NTERNATIONAL 3TUDENT !SSESSMENT
!N OVERVIEW OF 0)3!
4HE 0)3! APPROACH
7HAT 0)3! MEASURES
2EADING LITERACY IN 0)3!
-ATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN 0)3!
3CIENTIlC LITERACY IN 0)3!
(OW 0)3! ASSESSES STUDENTS AND COLLECTS INFORMATION
)NTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF 0)3!
(OW 0)3! CAN INFORM POLICY
$EVELOPING 0)3! n A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT
/RGANISATION OF THIS REPORT
2EADERS 'UIDE
#HAPTER 7HAT 0)3! SHOWS THAT YEAR OLDS CAN DO
A PROlLE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY
)NTRODUCTION
(OW READING LITERACY IS MEASURED IN 0)3!
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PROlCIENT AT EACH LEVEL OF READING LITERACY
0ROlCIENCY AT ,EVEL ABOVE POINTS
0ROlCIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
0ROlCIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
0ROlCIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
0ROlCIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS OR BELOW LESS THAN POINTS
%XPECTATIONS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4HE MEAN PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF READING LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
(OW STUDENT PERFORMANCE VARIES BETWEEN SCHOOLS
#ONCLUSIONS
#HAPTER 7HAT 0)3! SHOWS THAT YEAR OLDS CAN DO
A PROlLE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY
)NTRODUCTION
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
(OW MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IS MEASURED IN 0)3!
4HE MEAN PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
-ATHEMATICAL AND READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE IN SCIENTIlC LITERACY
(OW SCIENTIlC LITERACY IS MEASURED IN 0)3!
4HE MEAN PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES IN SCIENTIlC LITERACY
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIlC LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
0ERFORMANCE IN READING AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY
)NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#ONCLUSIONS
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
#HAPTER 'ENERAL OUTCOMES OF LEARNING
)NTRODUCTION
-OTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
3UBJECT INTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS
2EADING ACTIVITIES AND ENGAGEMENT IN READING
"ROADER ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
,EARNING STRATEGIES
#ONTROLLING THE LEARNING PROCESS
-EMORISATION AND ELABORATION
#O
OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING
#OMPUTERS AS A TOOL FOR LEARNING
#ONCLUSIONS
#HAPTER 'ENDER DIFFERENCES
)NTRODUCTION
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN SUBJECT INTEREST
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SELF
CONCEPT
#ONCLUSIONS
#HAPTER &AMILY BACKGROUND AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)NTRODUCTION
/CCUPATIONAL STATUS
&AMILY WEALTH
0OSSESSIONS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE
#OMMUNICATION ON SOCIAL ISSUES AND ASPECTS OF CULTURE
0ARENTAL EDUCATION
&AMILY STRUCTURE
0LACE OF BIRTH AND LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME
#ONCLUSIONS
#HAPTER 4HE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND THE ORGANISATION OF SCHOOLING
)NTRODUCTION
3CHOOL AND CLASSROOM CLIMATE
4EACHER SUPPORT
3TUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHOOL CLIMATE
4EACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHOOL CLIMATE
,EARNING OUTSIDE SCHOOL
2ESOURCES INVESTED IN EDUCATION
4EACHER SHORTAGES
4HE QUALITY OF SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
!PPROACHES TO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND lNANCING
0UBLIC AND PRIVATE STAKEHOLDERS
#ONCLUSIONS
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
#HAPTER 7HAT MAKES A DIFFERENCE TO 0)3! RESULTS SOME INDICATIONS FOR POLICY
)NTRODUCTION INmUENCES INSIDE AND OUTSIDE SCHOOL
4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
! GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
4HE STRENGTH OF THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC EFFECT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
4HE COMPONENTS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
4HE ROLE THAT SCHOOLS CAN PLAY IN MODERATING THE IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE
3OCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS
(OW THE SOCIAL MAKE
UP OF THE SCHOOL REINFORCES THE EFFECT
OF STUDENTS INDIVIDUAL BACKGROUNDS
3CHOOL FACTORS THAT CAN RAISE PERFORMANCE LEVELS AND MODERATE THE IMPACT OF
SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
#ONCLUSIONS
2EFERENCES
!NNEX !
!NNEX ! #ONSTRUCTION OF INDICES AND OTHER DERIVED MEASURES FROM THE STUDENT AND
SCHOOL CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES
!NNEX ! %XPLAINED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
!NNEX ! 4HE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION AND THE 0)3! SAMPLES
!NNEX ! 3TANDARD ERRORS SIGNIlCANCE TESTS AND MULTIPLE COMPARISONS
!NNEX ! 1UALITY ASSURANCE
!NNEX ! $EVELOPMENT OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
!NNEX ! 2ELIABILITY OF THE MARKING OF OPEN
ENDED ITEMS
!NNEX "
!NNEX " $ATA TABLES FOR THE CHAPTERS
!NNEX " 0ERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE &LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES OF "ELGIUM
AND THE DIFFERENT LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES IN 3WITZERLAND
!NNEX #
4HE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 0)3! A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
,)34 /& &)'52%3
&IGURE #OUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3!
&IGURE %DUCATION LITERACY AND THE PROBABILITY OF HAVING A WHITE
COLLAR HIGHLY
SKILLED JOB
&IGURE 7HAT THE PROlCIENCY LEVELS MEASURE
&IGURE 3AMPLES OF THE READING TASKS USED IN 0)3!
&IGURE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT EACH OF THE PROlCIENCY LEVELS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE $ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS AND WITHIN SCHOOLS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE 3AMPLES OF THE MATHEMATICS TASKS USED IN 0)3!
&IGURE -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE $ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE ! SAMPLE OF THE SCIENCE TASKS USED IN 0)3!
&IGURE -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE $ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE A 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND NATIONAL INCOME
&IGURE B 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SPENDING PER STUDENT
&IGURE )NTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE %NGAGEMENT IN READING AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 4IME SPENT READING FOR ENJOYMENT AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE "ROADER ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
&IGURE #ONTROLLING THE LEARNING PROCESS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE -EMORISATION AND ELABORATION STRATEGIES AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE #O OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING
&IGURE )NTEREST IN COMPUTERS
&IGURE #OMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
&IGURE 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 0ROPORTIONS OF MALES AND FEMALES AMONG THE LOWEST PERFORMERS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE A 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST IN READING AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
&IGURE B 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
FEMALES FOR MALES AND
&IGURE 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING ATTITUDES TOWARDS READING
&IGURE 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING TIME SPENT READING FOR ENJOYMENT
&IGURE 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING DIVERSITY OF READING MATERIALS
&IGURE A 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF CONCEPT IN READING AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
&IGURE B 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
&IGURE /CCUPATIONAL STATUS OF PARENTS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 0OSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 3OCIAL AND CULTURAL COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
&IGURE -OTHERS EDUCATION AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 0LACE OF BIRTH HOME LANGUAGE AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 4EACHER SUPPORT AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n THE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERSPECTIVE
&IGURE 4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n THE STUDENTS PERSPECTIVE
&IGURE 4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n A SUMMARY PICTURE
&IGURE 4EACHER RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
&IGURE 4IME SPENT ON HOMEWORK
&IGURE 0RINCIPALS VIEWS ON THE QUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AT SCHOOL
&IGURE 3CHOOL AUTONOMY AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
&IGURE 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CONTROL
&IGURE 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FOR THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE
&IGURES AND A C
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FOR EACH COUNTRY
&IGURE %FFECTS OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
&IGURE !VERAGE EFFECT OF THE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED
,)34 /& "/8%3
"OX 0)3! AN INTERNATIONALLY STANDARDISED ASSESSMENT OF YEAR OLDS
"OX $OES HIGHER READING LITERACY IMPROVE THE PROSPECTS FOR EMPLOYMENT
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
"OX )NTERPRETING SAMPLE STATISTICS
"OX )NTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN 0)3! SCORES HOW LARGE A GAP
"OX &ACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH BETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
"OX )NTERPRETING STUDENTS SELF REPORTS
"OX #HANGES IN GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE PERFORMANCE AS STUDENTS GET OLDER
"OX )NTERPRETING THE 0)3! INDICES
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
"OX )NTERPRETING THE 0)3! INDICES
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
"OX #OMPARING THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT FACTORS
"OX (OW TO READ 4ABLE
,)34 /& 4!",%3
4ABLE ! ,EVELS OF PARENTAL EDUCATION CONVERTED INTO YEARS OF SCHOOLING
4ABLE ! %XPLAINED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 2
4ABLE ! 0)3! TARGET POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
4ABLE ! 2ESPONSE RATES
4ABLE ! $ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK
FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY
4ABLE ! $ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK
FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
4ABLE ! $ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK
FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SCIENTIlC LITERACY
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
4ABLE A 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE B 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE READINGRETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
4ABLE C 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE READINGINTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
4ABLE D 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE READINGREmECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
4ABLE A -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READINGRETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
4ABLE B -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READINGINTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
4ABLE C -ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READING REmECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
4ABLE A 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE B 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READINGRETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
4ABLE C 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READINGINTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
4ABLE D 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READINGREmECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
4ABLE "ETWEEN SCHOOL AND WITHIN SCHOOL VARIATION ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE "ETWEEN SCHOOL AND WITHIN SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC
LITERACY SCALES
4ABLE 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING SCIENTIlC AND MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
SCALES AND NATIONAL INCOME
4ABLE )NDEX OF INTEREST IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE 4IME STUDENTS USUALLY SPEND EACH DAY READING FOR ENJOYMENT AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE )NDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF CO OPERATIVE LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX ON COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE A 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES BY GENDER
4ABLE B 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION INTERPRETING TEXTS
AND REmECTION AND EVALUATION SCALES BY GENDER
4ABLE A 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY GENDER
4ABLE B 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCORING BELOW POINTS AND ABOVE POINTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
4ABLE 4IME STUDENTS USUALLY SPEND EACH DAY READING FOR ENJOYMENT
4ABLE A )NDEX OF SELF CONCEPT IN READING BY GENDER AND PERFORMANCE ON
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE B )NDEX OF SELF CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS BY GENDER AND PERFORMANCE ON
THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE A )NTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE B )NTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE C )NTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS RELATED TO ASPECTS OF CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES BY LEVEL OF MOTHERS EDUCATION
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF THE ADULT POPULATION WHO HAVE COMPLETED TERTIARY EDUCATION
AND THE PROBABILITY OF OBTAINING A TERTIARY QUALIlCATION BY PARENTS LEVEL OF EDUCATION
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY TYPE OF FAMILY STRUCTURE
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL
AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES BY STUDENTS NATIONALITY AND THE NATIONALITY OF THEIR PARENTS
4ABLE 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES
BY LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME
4ABLE )NDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF PRINCIPALS PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK PER WEEK IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES
AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE 3TUDENT PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL COURSES OUTSIDE SCHOOL
4ABLE )NDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4ABLE )NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
4!",% /& #/.4%.43
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHICH HAVE AT LEAST SOME RESPONSIBILITY
FOR THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS OF SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH TEACHERS HAVE AT LEAST SOME RESPONSIBILITY
FOR THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS OF SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
4ABLE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY TYPE OF SCHOOL
4ABLE 2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
4ABLE %FFECTS OF SELECTED FAMILY BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE 6ARIATION IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE EXPLAINED
BY SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
4ABLE %FFECTS OF THE STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE %FFECTS OF STUDENT LEVEL AND SCHOOL LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED
4ABLE A %FFECTS OF STUDENT LEVEL AND SCHOOL LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE #OUNTRY MEANS OF SELECTED SCHOOL LEVEL INDICES AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH THE
SCHOOL MEAN ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS %3#3
4ABLE " 0ERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE &LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES
OF "ELGIUM AND THE LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES IN 3WITZERLAND
#HAPTER
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
!N OVERVIEW OF 0)3!
*-ÊÃiiÃÊÌÊ>ÃÃiÃÃÊ 4HE /%#$S 0ROGRAMME FOR )NTERNATIONAL 3TUDENT !SSESSMENT 0)3! IS A
ÜÊÜiÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊ COLLABORATIVE EFFORT AMONG THE -EMBER COUNTRIES OF THE /%#$ TO MEASURE HOW
>ÀiÊ«Ài«>Ài`ÊvÀÊvi½ÃÊ WELL YOUNG ADULTS AT AGE AND THEREFORE APPROACHING THE END OF COMPULSORY
V
>i}ið SCHOOLING ARE PREPARED TO MEET THE CHALLENGES OF TODAYS KNOWLEDGE SOCIETIES
4HE ASSESSMENT IS FORWARD
LOOKING FOCUSING ON YOUNG PEOPLES ABILITY TO USE
THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO MEET REAL
LIFE CHALLENGES RATHER THAN ON THE EXTENT
TO WHICH THEY HAVE MASTERED A SPECIFIC SCHOOL CURRICULUM 4HIS ORIENTATION
REFLECTS A CHANGE IN THE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULA THEMSELVES WHICH
ARE INCREASINGLY CONCERNED WITH WHAT STUDENTS CAN DO WITH WHAT THEY LEARN AT
SCHOOL AND NOT MERELY WITH WHETHER THEY HAVE LEARNED IT
7Ì
ÊÌ
iÊÜÀ`½ÃÊi>`}Ê 0)3! IS THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE AND RIGOROUS INTERNATIONAL EFFORT TO DATE TO ASSESS
iÝ«iÀÌÃ]Ê«>ÀÌV«>Ì}Ê STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND TO COLLECT DATA ON THE STUDENT FAMILY AND INSTITUTIONAL
VÕÌÀiÃÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊ"
Ê FACTORS THAT CAN HELP TO EXPLAIN DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE $ECISIONS ABOUT THE
>ÛiÊVÀi>Ìi`ÊÛ>`ÊVÀÃÃ SCOPE AND NATURE OF THE ASSESSMENTS AND THE BACKGROUND INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED
VÕÌÀÞÊ>ÃÃiÃÃiÌÃo WERE MADE BY LEADING EXPERTS IN PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES AND STEERED JOINTLY BY THEIR
GOVERNMENTS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED POLICY
DRIVEN INTERESTS 3UBSTANTIAL EFFORTS AND
RESOURCES WERE DEVOTED TO ACHIEVING CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC BREADTH IN THE ASSESS
MENT MATERIALS 3TRINGENT QUALITY ASSURANCE MECHANISMS WERE APPLIED IN TRANSLA
TION SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION !S A CONSEQUENCE THE RESULTS OF 0)3! HAVE A HIGH
DEGREE OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY AND CAN SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF
THE OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION IN THE WORLDS MOST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
ovÊ
ÜÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊV>Ê 0)3! IS BASED ON A DYNAMIC MODEL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN WHICH NEW KNOWLEDGE
ÕÃiÊÜ
>ÌÊÌ
iÞÊ
>ÛiÊ AND SKILLS NECESSARY FOR SUCCESSFUL ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING WORLD ARE CONTINUOUSLY
i>Ài`ÊÊÀi>`}]Ê ACQUIRED THROUGHOUT LIFE 0)3! FOCUSES ON THINGS THAT
YEAR
OLDS WILL NEED
>Ì
i>ÌVÃÊ>`Ê IN THEIR FUTURE LIVES AND SEEKS TO ASSESS WHAT THEY CAN DO WITH WHAT THEY HAVE
ÃViVi° LEARNED 4HE ASSESSMENT IS INFORMED n BUT NOT CONSTRAINED n BY THE COMMON
DENOMINATOR OF NATIONAL CURRICULA 0)3! DOES ASSESS STUDENTS KNOWLEDGE BUT IT
ALSO EXAMINES THEIR ABILITY TO REFLECT ON THE KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE AND TO
APPLY THAT KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE TO REAL WORLD ISSUES &OR EXAMPLE IN ORDER
TO UNDERSTAND AND EVALUATE SCIENTIFIC ADVICE ON FOOD SAFETY AN ADULT WOULD NEED
NOT ONLY TO KNOW SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT THE COMPOSITION OF NUTRIENTS BUT ALSO TO
BE ABLE TO APPLY THAT INFORMATION 4HE TERM hLITERACYv IS USED TO ENCAPSULATE THIS
BROADER CONCEPTION OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
*-ÊÓäääÊiÝ>i`Ê 4HE FIRST 0)3! SURVEY WAS CONDUCTED IN IN COUNTRIES INCLUDING
Ài>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊÊ /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES USING WRITTEN TASKS ANSWERED IN SCHOOLS UNDER
}Ài>ÌiÃÌÊ`iÌ>°ÊÊ>Ê INDEPENDENTLY SUPERVISED TEST CONDITIONS !NOTHER COUNTRIES WILL COMPLETE THE
VÌÕ}ÊVÞVi]Ê*-Ê SAME ASSESSMENT IN SEE &IGURE 0)3! SURVEYED READING LITERACY
ÓääÎÊÜÊvVÕÃÊÊÊ MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY WITH A PRIMARY FOCUS ON READING
>Ì
i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞ]Ê -EASURES OF ATTITUDES TO LEARNING AND INFORMATION ON HOW STUDENTS MANAGE THEIR
*-ÊÓääÈÊÊÃViÌvVÊ OWN LEARNING WERE ALSO OBTAINED IN COUNTRIES AS PART OF AN INTERNATIONAL
ÌiÀ>VÞ]Ê>`ÊÃÊ° OPTION 4HE SURVEY WILL BE REPEATED EVERY THREE YEARS WITH THE PRIMARY FOCUS
SHIFTING TO MATHEMATICS IN SCIENCE IN AND BACK TO READING IN
/
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ£°£
#OUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3!
/%#$ COUNTRIES .ON /%#$ COUNTRIES #OUNTRIES WHERE THE /%#$ COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN
PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! ASSESSMENT WILL BE 0)3! FROM ONWARDS
COMPLETED IN
!USTRALIA "RAZIL 3LOVAK 2EPUBLIC
!USTRIA ,ATVIA !LBANIA 4URKEY
"ELGIUM ,IECHTENSTEIN
#ANADA 2USSIAN &EDERATION !RGENTINA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC "ULGARIA
$ENMARK #HILE
&INLAND
&RANCE #HINA
'ERMANY 3PECIAL !DMINISTRATIVE
'REECE 2EGION OF (ONG +ONG
(UNGARY )NDONESIA
)CELAND
)RELAND )SRAEL
)TALY ,ITHUANIA
*APAN -ACEDONIA
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG 0ERU
-EXICO 2OMANIA
.ETHERLANDS 4HAILAND
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
#(!04%2 /
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
"OX 0)3! AN INTERNATIONALLY STANDARDISED ASSESSMENT OF YEAR OLDS
3AMPLE SIZE
s -ORE THAN A QUARTER OF A MILLION STUDENTS REPRESENTING ALMOST MILLION
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED
IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE ASSESSED IN !NOTHER COUNTRIES WILL
ADMINISTER THE SAME ASSESSMENT IN
#ONTENT
s 0)3! COVERED THREE DOMAINS READING LITERACY MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
s 0)3! LOOKED AT YOUNG PEOPLES ABILITY TO USE THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN ORDER TO MEET
REAL
LIFE CHALLENGES RATHER THAN HOW WELL THEY HAD MASTERED A SPECIFIC SCHOOL CURRICULUM
s 4HE EMPHASIS WAS PLACED ON THE MASTERY OF PROCESSES THE UNDERSTANDING OF CONCEPTS AND THE
ABILITY TO FUNCTION IN VARIOUS SITUATIONS WITHIN EACH DOMAIN
s !S PART OF AN INTERNATIONAL OPTION TAKEN UP IN COUNTRIES 0)3! COLLECTED INFORMATION ON
STUDENTS ATTITUDES TO LEARNING
-ETHODS
s 0)3! USED PENCIL
AND
PAPER ASSESSMENTS LASTING TWO HOURS FOR EACH STUDENT
s 0)3! USED BOTH MULTIPLE
CHOICE ITEMS AND QUESTIONS REQUIRING STUDENTS TO CONSTRUCT THEIR
OWN ANSWERS )TEMS WERE TYPICALLY ORGANISED IN UNITS BASED ON A PASSAGE DESCRIBING A REAL
LIFE
SITUATION
s ! TOTAL OF SEVEN HOURS OF ASSESSMENT ITEMS WAS INCLUDED WITH DIFFERENT STUDENTS TAKING DIFFERENT
COMBINATIONS OF THE ASSESSMENT ITEMS
s 3TUDENTS ANSWERED A BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE THAT TOOK ABOUT MINUTES TO COMPLETE AND AS
PART OF AN INTERNATIONAL OPTION COMPLETED QUESTIONNAIRES ON LEARNING AND STUDY PRACTICES AS WELL
AS FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS
s 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS COMPLETED A QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT THEIR SCHOOL
/UTCOMES
s ! PROFILE OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AMONG
YEAR
OLDS
s #ONTEXTUAL INDICATORS RELATING RESULTS TO STUDENT AND SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS
s ! KNOWLEDGE BASE FOR POLICY ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH
s 4REND INDICATORS SHOWING HOW RESULTS CHANGE OVER TIME ONCE DATA BECOME AVAILABLE FROM
SUBSEQUENT CYCLES OF 0)3!
&UTURE ASSESSMENTS
s 0)3! WILL CONTINUE IN THREE
YEAR CYCLES )N THE FOCUS WILL BE ON MATHEMATICS AND IN
ON SCIENCE 4HE ASSESSMENT OF CROSS
CURRICULAR COMPETENCIES IS BEING PROGRESSIVELY INTEGRATED INTO
0)3! BEGINNING WITH AN ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEM
SOLVING SKILLS IN
/
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
4HIS REPORT SUMMARISES THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS AND USES 0)3! TO ANALYSE /
ÃÊÀi«ÀÌÊÃÕ>ÀÃiÃÊ
WHAT FACTORS PROMOTE SUCCESS IN EDUCATION )T PRESENTS THE DISTRIBUTIONS OF Ì
iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊvÊ
PERFORMANCE IN EACH COUNTRY NOT ONLY AVERAGE SCORES )N ADDITION IT USES ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊ*-ÊÓäää°
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON STUDENTS THEIR SCHOOLS AND THEIR EDUCATION SYSTEMS
TO EXAMINE A RANGE OF FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE
"Y REVEALING PATTERNS OF STUDENT PROFICIENCY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES ALONGSIDE
INFORMATION ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPERIENCES OF STUDENTS 0)3! PROVIDES
A POWERFUL TOOL TO IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT PROMOTES SUCCESS IN EDUCA
TION 4HE REMAINDER OF THIS CHAPTER LOOKS IN TURN AT
n THE 0)3! APPROACH
n WHAT 0)3! MEASURES OVERALL AND WITHIN EACH LITERACY DOMAIN AND THE METHODS
THAT WERE EMPLOYED
n HOW THE RESULTS CAN BE INTERPRETED AND HOW 0)3! CAN ADD TO THE UNDERSTANDING
OF EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNING IN WAYS RELEVANT TO POLICY
MAKERS IN EACH
COUNTRY
n HOW 0)3! WAS DEVELOPED AND
n HOW THE REPORT IS ORGANISED
4HE 0)3! APPROACH
0)3! ASSESSES THE LEVELS OF A WIDE RANGE OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ATTAINED BY *-ÊÃÊ>Ê>ÀÊ
YEAR
OLDS IN THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES 4HE MAIN FEATURES DRIVING V>LÀ>ÌÛiÊivvÀÌÊ
THE DEVELOPMENT OF 0)3! HAVE BEEN >}ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌÊ
«ÀÛiÊi`ÕV>ÌÊ
n ITS POLICY ORIENTATION WITH DESIGN AND REPORTING METHODS DETERMINED BY THE «VÞ°°°
NEED OF GOVERNMENTS TO DRAW POLICY LESSONS
n ITS INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO LITERACY NOT ONLY IN READING BUT ALSO IN SCIENCE AND
MATHEMATICS
n ITS FOCUS ON THE DEMONSTRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN A FORM THAT IS
RELEVANT TO EVERYDAY LIFE
n ITS BREADTH OF GEOGRAPHICAL COVERAGE WITH COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING
REPRESENTING ONE THIRD OF THE WORLD POPULATION
n ITS REGULARITY WITH A COMMITMENT TO REPEAT THE SURVEY EVERY THREE YEARS
n ITS COLLABORATIVE NATURE WITH GOVERNMENTS FROM THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
JOINTLY STEERING THE PROJECT AND A CONSORTIUM OF THE WORLDS LEADING INSTITU
TIONS IN THE FIELD OF ASSESSMENT APPLYING CUTTING
EDGE SCIENTIFIC KNOW
HOW
4HROUGH 0)3! /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES ARE COLLABORATING TO IMPROVE oLÞÊ>``}Ê>ÊÃÌÀ}]Ê
COMPARATIVE INDICATORS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS 4HE /%#$ }}ÊvVÕÃÊÊ
PUBLISHES A RANGE OF INDICATORS ANNUALLY IN %DUCATION AT A 'LANCE EG /%#$ ÕÌViÃÊÌÊÌ
iÊ"
½ÃÊ
4HESE INDICATORS PROVIDE INFORMATION ON THE HUMAN AND FINANCIAL ÜÀÊÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê
RESOURCES INVESTED IN EDUCATION ON HOW EDUCATION AND LEARNING SYSTEMS OPERATE i`ÕV>ÌÊ`V>ÌÀðÊ
AND EVOLVE AND ON THE INDIVIDUAL SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RETURNS FROM EDUCATIONAL
#(!04%2 /
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
INVESTMENT )N THE PAST THE ABSENCE OF REGULAR AND RELIABLE INDICATORS OF
EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES ACROSS COUNTRIES ESPECIALLY INDICATORS OF KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS HAS BEEN A SIGNIFICANT GAP IN THE AVAILABLE DATA 7ITHOUT SUCH INDICATORS
POLICY
MAKERS TAXPAYERS EDUCATORS AND PARENTS LACK A MEANS OF JUDGING THE
COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF THEIR EDUCATION SYSTEMS
)N RESPONSE THE /%#$ HAS BEEN WORKING WITH -EMBER COUNTRIES TO MEASURE
SKILLS DIRECTLY THROUGH INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE SURVEYS 4HE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT
,ITERACY 3URVEY )!,3 JOINTLY CONDUCTED BETWEEN AND BY 3TATISTICS
#ANADA AND THE /%#$ PROVIDED A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS 0)3! IS NOW
ADDING MEASURES OF SKILLS FOR LIFE AMONG SCHOOL
AGE STUDENTS
/
iÊ««Õ>ÌÊÃÕÀÛiÞi`Ê )N ORDER TO ENSURE THE COMPARABILITY OF THE RESULTS 0)3! NEEDS TO ASSESS
ÃÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊiÀi`Ê COMPARABLE TARGET POPULATIONS $IFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE NATURE AND
Êi`ÕV>Ì]ÊvÕÌiÊ EXTENT OF PRE
PRIMARY EDUCATION AND CARE IN THE AGE OF ENTRY TO FORMAL SCHOOLING
ÀÊ«>ÀÌÌi°°° AND IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM DO NOT ALLOW SCHOOL GRADES TO BE
DEFINED SO THAT THEY ARE INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE 6ALID INTERNATIONAL COMPARI
SONS OF EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE MUST THEREFORE DEFINE THEIR POPULATIONS WITH
REFERENCE TO A TARGET AGE 0)3! COVERS STUDENTS WHO ARE AGED BETWEEN YEARS
MONTHS AND YEARS MONTHS AT THE TIME OF THE ASSESSMENT REGARDLESS OF THE
GRADE OR TYPE OF INSTITUTION IN WHICH THEY ARE ENROLLED AND OF WHETHER THEY ARE
IN FULL
TIME OR PART
TIME EDUCATION 0)3! EXCLUDES
YEAR
OLDS NOT ENROLLED IN
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS )N THE REMAINDER OF THIS REPORT h
YEAR
OLDSv IS USED AS
A SHORTHAND TO DENOTE THIS POPULATION 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF "RAZIL ,UXEMBOURG
AND 0OLAND AT LEAST PER CENT OF THIS TARGET POPULATION WAS COVERED IN 0)3!
BY THE ACTUAL SAMPLES AND MORE THAN PER CENT IN THE MAJORITY OF COUNTRIES FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE DEFINITION OF THE 0)3! POPULATION AND THE COVERAGE OF
SAMPLES SEE !NNEX ! 4HIS HIGH LEVEL OF COVERAGE CONTRIBUTES TO THE COMPARABIL
ITY OF THE ASSESSMENT RESULTS
oi>L}ÊVÀÃÃ !S A RESULT THIS REPORT IS ABLE TO MAKE STATEMENTS ABOUT THE KNOWLEDGE AND
VÕÌÀÞÊV«>ÀÃÃÊvÊ SKILLS OF INDIVIDUALS BORN IN THE SAME YEAR AND STILL AT SCHOOL AT YEARS OF AGE
Ì
iÊ«>VÌÊvÊ`vviÀ}Ê BUT HAVING DIFFERING EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES BOTH WITHIN AND OUTSIDE SCHOOL
i`ÕV>Ì>ÊiÝ«iÀiVið 4HE NUMBER OF SCHOOL GRADES IN WHICH THESE STUDENTS ARE TO BE FOUND DEPENDS
ON A COUNTRYS POLICIES ON SCHOOL ENTRY AND PROMOTION &URTHERMORE IN SOME
COUNTRIES STUDENTS IN THE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION REPRESENT DIFFERENT EDUCATION
SYSTEMS TRACKS OR STREAMS
7HAT 0)3! MEASURES
*-Êi>ÃÕÀiÃÊÀi>`}]Ê )NTERNATIONAL EXPERTS FROM /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES DEFINED EACH OF THE
>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌvVÊ THREE LITERACY DOMAINS EXAMINED IN 0)3! n READING SCIENCE AND MATH
ÌiÀ>VÞÊÊVÌÕÕÃÊ EMATICS n AND DREW UP A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING IT /%#$ A 4HE CON
ÃV>iÃ]ÊÀ>Ì
iÀÊÌ
>ÊëÞÊ CEPT OF LITERACY USED IN 0)3! IS MUCH BROADER THAN THE HISTORICAL NOTION OF THE
`Û`}Ê«i«iÊÌÊÌ
ÃiÊ ABILITY TO READ AND WRITE ,ITERACY IS MEASURED ON A CONTINUUM NOT AS SOME
Ü
Ê>ÀiʺÌiÀ>Ìi»Ê>`ÊÌ
ÃiÊ THING THAT AN INDIVIDUAL EITHER DOES OR DOES NOT HAVE )T MAY BE NECESSARY OR
Ü
Ê>ÀiÊÌ° DESIRABLE FOR SOME PURPOSES TO DEFINE A POINT ON A LITERACY CONTINUUM BELOW
/
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
WHICH LEVELS OF COMPETENCE ARE CONSIDERED INADEQUATE BUT THE UNDERLYING
VARIABILITY IS IMPORTANT ! LITERATE PERSON HAS A RANGE OF COMPETENCIES 4HERE
IS NO PRECISE DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN A PERSON WHO IS FULLY LITERATE AND ONE WHO
IS NOT
4HE ACQUISITION OF LITERACY IS A LIFELONG PROCESS n TAKING PLACE NOT JUST AT ÌiÀ>VÞÊ>VµÕÃÌÊÃÊ
SCHOOL OR THROUGH FORMAL LEARNING BUT ALSO THROUGH INTERACTIONS WITH PEERS >Êvi}Ê«ÀViÃÃ\Ê*-Ê
COLLEAGUES AND WIDER COMMUNITIES &IFTEEN
YEAR
OLDS CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO Ì
iÀivÀiÊ>ÃÃiÃÃiÃÊ
HAVE LEARNED EVERYTHING THEY WILL NEED TO KNOW AS ADULTS BUT THEY MUST HAVE ÃÌÕ`iÌýÊV>«>VÌÞÊÌÊ
A SOLID FOUNDATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN AREAS SUCH AS READING MATHEMATICS AND VÌÕiÊi>À}o
SCIENCE )N ORDER TO CONTINUE LEARNING IN THESE DOMAINS AND TO APPLY THEIR
LEARNING TO THE REAL WORLD THEY ALSO NEED TO UNDERSTAND ELEMENTARY PROCESSES
AND PRINCIPLES AND TO USE THESE FLEXIBLY IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS )T IS FOR THIS REASON
THAT 0)3! ASSESSES THE ABILITY TO COMPLETE TASKS RELATING TO REAL LIFE DEPENDING
ON A BROAD UNDERSTANDING OF KEY CONCEPTS RATHER THAN ASSESSING THE POSSESSION
OF SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE
!S WELL AS ASSESSING COMPETENCIES IN THE THREE CORE DOMAINS 0)3! AIMS o>`ÊÌ
iÀÊ>LÌÞÊÌÊÕÃiÊ
PROGRESSIVELY TO EXAMINE COMPETENCIES ACROSS DISCIPLINARY BOUNDARIES 0)3! Üi`}iÊÊÀi>Êvi°
ASSESSED STUDENT MOTIVATION OTHER ASPECTS OF STUDENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS
LEARNING FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS AND UNDER THE HEADING hSELF
REGULATED
LEARNINGv ASPECTS OF STUDENTS STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING AND MONITORING THEIR OWN
LEARNING )N SUBSEQUENT 0)3! SURVEYS FURTHER hCROSS
CURRICULAR COMPETENCIESv
SUCH AS PROBLEM
SOLVING AND SKILLS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES WILL PLAY A
GROWING ROLE
4O WHAT EXTENT DOES 0)3! SUCCEED IN MEASURING hSKILLS FOR LIFEv 4HE ANSWER
WILL BE BASED NOT ONLY ON SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENTS ABOUT WHAT IS IMPORTANT IN
LIFE BUT ALSO ON EVIDENCE OF WHETHER PEOPLE WITH THE HIGH LEVELS OF SKILLS OF THE
TYPE WHICH 0)3! MEASURES ARE ACTUALLY LIKELY TO SUCCEED IN LIFE !LTHOUGH THE
FUTURE OUTCOMES FOR THE STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! CANNOT YET BE KNOWN
THE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY )!,3 SHOWS THAT ADULTS READING
AND MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SKILLS ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO THEIR LABOUR
MARKET SUC
CESS AND EARNINGS AND HAVE AN EFFECT THAT IS INDEPENDENT OF THEIR EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT SEE "OX
4HE DOMAINS COVERED BY 0)3! ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF
n THE CONTENT OR STRUCTURE OF KNOWLEDGE THAT STUDENTS NEED TO ACQUIRE Üi`}iÊÃÊ>ÃÃiÃÃi`ÊÊ
IN EACH DOMAIN EG FAMILIARITY WITH SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OR VARIOUS TEXT ÊÌiÀÃÊvÊVÌiÌ]Ê
TYPES «ÀViÃÃiÃÊ>`ÊVÌiÝÌð
n THE PROCESSES THAT NEED TO BE PERFORMED EG RETRIEVING WRITTEN INFORMATION
FROM A TEXT AND
n THE CONTEXTS IN WHICH KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ARE APPLIED EG MAKING DECISIONS
IN RELATION TO ONES PERSONAL LIFE OR UNDERSTANDING WORLD AFFAIRS
#(!04%2 /
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
"OX $OES HIGHER READING LITERACY IMPROVE THE PROSPECTS FOR EMPLOYMENT
4HE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY )!,3 FOUND THAT PEOPLE WITH HIGHER LEVELS OF READING
LITERACY ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE EMPLOYED AND TO HAVE HIGHER AVERAGE SALARIES THAN THOSE WITH LOWER
LEVELS /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA )S THIS SIMPLY BECAUSE THEY HAVE BETTER EDUCATIONAL
QUALIFICATIONS )F IT IS THEN )!,3 AND 0)3! WOULD AT BEST BE MEASURING COMPETENCIES THAT
HELP PEOPLE TO GAIN A BETTER EDUCATION AND THROUGH IT BETTER JOBS )N )!,3 ADULTS WHO HAD
COMPLETED SOME FORM OF TERTIARY EDUCATION SCORED ON AVERAGE BETWEEN ONE AND TWO READING
LITERACY LEVELS HIGHER THAN THOSE WHO DID NOT COMPLETE SECONDARY EDUCATION BUT THERE WERE SIG
NIFICANT NUMBERS OF ADULTS IN THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF READING LITERACY
AND A LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION OR VICE VERSA -OST IMPORTANTLY READING LITERACY LEVELS CAN HELP TO
PREDICT HOW WELL PEOPLE WILL DO IN THE LABOUR MARKET OVER AND ABOVE WHAT CAN BE PREDICTED FROM
THEIR EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS ALONE
&IGURE ILLUSTRATES THIS BY SHOWING THE LIKELIHOOD OF YOUNG PEOPLE WITH DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS
OF READING LITERACY AND EDUCATION HAVING A WHITE
COLLAR HIGHLY SKILLED JOB 4HE GAPS BETWEEN
}ÕÀiÊ£°Ó
%DUCATION LITERACY AND THE PROBABILITY OF HAVING A WHITE
COLLAR HIGHLY
SKILLED JOB
0ROBABILITY OF EMPLOYMENT IN THE WHITE
COLLAR HIGHLY
SKILLED BUSINESS SECTOR BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION
AND INCREASING LITERACY SCORE ALL COUNTRIES COMBINED )!,3 PROSE SCALE POPULATION AGED
7ITH LESS THAN UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
#OMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
0ROBABILITY
#OMPLETED TERTIARY EDUCATION
)!,3 PROSE LITERACY SCORE
3OURCE /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA
/
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
THE LINES SHOW THE EFFECTS OF INCREASING LEVELS OF EDUCATION THE SLOPES OF THE LINES SHOW THE
EFFECT OF HIGHER READING LITERACY AT A GIVEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION &OR A PERSON WHO IS BETWEEN
AND YEARS OF AGE AND WORKING IN THE BUSINESS SECTOR THE PROBABILITY OF WORKING IN A WHITE
COLLAR HIGHLY SKILLED JOB RISES RAPIDLY WITH AN INCREASE IN READING LITERACY SKILLS 4HE INDEPENDENT
EFFECT OF READING LITERACY ON LABOUR
MARKET OUTCOMES IS COMPARABLE TO THE INDEPENDENT EFFECT
OF EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS 3OMEONE WITH MEDIUM QUALIFICATIONS UPPER SECONDARY ONLY HAS
A TWO
IN
FIVE CHANCE OF BEING IN A HIGH
LEVEL JOB IF THEIR READING LITERACY LEVEL IS AT THE LOW
END OF THE SCALE AND A FOUR
IN
FIVE CHANCE IF IT IS A HIGH SCORE #ONVERSELY SOMEONE WITH
A MEDIUM LEVEL OF READING LITERACY A SCORE OF HAS A TWO
IN
FIVE CHANCE OF GETTING SUCH AS
JOB WITH A LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION ONLY AND MORE THAN A FOUR
IN
FIVE
CHANCE WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF EDUCATION A TERTIARY QUALIFICATION
3OURCE /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA
-ATERIALS IN 0)3! ARE DESIGNED TO ASSESS STUDENTS IN EACH OF THE THREE DOMAINS
)N ORDER TO OBTAIN A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF EACH DOMAIN OVER TIME HOWEVER
EACH CYCLE OF 0)3! EMPHASISES ONE DOMAIN 0)3! CONCENTRATED ON READING
LITERACY TO WHICH TWO
THIRDS OF ASSESSMENT TIME WERE DEVOTED #ONSEQUENTLY
MOST OF THIS REPORT DISCUSSES THE RESULTS OF 0)3! IN THE FIELD OF READING
LITERACY )N THE OTHER TWO DOMAINS THE REPORT PROVIDES A SUMMARY PROFILE OF
SKILLS )N 0)3! WILL LOOK MORE CLOSELY AT MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND IN
AT SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
2EADING LITERACY IN 0)3!
2EADING LITERACY IS DEFINED IN 0)3! AS THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND USE AND REFLECT *-Ê`iviÃÊÀi>`}Ê
ON WRITTEN TEXTS IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE ONES GOALS TO DEVELOP ONES KNOWLEDGE AND ÌiÀ>VÞÊ>ÃÊÌ
iÊ>LÌÞÊ
POTENTIAL AND TO PARTICIPATE EFFECTIVELY IN SOCIETY 4HIS DEFINITION GOES BEYOND ÌÊÕ`iÀÃÌ>`]ÊÕÃiÊ>`Ê
THE NOTION THAT READING LITERACY MEANS DECODING WRITTEN MATERIAL AND LITERAL ÀiviVÌÊÊÜÀÌÌiÊÌiÝÌÃÊ
COMPREHENSION 2EADING INCORPORATES UNDERSTANDING AND REFLECTING ON TEXTS ÊÀ`iÀÊÌÊ«>ÀÌV«>ÌiÊ
,ITERACY INVOLVES THE ABILITY OF INDIVIDUALS TO USE WRITTEN INFORMATION TO ivviVÌÛiÞÊÊvi°
FULFIL THEIR GOALS AND THE CONSEQUENT ABILITY OF COMPLEX MODERN SOCIETIES TO
USE WRITTEN INFORMATION TO FUNCTION EFFECTIVELY 0)3! EMPLOYED ABOUT
ITEMS REPRESENTING THE KINDS OF READING LITERACY THAT
YEAR
OLDS WOULD
REQUIRE IN THE FUTURE %XAMPLES OF THE ASSESSMENT ITEMS USED IN 0)3! TO
ASSESS READING LITERACY CAN BE FOUND IN #HAPTER AND THE 0)3! 7EB SITE
WWWPISAOECDORG
2EADERS RESPOND TO A GIVEN TEXT IN A VARIETY OF WAYS AS THEY SEEK TO USE AND *-ÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ
UNDERSTAND WHAT THEY ARE READING 4HIS DYNAMIC PROCESS HAS MANY DIMENSIONS Ì>ÃÃoÊ
THREE OF WHICH WERE USED TO CONSTRUCT THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS
#(!04%2 /
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
o>ÀiÊL>Ãi`ÊÊ>ÊÛ>ÀiÌÞÊ n 4HE FORM OF READING MATERIAL OR TEXT -ANY PAST ASSESSMENTS OF READING
vÊÌiÝÌÊvÀÃ]ÊÌÊÕÃÌÊ LITERACY HAVE FOCUSED ON PROSE ORGANISED IN SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS OR
«ÀÃi° hCONTINUOUS TEXTSv 0)3! INCLUDES CONTINUOUS PROSE PASSAGES AND DISTINGUISHES
BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROSE SUCH AS NARRATION EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENTATION
)N ADDITION 0)3! INCLUDES hNON CONTINUOUS TEXTSv WHICH PRESENT INFORMATION
IN OTHER WAYS INCLUDING LISTS FORMS GRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS 4HIS VARIETY IS BASED
ON THE PRINCIPLE THAT INDIVIDUALS ENCOUNTER A RANGE OF WRITTEN TEXTS AT SCHOOL
AND IN ADULT LIFE THAT REQUIRE DIFFERENT INFORMATION PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
&LEXIBILITY OR THE SKILL TO MATCH THE TYPE OF TEXT TO THE TECHNIQUES THAT
ARE APPROPRIATE FOR LOCATING RELEVANT INFORMATION IN THE TEXT CHARACTERISES
EFFICIENT READING
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊiÝ«iVÌi`ÊÌÊ n 4HE TYPE OF READING TASK 4HIS IS DETERMINED AT ONE LEVEL BY THE COGNITIVE
ÀiÌÀiÛiÊvÀ>ÌÊ SKILLS THAT ARE NEEDED TO BE AN EFFECTIVE READER AND AT ANOTHER BY THE
vÀÊ>ÊÌiÝÌ]ÊÌÊ CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUESTIONS IN 0)3! 4HE FOCUS OF 0)3! IS ON hREADING TO
Õ`iÀÃÌ>`ÊÌÊ>`ÊÌÊ LEARNv RATHER THAN hLEARNING TO READv 3TUDENTS ARE THUS NOT ASSESSED ON THE
ÀiviVÌÊÊÌo MOST BASIC READING SKILLS IT IS ASSUMED THAT MOST YEAR OLDS HAVE ALREADY
ACQUIRED THESE 2ATHER THEY ARE EXPECTED TO DEMONSTRATE THEIR PROFICIENCY IN
RETRIEVING INFORMATION UNDERSTANDING TEXTS AT A GENERAL LEVEL INTERPRETING THEM
REFLECTING ON THE CONTENT AND FORM OF TEXTS IN RELATION TO THEIR OWN KNOWLEDGE
OF THE WORLD AND EVALUATING AND ARGUING THEIR OWN POINT OF VIEW
oÊ>`ÊÌÊÀi>ÌiÊÌÊÌÊ>Ê n 4HE USE FOR WHICH THE TEXT WAS CONSTRUCTED ITS CONTEXT OR SITUATION &OR
Û>ÀiÌÞÊvÊÃÌÕ>ÌÃÊÊ EXAMPLE A NOVEL PERSONAL LETTER OR BIOGRAPHY IS WRITTEN FOR PEOPLES hPRIVATEv
Ü V ÊÜÀÌÌiÊ>ÌiÀ>ÃÊ USE /FFICIAL DOCUMENTS OR ANNOUNCEMENTS ARE FOR hPUBLICv USE ! MANUAL
>ÀiÊiVÕÌiÀi`° OR REPORT MAY BE FOR hOCCUPATIONALv USE AND A TEXTBOOK OR WORKSHEET FOR
hEDUCATIONALv USE
-ATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN 0)3!
*-Ê`iviÃÊ -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY IS DEFINED IN 0)3! AS THE CAPACITY TO IDENTIFY UNDERSTAND
>Ì i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ>ÃÊ AND ENGAGE IN MATHEMATICS AND TO MAKE WELL FOUNDED JUDGEMENTS ABOUT THE
Ì iÊ>LÌÞÊÌÊvÀÕ>ÌiÊ ROLE THAT MATHEMATICS PLAYS IN AN INDIVIDUALS CURRENT AND FUTURE PRIVATE LIFE
>`ÊÃÛiÊ>Ì i>ÌV>Ê OCCUPATIONAL LIFE SOCIAL LIFE WITH PEERS AND RELATIVES AND LIFE AS A CONSTRUCTIVE
«ÀLiÃÊÊÃÌÕ>ÌÃÊ CONCERNED AND REFLECTIVE CITIZEN !S WITH READING THE DEFINITION REVOLVES AROUND
iVÕÌiÀi`ÊÊvi° THE WIDER USES OF MATHEMATICS IN PEOPLES LIVES RATHER THAN BEING LIMITED TO
MECHANICAL OPERATIONS h-ATHEMATICAL LITERACYv IS USED HERE TO INDICATE THE
ABILITY TO PUT MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO FUNCTIONAL USE RATHER THAN
JUST MASTERING THEM WITHIN A SCHOOL CURRICULUM 4O hENGAGE INv MATHEMATICS
COVERS NOT SIMPLY PHYSICAL OR SOCIAL ACTIONS SUCH AS DECIDING HOW MUCH CHANGE
TO GIVE SOMEONE IN A SHOP BUT ALSO WIDER USES INCLUDING TAKING A POINT OF VIEW
AND APPRECIATING THINGS EXPRESSED MATHEMATICALLY SUCH AS HAVING AN OPINION
ABOUT A GOVERNMENTS SPENDING PLANS -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY ALSO IMPLIES THE
ABILITY TO POSE AND SOLVE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS IN A VARIETY OF SITUATIONS AS WELL
AS THE INCLINATION TO DO SO WHICH OFTEN RELIES ON PERSONAL TRAITS SUCH AS SELF
CONFIDENCE AND CURIOSITY
/
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
)N ORDER TO TRANSFORM THIS DEFINITION INTO AN ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY *-Ê>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê
THREE BROAD DIMENSIONS WERE IDENTIFIED FOR USE IN 0)3! ÌiÀ>VÞÊÌ>ÃÃo
n 4HE CONTENT OF MATHEMATICS #ONTENT IS DEFINED PRIMARILY IN TERMS OF CLUSTERS oÀiµÕÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌÊLiÊ
OF RELEVANT CONNECTED MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS THAT APPEAR IN REAL SITUATIONS AND v>>ÀÊÜÌ
ÊiÞÊ
CONTEXTS 4HESE INCLUDE QUANTITY SPACE AND SHAPE CHANGE AND RELATIONSHIPS >Ì
i>ÌV>Ê
AND UNCERTAINTY 4HE CHOICE OF THESE TOPICS DOES NOT MEAN THAT MORE SPECIFIC VVi«ÌÃ]o
STRANDS OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM SUCH AS NUMBERS ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY
HAVE BEEN IGNORED 0)3! ESTABLISHED TASKS THAT REQUIRED STUDENTS TO
HAVE MASTERED A BALANCED MATHEMATICAL CURRICULUM (OWEVER DUE TO THE FACT
THAT MATHEMATICS WAS ONLY A MINOR DOMAIN IN 0)3! THE SCOPE OF THE
ASSESSMENT IN THIS AREA WAS MORE LIMITED WITH AN EMPHASIS ON CHANGE AND
RELATIONSHIPS AND SPACE AND SHAPE 4HESE CONCEPTS WERE SELECTED TO ALLOW A WIDE
RANGE OF CURRICULUM STRANDS TO BE REPRESENTED WITHOUT GIVING UNDUE WEIGHT TO
NUMBER SKILLS
n 4HE PROCESS OF MATHEMATICS 1UESTIONS IN 0)3! ARE STRUCTURED AROUND oÊÌÊÀi«À`ÕViÊÃÌ>`>À`Ê
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SKILLS NEEDED FOR MATHEMATICS 3UCH SKILLS ARE ORGANISED >Ì
i>ÌV>Ê
INTO THREE hCOMPETENCY CLUSTERSv THE FIRST CLUSTER n REPRODUCTION n CONSISTS OF «iÀ>ÌÃ]ÊÌÊ>iÊ
SIMPLE COMPUTATIONS OR DEFINITIONS OF THE TYPE MOST FAMILIAR IN CONVENTIONAL ViVÌÃÊ>`ÊÌÊ
ASSESSMENTS OF MATHEMATICS THE SECOND n CONNECTIONS n REQUIRES THE BRINGING i}>}iÊÊÜ`iÀÊ
TOGETHER OF MATHEMATICAL IDEAS AND PROCEDURES TO SOLVE STRAIGHTFORWARD AND >Ì
i>ÌV>Ê
SOMEWHAT FAMILIAR PROBLEMS AND THE THIRD CLUSTER n REFLECTION n CONSISTS OF Ì
}]o
MATHEMATICAL THINKING GENERALISATION AND INSIGHT AND REQUIRES STUDENTS TO
ENGAGE IN ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY THE MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS IN A SITUATION AND TO
POSE THEIR OWN PROBLEMS
n 4HE SITUATIONS IN WHICH MATHEMATICS IS USED -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY IS oÊÛ>ÀÕÃÊÀi>viÊ
ASSESSED BY GIVING STUDENTS hAUTHENTICv TASKS n BASED ON SITUATIONS WHICH ÃÌÕ>Ìð
WHILE SOMETIMES FICTIONAL REPRESENT THE KINDS OF PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED IN REAL
LIFE 4HE SITUATIONS VARY IN TERMS OF hDISTANCEv FROM INDIVIDUALS n FROM THOSE
AFFECTING PEOPLE DIRECTLY EG DECIDING WHETHER A PURCHASE OFFERS VALUE FOR
MONEY TO SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS OF MORE GENERAL INTEREST )N ORDER OF CLOSENESS
TO THE STUDENT THE SITUATIONS ARE CLASSIFIED AS PRIVATE LIFEPERSONAL SCHOOL LIFE
WORK AND SPORTS LOCAL COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY AND SCIENTIFIC
3CIENTIFIC LITERACY IN 0)3!
3CIENTIFIC LITERACY RELATES TO THE ABILITY TO THINK SCIENTIFICALLY IN A WORLD IN WHICH *-Ê`iviÃÊÃViÌvVÊ
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SHAPE LIVES 3UCH LITERACY REQUIRES AN UNDERSTANDING OF ÌiÀ>VÞÊ>ÃÊÌ
iÊ>LÌÞÊÌÊ
SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS AS WELL AS AN ABILITY TO APPLY A SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE 0)3! Ì
ÊÃViÌvV>Þo
DEFINES SCIENTIFIC LITERACY AS THE CAPACITY TO USE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE TO IDENTIFY
QUESTIONS AND TO DRAW EVIDENCE
BASED CONCLUSIONS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND AND
HELP MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT THE NATURAL WORLD AND THE CHANGES MADE TO IT THROUGH
HUMAN ACTIVITY
oÊÌ
iÊLiivÊÌ
>ÌÊÃÕV
Ê
3CIENTIFIC LITERACY IS CONSIDERED A KEY OUTCOME OF EDUCATION BY AGE FOR ALL Ì
}ÊÃÊii`i`ÊLÞÊ
STUDENTS WHETHER OR NOT THEY CONTINUE TO LEARN SCIENCE THEREAFTER 3CIENTIFIC Ì
iÊ>Þ]ÊÌÊÌ
iÊviÜ°
#(!04%2 /
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Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
THINKING IS REQUIRED BY CITIZENS NOT JUST SCIENTISTS 4HE INCLUSION OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY AS A GENERAL COMPETENCY FOR LIFE REFLECTS THE GROWING CENTRALITY OF
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL QUESTIONS 4HE DEFINITION USED IN 0)3! DOES NOT
IMPLY THAT TOMORROWS ADULTS WILL NEED LARGE RESERVES OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
4HE KEY IS TO BE ABLE TO THINK SCIENTIFICALLY ABOUT THE EVIDENCE THAT THEY WILL
ENCOUNTER 0)3! WAS DEVELOPED AROUND THREE DIMENSIONS OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY
*-ÊÃViÌvVÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ n 3CIENTIFIC CONCEPTS 3TUDENTS NEED TO GRASP A NUMBER OF KEY CONCEPTS IN
Ì>ÃÃÊÀiµÕÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌÊ ORDER TO UNDERSTAND CERTAIN PHENOMENA OF THE NATURAL WORLD AND THE CHANGES
Õ`iÀÃÌ>`ÊViÀÌ>ÊiÞÊ MADE TO IT THROUGH HUMAN ACTIVITY 4HESE ARE THE BROAD INTEGRATING IDEAS
ÃViÌvVÊVVi«ÌÃ]o THAT HELP TO EXPLAIN ASPECTS OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 0)3! ASKS QUESTIONS
THAT BRING TOGETHER CONCEPTS DRAWN FROM PHYSICS CHEMISTRY THE BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES AND EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES -ORE SPECIFICALLY CONCEPTS ARE DRAWN
FROM A NUMBER OF THEMES INCLUDING BIODIVERSITY FORCES AND MOVEMENT AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE
o>`ÊÌÊÃ
ÜÊÌ
>ÌÊÌ
iÞÊ n 3CIENTIFIC PROCESSES 0)3! ASSESSES THE ABILITY TO USE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
V>Ê>VµÕÀi]ÊÌiÀ«ÀiÌÊ AND UNDERSTANDING NAMELY STUDENTS ABILITY TO ACQUIRE INTERPRET AND ACT ON
>`Ê>VÌÊÊiÛ`iVi]o EVIDENCE 0)3! EXAMINES FIVE SUCH PROCESSES THE RECOGNITION OF SCIENTIFIC
QUESTIONS THE IDENTIFICATION OF EVIDENCE THE DRAWING OF CONCLUSIONS THE COMMUNI
CATION OF THESE CONCLUSIONS AND THE DEMONSTRATION OF UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENTIFIC
CONCEPTS
oÊÊÃÌÕ>ÌÃÊÜ
iÀiÊ n 3CIENTIFIC SITUATIONS AND AREAS OF APPLICATION 4HE CONTEXT OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
ÃViViÊV>ÊLiÊ>««i`° IN 0)3! IS PRINCIPALLY EVERYDAY LIFE RATHER THAN THE CLASSROOM OR LABORATORY
!S WITH THE OTHER FORMS OF LITERACY THE CONTEXT THUS INCLUDES ISSUES THAT HAVE
A BEARING ON LIFE IN GENERAL AS WELL AS MATTERS OF DIRECT PERSONAL CONCERN
1UESTIONS IN 0)3! WERE GROUPED IN THREE AREAS IN WHICH SCIENCE IS
APPLIED SCIENCE IN LIFE AND HEALTH SCIENCE IN EARTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT AND
SCIENCE IN TECHNOLOGY
(OW 0)3! ASSESSES STUDENTS AND COLLECTS INFORMATION
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜiÀiÊ>ÃÃiÃÃi`Ê 0)3! WAS CAREFULLY DESIGNED BY AN INTERNATIONAL NETWORK OF LEADING
vÀÊÌÜÊ
ÕÀÃÊÊ*-Ê INSTITUTIONS AND EXPERTS TO SERVE THE PURPOSES DESCRIBED ABOVE %ACH STUDENT
>`Êvi`ÊÕÌÊ>Ê PARTICIPATED IN HISHER OWN SCHOOL IN A WRITTEN ASSESSMENT SESSION OF TWO
µÕiÃÌ>Ài]Ê>ÃÊ``Ê HOURS AND SPENT ABOUT HALF AN HOUR RESPONDING TO A QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT HIMSELF
Ì
iÀÊ«ÀV«>ð OR HERSELF 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS WERE ASKED TO GIVE FURTHER INFORMATION ON SCHOOL
CHARACTERISTICS IN ANOTHER
MINUTE QUESTIONNAIRE
/
iÊ>ÃÃiÃÃiÌÊ 4HE STUDENT ASSESSMENTS FOLLOWED THE SAME PRINCIPLES IN EACH OF THE THREE
VÌ>i`Ê>ÞÊ`vviÀiÌÊ DOMAINS AND WILL DO SO FROM ONE SURVEY TO THE NEXT ALTHOUGH THE AMOUNT OF
`ÃÊvÊÌ>ÃÃo ASSESSMENT MATERIAL IN EACH DOMAIN WILL DIFFER IN EACH THREE
YEAR CYCLE )N 0)3!
WHERE THE MAIN FOCUS WAS READING LITERACY 0)3! WAS IMPLEMENTED IN THE
FOLLOWING WAYS FOR DETAILS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
/
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
n ! WIDE RANGE OF ASSESSMENT ITEMS 0)3! ASSESSMENTS WERE IN PRINTED
FORM WITH QUESTIONS TAKING A RANGE OF FORMATS 3TUDENTS WERE REQUIRED TO
CONSIDER WRITTEN PASSAGES AND DIAGRAMS AND TO ANSWER A SERIES OF QUESTIONS
ON EACH -UCH OF THE MATERIAL WAS DESIGNED TO DETERMINE WHETHER STUDENTS
COULD REFLECT AND THINK ACTIVELY ABOUT THE DOMAIN %XAMPLES OF ITEMS ARE GIVEN
IN #HAPTERS AND
n "ROAD COVERAGE OF THE DOMAIN %ACH STUDENT WAS ASSESSED FOR TWO HOURS oÜÌ
ÊÜ`iÞÊÛ>Ài`Ê
BUT NOT ALL STUDENTS WERE GIVEN THE SAME ASSESSMENT ITEMS ! RANGE OF ITEMS VÌiÌ°
EQUIVALENT TO SEVEN HOURS OF ASSESSMENT TIME WAS DRAWN UP IN ORDER TO COVER
ALL THE AREAS $IFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF ITEMS WERE GROUPED IN NINE DIFFERENT
ASSESSMENT BOOKLETS %ACH ITEM APPEARED IN SEVERAL BOOKLETS WHICH ENSURED
THAT EACH WAS ANSWERED BY A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF STUDENTS %ACH STUDENT
RECEIVED ONE BOOKLET
n #O
OPERATION BETWEEN ALL PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT /
ÀÕ}
Ê«ÀVi`ÕÀiÃÊ
OF INTERNATIONALLY VALID ASSESSMENTS /N THE BASIS OF THE INTERNATIONALLY iÃÕÀi`ÊÌ
>ÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊÜiÀiÊ
AGREED ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORKS AND TEST SPECIFICATIONS COUNTRIES DEVELOPED Û>`Ê>VÀÃÃÊVÕÌÀiÃo
ASSESSMENT ITEMS THAT WERE REVIEWED BY SUBJECT
MATTER SPECIALISTS AND ASSESS
MENT EXPERTS !DDITIONAL ITEMS WERE DEVELOPED TO ENSURE THAT ALL AREAS
OF THE FRAMEWORKS WERE COVERED ADEQUATELY )TEMS WERE PILOT TESTED THE
RESULTS WERE REVIEWED AND THE REVISED SET OF ITEMS WAS THEN VALIDATED IN
A FIELD TRIAL &INALLY IN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT THE ITEMS WERE VALID ACROSS
COUNTRIES LANGUAGES AND CULTURES ITEMS WERE RATED BY PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
FOR CULTURAL APPROPRIATENESS CURRICULAR AND NON
CURRICULAR RELEVANCE AND
APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY
n 3TANDARDISED PROCEDURES FOR THE PREPARATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE o>`ÊÀ}ÀÕÃÊivvÀÌÃÊ
ASSESSMENT 0)3! REPRESENTS AN UNPRECEDENTED EFFORT TO ACHIEVE COMPARA
ÜiÀiÊ>`iÊÌÊ`iÛiÀÊÌ
iÊ
BILITY OF RESULTS ACROSS COUNTRIES CULTURES AND LANGUAGES )N ADDITION TO ÌiÃÌÊÊiµÕÛ>iÌÊÜ>ÞÃÊ
COMPREHENSIVE COVERAGE OF
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRY THESE EFFORTS Ê`vviÀiÌÊVÕÌÀið
HAVE INCLUDED CO
OPERATION WITH A WIDE RANGE OF EXPERTS IN ALL PARTICIPATING
COUNTRIES THE DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDISED PROCEDURES FOR THE PREPARATION
AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ASSESSMENT AND RIGOROUS ATTENTION TO QUALITY CONTROL
THROUGHOUT 4HE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS WERE PREPARED IN BOTH %NGLISH AND
&RENCH AND THEN TRANSLATED INTO THE LANGUAGES OF PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES USING
PROCEDURES THAT ENSURED THE LINGUISTIC INTEGRITY AND EQUIVALENCE OF THE INSTRU
MENTS &OR NON
%NGLISH AND NON
&RENCH SPEAKING COUNTRIES TWO INDEPENDENT
TRANSLATIONS OF THE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS WERE PREPARED AND THEN CONSOLIDATED
DRAWING IN MOST CASES ON BOTH SOURCE VERSIONS &OR FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE
0)3! STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES SEE !NNEXES !
!
2EADING LITERACY WAS ASSESSED USING A SERIES OF TEXTS STUDENTS BEING SET A NUMBER LÕÌÊ >vÊvÊÌ iÊ
OF TASKS ON EACH TEXT &ORTY FIVE PER CENT OF THE TASKS REQUIRED STUDENTS TO Ài>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ
CONSTRUCT THEIR OWN RESPONSES EITHER BY PROVIDING A BRIEF ANSWER FROM A WIDE µÕiÃÌÃÊÀiµÕÀi`Ê
RANGE OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS OR BY CONSTRUCTING A LONGER RESPONSE ALLOWING FOR ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌÊVÃÌÀÕVÌÊ
THE POSSIBILITY OF DIVERGENT INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES AND OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS 4HE Ì iÀÊÜÊÀiëÃiÃo
#(!04%2 /
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
LATTER ITEMS USUALLY ASKED STUDENTS TO RELATE INFORMATION OR IDEAS IN THE STIMULUS
TEXT TO THEIR OWN EXPERIENCE OR OPINIONS THE ACCEPTABILITY OF THEIR ANSWER
DEPENDING LESS ON THE POSITION TAKEN BY THE STUDENT THAN ON THE ABILITY TO USE
WHAT THEY HAD READ WHEN JUSTIFYING OR EXPLAINING THAT POSITION 0ARTIAL CREDIT
WAS PROVIDED FOR PARTIALLY CORRECT OR LESS SOPHISTICATED ANSWERS AND ALL OF THESE
ITEMS WERE MARKED BY HAND ! FURTHER PER CENT OF THE ITEMS WERE ASKED IN
MULTIPLE
CHOICE FORMAT IN WHICH STUDENTS EITHER MADE ONE CHOICE FROM AMONG
FOUR OR FIVE GIVEN ALTERNATIVES OR A SERIES OF CHOICES BY CIRCLING A WORD OR SHORT
PHRASE FOR EXAMPLE hYESv OR hNOv FOR EACH POINT 4HE REMAINING PER CENT OF
THE ITEMS REQUIRED STUDENTS TO CONSTRUCT THEIR RESPONSE FROM AMONG A LIMITED
RANGE OF ACCEPTABLE ANSWERS
oÜ
iÊÌ
iÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊ -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY WAS ASSESSED THROUGH A COMBINATION OF QUESTION TYPES !S
>Ì
i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ WITH READING LITERACY THERE WERE A NUMBER OF UNITS EACH PRESENTING A SITUATION
Ì>ÃÃÊo OR PROBLEM ON WHICH STUDENTS WERE SET SEVERAL QUESTIONS OR TASKS $IFFERENT
COMBINATIONS OF DIAGRAMS AND WRITTEN INFORMATION INTRODUCED EACH UNIT !BOUT
TWO
THIRDS OF THE ITEMS WERE IN A FORM THAT COULD BE MARKED UNAMBIGUOUSLY
AS CORRECT OR INCORRECT 3TUDENTS DEMONSTRATED THEIR PROFICIENCY BY ANSWERING
PROBLEMS CORRECTLY AND SHOWING WHETHER THEY UNDERSTOOD THE UNDERLYING
MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE TASK &OR MORE COMPLEX ITEMS STUDENTS
COULD GAIN FULL OR PARTIAL CREDIT
o>`ÊÃViÌvVÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ 3CIENTIFIC LITERACY WAS ASSESSED IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO THAT OF MATHEMATICAL
Ì>ÃÃÊ
>`Ê LITERACY USING A SERIES OF UNITS EACH OF WHICH PRESENTED A REAL SCIENTIFIC SITUATION
Õ>L}ÕÕÃÞÊÀ}
ÌÊ FOLLOWED BY QUESTIONS ABOUT IT 3OME TWO
THIRDS OF THE ITEMS WERE IN A FORM
>`ÊÜÀ}Ê>ÃÜiÀð THAT COULD BE MARKED UNAMBIGUOUSLY AS CORRECT OR INCORRECT &OR MORE COMPLEX
ITEMS STUDENTS COULD GAIN FULL OR PARTIAL CREDIT
-ÌÕ`iÌʵÕiÃÌ>ÀiÃÊ 4HE 0)3! CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES COLLECTED INFORMATION THAT WAS IMPORTANT FOR
}>Ì
iÀi`ÊvÀ>ÌÊÊ THE INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS 4HE QUESTIONNAIRES ASKED ABOUT
ÃÌÕ`iÌýÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê STUDENTS CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS GENDER ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND
>`Ê>VÌÛÌiÃÆÊÊ>ÞÊ ACTIVITIES AT HOME AND SCHOOL !S PART OF AN INTERNATIONAL OPTION MANY STUDENTS
VÕÌÀiÃ]ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÃÊ ALSO REPORTED ON THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEARNING FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS
Ài«ÀÌi`ÊÊ
ÜÊÌ
iÞÊ AND UNDER THE HEADING hSELF
REGULATED LEARNINGv STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING AND
i>Ài`° MONITORING THEIR OWN LEARNING 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS IN THE SCHOOLS IN WHICH
STUDENTS WERE ASSESSED WERE ASKED ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR SCHOOL SUCH
AS SIZE AND RESOURCES AND HOW THEY ORGANISED LEARNING
)NTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF 0)3!
*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃÊ>ÀiÊ )F ONE COUNTRYS 0)3! SCORES ARE HIGHER THAN THOSE OF ANOTHER COUNTRY IT CANNOT
ÕÌViÃÊÌÊÞÊvÊ AUTOMATICALLY BE INFERRED THAT THE SCHOOLS IN THE FORMER ARE MORE EFFECTIVE SINCE
ÃV }ÊLÕÌÊ>ÃÊvÊ LEARNING STARTS WELL BEFORE SCHOOL AND OCCURS IN A RANGE OF INSTITUTIONAL AND OUT
i>À}ÊÀiÊ OF SCHOOL SETTINGS .ONETHELESS IF A COUNTRYS 0)3! SCORES ARE HIGHER ONE CAN
}iiÀ>Þo LEGITIMATELY CONCLUDE THAT THE CUMULATIVE IMPACT OF ALL THE LEARNING EXPERIENCES
IN THAT COUNTRY FROM EARLY CHILDHOOD UP TO THE AGE OF IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL
HAS RESULTED IN MORE DESIRABLE OUTCOMES IN THE DOMAINS THAT 0)3! ASSESSES
/
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
!S READERS OF THIS REPORT WILL NOTICE THE RESULTS OF 0)3! OFTEN CONFIRM AND o>`ÊÌ iÀivÀiÊ`vviÀÊ
COMPLEMENT THE FINDINGS OF PREVIOUS INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS SUCH AS THE 4HIRD ÊÃiÊÀiëiVÌÃÊvÀÊ
)NTERNATIONAL -ATHEMATICS AND 3CIENCE 3TUDY 4)-33 WHICH WAS CONDUCTED IN Ì iÊÀiÃÕÌÃÊvÊ>ÃÃiÃÃiÌÃÊ
BY THE )NTERNATIONAL !SSOCIATION FOR THE %VALUATION OF %DUCATIONAL !CHIEVE vVÕÃ}ÊÊÌ iÊÃV Ê
MENT )%! AMONG STUDENTS IN GRADES AND THE FINAL YEAR OF SECONDARY VÕÀÀVÕÕ°
SCHOOL AND REPEATED IN AMONG STUDENTS IN THE TH GRADE (OWEVER
SOME 0)3! FINDINGS DIFFER FROM THE RESULTS OF 4)-33 3UCH DIFFERENCES ARE NOT
UNEXPECTED GIVEN THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO STUDIES 4HE ASSESSMENT
MATERIALS IN 4)-33 WERE CONSTRUCTED ON THE BASIS OF AN ANALYSIS OF THE INTENDED
CURRICULUM IN EACH PARTICIPATING COUNTRY SO AS TO COVER THE CORE MATERIAL
COMMON TO THE CURRICULUM IN THE MAJORITY OF PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES 4HE
ASSESSMENT MATERIALS IN 0)3! AS DESCRIBED ABOVE COVERED THE RANGE
OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES THAT WERE IN THE RESPECTIVE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS
CONSIDERED TO BE CRUCIAL TO AN INDIVIDUALS CAPACITY TO FULLY PARTICIPATE IN AND
CONTRIBUTE MEANINGFULLY TO A SUCCESSFUL MODERN SOCIETY &INALLY IT NEEDS TO BE
BORNE IN MIND THAT THE AGE BASED 0)3! TARGET POPULATION OF YEAR OLDS DIFFERS
FROM THE GRADE BASED POPULATION EMPLOYED IN 4)-33
(OW 0)3! CAN INFORM POLICY
0)3! PROVIDES A BROAD ASSESSMENT OF COMPARATIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES TOWARDS *-Ê«ÀÛ`iÃÊÃ}
ÌÃÊ
THE END OF COMPULSORY SCHOOLING WHICH CAN BOTH GUIDE POLICY DECISIONS AND ÌÊÜ
>ÌÊVÌÀLÕÌiÃÊÌÊ
RESOURCE ALLOCATIONS AND PROVIDE INSIGHTS INTO THE FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE i>À}ÊÕÌVið
DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AND THE EXTENT TO WHICH THESE FACTORS ARE
COMMON TO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
0)3! PROVIDES INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF EDUCATION ÌÊÃiiÃÊÌÊV«>ÀiÊ
ÜÊ
SYSTEMS WITH STRONG CROSS
CULTURALLY VALID MEASURES OF COMPETENCIES THAT ARE ÜiÊ`vviÀiÌÊÃV
Ê
RELEVANT TO EVERYDAY ADULT LIFE !SSESSMENTS THAT TEST ONLY MASTERY OF THE SCHOOL ÃÞÃÌiÃÊ«Ài«>ÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
CURRICULUM CAN OFFER A MEASURE OF THE INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 4HEY vÀÊvi°
DO NOT REVEAL HOW EFFECTIVELY SCHOOLS PREPARE STUDENTS FOR LIFE AFTER THEY HAVE
COMPLETED THEIR FORMAL EDUCATION
4HE INFORMATION YIELDED BY 0)3! ALLOWS POLICY MAKERS TO LOOK CLOSELY AT THE ÌÊ`iÌviÃÊ>`Ê
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS NOT JUST TO MAKE COMPARISONS V«>ÀiÃÊÌ iÊ
BETWEEN RESULTS IN ISOLATION 0)3! CAN TELL THEM FOR EXAMPLE HOW WIDE THE Ài>ÌÃ «ÃÊvÊ
PERFORMANCE GAP IS BETWEEN STUDENTS FROM RICHER AND POORER HOMES IN THEIR `Û`Õ>]Ê iÊ>`Ê
OWN COUNTRY IN COMPARISON WITH THOSE IN OTHER COUNTRIES 0)3! ALSO OFFERS ÃV ÊV >À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃÊ
INSIGHTS INTO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS n SUCH AS THE WAY IN WHICH LEARNING IS ÜÌ ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
ORGANISED n AND HOW THESE CHARACTERISTICS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LEVELS OF STUDENT «iÀvÀ>Vio
PROFICIENCY $ATA FROM 0)3! CAN BE USED TO LOOK AT WHICH ASPECTS OF STUDENT
ATTITUDES SEEM TO MAKE THE GREATEST CONTRIBUTION TO LEARNING )N THESE AND MANY
OTHER WAYS 0)3! OFFERS A NEW APPROACH TO CONSIDERING SCHOOL OUTCOMES USING
AS ITS EVIDENCE BASE THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENTS ACROSS THE WORLD RATHER THAN IN
THE SPECIFIC CULTURAL CONTEXT OF A SINGLE COUNTRY 4HE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT ALLOWS
POLICY MAKERS TO QUESTION ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE QUALITY OF THEIR OWN COUNTRYS
EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES
#(!04%2 /
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
o>`ÊÌ ÕÃÊ>ÜÃÊ 4HE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF 0)3! OFFERS POLICY MAKERS A LENS THROUGH WHICH
VÕÌÀiÃÊÌÊÊ>ÌÊÌ iÀÊ TO RECOGNISE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THEIR OWN SYSTEMS 4HE FACT THAT
ÜÊi`ÕV>ÌÊÃÞÃÌiÊ SOME COUNTRIES CAN ACHIEVE A HIGH AVERAGE LEVEL OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITH ONLY
ÊÌ iÊ} ÌÊvÊÌ iÀÊ A MODEST GAP BETWEEN THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST LEVEL OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE AS
VÕÌÀiýʫiÀvÀ>Vi° SHOWN IN #HAPTER SUGGESTS THAT LARGE DISPARITIES IN OUTCOMES DO NOT HAVE TO
BE THE PRICE FOR HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE 3IMILARLY THE FACT THAT THE STRENGTH
OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND LEARNING OUTCOMES VARIES
WIDELY BETWEEN COUNTRIES AS SHOWN IN #HAPTER DEMONSTRATES THAT SCHOOLS
AND EDUCATION SYSTEMS CAN SUCCEED IN MODERATING THIS RELATIONSHIP ,OW LEVELS OF
PERFORMANCE BY STUDENTS FROM LOWER SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS IS NOT INEVITABLE 4HERE
ARE THINGS THAT SCHOOLS n AND POLICY MAKERS n CAN DO ABOUT POOR PERFORMANCE
/
iÊ}}Ê*-ÊVÞViÊ &INALLY BY REPORTING ON STUDENT COMPETENCIES TO A PRESET TIMETABLE 0)3!
ÜÊ>ÜÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌÊ WILL ENABLE GOVERNMENTS REGULARLY TO MONITOR THE PROGRESS OF THEIR EDUCATION
ÌÀÊV
>}iÃÊÊ SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF STUDENT OUTCOMES AND TO EVALUATE NATIONAL POLICIES IN THE
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÛiÀÊÌi° LIGHT OF OTHER COUNTRIES PERFORMANCES 4HE RESULTS OF 0)3! REPORTED HERE
PROVIDE A BASELINE )N AND SO ON COUNTRIES WILL BE ABLE TO SEE
WHAT PROGRESS THEY HAVE MADE
)N PARALLEL WITH THIS FIRST INTERNATIONAL REPORT MOST PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES ARE
PUBLISHING NATIONAL REPORTS THAT EXAMINE THE FINDINGS FROM 0)3! AND THEIR POLICY
IMPLICATIONS IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT &URTHER
MORE DETAILED INTERNATIONAL THEMATIC REPORTS ARE BEING PREPARED USING THE
OUTCOMES FROM 0)3! TO EXPLORE SPECIFIC ISSUES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
FOR POLICY 4HESE THEMATIC REPORTS WILL GIVE PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO ISSUES OF
EQUITY GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ATTITUDES AND MOTIVATION
THE NEEDS OF BOTH THE MOST VULNERABLE AND THE EXCEPTIONALLY WELL
PERFORMING
STUDENTS THE ROLE OF ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION AS PREREQUISITES FOR ADEQUATE
PERFORMANCE AND FUTURE DESTINATIONS THE NATURE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT OF
LITERACY SKILLS AND ASPECTS OF LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SELF
CONCEPT
$EVELOPING 0)3! n A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT
*-ÊÃÊÌ
iÊÀiÃÕÌÊvÊ 0)3! IS A SUBSTANTIAL COLLABORATIVE EFFORT BY THE -EMBER COUNTRIES OF THE
ivviVÌÛiÊV«iÀ>ÌÊ /%#$ TO PROVIDE A NEW KIND OF ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON
LiÌÜiiÊ>Ì>Ê A RECURRING BASIS 4HE ASSESSMENTS WERE DEVELOPED CO
OPERATIVELY AGREED
À}>Ã>ÌÃ]ÊÃÕLiVÌ BY PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES AND IMPLEMENTED BY NATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 4HE
>ÌÌiÀÊiÝ«iÀÌÃ]Ê>`Ê CONSTRUCTIVE CO
OPERATION BY TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS IN PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS HAS
ÃV
Ê>ÕÌ
ÀÌiÃo BEEN A CRUCIAL FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF 0)3! DURING ALL STAGES OF THE
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION
o>`ÊÃÊÃÌiiÀi`ÊÌÞÊ ! "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES REPRESENTING ALL COUNTRIES AT SENIOR POLICY
LÞÊ}ÛiÀiÌÃÊÊÌ iÊ LEVELS LAID DOWN POLICY PRIORITIES AND STANDARDS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
L>ÃÃÊvÊÃ >Ài`]Ê«VÞ INDICATORS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND THE REPORTING
`ÀÛiÊÌiÀiÃÌÃo OF RESULTS %XPERTS FROM PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES SERVED ON WORKING GROUPS
LINKING THE PROGRAMMES POLICY OBJECTIVES WITH THE BEST INTERNATIONALLY AVAILABLE
TECHNICAL EXPERTISE IN THE THREE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS "Y PARTICIPATING IN THESE
/
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ #(!04%2
EXPERT GROUPS COUNTRIES ENSURED THAT THE INSTRUMENTS WERE INTERNATIONALLY
VALID AND TOOK INTO ACCOUNT THE CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS OF THE
DIFFERENT /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES THAT THE ASSESSMENT MATERIALS HAD STRONG
MEASUREMENT POTENTIAL AND THAT THE INSTRUMENTS EMPHASISED AUTHENTICITY AND
EDUCATIONAL VALIDITY
0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES IMPLEMENTED 0)3! AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL THROUGH .ATIONAL
0ROJECT -ANAGERS SUBJECT TO TECHNICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES COMMON
TO ALL PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES 4HESE MANAGERS PLAYED A VITAL ROLE IN THE DEVELOP
MENT AND VALIDATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND ENSURED
THAT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 0)3! WAS OF HIGH QUALITY 4HEY ALSO CONTRIBUTED TO
THE VERIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF THE SURVEY RESULTS ANALYSES AND REPORTS
4HE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 0)3! WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK ESTABLISHED
BY THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES WAS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF AN INTERNATIONAL
CONSORTIUM LED BY THE !USTRALIAN #OUNCIL FOR %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH !#%2 4HE
OTHER PARTNERS IN THIS CONSORTIUM WERE THE .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE FOR %DUCATIONAL
-EASUREMENT #)4/ IN THE .ETHERLANDS 7ESTAT AND THE %DUCATION 4ESTING
3ERVICE %43 IN THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE FOR %DUCATIONAL
0OLICY 2ESEARCH .)%2 IN *APAN
4HE /%#$ 3ECRETARIAT HAD OVERALL MANAGERIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PROGRAMME oÌ
ÀÕ}
ÊÌ
iÊ"
°
MONITORED ITS IMPLEMENTATION ON A DAY
TO
DAY BASIS SERVED AS THE SECRETARIAT
FOR THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES FOSTERED THE BUILDING OF A CONSENSUS
BETWEEN THE COUNTRIES INVOLVED AND SERVED AS THE INTERLOCUTOR BETWEEN THE
"OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES AND THE INTERNATIONAL CONSORTIUM
0)3! IS JOINTLY FINANCED BY ALL PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
/RGANISATION OF THIS REPORT
#HAPTERS AND DESCRIBE STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THE THREE 0)3! LITERACY /
ÃÊÀi«ÀÌÊÃÊÊÌÕÀÊ
DOMAINS AND #HAPTER EXTENDS THIS WITH A PROFILE OF WHAT STUDENTS ARE LIKE >ÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌýÊ
AS LEARNERS AT AGE n IN TERMS OF THEIR MOTIVATION THEIR ENGAGEMENT THEIR «iÀvÀ>Vi]o
LEARNING STRATEGIES AND THEIR BELIEFS IN THEIR OWN CAPACITIES )T ALSO INCLUDES A
DESCRIPTION OF STUDENTS FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS
#HAPTER EXAMINES GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THE THREE o>ÌÊ}i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ]o
LITERACY DOMAINS FOR STUDENTS OVERALL AND FOR SPECIFIC SUB
GROUPS OF STUDENTS
#HAPTERS AND THEN SITUATE STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THE CONTEXT OF STUDENTS o>ÌÊÌ
iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊvÊ
BACKGROUNDS AND THE BROADER LEARNING ENVIRONMENT #HAPTER FOCUSES ON A ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
Ê`vviÀiÌÊ
DESCRIPTION OF THE FAMILY BACKGROUNDS OF STUDENTS INCLUDING ASPECTS OF THE L>V}ÀÕ`ÃÊ>`Ê
ECONOMIC CULTURAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND FOLLOWED BY #HAPTER WHICH THEN i>À}ÊiÝ«iÀiViÃo
EXAMINES HOW THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND THE ORGANISATION OF SCHOOLS VARIES
BETWEEN COUNTRIES #HAPTER ALSO LOOKS AT THE HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES
THAT COUNTRIES INVEST IN EDUCATION AND AT SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF NATIONAL
EDUCATION SYSTEMS
#(!04%2 /
iÊ"
Ê*À}À>iÊvÀÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê-ÌÕ`iÌÊÃÃiÃÃiÌ
o>`Ê>ÌÊÜ >ÌÊÌ iÃiÊ &INALLY #HAPTER SEEKS TO EXPAND UPON THESE FINDINGS AND ADDRESSES QUESTIONS
`vviÀiViÃÊÌiÊ«VÞÊ ABOUT THE NATURE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL PERFORMANCE AND SOCIAL
>iÀÃÊ>LÕÌÊÜ V Ê BACKGROUND 4HROUGH AN ANALYSIS OF THE SIMULTANEOUS RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
v>VÌÀÃÊ>ÀiÊ«ÀÌ>Ì° SEVERAL DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN A WIDE RANGE OF SETTINGS AND A NUMBER OF COUNTRIES
INCLUDING BOTH FAMILY AND SCHOOL FACTORS IT IS POSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE THE SEPARATE
AND OVERLAPPING INFLUENCES OF THESE FACTORS AND TO GAUGE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE
OF SCHOOL RESOURCES AND SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICES IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHOOL
SYSTEM 4HIS CAN PROVIDE INDICATIONS OF WHAT EDUCATIONAL POLICY CAN DO BOTH TO
IMPROVE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE AND TO MODERATE THE IMPACT OF FAMILY BACKGROUND
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
.OTE
)N MOST /%#$ COUNTRIES THE AGE AT WHICH COMPULSORY SCHOOLING ENDS IS OR YEARS BUT IN THE 5NITED 3TATES IT IS YEARS
AND IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND THE .ETHERLANDS IT IS YEARS /%#$
2%!$%23 '5)$%
$ATA UNDERLYING THE FIGURES
4HE DATA REFERRED TO IN #HAPTERS TO OF THIS REPORT ARE PRESENTED IN !NNEX " AND WITH ADDITIONAL
DETAIL ON THE WEB SITE WWWPISAOECDORG &OUR SYMBOLS ARE USED TO DENOTE MISSING DATA
A 4HE CATEGORY DOES NOT APPLY IN THE COUNTRY CONCERNED $ATA ARE THEREFORE MISSING
C 4HERE ARE TOO FEW OBSERVATIONS TO PROVIDE RELIABLE ESTIMATES IE THERE ARE FEWER THAN FIVE
SCHOOLS OR FEWER THAN STUDENTS WITH VALID DATA FOR THIS CELL
M $ATA ARE NOT AVAILABLE 5NLESS OTHERWISE NOTED THESE DATA WERE COLLECTED BUT SUBSEQUENTLY
REMOVED FROM THE PUBLICATION FOR TECHNICAL OR OTHER REASONS AT THE REQUEST OF THE COUNTRY
CONCERNED
X $ATA ARE INCLUDED IN ANOTHER CATEGORY OR COLUMN OF THE TABLE
#ALCULATION OF INTERNATIONAL AVERAGES
!N /%#$ AVERAGE WAS CALCULATED FOR MOST INDICATORS PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT )N THE CASE OF SOME
INDICATORS A TOTAL REPRESENTING THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE WAS ALSO CALCULATED
n 4HE /%#$ AVERAGE SOMETIMES ALSO REFERRED TO AS THE COUNTRY AVERAGE IS THE MEAN OF THE DATA
VALUES FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES FOR WHICH DATA ARE AVAILABLE OR CAN BE ESTIMATED 4HE /%#$ AVERAGE
CAN BE USED TO SEE HOW A COUNTRY COMPARES ON A GIVEN INDICATOR WITH A TYPICAL /%#$ COUNTRY
4HE /%#$ AVERAGE DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE ABSOLUTE SIZE OF THE STUDENT POPULATION IN EACH
COUNTRY IE EACH COUNTRY CONTRIBUTES EQUALLY TO THE AVERAGE
n 4HE /%#$ TOTAL TAKES THE /%#$ COUNTRIES AS A SINGLE ENTITY TO WHICH EACH COUNTRY CONTRIBUTES
IN PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN ITS SCHOOLS SEE !NNEX ! FOR DATA )T
ILLUSTRATES HOW A COUNTRY COMPARES WITH THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE
4HREE /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE EXCLUDED FROM THE CALCULATION OF AVERAGES OR OTHER AGGREGATE ESTIMATES
THE .ETHERLANDS THE 3LOVAK 2EPUBLIC WHICH BECAME A -EMBER OF THE /%#$ IN AND 4URKEY
4HE .ETHERLANDS ARE EXCLUDED BECAUSE LOW RESPONSE RATES PRECLUDE RELIABLE ESTIMATES OF MEAN
SCORES SEE !NNEX ! 4HE 3LOVAK 2EPUBLIC AND 4URKEY WILL JOIN 0)3! FROM THE SURVEY CYCLE
ONWARDS
)N THE CASE OF OTHER COUNTRIES DATA MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE FOR SPECIFIC INDICATORS OR SPECIFIC DATA
CATEGORIES MAY NOT APPLY 2EADERS SHOULD THEREFORE KEEP IN MIND THAT THE TERMS /%#$ AVERAGE AND
/%#$ TOTAL REFER TO THE /%#$ COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE RESPECTIVE COMPARISONS
2%!$%23 '5)$%
2EPORTING OF STUDENT DATA
4HE REPORT USUALLY USES h
YEAR
OLDSv AS SHORTHAND FOR THE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION )N PRACTICE
THIS REFERS TO STUDENTS WHO WERE AGED BETWEEN YEARS AND COMPLETE MONTHS AND YEARS
AND COMPLETE MONTHS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE ASSESSMENT PERIOD AND WHO WERE ENROLLED IN AN
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION REGARDLESS OF THE GRADE LEVEL OR TYPE OF INSTITUTION AND OF WHETHER THEY WERE
ATTENDING FULL
TIME OR PART
TIME FOR DETAILS SEE !NNEX !
2EPORTING OF SCHOOL DATA
4HE PRINCIPALS OF THE SCHOOLS IN WHICH STUDENTS WERE ASSESSED PROVIDED INFORMATION ON THEIR SCHOOLS
CHARACTERISTICS BY COMPLETING A SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE 7HERE RESPONSES FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ARE
PRESENTED IN THIS PUBLICATION THEY ARE WEIGHTED SO THAT THEY ARE PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
2OUNDING OF FIGURES
"ECAUSE OF ROUNDING SOME FIGURES IN TABLES MAY NOT EXACTLY ADD UP TO THE TOTALS 4OTALS DIFFERENCES AND
AVERAGES ARE ALWAYS CALCULATED ON THE BASIS OF EXACT NUMBERS AND ARE ROUNDED ONLY AFTER CALCULATION
!BBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT
'$0 'ROSS $OMESTIC 0RODUCT
)3#%$ )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF %DUCATION
000 0URCHASING 0OWER 0ARITY
20 2ESPONSE PROBABILITY
3$ 3TANDARD DEVIATION
3% 3TANDARD ERROR
&URTHER DOCUMENTATION
&OR FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND THE METHODS USED IN 0)3! SEE THE
0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT AVAILABLE IN &EBRUARY AND THE 0)3! 7EB SITE WWWPISAOECDORG
#HAPTER
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)NTRODUCTION
/
ÃÊV
>«ÌiÀÊ`iÃVÀLiÃÊ 4HIS CHAPTER PROVIDES A PROFILE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY
ÜÊ*-Êi>ÃÕÀiÃÊ
Ài>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ]Ê
ÜÊ n &IRST THE CHAPTER EXPLAINS HOW PROFICIENCY IN READING LITERACY IS SCORED IN
>ÞÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊ 0)3! USING THREE SCALES ON WHICH STUDENTS ARE ASSIGNED SCORES ACCORDING TO
«ÀvViÌÊ>ÌÊ`vviÀiÌÊ THEIR PERFORMANCE IN TASKS OF VARYING DIFFICULTY
iÛiÃÊvÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ]Ê
>`Ê
ÜÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ
n 3ECOND THE CHAPTER DESCRIBES PROFICIENCY IN EACH COUNTRY IN TERMS OF THE
ÃVÀiÃÊ>ÀiÊ`ÃÌÀLÕÌi`Ê
RANGE OF PERFORMANCE OF ITS STUDENTS 4O FACILITATE THIS DESCRIPTION EACH
>VÀÃÃÊVÕÌÀið
SCALE IS DIVIDED INTO FIVE LEVELS OF INCREASING PROFICIENCY AND EACH COUNTRYS
DISTRIBUTION IS REPORTED IN TERMS OF THE PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL
4HE LEVELS ARE ILLUSTRATED WITH EXAMPLES OF THE TASKS THAT A STUDENT MUST
COMPLETE SATISFACTORILY IN ORDER TO REACH EACH SUCCESSIVE LEVEL
n 4HIRD THE CHAPTER SUMMARISES PERFORMANCE IN EACH COUNTRY IN TERMS OF THE
MEAN SCORES ACHIEVED BY STUDENTS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES ACROSS STUDENT
POPULATIONS
>«ÌiÀÃÊÎÊ>`Ê{ÊÊ #HAPTER COMPLEMENTS THIS WITH AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN
>ÌÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê>`Ê MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY AND AN EXAMINATION OF HOW PERFORMANCE IN
ÃViÌvVÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ>`Ê>ÌÊ THESE DOMAINS DIFFERS FROM PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY #HAPTER BROADENS
ÜÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊi>À° THE PROFILE OF 0)3! RESULTS FURTHER WITH STUDENTS REPORTS ON THEIR FAMILIARITY WITH
COMPUTERS THEIR LEARNING STRATEGIES AND NON
COGNITIVE OUTCOMES OF SCHOOLING
THAT ARE IMPORTANT FOR LIFELONG LEARNING THEIR MOTIVATION THEIR ENGAGEMENT AND
THEIR BELIEF IN THEIR OWN CAPACITIES
(OW READING LITERACY IS MEASURED IN 0)3!
*-ÊÓäääÊ«ÀiÃiÌi`Ê 4HE CONCEPT OF READING LITERACY IN 0)3! HAS THREE DIMENSIONS WHICH HAVE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
Ê>ÊÀ>}iÊ GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT THE TYPE OF READING TASK THE FORM
vÊÀi>`}ÊÌ>ÃÃÊÕÃ}Ê AND STRUCTURE OF THE READING MATERIAL AND THE USE FOR WHICH THE TEXT WAS
`vviÀiÌÊÌiÝÌÊvÀÃÊ>`Ê CONSTRUCTED 0ERSONAL COMPETENCE IS BEST UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF THE FIRST OF
VÌiÝÌÃo THESE 4HE OTHER TWO ARE PROPERTIES OF THE TASK MATERIALS THAT WERE HELPFUL IN
ENSURING THAT A RANGE OF DIVERSE TASKS WERE INCLUDED IN THE TESTS
o>`ÊÀi«ÀÌi`ÊÌ
iÀÊ 4HE hTYPE OF READING TASKv DIMENSION IS MEASURED ON THREE SCALES ! hRETRIEVING
ÃÃÊÊÀiÌÀiÛ}Ê INFORMATIONv SCALE REPORTS ON STUDENTS ABILITY TO LOCATE INFORMATION IN A TEXT !N
vÀ>Ì]ÊÌiÀ«ÀiÌ}Ê hINTERPRETING TEXTSv SCALE REPORTS ON THE ABILITY TO CONSTRUCT MEANING AND DRAW
ÌiÝÌÃ]Ê>`ÊÀiviVÌÊ>`Ê INFERENCES FROM WRITTEN INFORMATION ! hREFLECTION AND EVALUATIONv SCALE REPORTS
iÛ>Õ>Ìo ON STUDENTS ABILITY TO RELATE TEXT TO THEIR KNOWLEDGE IDEAS AND EXPERIENCES
)N ADDITION A COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SUMMARISES THE RESULTS FROM THE
THREE READING LITERACY SCALES
oÊÃV>iÃÊÊÜ V Ê 4O FACILITATE THE INTERPRETATION OF THE SCORES ASSIGNED TO STUDENTS THE COMBINED
ÌÜÌ À`ÃÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ READING LITERACY SCALE WAS DESIGNED TO HAVE AN AVERAGE SCORE OF POINTS WITH
ÃVÀi`ÊÜÌ Ê£ääÊ«ÌÃÊ ABOUT TWO THIRDS OF STUDENTS ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES SCORING BETWEEN AND
vÊ>Êxää«ÌÊ>ÛiÀ>}i° POINTS 4HESE REFERENCE POINTS PROVIDE AN hANCHORv FOR THE MEASUREMENT
7
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OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4HE MEAN SCORES FOR THE THREE SCALES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
THE COMBINED READING SCALE DIFFER SLIGHTLY FROM
4HE SCORES ON EACH SCALE REPRESENT DEGREES OF PROFICIENCY IN A PARTICULAR ASPECT ,iÃÕÌÃÊ>ÀiÊÃÕ>ÀÃi`Ê
OF READING LITERACY &OR EXAMPLE A LOW SCORE ON THE INTERPRETING SCALE INDICATES LÞÊvÛiÊiÛiÃÊvÊ
THAT A STUDENT HAS LIMITED SKILLS IN UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIPS CONSTRUCTING «ÀvViVÞo
MEANING OR DRAWING INFERENCES FROM ONE OR MORE PARTS OF A TEXT "Y CONTRAST A
HIGH SCORE ON THE INTERPRETING SCALE INDICATES THAT A STUDENT HAS ADVANCED SKILLS
IN THIS AREA
4HERE ARE EASIER AND HARDER TASKS FOR EACH OF THE THREE READING LITERACY SCALES AND
THERE IS NO HIERARCHICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE THREE SCALES %ACH OF THE THREE
READING LITERACY SCALES IS DIVIDED INTO FIVE LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ,EVEL
CORRESPONDS TO A SCORE OF MORE THAN ,EVEL TO SCORES IN THE RANGE TO
,EVEL TO SCORES FROM TO ,EVEL TO SCORES FROM TO AND
,EVEL TO SCORES FROM TO
3TUDENTS AT A PARTICULAR LEVEL NOT ONLY DEMONSTRATE THE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS oÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLi}Ê
ASSOCIATED WITH THAT LEVEL BUT ALSO THE PROFICIENCIES REQUIRED AT LOWER LEVELS >ÃÃ}i`ÊÌÊÌ
iÊ
}
iÃÌÊ
4HUS ALL STUDENTS PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL ARE ALSO PROFICIENT AT ,EVELS AND !LL iÛiÊ>ÌÊÜ
V
ÊÌ
iÞÊV>Ê
STUDENTS AT A GIVEN LEVEL ARE EXPECTED TO ANSWER AT LEAST HALF OF THE ITEMS AT THAT LiÊiÝ«iVÌi`ÊÌÊ`ÊÃÌÊvÊ
LEVEL CORRECTLY Ì
iÊÌ>Ãð
3TUDENTS SCORING BELOW POINTS IE THOSE WHO DO NOT REACH ,EVEL ARE
NOT ABLE ROUTINELY TO SHOW THE MOST BASIC SKILLS THAT 0)3! SEEKS TO MEASURE
7HILE SUCH PERFORMANCE SHOULD NOT BE INTERPRETED TO MEAN THAT THOSE STUDENTS
HAVE NO LITERACY SKILLS AT ALL PERFORMANCE BELOW ,EVEL DOES SIGNAL SERIOUS
DEFICIENCIES IN STUDENTS ABILITY TO USE READING LITERACY AS A TOOL FOR THE ACQUISITION
OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN OTHER AREAS
4HE DIVISION OF THE SCALES INTO LEVELS OF DIFFICULTY AND OF PERFORMANCE MAKES IT
>V
ÊiÛiÊV>ÊLiÊ
POSSIBLE NOT ONLY TO RANK STUDENTS PERFORMANCE BUT ALSO TO DESCRIBE WHAT THEY `iÃVÀLi`ÊÊÌiÀÃÊvÊ
CAN DO SEE &IGURE %ACH SUCCESSIVE READING LEVEL IS ASSOCIATED WITH TASKS Ü
>ÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊÌ
>ÌÊ
OF ASCENDING DIFFICULTY 4HE TASKS AT EACH LEVEL OF READING LITERACY WERE JUDGED iÛiÊV>Ê`°
BY PANELS OF EXPERTS TO SHARE MANY FEATURES AND REQUIREMENTS AND TO DIFFER
CONSISTENTLY FROM TASKS AT EITHER HIGHER OR LOWER LEVELS 4HE ASSUMED DIFFICULTY
OF TASKS WAS THEN VALIDATED EMPIRICALLY ON THE BASIS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN
PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
4HE READING LITERACY TASKS USED IN 0)3! VARY WIDELY IN TERMS OF TEXT TYPE
SITUATION AND TASK REQUIREMENTS SEE #HAPTER AS WELL AS DIFFICULTY &IGURE
SHOWS SAMPLE ITEMS FROM THREE OF THE UNITS CONTAINING TASKS THAT WERE USED IN
0)3! TOGETHER WITH THE ASSOCIATED READING LITERACY SKILLS DEMONSTRATED BY
STUDENTS AT THE VARIOUS LEVELS OF THE THREE READING LITERACY SCALES 4HE DESCRIPTIONS
REFLECT THE SKILLS ASSESSED BY EACH ITEM 4HESE DESCRIPTIONS PROVIDE SOME INSIGHT
INTO THE RANGE OF PROCESSES REQUIRED OF STUDENTS AND THE PROFICIENCIES WHICH THEY
NEED TO DEMONSTRATE AT VARIOUS POINTS ALONG THE READING LITERACY SCALES ! MORE
COMPLETE SET OF SAMPLE TASKS CAN BE FOUND AT WWWPISAOECDORG
#(!04%2 Ê7
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}ÕÀiÊÓ°£
7HAT THE PROFICIENCY LEVELS MEASURE
2ETRIEVING INFORMATION )NTERPRETING TEXTS 2EFLECTION AND EVALUATION
7HAT IS BEING ASSESSED ON EACH OF THE READING LITERACY SCALES
2ETRIEVING INFORMATION IS DEFINED AS LOCATING )NTERPRETING TEXTS IS DEFINED AS CONSTRUCTING 2EFLECTING AND EVALUATION IS DEFINED AS RELATING
ONE OR MORE PIECES OF INFORMATION IN A TEXT MEANING AND DRAWING INFERENCES FROM ONE OR A TEXT TO ONEgS EXPERIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS
MORE PARTS OF A TEXT
#HARACTERISTICS OF THE TASKS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASING DIFFICULTY ON EACH OF THE READING LITERACY SCALES
4ASK DIFFICULTY DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF PIECES 4ASK DIFFICULTY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF 4ASK DIFFICULTY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF REFLECTION
OF INFORMATION THAT NEED TO BE LOCATED $IFFICULTY INTERPRETATION REQUIRED WITH THE EASIEST TASKS REQUIRED WITH THE EASIEST TASKS REQUIRING SIMPLE
ALSO DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF CONDITIONS THAT REQUIRING IDENTIFYING THE MAIN IDEA IN A TEXT MORE CONNECTIONS OR EXPLANATIONS RELATING THE TEXT TO
MUST BE MET TO LOCATE THE REQUESTED INFORMATION DIFFICULT TASKS REQUIRING UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIPS EXTERNAL EXPERIENCE AND THE MORE DIFFICULT
AND ON WHETHER WHAT IS RETRIEVED NEEDS TO BE THAT ARE PART OF THE TEXT AND THE MOST DIFFICULT REQUIRING AN HYPOTHESIS OR EVALUATION $IFFICULTY
SEQUENCED IN A PARTICULAR WAY $IFFICULTY ALSO REQUIRING EITHER AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE MEANING ALSO DEPENDS ON THE FAMILIARITY OF THE KNOWLEDGE
DEPENDS ON THE PROMINENCE OF INFORMATION AND OF LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT OR ANALOGICAL REASONING THAT MUST BE DRAWN ON FROM OUTSIDE THE TEXT
THE FAMILIARITY OF THE CONTEXT /THER RELEVANT $IFFICULTY ALSO DEPENDS ON HOW EXPLICITLY THE TEXT ON THE COMPLEXITY OF THE TEXT ON THE LEVEL OF
CHARACTERISTICS ARE THE COMPLEXITY OF THE TEXT PROVIDES THE IDEAS OR INFORMATION THE READER NEEDS TEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING DEMANDED AND ON HOW
AND THE PRESENCE AND STRENGTH OF COMPETING IN ORDER TO COMPLETE THE TASK ON HOW PROMINENT EXPLICITLY THE READER IS DIRECTED TO RELEVANT FACTORS
INFORMATION THE REQUIRED INFORMATION IS AND ON HOW MUCH IN BOTH THE TASK AND THE TEXT
COMPETING INFORMATION IS PRESENT &INALLY THE
LENGTH AND COMPLEXITY OF THE TEXT AND THE
FAMILIARITY OF ITS CONTENT AFFECT DIFFICULTY
,EVEL
,OCATE AND POSSIBLY SEQUENCE OR COMBINE %ITHER CONSTRUE THE MEANING OF NUANCED #RITICALLY EVALUATE OR HYPOTHESISE DRAWING
MULTIPLE PIECES OF DEEPLY EMBEDDED LANGUAGE OR DEMONSTRATE A FULL AND ON SPECIALISED KNOWLEDGE $EAL WITH
INFORMATION SOME OF WHICH MAY BE OUTSIDE DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF A TEXT CONCEPTS THAT ARE CONTRARY TO EXPECTATIONS
THE MAIN BODY OF THE TEXT )NFER WHICH AND DRAW ON A DEEP UNDERSTANDING OF LONG
INFORMATION IN THE TEXT IS RELEVANT TO THE TASK OR COMPLEX TEXTS
$EAL WITH HIGHLY PLAUSIBLE ANDOR EXTENSIVE
COMPETING INFORMATION
,OCATE AND POSSIBLY SEQUENCE OR COMBINE 5SE A HIGH LEVEL OF TEXT BASED INFERENCE 5SE FORMAL OR PUBLIC KNOWLEDGE TO
MULTIPLE PIECES OF EMBEDDED INFORMATION TO UNDERSTAND AND APPLY CATEGORIES IN AN HYPOTHESISE ABOUT OR CRITICALLY EVALUATE A
EACH OF WHICH MAY NEED TO MEET MULTIPLE UNFAMILIAR CONTEXT AND TO CONSTRUE THE TEXT 3HOW ACCURATE UNDERSTANDING OF
CRITERIA IN A TEXT WITH UNFAMILIAR CONTEXT MEANING OF A SECTION OF TEXT BY TAKING LONG OR COMPLEX TEXTS
OR FORM )NFER WHICH INFORMATION IN THE INTO ACCOUNT THE TEXT AS A WHOLE $EAL
TEXT IS RELEVANT TO THE TASK WITH AMBIGUITIES IDEAS THAT ARE CONTRARY
TO EXPECTATION AND IDEAS THAT ARE NEGATIVELY
WORDED
,OCATE AND IN SOME CASES RECOGNISE THE )NTEGRATE SEVERAL PARTS OF A TEXT IN ORDER TO -AKE CONNECTIONS OR COMPARISONS GIVE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PIECES OF IDENTIFY A MAIN IDEA UNDERSTAND A RELATIONSHIP EXPLANATIONS OR EVALUATE A FEATURE OF TEXT
INFORMATION EACH OF WHICH MAY NEED TO OR CONSTRUE THE MEANING OF A WORD OR PHRASE $EMONSTRATE A DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF
MEET MULTIPLE CRITERIA $EAL WITH #OMPARE CONTRAST OR CATEGORISE TAKING MANY THE TEXT IN RELATION TO FAMILIAR EVERYDAY
PROMINENT COMPETING INFORMATION CRITERIA INTO ACCOUNT $EAL WITH COMPETING KNOWLEDGE OR DRAW ON LESS COMMON
INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE
,OCATE ONE OR MORE PIECES OF INFORMATION )DENTIFY THE MAIN IDEA IN A TEXT -AKE A COMPARISON OR CONNECTIONS
EACH OF WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED TO MEET UNDERSTAND RELATIONSHIPS FORM OR APPLY BETWEEN THE TEXT AND OUTSIDE KNOWLEDGE
MULTIPLE CRITERIA $EAL WITH COMPETING SIMPLE CATEGORIES OR CONSTRUE MEANING OR EXPLAIN A FEATURE OF THE TEXT BY DRAWING
INFORMATION WITHIN A LIMITED PART OF THE TEXT WHEN ON PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND ATTITUDES
THE INFORMATION IS NOT PROMINENT AND
LOW LEVEL INFERENCES ARE REQUIRED
4AKE ACCOUNT OF A SINGLE CRITERION TO LOCATE 2ECOGNISE THE MAIN THEME OR AUTHORgS -AKE A SIMPLE CONNECTION BETWEEN
ONE OR MORE INDEPENDENT PIECES OF PURPOSE IN A TEXT ABOUT A FAMILIAR TOPIC INFORMATION IN THE TEXT AND COMMON
EXPLICITLY STATED INFORMATION WHEN THE REQUIRED INFORMATION IN THE EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE
TEXT IS PROMINENT
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3!
7
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%VEN A CURSORY GLANCE AT &IGURE WILL REVEAL THAT AS MIGHT BE EXPECTED />ÃÃÊ>ÌÊÌ iÊÜiÀÊi`ÊvÊ
TASKS AT THE LOWER END OF EACH SCALE REQUIRE VERY DIFFERENT SKILLS FROM THOSE i>V ÊvÊÌ iÊÌ ÀiiÊÀi>`}Ê
AT THE HIGHER END ! MORE CAREFUL ANALYSIS OF THE RANGE OF TASKS ALONG EACH ÃV>iÃÊÀiµÕÀiÊ`ÀiVÌÊ>`Ê
READING LITERACY SCALE PROVIDES SOME INDICATION OF AN ORDERED SET OF KNOWL ÃÌÀ>} ÌvÀÜ>À`ÊÕÃiÊvÊ
EDGE CONSTRUCTION SKILLS AND STRATEGIES &OR EXAMPLE ALL TASKS ON THE RETRIEV ÌiÝÌ°Ê
ING INFORMATION SCALE REQUIRE STUDENTS TO LOCATE INFORMATION IN PROSE TEXTS
OR OTHER FORMS OF WRITING 4HE EASIEST TASKS ON THIS SCALE REQUIRE STUDENTS
TO LOCATE EXPLICITLY STATED INFORMATION ACCORDING TO A SINGLE CRITERION WHERE
THERE IS LITTLE IF ANY COMPETING INFORMATION IN THE TEXT
"Y CONTRAST TASKS AT THE HIGH END OF THIS SCALE REQUIRE STUDENTS TO LOCATE vvVÕÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊ>ÌÊÌ
iÊÌ«Ê
AND SEQUENCE MULTIPLE PIECES OF DEEPLY EMBEDDED INFORMATION SOMETIMES i`ÃÊÀiµÕÀiÊÀiÊ
IN ACCORDANCE WITH MULTIPLE CRITERIA /FTEN THERE IS COMPETING INFORMATION V«iÝÊÕÃiÊvÊÌiÝÌÊ>`ÊvÊ
IN THE TEXT THAT SHARES SOME FEATURES WITH THE INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR THE Ì
iÊ`i>ÃÊiÝ«ÀiÃÃi`ÊÊÌ°
ANSWER 3IMILARLY ON THE INTERPRETING SCALE AND THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION
SCALE TASKS AT THE LOWER END DIFFER FROM THOSE AT THE HIGHER END IN TERMS
OF THE PROCESS NEEDED TO ANSWER THEM CORRECTLY THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE
READING STRATEGIES REQUIRED FOR A CORRECT ANSWER ARE SIGNALLED IN THE QUESTION
OR THE INSTRUCTIONS THE LEVEL OF COMPLEXITY AND FAMILIARITY OF THE TEXT AND THE
QUANTITY OF COMPETING OR DISTRACTING INFORMATION PRESENT IN THE TEXT
! DESCRIPTION OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK UNDERLYING THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT OF
READING LITERACY IS PROVIDED IN -EASURING 3TUDENT +NOWLEDGE AND 3KILLS n ! .EW
&RAMEWORK FOR !SSESSMENT /%#$ A
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PROFICIENT AT EACH LEVEL OF READING LITERACY
)F STUDENTS PROFICIENCY IS DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF FIVE LEVELS OF READING LITERACY IT IS /
iÊÀiÃÕÌÃÊvÀÊ>Ê««Õ>ÌÊ
POSSIBLE EITHER TO INDICATE WHAT PROPORTION OF THEM ARE PROFICIENT AT A PARTICULAR LEVEL V>ÊLiÊiÝ«ÀiÃÃi`Ê>ÃÊÌ
iÊ
OR TO IDENTIFY THE PERCENTAGE THAT ARE PROFICIENT AT MOST AT THAT LEVEL AS PRESENTED «iÀViÌ>}iÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
Ê
IN 4ABLES A
D n MEANING THAT IT IS THEIR HIGHEST LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY (OWEVER >Ê«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÊiÛiÊÀÊ>ÃÊÌ
iÊ
KNOWING THAT PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN ONE COUNTRY AND PER CENT IN ANOTHER «iÀViÌ>}iÊÀi>V
}Ê>ÌÊi>ÃÌÊ
ARE EXACTLY AT SAY ,EVEL IS NOT ESPECIALLY MEANINGFUL WITHOUT ALSO KNOWING THE >Ê«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÊiÛiÊÌ
>ÌÊÃ]Ê>ÌÊ
PERCENTAGES AT THE OTHER LEVELS )T IS THEREFORE GENERALLY MORE USEFUL TO KNOW THE Ì
>ÌÊiÛiÊÀÊ>LÛi®°
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
)N THE SAME WAY THAT STUDENTS ARE ALLOCATED A PERFORMANCE SCORE ON EACH 0)3! SCALE THE LEVEL OF
DIFFICULTY OF THE TASKS SET CAN ALSO BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THESE SCALES 7HILE STUDENTS RECEIVE SCALE
SCORES ACCORDING TO THEIR PERFORMANCE IN THE ASSESSMENT TASKS THE DIFFICULTY OF A TASK IS DERIVED FROM
THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN THAT TASK OF STUDENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES
&OR EXAMPLE 1UESTION FROM THE 2EADING 5NIT 'RAFFITI SHOWN IN &IGURE REQUIRES STUDENTS
TO COMPARE CLAIMS MADE IN TWO SHORT TEXTS WITH THEIR OWN VIEWS AND ATTITUDES AND HAS A NOTIONAL
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WITH TASKS UP TO THIS LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY 4HAT DOES NOT MEAN THAT EVERY STUDENT RECEIVING A SCORE OF
OR ABOVE WILL HAVE ANSWERED THIS ITEM CORRECTLY OR THAT ALL STUDENTS RECEIVING SCORES BELOW
WILL HAVE ANSWERED IT INCORRECTLY .OR DOES IT MEAN THAT STUDENTS WITH A SCORE OF WILL ANSWER
CORRECTLY ALL ITEMS WITH A NOTIONAL LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY BELOW THIS POINT AND WILL ANSWER INCORRECTLY
ALL ITEMS WITH A LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY ABOVE IT 4HE DIFFICULTY OF A TASK IS ESTABLISHED IN SUCH AS WAY THAT
STUDENTS WITH A SCORE EQUAL TO THAT OF A GIVEN ITEM WILL HAVE A KNOWN PROBABILITY OF ANSWERING IT
CORRECTLY 3TUDENTS WITH SCORES ABOVEBELOW POINTS WILL HAVE A GREATERSMALLER LIKELIHOOD OF
ANSWERING THE ITEM TAKEN AS AN EXAMPLE HERE AND OTHERS LIKE IT CORRECTLY
3TUDENTS ANSWERS TO SOME OPEN
ENDED QUESTIONS MAY BE PARTIALLY CORRECT IN WHICH CASE THEY
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CORRECT ANSWER
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)M SIMMERING WITH ANGER AS THE SCHOOL WALL 4HERE IS NO ACCOUNTING FOR TASTE 3OCIETY IS FULL
IS CLEANED AND REPAINTED FOR THE FOURTH TIME OF COMMUNICATION AND ADVERTISING #OMPANY
TO GET RID OF GRAFFITI #REATIVITY IS ADMIRABLE LOGOS SHOP NAMES ,ARGE INTRUSIVE POSTERS ON
BUT PEOPLE SHOULD FIND WAYS TO EXPRESS THE STREETS !RE THEY ACCEPTABLE 9ES MOSTLY
THEMSELVES THAT DO NOT INFLICT EXTRA COSTS UPON )S GRAFFITI ACCEPTABLE 3OME PEOPLE SAY YES
SOCIETY SOME NO
7HY DO YOU SPOIL THE REPUTATION OF YOUNG PEOPLE 7HO PAYS THE PRICE FOR GRAFFITI 7HO IS
BY PAINTING GRAFFITI WHERE ITS FORBIDDEN ULTIMATELY PAYING THE PRICE FOR ADVERTISEMENTS
0ROFESSIONAL ARTISTS DO NOT HANG THEIR PAINTINGS #ORRECT 4HE CONSUMER
IN THE STREETS DO THEY )NSTEAD THEY SEEK FUNDING (AVE THE PEOPLE WHO PUT UP BILLBOARDS ASKED
AND GAIN FAME THROUGH LEGAL EXHIBITIONS YOUR PERMISSION .O 3HOULD GRAFFITI PAINTERS DO
)N MY OPINION BUILDINGS FENCES AND PARK SO THEN )SNT IT ALL JUST A QUESTION OF
BENCHES ARE WORKS OF ART IN THEMSELVES )TS COMMUNICATION n YOUR OWN NAME THE NAMES OF
REALLY PATHETIC TO SPOIL THIS ARCHITECTURE WITH GANGS AND LARGE WORKS OF ART IN THE STREET
GRAFFITI AND WHATS MORE THE METHOD DESTROYS 4HINK ABOUT THE STRIPED AND CHEQUERED CLOTHES
THE OZONE LAYER 2EALLY ) CANT UNDERSTAND WHY THAT APPEARED IN THE STORES A FEW YEARS AGO
THESE CRIMINAL ARTISTS BOTHER AS THEIR hARTISTIC !ND SKI WEAR 4HE PATTERNS AND COLOURS WERE
WORKSv ARE JUST REMOVED FROM SIGHT OVER AND STOLEN DIRECTLY FROM THE FLOWERY CONCRETE WALLS
OVER AGAIN )TS QUITE AMUSING THAT THESE PATTERNS AND
COLOURS ARE ACCEPTED AND ADMIRED BUT THAT
(ELGA GRAFFITI IN THE SAME STYLE IS CONSIDERED DREADFUL
4IMES ARE HARD FOR ART
3OPHIA
4HESE TWO LETTERS COME FROM THE )NTERNET AND ARE ABOUT GRAFFITI 'RAFFITI IS ILLEGAL PAINTING AND WRITING ON WALLS AND
ELSEWHERE 2EFER TO THE LETTERS TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
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ONE OR BOTH LETTERS ARE WRITTEN
7HY DOES 3OPHIA REFER TO
ADVERTISING 3CORE
n !NSWERS WHICH EXPLAIN OPINION WITH
3CORE
REFERENCE TO THE STYLE OR FORM OF
n !NSWERS WHICH RECOGNISE THAT A ONE OR BOTH LETTERS 4HEY SHOULD
COMPARISON IS BEING DRAWN BETWEEN REFER TO CRITERIA SUCH AS STYLE OF
GRAFFITI AND ADVERTISING AND ARE WRITING STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT
CONSISTENT WITH THE IDEA THAT COGENCY OF ARGUMENT TONE REGISTER
ADVERTISING IS A LEGAL FORM OF GRAFFITI USED OR STRATEGIES FOR PERSUADING
READERS 4ERMS LIKE BETTER
OR ARGUMENTS MUST BE SUBSTANTIATED
n !NSWERS WHICH RECOGNISE THAT
REFERRING TO ADVERTISING IS A STRATEGY 4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO EVALUATE THE
TO DEFEND GRAFFITI WRITERgS CRAFT BY COMPARING TWO SHORT LETTERS
ON THE TOPIC OF GRAFFITI 3TUDENTS NEED TO
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO INFER AN DRAW ON THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT
ANALOGICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO CONSTITUTES GOOD STYLE IN WRITING
PHENOMENA IN THE TEXT
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'2!&&)4) YOU AGREE WITH %XPLAIN YOUR ANSWER
4HE PURPOSE OF EACH OF THESE LETTERS BY USING YOUR OWN WORDS TO REFER TO
IS TO WHAT IS SAID IN ONE OR BOTH OF THE
LETTERS
"ELOW
"ELOW
"ELOW
! %XPLAIN WHAT GRAFFITI IS
" 0RESENT AN OPINION ABOUT 3CORE
GRAFFITI n !NSWERS WHICH EXPLAIN THE STUDENTgS
# $EMONSTRATE THE POPULARITY POINT OF VIEW BY REFERRING TO THE
OF GRAFFITI CONTENT OF ONE OR BOTH LETTERS 4HEY
$ 4ELL PEOPLE HOW MUCH IS SPENT MAY REFER TO THE WRITERgS GENERAL
REMOVING GRAFFITI POSITION IE FOR OR AGAINST OR TO A
DETAIL OF HER ARGUMENT 4HE
INTERPRETATION OF THE WRITERgS
3CORE
ARGUMENT MUST BE PLAUSIBLE 4HE
EXPLANATION MAY TAKE THE FORM OF
n " PRESENT AN OPINION ABOUT GRAFFITI PARAPHRASE OF PART OF THE TEXT BUT
MUST NOT BE WHOLLY OR LARGELY
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO IDENTIFY COPIED WITHOUT ALTERATION OR
THE PURPOSE THAT TWO SHORT TEXTS HAVE ADDITION
IN COMMON BY COMPARING THE MAIN 4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO COMPARE
IDEAS IN EACH OF THEM CLAIMS MADE IN TWO SHORT TEXTS WITH
OWN VIEWS AND ATTITUDES 3TUDENTS ARE
ALSO REQUIRED TO DEMONSTRATE BROAD
UNDERSTANDING OF AT LEAST ONE OF THE
TWO LETTERS
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4HE TREE DIAGRAM BELOW SHOWS THE STRUCTURE OF A COUNTRYS LABOUR FORCE OR hWORKING
AGE POPULATIONv 4HE
TOTAL POPULATION OF THE COUNTRY IN WAS ABOUT MILLION
4HE LABOUR FORCE STRUCTURE YEAR ENDED -ARCH S
7ORKING
AGE POPULATION
)N LABOUR FORCE .OT IN LABOUR FORCE
%MPLOYED 5NEMPLOYED
&ULL TIME 0ART TIME
3EEKING FULL TIME 3EEKING PART TIME
WORK WORK
3EEKING .OT SEEKING
FULL
TIME WORK FULL
TIME WORK
.UMBERS OF PEOPLE ARE GIVEN IN THOUSANDS S
4HE WORKING
AGE POPULATION IS DEFINED AS PEOPLE BETWEEN THE AGES OF AND
0EOPLE h.OT IN LABOUR FORCEv ARE THOSE NOT ACTIVELY SEEKING WORK ANDOR NOT AVAILABLE FOR WORK
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(OW MANY PEOPLE OF WORKING AGE )N WHICH PART OF THE TREE DIAGRAM IF ANY 4HE INFORMATION ABOUT THE LABOUR
WERE NOT IN THE LABOUR FORCE WOULD EACH OF THE PEOPLE LISTED IN FORCE STRUCTURE IS PRESENTED AS A
7RITE THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE NOT THE TABLE BELOW BE INCLUDED TREE DIAGRAM BUT IT COULD HAVE
THE PERCENTAGE 3HOW YOUR ANSWER BY PLACING A CROSS BEEN PRESENTED IN A NUMBER OF
IN THE CORRECT BOX IN THE TABLE OTHER WAYS SUCH AS A WRITTEN
3CORE
4HE FIRST ONE HAS BEEN DONE FOR YOU DESCRIPTION A PIE CHART A GRAPH
n !NSWERS WHICH INDICATE THAT THE RED BOX h)N LABOUR FORCE h)N LABOUR FORCE h.OT IN .OT INCLUDED OR A TABLE
NUMBER IN THE TREE DIAGRAM !.$ EMPLOYEDv UNEMPLOYEDv LABOUR FORCEv IN ANY CATEGORY
4HE TREE DIAGRAM WAS PROBABLY
! PART TIME WAITER
THE S IN THE TITLEFOOTNOTE AGED CHOSEN BECAUSE IT IS ESPECIALLY
HAVE BEEN INTEGRATED ! BUSINESS WOMAN USEFUL FOR SHOWING
AGED WHO WORKS A
!LLOW APPROXIMATIONS BETWEEN SIXTY HOUR WEEK
AND IN FIGURES ! FULL TIME STUDENT ! #HANGES OVER TIME
OR WORDS !LSO ACCEPT AGED " 4HE SIZE OF THE COUNTRYgS TOTAL
! MAN AGED WHO
OR ONE MILLION IN WORDS OR RECENTLY SOLD HIS SHOP POPULATION
FIGURES WITH QUALIFIER AND IS LOOKING FOR
WORK # #ATEGORIES WITHIN EACH GROUP
! WOMAN AGED
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO LOCATE WHO HAS NEVER WORKED $ 4HE SIZE OF EACH GROUP
OR WANTED TO WORK
CORRECT NUMERICAL INFORMATION IN A TREE
DIAGRAM AND COMBINE IT WITH CONDITIONAL
OUTSIDE THE HOME
! GRANDMOTHER AGED
3CORE
WHO STILL WORKS A
INFORMATION GIVEN IN A FOOTNOTE FEW HOURS A DAY AT THE
FAMILYS MARKET STALL
n # CATEGORIES WITHIN EACH GROUP
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO
3CORE
EVALUATE THE FORMAL FEATURES OF A
n ANSWERS CORRECT CHECKED BOXES TREE DIAGRAM IN ORDER TO RECOGNISE
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO ANALYSE
THE APPROPRIATENESS OF ITS
AND MATCH SEVERAL DESCRIBED CASES TO STRUCTURE FOR SHOWING CATEGORIES
3CORE
LABOUR FORCE STATUS CATEGORIES WHERE SOME WITHIN GROUPS
n !NSWERS WHICH INDICATE THAT THE OF THE RELEVANT INFORMATION IS IN FOOTNOTES
NUMBER IN THE TREE DIAGRAM HAS AND THEREFORE NOT PROMINENT
BEEN LOCATED BUT THAT THE S
IN THE TITLEFOOTNOTE HAS NOT BEEN
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CORRECTLY INTEGRATED !NSWERS 3CORE
STATING IN WORDS OR FIGURES 3UPPOSE THAT INFORMATION ABOUT
n OR ANSWERS CORRECT THE LABOUR FORCE WAS PRESENTED IN
!LLOW APPROXIMATIONS
COMPARABLE TO THOSE FOR 3CORE 4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO ANALYSE A TREE DIAGRAM LIKE THIS EVERY YEAR
AND MATCH SOME DESCRIBED CASES TO LABOUR ,ISTED BELOW ARE FOUR FEATURES OF
"ELOW
"ELOW
"ELOW
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO LOCATE FORCE STATUS CATEGORIES WHERE SOME OF THE THE TREE DIAGRAM 3HOW WHETHER
CORRECT NUMERICAL INFORMATION IN THE RELEVANT INFORMATION IS IN FOOTNOTES AND OR NOT YOU WOULD EXPECT THESE
TREE DIAGRAM !T THIS LEVEL CONDITIONAL THEREFORE NOT PROMINENT FEATURES TO CHANGE FROM YEAR TO
INFORMATION IS NOT USED YEAR BY CIRCLING EITHER #HANGE
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7HAT ARE THE TWO MAIN GROUPS INTO WHICH THE 4HE PERCENTAGES EG #HANGE
WORKING
AGE POPULATION IS DIVIDED 4HE NUMBERS EG #HANGE
! %MPLOYED AND UNEMPLOYED 4HE FOOTNOTES UNDER THE TREE DIAGRAM .O CHANGE
" /F WORKING AGE AND NOT OF WORKING AGE
# &ULL
TIME WORKERS AND PART
TIME 3CORE
WORKERS n ANSWERS CORRECT
$ )N THE LABOUR FORCE AND NOT IN THE
LABOUR FORCE 4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO DRAW
ON KNOWLEDGE OF THE FORM AND
3CORE
CONTENT OF A TREE DIAGRAM ABOUT THE
LABOUR FORCE TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
n $ )N THE LABOUR FORCE AND NOT VARIABLES AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES
IN THE LABOUR FORCE
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO UNDERSTAND
THE RELATIONSHIP OF INFORMATION PRESENTED
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OF THESE HAIRS AND SOME OF THE SUSPECT DID IN FACT GO NEAR THE
! MURDER HAS BEEN SUSPECTS BLOOD CELLS )N THE VICTIM HE SAID HED NEVER MET 'ENETIC WHAT
COMMITTED BUT THE NUCLEUS OF EACH CELL IN OUR
SUSPECT DENIES *UST ONE PIECE OF EVIDENCE $.! IS MADE UP OF A
BODIES THERE IS $.! 7HAT IS
NUMBER OF GENES EACH
EVERYTHING (E CLAIMS IT $.! IS LIKE A NECKLACE MADE -ORE AND MORE OFTEN IN CASES
CONSISTING OF THOUSANDS OF
NOT TO KNOW THE OF TWO TWISTED STRINGS OF PEARLS OF SEXUAL ASSAULT MURDER THEFT
hPEARLSv 4OGETHER THESE
VICTIM (E SAYS HE )MAGINE THAT THESE PEARLS COME OR OTHER CRIMES THE POLICE ARE
GENES FORM THE GENETIC
NEVER KNEW HIM IN FOUR DIFFERENT COLOURS AND HAVING GENETIC ANALYSES DONE
IDENTITY CARD OF A PERSON
NEVER WENT NEAR HIM THAT THOUSANDS OF COLOURED 7HY 4O TRY TO FIND EVIDENCE
NEVER TOUCHED HIMx PEARLS WHICH MAKE UP A GENE OF CONTACT BETWEEN TWO
ARE STRUNG IN A VERY SPECIFIC PEOPLE TWO OBJECTS OR A PERSON
4HE POLICE AND THE ORDER )N EACH INDIVIDUAL THIS AND AN OBJECT 0ROVING SUCH
JUDGE ARE CONVINCED ORDER IS EXACTLY THE SAME IN ALL CONTACT IS OFTEN VERY USEFUL TO (OW IS THE GENETIC
THAT HE IS NOT TELLING THE CELLS IN THE BODY THOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION "UT IT DOES IDENTITY CARD
THE TRUTH "UT HOW THE HAIR ROOTS AS WELL AS THOSE NOT NECESSARILY PROVIDE PROOF OF REVEALED
TO PROVE IT OF THE BIG TOE THOSE OF THE LIVER A CRIME )T IS JUST ONE PIECE OF 4HE GENETICIST TAKES THE
AND THOSE OF THE STOMACH OR EVIDENCE AMONGST MANY OTHERS FEW CELLS FROM THE BASE OF
BLOOD "UT THE ORDER OF THE !NNE 6ERSAILLES THE HAIRS FOUND ON THE
!T THE CRIME SCENE PEARLS VARIES FROM ONE PERSON VICTIM OR FROM THE SALIVA
INVESTIGATORS HAVE GATHERED EVERY TO ANOTHER 'IVEN THE NUMBER LEFT ON A CIGARETTE END (E
POSSIBLE SHRED OF EVIDENCE OF PEARLS STRUNG IN THIS WAY 7E ARE MADE UP OF PUTS THEM INTO A PRODUCT
IMAGINABLE FIBRES FROM FABRICS THERE IS VERY LITTLE CHANCE OF BILLIONS OF CELLS WHICH DESTROYS EVERYTHING
HAIRS FINGER MARKS CIGARETTE TWO PEOPLE HAVING THE SAME AROUND THE $.! OF THE
$.! WITH THE EXCEPTION OF %VERY LIVING THING IS MADE
ENDSx4HE FEW HAIRS FOUND ON UP OF LOTS OF CELLS ! CELL CELLS (E THEN DOES THE
THE VICTIMS JACKET ARE RED !ND IDENTICAL TWINS 5NIQUE TO EACH SAME THING WITH SOME
IS VERY SMALL INDEED )T CAN
THEY LOOK STRANGELY LIKE THE INDIVIDUAL $.! IS THUS A SORT ALSO BE SAID TO BE CELLS FROM THE SUSPECTS
SUSPECTS )F IT COULD BE PROVED OF GENETIC IDENTITY CARD MICROSCOPIC BECAUSE IT CAN BLOOD 4HE $.! IS THEN
THAT THESE HAIRS ARE INDEED HIS 'ENETICISTS ARE THEREFORE ABLE ONLY BE SEEN USING A SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR
THIS WOULD BE EVIDENCE THAT HE TO COMPARE THE SUSPECTS MICROSCOPE WHICH ANALYSIS !FTER THIS IT IS
HAD IN FACT MET THE VICTIM GENETIC IDENTITY CARD DETER
MAGNIFIES IT MANY TIMES PLACED IN A SPECIAL GEL AND
MINED FROM HIS BLOOD WITH %ACH CELL HAS AN OUTER AN ELECTRIC CURRENT IS
%VERY INDIVIDUAL IS UNIQUE THAT OF THE PERSON WITH THE RED MEMBRANE AND A NUCLEUS
IN WHICH THE $.! IS PASSED THROUGH THE GEL
3PECIALISTS SET TO WORK 4HEY HAIR )F THE GENETIC CARD IS THE !FTER A FEW HOURS THIS
FOUND
EXAMINE SOME CELLS AT THE ROOT SAME THEY WILL KNOW THAT THE PRODUCES STRIPES SIMILAR
TO A BAR CODE LIKE THE ONES
ON THINGS WE BUY WHICH
ARE VISIBLE UNDER A SPECIAL
LAMP 4HE BAR CODE OF THE
SUSPECTS $.! IS THEN
COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE
-ICROSCOPE IN A HAIRS FOUND ON THE VICTIM
POLICE LABORATORY
2EFER TO THE MAGAZINE ARTICLE TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
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4O EXPLAIN THE STRUCTURE OF $.! THE 7HAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE BOX HEADED (OW
AUTHOR TALKS ABOUT A PEARL NECKLACE (OW IS THE GENETIC IDENTITY CARD REVEALED
DO THESE PEARL NECKLACES VARY FROM ONE 4O EXPLAIN
INDIVIDUAL TO ANOTHER ! 7HAT $.! IS
! 4HEY VARY IN LENGTH " 7HAT A BAR SCORE IS
" 4HE ORDER OF THE PEARLS IS DIFFERENT
# 4HE NUMBER OF NECKLACES IS DIFFERENT # (OW CELLS ARE ANALYSED TO FIND THE
$ 4HE COLOUR OF THE PEARLS IS DIFFERENT PATTERN OF $.!
$ (OW IT CAN BE PROVED THAT A CRIME
3CORE
HAS BEEN COMMITTED
n " 4HE ORDER OF THE PEARLS IS DIFFERENT 3CORE
4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO LOCATE n # (OW CELLS ARE ANALYSED TO FIND THE PATTERN
INFORMATION IN A SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE ARTICLE OF $.!
FOR YOUNG PEOPLE BY MAKING A SYNONYMOUS 4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO RECOGNISE AN
MATCH AMONG COMPETING INFORMATION APPROPRIATE SUMMARY OF A CLEARLY IDENTIFIED
PARAGRAPH IN A SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE ARTICLE
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FROM SEVERAL SENTENCES 3OME COMPETING
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"ELOW
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SECTION SAYS "UT HOW TO PROVE IT
!CCORDING TO THE PASSAGE INVESTIGATORS TRY TO
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! )NTERROGATING WITNESSES
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3CORE
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4HIS TASK REQUIRES STUDENTS TO INTEGRATE
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PERCENTAGE WHO ARE AT MOST PROFICIENT AT A GIVEN LEVEL SINCE THIS INFORMATION INDICATES
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ATTRIBUTES OF GROUPS OF STUDENTS WHO PERFORM AT A CERTAIN LEVEL MAY NEVERTHELESS BE
USEFUL IN ORDER TO EXPLORE THE LIMITS OF THEIR PROFICIENCY
&IGURE PRESENTS AN OVERALL PROFILE OF PROFICIENCY ON THE COMBINED READING
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TO EVALUATE CRITICALLY AND BUILD HYPOTHESES DRAW ON SPECIALISED KNOWLEDGE AND
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iÛiÊxÊ>VVÕÌÃÊvÀÊÛiÀÊ )N THE COMBINED /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF THE STUDENTS IN 0)3! ARE
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ÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê>ÞÊ )T IS IMPORTANT TO KEEP IN MIND THAT THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS PERFORMING
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊ iÛiÊxÊ>ÀiÊ AT ,EVEL IS INFLUENCED NOT ONLY BY THE OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF COUNTRIES IN
ÌÊ>Ü>ÞÃÊÌ
ÃiÊÜÌ
Ê READING LITERACY BUT ALSO BY THE VARIATION THAT EXISTS WITHIN COUNTRIES BETWEEN
Ì
iÊÃ>iÃÌÊ«iÀViÌ>}iÊvÊ THE STUDENTS WITH THE HIGHEST AND THE LOWEST LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE 7HILE THERE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ«iÀvÀ}Ê«ÀÞ° IS A GENERAL TENDENCY FOR COUNTRIES WITH A HIGHER PROPORTION OF STUDENTS SCORING
AT ,EVEL TO HAVE FEWER STUDENTS AT ,EVEL AND BELOW THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE
)N &INLAND FOR EXAMPLE PER CENT OF STUDENTS REACH ,EVEL WHILE ONLY PER
CENT ARE BELOW ,EVEL BUT "ELGIUM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES FOR EXAMPLE WHICH
ALSO HAVE HIGH PERCENTAGES REACHING ,EVEL HAVE RELATIVELY HIGH PROPORTIONS
OF STUDENTS SCORING BELOW ,EVEL AS WELL AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY "Y
CONTRAST IN +OREA ONE OF THE COUNTRIES THAT PERFORMS AT A VERY HIGH LEVEL IN ALL
THREE DOMAINS IN 0)3! LESS THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS REACH ,EVEL AND
LESS THAN PER CENT SCORE BELOW ,EVEL
7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÓ°Î
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT EACH OF THE PROFICIENCY LEVELS
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS
"ELOW ,EVEL !T ,EVEL !T ,EVEL !T ,EVEL !T ,EVEL !T ,EVEL
3WITZERLAND
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
!USTRALIA
'ERMANY
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
)RELAND
"ELGIUM
!USTRIA
)CELAND
$ENMARK
#ANADA
(UNGARY
3WEDEN
.ORWAY
&RANCE
+OREA
*APAN
0OLAND
-EXICO
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
3PAIN
)TALY
&INLAND
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
%XAMINING THE THREE COMPONENTS OF THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SHOWS /
iÊ«iÀViÌ>}iÊvÊ
EVEN MORE VARIATION PARTICULARLY IN THOSE COUNTRIES WITH AN ABOVE
AVERAGE ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊ iÛiÊxÊÛ>ÀiÃÊ
PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT ,EVEL ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY ÊÌ
iÊ`vviÀiÌÊ>ëiVÌÃÊ
SCALE )N &INLAND FOR EXAMPLE PER CENT OF STUDENTS REACH ,EVEL ON THE vÊÀi>`}°
RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE 4ABLE B BUT ONLY PER CENT REACH ,EVEL ON
THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT 4ABLE D
! SIMILAR PICTURE THOUGH LESS PRONOUNCED CAN BE OBSERVED IN !USTRALIA
"ELGIUM AND 3WEDEN "Y CONTRAST #ANADA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM SHOW
HIGHER PERCENTAGES ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE THAN ON THE RETRIEVING
INFORMATION AND INTERPRETING SCALES SUGGESTING THAT HIGH OVERALL PERFORMANCE IN
#(!04%2 Ê7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
THESE COUNTRIES IS ACHIEVED IN PART BY STRONG PERFORMANCE IN TASKS THAT REQUIRE
STUDENTS TO ENGAGE IN CRITICAL EVALUATION TO USE HYPOTHESES AND TO RELATE TEXTS
TO THEIR OWN EXPERIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS 4ABLES B C AND D
!MONG THE COUNTRIES WITH THE LOWEST PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS REACHING ,EVEL
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ONLY PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN 'REECE
REACH ,EVEL ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION AND INTERPRETING SCALES BUT THREE
TIMES THAT PROPORTION PER CENT /%#$ AVERAGE IS PER CENT REACH ,EVEL
ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE 4ABLES B AND D
0ROFICIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
/>ÃÃÊ>ÌÊ iÛiÊ{Ê>ÀiÊÃÌÊ 3TUDENTS PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ARE CAPABLE
V«iÝÊ>`Ê`vvVÕÌ]Ê OF DIFFICULT READING TASKS SUCH AS LOCATING EMBEDDED INFORMATION CONSTRUING
>`ÊV>ÊLiÊVÀÀiVÌÞÊ MEANING FROM NUANCES OF LANGUAGE AND CRITICALLY EVALUATING A TEXT SEE &IGURE
>ÃÜiÀi`ÊLÞÊ>LÕÌÊ>Ê FOR A DETAILED DESCRIPTION )N THE COMBINED /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF STUDENTS
Ì
À`ÊvÊ>ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo ARE PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL AND BEYOND THAT IS AT ,EVELS AND 4ABLE A
(ALF OF THE STUDENTS IN &INLAND AND PER CENT OR MORE OF THOSE IN !USTRALIA
#ANADA )RELAND .EW :EALAND AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ATTAIN AT LEAST ,EVEL
7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF ,UXEMBOURG AND -EXICO AT LEAST ONE IN FIVE STUDENTS
IN EACH /%#$ COUNTRY REACHES AT LEAST ,EVEL )N "RAZIL THE COUNTRY WITH THE
LOWEST PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY OVERALL ONLY PER CENT OF STUDENTS SCORE
AT ,EVEL OR ABOVE
oÜÌ ÊviÜiÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊ !T ,EVEL THE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THE THREE READING LITERACY
LiÌÜiiÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ SCALES TEND TO BE SMALLER THAN AT ,EVEL )N "RAZIL HOWEVER THE PROPORTION
Ì iÊÌ ÀiiÊ>ëiVÌÃÊvÊ OF STUDENTS AT LEAST AT ,EVEL ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE IS MORE
Ài>`}° THAN TWICE THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS AT THAT LEVEL ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION
SCALE PER CENT AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY 4ABLES B D )N 'REECE -EXICO
0ORTUGAL AND 3PAIN THE GAP IS PERCENTAGE POINTS OR MORE 4HE REVERSE IS TRUE
IN "ELGIUM &INLAND &RANCE AND ,IECHTENSTEIN
0ROFICIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
/
ÀiiÊÊvÛiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 3TUDENTS PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ARE CAPABLE
V>Ê«iÀvÀÊÀi>`}Ê OF READING TASKS OF MODERATE COMPLEXITY SUCH AS LOCATING MULTIPLE PIECES OF
Ì>ÃÃÊvÊ`iÀ>ÌiÊ INFORMATION MAKING LINKS BETWEEN DIFFERENT PARTS OF A TEXT AND RELATING IT TO
V«iÝÌÞÆÊÊ>`Ê FAMILIAR EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE SEE &IGURE FOR A DETAILED DESCRIPTION )N THE
Õ«ÊÌÊvÕÀÊÊvÛio COMBINED /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE PROFICIENT AT LEAST AT ,EVEL
THAT IS AT ,EVELS OR ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4ABLE A
)N NINE OUT OF /%#$ COUNTRIES BETWEEN TWO
THIRDS AND PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS ARE PROFICIENT AT LEAST AT ,EVEL
oLÕÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜ
iÀiÊ 4O WHAT EXTENT IS THE PATTERN OF PROFICIENCY SIMILAR ACROSS COUNTRIES 4O EXAMINE
ÃÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊ>ÌÊi>ÃÌÊ THIS CONSIDER THE NINE COUNTRIES THAT HAVE BETWEEN TWO
THIRDS AND JUST OVER
>ÌÊ iÛiÊÎÊ`vviÀÊÊÌ
iÀÊ THREE
QUARTERS OF STUDENTS AT ,EVEL OR ABOVE 4HESE ARE IN ORDER &INLAND
ÀiëiVÌÃ°Ê +OREA #ANADA *APAN )RELAND .EW :EALAND !USTRALIA THE 5NITED +INGDOM
AND 3WEDEN (OW DO THESE COUNTRIES DO IN OTHER RESPECTS )N ONE COUNTRY
7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
&INLAND RELATIVELY LARGE PROPORTIONS OF STUDENTS ARE ALSO HIGHLY LITERATE PER
CENT PERFORMING AT ,EVEL COMPARED WITH THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF PER CENT
AND A RELATIVELY LARGE NUMBER ARE ABOVE THE MOST BASIC LEVEL ONLY PER CENT
IN &INLAND ARE AT ,EVEL OR BELOW &INLAND THUS SHOWS STRONG RESULTS ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
)N A FURTHER FIVE COUNTRIES !USTRALIA #ANADA )RELAND .EW :EALAND AND THE 5NITED -iÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ Ê
+INGDOM THERE ARE LARGE NUMBERS AT THE HIGHEST LEVEL BETWEEN AND PER >ÞÊÃÌÀ}ÊÀi>`iÀÃÊ>ÃÊ
CENT BUT THE PERCENTAGE WITH PERFORMANCE AT OR BELOW ,EVEL IS HIGHER THAN >ÛiʵÕÌiÊ>ÊviÜÊÜi>Ê
IN &INLAND BETWEEN AND PER CENT /%#$ AVERAGE IS PER CENT 4HESE iÃo
COUNTRIES PERFORM WELL IN GETTING STUDENTS TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY BUT
SUCCEED LESS WELL IN REDUCING THE PROPORTION WITH LOW SKILLS )N .EW :EALAND MORE
STUDENTS THAN IN ANY OTHER COUNTRY ARE PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL PER CENT BUT A
RELATIVELY HIGH NUMBER PER CENT PERFORM ONLY AT OR BELOW ,EVEL
4HE RESULTS FOR +OREA SHOW THAT LOW DISPARITIES IN LITERACY SKILLS AT A RELATIVELY HIGH oÜ
iÊÊÌ
iÀÃÊÌ
iÊ
LEVEL ARE AN ATTAINABLE GOAL THREE
QUARTERS OF ITS STUDENTS ARE PROFICIENT AT LEAST AT }Ài>ÌÊ>ÀÌÞÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊ
,EVEL AND ONLY PER CENT ARE AT OR BELOW ,EVEL ,IKE +OREA *APAN HAS LARGE
}iiÕð
NUMBERS OF STUDENTS WITH AT LEAST ,EVEL LITERACY BUT RELATIVELY FEW AT EITHER THE HIGH
EST OR LOWEST LEVELS &INALLY IN 3WEDEN TWO
THIRDS OF STUDENTS ARE AT LEAST AT ,EVEL
BUT THE NUMBERS WITH HIGH AND LOW LEVELS OF LITERACY ARE CLOSER TO THE AVERAGE
0ROFICIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
3TUDENTS PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL ARE CAPABLE OF BASIC READING TASKS SUCH AS LOCATING ÀiÊÌ >ÊvÕÀÊÊvÛiÊ
STRAIGHTFORWARD INFORMATION MAKING LOW LEVEL INFERENCES OF VARIOUS TYPES ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÛiÀ>]Ê>`Ê
WORKING OUT WHAT A WELL DEFINED PART OF A TEXT MEANS AND USING SOME OUTSIDE Ü iÀiÊviÜiÀÊÌ >Ê >v]Ê
KNOWLEDGE TO UNDERSTAND IT SEE &IGURE FOR A DETAILED DESCRIPTION )N THE V>Ê«iÀvÀÊL>ÃVÊ
COMBINED /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL OR ABOVE Ài>`}ÊÌ>Ãð
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE )N EVERY /%#$ COUNTRY AT LEAST HALF OF
ALL STUDENTS ARE AT ,EVEL OR ABOVE 4ABLE A
)N 3PAIN ONLY PER CENT OF STUDENTS REACH ,EVEL BUT AN ABOVE AVERAGE PER
CENT REACH AT LEAST ,EVEL 4ABLE A )T IS INTERESTING TO CONTRAST 3PAINS
PERFORMANCE WITH .EW :EALANDS SIMILAR PROPORTIONS OF STUDENTS ARE AT LEAST AT
,EVEL AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY BUT THE PROPORTION IN .EW :EALAND
AT ,EVEL IS ALMOST FIVE TIMES HIGHER THAN THAT IN 3PAIN "Y CONTRAST IN 3PAIN
A PARTICULARLY LARGE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS PER CENT HAVE ,EVEL AS THEIR
HIGHEST PROFICIENCY LEVEL
0ROFICIENCY AT ,EVEL FROM TO POINTS
OR BELOW LESS THAN POINTS
2EADING LITERACY AS DEFINED IN 0)3! FOCUSES ON THE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED / iÊëiÃÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊÊ
TO APPLY hREADING FOR LEARNINGv RATHER THAN ON THE TECHNICAL SKILLS ACQUIRED IN *-ÊÀiµÕÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌÊ
hLEARNING TO READv 3INCE COMPARATIVELY FEW YOUNG ADULTS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES HAVE `ÊÀiÊÌ >ÊÕÃÌÊÀi>`Ê
NOT ACQUIRED TECHNICAL READING SKILLS 0)3! DOES NOT THEREFORE SEEK TO MEASURE ÜÀ`ÃÊvÕiÌÞo
#(!04%2 Ê7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
SUCH THINGS AS THE EXTENT TO WHICH YEAR OLD STUDENTS ARE FLUENT READERS OR HOW
WELL THEY SPELL OR RECOGNISE WORDS )N LINE WITH MOST CONTEMPORARY VIEWS ABOUT
READING LITERACY 0)3! FOCUSES ON MEASURING THE EXTENT TO WHICH INDIVIDUALS ARE
ABLE TO CONSTRUCT EXPAND AND REFLECT ON THE MEANING OF WHAT THEY HAVE READ IN A
WIDE RANGE OF TEXTS COMMON BOTH WITHIN AND BEYOND SCHOOL 4HE SIMPLEST READING
TASKS THAT CAN STILL BE ASSOCIATED WITH THIS NOTION OF READING LITERACY ARE THOSE AT
,EVEL 3TUDENTS PROFICIENT AT THIS LEVEL ARE CAPABLE OF COMPLETING ONLY THE LEAST
COMPLEX READING TASKS DEVELOPED FOR 0)3! SUCH AS LOCATING A SINGLE PIECE OF INFOR
MATION IDENTIFYING THE MAIN THEME OF A TEXT OR MAKING A SIMPLE CONNECTION WITH
EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE SEE &IGURE FOR A DETAILED DESCRIPTION
oÃÊÌ >ÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLiÜÊ 3TUDENTS PERFORMING BELOW POINTS IE BELOW ,EVEL ARE NOT CAPABLE OF
iÛiÊ£Ê>ÞÊ >ÛiÊÌ iÊ THE MOST BASIC TYPE OF READING THAT 0)3! SEEKS TO MEASURE 4HIS DOES NOT MEAN
ÌiV V>ÊV>«>VÌÞÊÌÊ THAT THEY HAVE NO LITERACY SKILLS )N FACT MOST OF THESE STUDENTS CAN PROBABLY READ
Ài>`]ÊÌ Õ} ÊÌ iÞÊ>ÞÊ IN A TECHNICAL SENSE AND THE MAJORITY OF THEM PER CENT ON AVERAGE ACROSS
v>ViÊÃiÀÕÃÊ`vvVÕÌiÃÊ /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE ABLE TO SOLVE SUCCESSFULLY AT LEAST PER CENT OF THE NON
ÊvÕÌÕÀiÊvio MULTIPLE CHOICE READING TASKS IN 0)3! AND PER CENT A QUARTER OF THEM
.ONETHELESS THEIR PATTERN OF ANSWERS IN THE ASSESSMENT IS SUCH THAT THEY WOULD
BE EXPECTED TO SOLVE FEWER THAN HALF OF THE TASKS IN A TEST MADE UP OF ITEMS
DRAWN SOLELY FROM ,EVEL AND THEREFORE PERFORM BELOW ,EVEL 3UCH STUDENTS
HAVE SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES IN USING READING LITERACY AS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL TO ADVANCE
AND EXTEND THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN OTHER AREAS 3TUDENTS WITH LITERACY
SKILLS BELOW ,EVEL MAY THEREFORE BE AT RISK NOT ONLY OF DIFFICULTIES IN THEIR
INITIAL TRANSITION FROM EDUCATION TO WORK BUT ALSO OF FAILURE TO BENEFIT FROM
FURTHER EDUCATION AND LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES THROUGHOUT LIFE
o>`]Ê>}ÊÜÌ
ÊÌ
ÃiÊ %DUCATION SYSTEMS WITH LARGE PROPORTIONS OF STUDENTS PERFORMING BELOW OR
>ÌÊ iÛiÊ£]Ê>ÞÊÌÊ EVEN AT ,EVEL SHOULD BE CONCERNED THAT SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS OF THEIR STUDENTS
>VµÕÀiÊÌ
iÊiViÃÃ>ÀÞÊ MAY NOT BE ACQUIRING THE NECESSARY LITERACY KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO BENEFIT
ÌiÀ>VÞÊÃÃÊÌÊ SUFFICIENTLY FROM THEIR EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 4HIS SITUATION IS EVEN MORE
ÃÕvvViÌÞÊLiivÌÊvÀÊ TROUBLESOME IN LIGHT OF THE EXTENSIVE EVIDENCE SUGGESTING THAT IT IS DIFFICULT
i`ÕV>Ì>Ê««ÀÌÕÌið IN LATER LIFE TO COMPENSATE FOR LEARNING GAPS IN INITIAL EDUCATION /%#$
DATA SUGGEST INDEED THAT JOB
RELATED CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING OFTEN
REINFORCE THE SKILL DIFFERENCES WITH WHICH INDIVIDUALS LEAVE INITIAL EDUCATION
/%#$ !DULT LITERACY SKILLS AND PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION
AND TRAINING ARE STRONGLY RELATED EVEN AFTER CONTROLLING FOR OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING PARTICIPATION IN TRAINING ,ITERACY SKILLS AND CONTINUING EDUCATION AND
TRAINING APPEAR TO BE MUTUALLY REINFORCING WITH THE RESULT THAT TRAINING IS LEAST
COMMONLY PURSUED BY THOSE ADULTS WHO NEED IT MOST
/
iÊ«iÀViÌ>}iÊvÊ )N THE COMBINED /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF STUDENTS PERFORM AT ,EVEL AND
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊÀÊLiÜÊ PER CENT BELOW ,EVEL BUT THERE ARE WIDE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES )N
iÛiÊ£ÊÛ>ÀiÃÊÜ`iÞ]Ê &INLAND AND +OREA ONLY AROUND PER CENT OF STUDENTS PERFORM AT ,EVEL AND LESS
vÀÊ>ÊviÜÊ«iÀÊViÌÊÌÊ THAN PER CENT BELOW IT BUT THESE COUNTRIES ARE EXCEPTIONS )N ALL OTHER /%#$
i>ÀÞÊ
>vo COUNTRIES BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS PERFORM AT OR BELOW ,EVEL
4ABLE A /VER PER CENT AND IN HALF OF THE /%#$ COUNTRIES OVER PER CENT
PERFORM BELOW ,EVEL
7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
4HE COUNTRIES WITH PER CENT OR MORE OF STUDENTS AT ,EVEL OR BELOW ARE o>`]ÊÊÃiÊ
IN ORDER "RAZIL -EXICO ,UXEMBOURG ,ATVIA THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION 0ORTUGAL VÕÌÀiÃ]Ê>ÊVÃ`iÀ>LiÊ
'REECE 0OLAND (UNGARY 'ERMANY ,IECHTENSTEIN AND 3WITZERLAND )N "RAZIL -EXICO ÀÌÞÊ`ÊÌÊiÛiÊ
,UXEMBOURG ,ATVIA 0ORTUGAL AND 'ERMANY BETWEEN CLOSE TO AND PER CENT OF Ài>V
Ê iÛiÊ£°
STUDENTS DO NOT REACH ,EVEL IE ARE UNABLE ROUTINELY TO SHOW THE MOST BASIC SKILLS
THAT 0)3! SEEKS TO MEASURE 4HIS IS MOST REMARKABLE IN THE CASE OF 'ERMANY WHICH
HAS THE RELATIVELY HIGH FIGURE OF PER CENT OF ITS STUDENTS PERFORMING AT ,EVEL
3TUDENTS AT ,EVEL AND BELOW ARE NOT A RANDOM GROUP !LTHOUGH THE SPECIFIC /
iÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊÌ
iÊ
CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE STUDENTS CAN BEST BE EXAMINED IN THE NATIONAL CONTEXT ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊ iÛiÊ£Ê>ÀiÊ
SOME COMMONALITIES ARE APPARENT IN VIRTUALLY ALL COUNTRIES THE MAJORITY >iÃ]ÊvÀÊ
OF THESE STUDENTS ARE MALE SEE 4ABLE A AND MANY OF THEM COME FROM `Ã>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê
DISADVANTAGED BACKGROUNDS )N ADDITION IN MANY COUNTRIES A COMPARATIVELY HIGH L>V}ÀÕ`ÃÊÀÊÜÌ
Ê
PROPORTION OF STUDENTS AT ,EVEL OR BELOW ARE FOREIGN
BORN OR HAVE FOREIGN
vÀi}LÀÊ«>ÀiÌÃ]Ê
BORN PARENTS )N 'ERMANY AND ,UXEMBOURG TWO OF THE FOUR COUNTRIES WITH iëiV>ÞÊÊÃiÊ
THE HIGHEST PROPORTION OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT OR BELOW ,EVEL MORE THAN VÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê>ÞÊ
AND PER CENT OF THESE STUDENTS RESPECTIVELY ARE FOREIGN
BORN WHEREAS Üi>Ê«iÀvÀiÀð
AMONG THE STUDENTS PERFORMING ABOVE ,EVEL THE CORRESPONDING FIGURE IS ONLY
AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY ! MORE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES
AMONG THE STUDENTS WITH THE LOWEST LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE FOLLOWS IN #HAPTER
THE BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH PARTICULARLY LOW OR HIGH LEVELS
OF PERFORMANCE ARE ANALYSED IN #HAPTERS AND
!S AT THE HIGHER END OF THE PROFICIENCY SCALE STUDENT PERFORMANCE AT OR BELOW
,EVEL SHOWS SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE THREE READING LITERACY SCALES
)N 'REECE -EXICO 0ORTUGAL AND 3PAIN THE WEAKNESSES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ARE GREATEST ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS AT OR
BELOW ,EVEL BEING BETWEEN AND PERCENTAGE POINTS HIGHER THAN ON THE REFLEC
TION AND EVALUATION SCALE #ONVERSELY IN &RANCE 'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND THE
PROPORTION OF STUDENTS AT OR BELOW ,EVEL IS AT LEAST PERCENTAGE POINTS LOWER
ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE THAN ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
)N "RAZIL MORE THAN HALF OF THE STUDENTS DO NOT REACH BEYOND ,EVEL ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE /N THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE MORE THAN
TWO
THIRDS OF STUDENTS IN "RAZIL FAIL TO GO BEYOND ,EVEL BUT ONLY PER CENT ON
THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE 4ABLES B
D
%XPECTATIONS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)N ANY COMPARISON OF SUCH DATA BETWEEN COUNTRIES IT MUST BE BORNE IN MIND
`ÕV>ÌÊÃÞÃÌiÃÊÛ>ÀÞÊ
THAT EDUCATION SYSTEMS OPERATE UNDER A VARIETY OF ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND ÊÌ
iÊiÝ«iVÌ>ÌÃÊÌ
iÞÊ
THAT TEACHERS SCHOOLS AND SOCIETY IN GENERAL MAY HAVE DIFFERING EXPECTATIONS
>ÛiÊvÊÌ
iÀÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THEIR STUDENTS 3CHOOL REPORTS ARE A COMMON MEANS
OF INFORMING STUDENTS AND PARENTS ABOUT THE EXTENT TO WHICH STUDENTS ARE
MEETING THE EXPECTATIONS OF THEIR TEACHERS AND SCHOOLS !LTHOUGH ASSESSMENT
PRACTICES VARY WIDELY BETWEEN COUNTRIES THE SCALES THAT TEACHERS USE OFTEN
INCLUDE A hPASSFAILv THRESHOLD THAT INDICATES WHETHER THE PERFORMANCE THAT
STUDENTS DEMONSTRATE IN VARIOUS SCHOOL SUBJECTS IS CONSIDERED ACCEPTABLE (OW
#(!04%2 Ê7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
THIS IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF MARKS MAY BE COMMON TO ALL SCHOOLS IN A COUNTRY
OR ESTABLISHED BY THE SCHOOL OR BY INDIVIDUAL TEACHERS FOR EACH CLASS 3IMILARLY
THE NATURE AND DIFFICULTY OF THE TASKS THAT
YEAR
OLDS ARE REQUIRED TO PERFORM
SUCCESSFULLY IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A GIVEN MARK MAY VARY DEPENDING ON THE
DEMANDS OF THE SCHOOL THE CLASS OR THE STUDY PROGRAMME
o>ÃÊÃÊÃ ÜÊÊ )N 0)3! STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO REPORT THE MARKS THEY HAD RECEIVED IN THEIR
ÃÌÕ`iÌýÊÀi«ÀÌÃÊvÊÌ iÀÊ LAST SCHOOL REPORT IN SUBJECTS RELATED TO THE LANGUAGE USED IN THE 0)3! READING
ÃV Ê>Àð LITERACY ASSESSMENT FOR DETAILS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4HESE MARKS
WERE THEN TRANSLATED INTO THREE CATEGORIES INDICATING WHETHER THEY WERE ABOVE
AT OR BELOW THE SCHOOLS OR THE CLASS TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD 0ARTICULARLY
IN COUNTRIES WITH AUTOMATIC PROMOTION POLICIES THE FACT THAT A STUDENT DOES NOT
REACH THE PASSFAIL THRESHOLD MAY NOT HAVE ANY CONSEQUENCES FOR THE STUDENTS
EDUCATIONAL PATHWAY (OWEVER IT DOES SIGNAL THAT THE STUDENT HAS NOT MET EXPECTA
TIONS IN A GIVEN SUBJECT AREA AT THE CLASS OR SCHOOL LEVEL ! COMPARISON BETWEEN
THIS INFORMATION AND STUDENTS PERFORMANCE ON THE 0)3! READING LITERACY SCALE CAN
PROVIDE AN ADDITIONAL FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR INTERPRETING 0)3! SCORES WITHIN THE
NATIONAL CONTEXT DESPITE THE FACT THAT SCHOOL MARKS IN LANGUAGE RELATED SUBJECTS
RELATE TO A MUCH WIDER SPREAD OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS THAN READING LITERACY
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê
}
Ê 4HE RESULTS REVEAL THAT COMPARATIVELY HIGH PERFORMANCE IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS
>ÛiÀ>}iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ DOES NOT NECESSARILY TRANSLATE INTO A HIGH PROPORTION OF STUDENTS MEETING THE
*-]ÊÌi>V
iÀÃÊ`ÊÌÊ EXPECTATIONS OF THEIR TEACHERS #ONVERSELY IN COUNTRIES WITH COMPARATIVELY LOW
iViÃÃ>ÀÞÊ}ÛiÊ«>ÃÃÊ MEAN PERFORMANCE THE VAST MAJORITY OF STUDENTS MAY STILL LIVE UP TO WHAT IS
>ÀÃÊÌÊ>ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo EXPECTED OF THEM
&RANCE FOR EXAMPLE IS ONE OF THE COUNTRIES WITH A COMPARATIVELY HIGH
PROPORTION OF STUDENTS REPORTING NOT REACHING THE PASSFAIL THRESHOLD PER
CENT .EVERTHELESS THESE STUDENTS SCORED AN AVERAGE OF POINTS WELL WITHIN
,EVEL 4ABLE AND CLOSE TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE
oÜ
i]ÊÊÃiÊ )N -EXICO THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT ,EVEL OR BELOW IS PER CENT
VÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
ÊÜÊ $ESPITE THIS PERCENTAGE THE AVERAGE SCORE OF THE PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORTING
>ÛiÀ>}iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ THAT THEY HAD REACHED OR EXCEEDED THE PASS MARK IN SUBJECTS RELATED TO THE
*-]ÊÃÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT IN THEIR LAST SCHOOL REPORT WAS ONLY POINTS 4ABLE
iiÌÊÌ
iÀÊÌi>V
iÀÃ½Ê #ONSEQUENTLY EVEN THOUGH THESE STUDENTS MAY PERFORM POORLY BY INTERNATIONAL
iÝ«iVÌ>Ìð STANDARDS PER CENT REPORT THAT THEY MEET OR EXCEED THE PERFORMANCE EXPECTA
TIONS OF THEIR TEACHERS /THER COUNTRIES IN WHICH STUDENTS REPORTED NOT REACHING
THE PASSFAIL THRESHOLD SCORE AT COMPARATIVELY LOW LEVELS AROUND POINTS
INCLUDE 'REECE 0OLAND 3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM )N THESE COUNTRIES
HOWEVER THE PERCENTAGE OF SUCH STUDENTS IS ONLY PER CENT OR LESS
4HE MEAN PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES
ÛiÀ>}iÊÃVÀiÃÊV>Ê 4HE DISCUSSION ABOVE HAS FOCUSED ON COMPARISONS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT
ÕÃivÕÞÊÃÕ>ÀÃiÊ PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES !NOTHER WAY TO SUMMARISE STUDENT PERFORMANCE
VÕÌÀÞÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÃo° AND TO COMPARE THE RELATIVE STANDING OF COUNTRIES IN READING LITERACY IS BY WAY
7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
OF THEIR MEAN SCORES 4O THE EXTENT THAT HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE AT AGE
IS PREDICTIVE OF A HIGHLY SKILLED FUTURE WORKFORCE COUNTRIES WITH HIGH AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE WILL HAVE A CONSIDERABLE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ADVANTAGE
)T SHOULD BE APPRECIATED HOWEVER THAT AVERAGE PERFORMANCE FIGURES MASK oLÕÌÊ>ÃÊÌ
iÊÜ`iÃÌÊ
SIGNIFICANT VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE WITHIN COUNTRIES REFLECTING DIFFERENT LEVELS `vviÀiViÃÊÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
OF PERFORMANCE AMONG MANY DIFFERENT STUDENT GROUPS !S IN PREVIOUS INTER
«iÀvÀ>Vi]ÊÜ
V
Ê>ÀiÊ
NATIONAL STUDIES OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE SUCH AS THE )%! 4HIRD )NTERNATIONAL vÕ`ÊÜÌ
ÊVÕÌÀið
-ATHEMATICS AND 3CIENCE 3TUDY 4)-33 ONLY AROUND ONE TENTH OF THE TOTAL
VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN 0)3! LIES BETWEEN COUNTRIES AND CAN THERE
FORE BE CAPTURED THROUGH A COMPARISON OF COUNTRY AVERAGES SEE 4ABLE
4HE REMAINING VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE OCCURS WITHIN COUNTRIES THAT
IS BETWEEN EDUCATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES BETWEEN SCHOOLS AND BETWEEN
STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
&IGURE SUMMARISES THE PERFORMANCE OF PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES ON THE }ÕÀiÊÓ°{ÊÃ
ÜÃÊ
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND 4ABLES A B AND C SHOW THE CORRESPONDING VÕÌÀÞÊi>Ão
INFORMATION FOR THE THREE COMPONENT SCALES &IGURE ALSO SHOWS WHICH
COUNTRIES PERFORM ABOVE BELOW OR AT THE /%#$ AVERAGE
"OX )NTERPRETING SAMPLE STATISTICS
3TANDARD ERRORS AND CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 4HE STATISTICS IN THIS REPORT REPRESENT ESTIMATES OF
NATIONAL PERFORMANCE BASED ON SAMPLES OF STUDENTS RATHER THAN THE VALUES THAT COULD BE CALCULATED IF
EVERY STUDENT IN EVERY COUNTRY HAD ANSWERED EVERY QUESTION #ONSEQUENTLY IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW
THE DEGREE OF UNCERTAINTY INHERENT IN THE ESTIMATES )N 0)3! EACH ESTIMATE HAS AN ASSOCIATED
DEGREE OF UNCERTAINTY WHICH IS EXPRESSED THROUGH A STANDARD ERROR 4HE USE OF CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
PROVIDES A MEANS OF MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT THE POPULATION MEANS AND PROPORTIONS IN A MANNER
THAT REFLECTS THE UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH SAMPLE ESTIMATES )T CAN BE INFERRED THAT THE OBSERVED
STATISTICAL RESULT FOR A GIVEN POPULATION WOULD LIE WITHIN THE CONFIDENCE INTERVAL IN OUT OF
REPLICATIONS OF THE MEASUREMENT USING DIFFERENT SAMPLES DRAWN FROM THE SAME POPULATION
*UDGING WHETHER POPULATIONS DIFFER 4HIS REPORT TESTS THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE NATIONAL SAMPLES IN PERCENTAGES AND IN AVERAGE PERFORMANCE SCORES IN ORDER TO JUDGE
WHETHER THERE ARE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE POPULATIONS WHOM THE SAMPLES REPRESENT %ACH SEPARATE
TEST FOLLOWS THE CONVENTION THAT IF IN FACT THERE IS NO REAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POPULATIONS
THERE IS NO MORE THAN A PER CENT PROBABILITY THAT AN OBSERVED DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO SAMPLES
WILL ERRONEOUSLY SUGGEST THAT THE POPULATIONS ARE DIFFERENT AS THE RESULT OF SAMPLING AND MEASURE
MENT ERROR )N THE FIGURES AND TABLES SHOWING MULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF COUNTRIES MEAN SCORES THE
SIGNIFICANCE TESTS ARE BASED ON A PROCEDURE FOR MULTIPLE COMPARISONS THAT LIMITS TO PER CENT THE
PROBABILITY THAT THE MEAN OF A GIVEN COUNTRY WILL ERRONEOUSLY BE DECLARED TO BE DIFFERENT FROM THAT
OF ANY OTHER COUNTRY IN CASES WHERE THERE IS IN FACT NO DIFFERENCE FOR DETAILS SEE !NNEX !
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
oÜÌ
Ê>`ÊVi>ÀÞÊ &INLANDS PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS HIGHER THAN
>
i>`ÊvÊÌ
iÊÌ
iÀÊ THAT OF ANY OTHER /%#$ COUNTRY &IGURE )TS COUNTRY MEAN POINTS
VÕÌÀiÃo IS ALMOST TWO
THIRDS OF A PROFICIENCY LEVEL ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF
OR IN STATISTICAL TERMS ALMOST HALF THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION ABOVE
THE MEAN #OUNTRIES WITH MEAN PERFORMANCES SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$
AVERAGE INCLUDE !USTRALIA !USTRIA "ELGIUM #ANADA &INLAND )CELAND )RE
LAND *APAN +OREA .EW :EALAND 3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM &IVE
COUNTRIES PERFORM AROUND THE /%#$ AVERAGE $ENMARK &RANCE .ORWAY
3WITZERLAND AND THE 5NITED 3TATES AND SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$
AVERAGE "RAZIL THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY 'REECE (UNGARY )TALY
,ATVIA ,IECHTENSTEIN ,UXEMBOURG -EXICO 0OLAND 0ORTUGAL THE 2USSIAN
&EDERATION AND 3PAIN
oLÕÌÊÌÊ>ÊvÊÌ
iÊ !S DISCUSSED IN "OX WHEN INTERPRETING MEAN PERFORMANCE ONLY THOSE
`vviÀiViÃÊÃ
ÜÊ>ÀiÊ DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES WHICH ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT SHOULD BE TAKEN
ÃÌ>ÌÃÌV>ÞÊÃ}vV>Ì° INTO ACCOUNT !CCORDINGLY A COUNTRYS RANKING IN &IGURE SHOULD BE READ
IN THE LIGHT OF WHETHER COUNTRIES RANKED CLOSE TO IT ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT
FROM IT &IGURE SHOWS THOSE PAIRS OF COUNTRIES WHERE THE DIFFERENCE IN THEIR
MEAN SCORES IS SUFFICIENT TO SAY WITH CONFIDENCE THAT THE HIGHER PERFORMANCE
BY SAMPLED STUDENTS IN ONE COUNTRY HOLDS FOR THE ENTIRE POPULATION OF ENROLLED
YEAR
OLDS 2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE ITS PERFORMANCE
WITH THE COUNTRIES LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE FIGURE 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE
WHETHER THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER
THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY NOT STATISTICALLY DIFFERENT OR SIGNIFICANTLY
HIGHER &OR EXAMPLE .EW :EALAND IS SHOWN IN &IGURE TO BE SIGNIFICANTLY
LOWER THAN &INLAND NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM !USTRALIA #ANADA )RELAND
*APAN +OREA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN ALL OF THE
OTHERS &INLAND IS SIGNIFICANTLY AHEAD OF ALL OTHER COUNTRIES
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
ÊÜÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ "RAZIL AND -EXICO HAVE PERFORMANCES SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN THOSE OF ALL OTHER
«iÀvÀ>Vi]ÊÜ
iÀiÊ«ÀÞÊ COUNTRIES AND MORE THAN A FULL PROFICIENCY LEVEL BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
«iÀvÀ}ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊvÌiÊ 7HEN THEIR MEAN SCORES ARE INTERPRETED HOWEVER IT NEEDS TO BE BORNE IN MIND
Ài«i>ÌÊ}À>`iÃ]ÊÌ
ÃiÊÊÌ
iÊ THAT
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS IN BOTH COUNTRIES ARE SPREAD ACROSS A WIDE RANGE OF
ÕÃÕ>Ê}À>`iÊvÀÊÌ
iÀÊ>}iÊ`Ê GRADE LEVELS &IFTEEN
YEAR
OLDS IN THESE COUNTRIES WHO ARE ENROLLED IN GRADE
ÕV
ÊLiÌÌiÀÊÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê THE MODAL GRADE OF
YEAR
OLDS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES SCORE ON AVERAGE AND
V«>ÀÃð POINTS RESPECTIVELY IE BETWEEN THE AVERAGE SCORES OF THE 2USSIAN &EDERA
TION AND 0ORTUGAL FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê 4ABLES A B AND C PROVIDE INFORMATION ON MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE THREE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ«iÀvÀÊLiÌÌiÀÊ SEPARATE SCALES IN THE WAY THAT &IGURE DOES FOR THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
ÊiÊvÊÌ iÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ SCALE )T IS NOT APPROPRIATE TO COMPARE NUMERICAL SCALE SCORES DIRECTLY BETWEEN
ÃV>iÃÊÌ >ÊÌ iÊÌ iÀÃÊqÊ THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF READING .EVERTHELESS IT IS POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE THE
LÕÌÊÞÊÊ>ÊÀÌÞÊ RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF COUNTRIES IN THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF READING LITERACY ON THE
>ÀiÊÃÕV Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ BASIS OF THEIR RELATIVE RANK ORDER POSITIONS ON THE RESPECTIVE SCALES VALUES IN
«ÀÌ>Ì° PARENTHESIS REPRESENT MEAN SCORES FOR THE RETRIEVING AND FOR THE REFLECTION AND
EVALUATION SCALES RESPECTIVELY
7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÓ°{
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &ED
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
"ELGIUM
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
-EXICO
&INLAND
#ANADA
'REECE
!USTRIA
)CELAND
)RELAND
0OLAND
&RANCE
,ATVIA
+OREA
"RAZIL
*APAN
3PAIN
)TALY
-EAN
3%
&INLAND
#ANADA
.EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
+OREA
5NITED +INGDOM
*APAN
3WEDEN
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
)CELAND
.ORWAY
&RANCE
5NITED 3TATES
$ENMARK
3WITZERLAND
3PAIN
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
)TALY
'ERMANY
,IECHTENSTEIN
(UNGARY
0OLAND
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
2USSIAN &ED
,ATVIA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
"RAZIL
5PPER RANK
,OWER RANK
.OTE "ECAUSE DATA ARE BASED ON SAMPLES IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO REPORT EXACT RANK ORDER POSITIONS FOR COUNTRIES (OWEVER IT IS POSSIBLE TO
REPORT THE RANGE OF RANK ORDER POSITIONS WITHIN WHICH THE COUNTRY MEAN LIES WITH PER CENT LIKELIHOOD
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN .O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON
COUNTRY OR IF THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
n /N THE BASIS OF THIS COMPARISON !USTRIA #ANADA
)RELAND 0ORTUGAL 3PAIN AND THE 5NITED
+INGDOM SHOW STRONGER PERFORMANCE ON THE REFLECTION AND
EVALUATION SCALE THAN ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
n !USTRALIA "ELGIUM &INLAND &RANCE
'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND SHOW STRONGER
PERFORMANCE ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE THAN ON THE REFLECTION AND
EVALUATION SCALE
n 4HE RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF THE REMAINING COUNTRIES CANNOT BE DETERMINED WITH
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF READING LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
}
Ê>ÛiÀ>}iÊÃVÀiÃÊ>ÀiÊ -EAN PERFORMANCE SCORES ARE TYPICALLY USED TO ASSESS THE QUALITY OF SCHOOLS AND
ÌÊiÕ}
\ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ EDUCATION SYSTEMS (OWEVER IT HAS BEEN NOTED ABOVE THAT MEAN PERFORMANCE
>ÃÊÜ>ÌÊÌÊÀ>ÃiÊÌ
iÊ DOES NOT PROVIDE A FULL PICTURE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND CAN MASK SIGNIFICANT
iÛiÊvÊ>V
iÛiiÌÊvÊ VARIATION WITHIN AN INDIVIDUAL CLASS SCHOOL OR EDUCATION SYSTEM -OREOVER
«ÀÊ«iÀvÀiÀð COUNTRIES AIM NOT ONLY TO ENCOURAGE HIGH PERFORMANCE BUT ALSO TO MINIMISE
INTERNAL DISPARITIES IN PERFORMANCE "OTH PARENTS AND THE PUBLIC AT LARGE ARE
AWARE OF THE GRAVITY OF LOW PERFORMANCE AND THE FACT THAT SCHOOL
LEAVERS WHO
LACK FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS FACE POOR PROSPECTS OF EMPLOYMENT ! HIGH PROPORTION
OF STUDENTS AT THE LOWER END OF THE READING LITERACY SCALE MAY GIVE RISE TO
CONCERN THAT A LARGE PROPORTION OF TOMORROWS WORKFORCE AND VOTERS WILL LACK
THE SKILLS REQUIRED FOR THE INFORMED JUDGEMENTS THAT THEY MUST MAKE
/
iÊiÝÌiÌÊvÊÛ>À>ÌÊ 4HE ANALYSIS IN THIS SECTION NEEDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED FROM THE EXAMINATION
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE 0)3! PROFICIENCY LEVELS
`V>ÌiÃÊÌ
iÊ>}ÌÕ`iÊ DISCUSSED ABOVE 7HEREAS THE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS ACROSS PROFICIENCY LEVELS
vÊÌ
iÊÌ>Ão INDICATES THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRY THAT CAN DEMONSTRATE A
SPECIFIED LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AND THUS COMPARES COUNTRIES ON THE BASIS
OF ABSOLUTE BENCHMARKS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE THE ANALYSIS BELOW FOCUSES ON
THE RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES IE THE GAP THAT EXISTS BETWEEN STUDENTS WITH
THE HIGHEST AND THE LOWEST LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE WITHIN EACH COUNTRY 4HIS IS AN
IMPORTANT INDICATOR OF THE EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES IN THE DOMAIN OF
READING LITERACY SEE "OX
o>`ÊÃÊÃ
ÜÊÊ &IGURE SHOWS THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE SCORES ON THE COMBINED
}ÕÀiÊÓ°x°°° READING LITERACY SCALE 4ABLE A 3INCE THE RESULTS ARE RELATIVELY SIMILAR FOR
EACH OF THE THREE COMPONENT SCALES THESE SCALES ARE NOT EXAMINED SEPARATELY
IN THIS SECTION 4HE DATA FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE SCORES ON THE
COMPONENT SCALES CAN BE FOUND IN 4ABLES B C AND D
oÜ
V
Ê`iÌviÃÊÌ
iÊ 4HE GRADATION BARS IN &IGURE SHOW THE RANGE OF PERFORMANCE IN EACH COUNTRY
ÃVÀiÃÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÌÊ BETWEEN THE TH PERCENTILE THE POINT BELOW WHICH THE LOWEST
PERFORMING PER
`vviÀiÌÊ«ÌÃÊÊi>V
Ê CENT OF THE STUDENTS IN A COUNTRY SCORE AND THE TH PERCENTILE THE POINT BELOW
VÕÌÀÞ½ÃÊ`ÃÌÀLÕÌ° WHICH PER CENT OF STUDENTS PERFORM OR ALTERNATIVELY ABOVE WHICH THE PER
7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÓ°x
$ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
,EVEL 0ROFICIENCY SCALE
'RADATION BARS EXTEND FROM THE TH TO THE TH PERCENTILES
-EAN SCORE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL AROUND THE MEAN SCORE
-EAN SCORE OF FEMALES
-EAN SCORE OF MALES
/%#$ AVERAGE
"ELOW
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
3WITZERLAND
.EW :EALAND
,ATVIA
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
&INLAND
#ANADA
5NITED +INGDOM
+OREA
*APAN
&RANCE
3WEDEN
3PAIN
'REECE
-EXICO
,IECHTENSTEIN
"RAZIL
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
)CELAND
.ORWAY
5NITED 3TATES
$ENMARK
)TALY
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
CENT HIGHEST
PERFORMING STUDENTS IN A COUNTRY SCORE 4HE DENSITY OF THE BAR
REPRESENTS THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT THE CORRESPONDING SCALE POINTS
)N ADDITION 4ABLES A
D INDENTIFY THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES IE THE SCALE POINTS
THAT MARK THE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS OF PERFORMERS IN EACH COUNTRY 4HE DOTTED
HORIZONTAL BLACK LINE NEAR THE MIDDLE SHOWS THE MEAN SCORE FOR EACH COUNTRY
IE THE SUBJECT OF THE DISCUSSION IN THE PRECEDING SECTION AND IS LOCATED INSIDE A
SHADED BOX THAT SHOWS ITS CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
}ÕÀiÊÓ°xÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ &IGURE SHOWS THAT THERE IS WIDE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
Ì
iÊÀ>}iÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE WITHIN COUNTRIES 4HE MIDDLE PER CENT OF THE
ÃVÀiÃÊÜÌ
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ POPULATION SHOWN BY THE LENGTH OF THE BARS EXCEEDS BY FAR THE RANGE BETWEEN
iÝVii`ÃÊÌ
iÊÀ>}iÊvÊ THE MEAN SCORES OF THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST PERFORMING COUNTRIES )N ALMOST
`vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES THIS GROUP INCLUDES SOME STUDENTS PROFICIENT AT ,EVEL
>Ì>Ê>ÛiÀ>}iÃo AND OTHERS NOT PROFICIENT ABOVE ,EVEL )N ALL BUT FIVE /%#$ COUNTRIES
EVEN AMONG THE MIDDLE HALF OF THE POPULATION FROM THE TH TO THE TH PER
CENTILES PERFORMANCE VARIES BY MORE THAN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN
SCORE OF THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST PERFORMING COUNTRIES )N ALL COUNTRIES THE RANGE
OF PERFORMANCE IN THE MIDDLE HALF OF THE STUDENTS EXCEEDS THE MAGNITUDE OF
ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL AND IN !USTRALIA "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND .EW :EALAND IT
EXCEEDS TWICE THIS DIFFERENCE /%#$ AVERAGE 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMMES SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS NEED TO COPE WITH A WIDE RANGE OF STUDENT
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
o>`ÊÌ
>ÌÊiÛiÀÞÊ )N EVERY COUNTRY AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS DO NOT REACH THE MEAN
VÕÌÀÞÊ
>ÃÊÃiÊ PROFICIENCY LEVEL IN THE /%#$ COUNTRY WITH THE LOWEST LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>LÛiÊÌ
iÊi>Ê -EXICO 4ABLE A )N 'ERMANY (UNGARY AND 0OLAND A QUARTER OF STUDENTS
vÊÌ
iÊLiÃÌ«iÀvÀ}Ê DO NOT REACH THE LOWEST MEAN COUNTRY SCORE BUT A QUARTER EXCEED THE HIGHEST
VÕÌÀÞ]Ê>`ÊLiÜÊÌ
iÊ COUNTRY MEAN !T THE OTHER END OF THE SCALE EVERY COUNTRY HAS AT LEAST PER CENT
i>ÊvÊÌ
iÊÜÀÃÌ° OF STUDENTS PERFORMING ABOVE THE MEAN IN &INLAND THE COUNTRY WITH THE HIGHEST
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE
ÛiÊÜ iÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊ )N SOME COUNTRIES WITH HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE SUCH AS !USTRALIA .EW :EALAND
Ì iÊLÌÌʵÕ>ÀÌiÀÊ`Ê AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM THE TH PERCENTILE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
Ài>ÌÛiÞÊÜiÊLÞÊ SCALE LIES WELL WITHIN PROFICIENCY ,EVEL AROUND POINTS INDICATING THAT
ÌiÀ>Ì>ÊÃÌ>`>À`Ã]Ê STUDENTS AT THE TH PERCENTILE ARE DOING REASONABLY WELL IN ABSOLUTE TERMS
Ü`iÊ`ë>ÀÌÞÊÜÌ Ê>Ê .EVERTHELESS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AT THE TH AND TH
VÕÌÀÞÊ>ÞÊV>ÕÃiÊ PERCENTILES OF THE NATIONAL PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION IN THESE COUNTRIES COULD
VViÀ° INDICATE THAT THE STUDENTS AT THE TH PERCENTILE ARE SUBSTANTIALLY BELOW WHAT IS
EXPECTED OF THEM WITHIN THEIR NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
ÀiÊÌ
iÃiÊLÃiÀÛi`Ê 4O WHAT EXTENT ARE DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE A REFLECTION OF THE NATURAL
`ë>ÀÌiÃÊiÛÌ>Li¶Ê DISTRIBUTION OF ABILITY AND THEREFORE DIFFICULT TO INFLUENCE THROUGH CHANGES IN
/
>ÌÊÃÊ
>À`ÊÌÊÃ>Þo PUBLIC POLICY )T IS NOT EASY TO ANSWER SUCH A QUESTION WITH DATA FROM 0)3! ALONE
NOT LEAST BECAUSE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES ARE INFLUENCED BY THE SOCIAL
AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT IN WHICH EDUCATION AND LEARNING TAKE PLACE .ONETHELESS
SEVERAL FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT PUBLIC POLICY CAN PLAY A ROLE
7
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"OX )NTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN 0)3! SCORES HOW LARGE A GAP
7HAT IS MEANT BY A DIFFERENCE OF SAY POINTS BETWEEN THE SCORES OF TWO DIFFERENT GROUPS OF
STUDENTS ! DIFFERENCE OF POINTS ON THE 0)3! SCALE REPRESENTS ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL IN READING
LITERACY ! DIFFERENCE OF ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL CAN BE CONSIDERED A COMPARATIVELY LARGE DIFFERENCE
IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN SUBSTANTIVE TERMS &OR EXAMPLE ON THE INTERPRETING SCALE ,EVEL
DISTINGUISHES STUDENTS WHO CAN TYPICALLY INTEGRATE SEVERAL PARTS OF A TEXT UNDERSTAND A RELATIONSHIP
OR CONSTRUE THE MEANING OF A WORD OR PHRASE AND CAN COMPARE CONTRAST AND CATEGORISE COMPETING
INFORMATION ACCORDING TO A RANGE OF CRITERIA FROM THOSE AT ,EVEL WHO CAN BE EXPECTED ONLY TO
IDENTIFY THE MAIN IDEA IN A TEXT TO UNDERSTAND RELATIONSHIPS MAKE AND APPLY SIMPLE CATEGORIES
AND CONSTRUE MEANING WITHIN A LIMITED PART OF A TEXT WHERE INFORMATION IS NOT PROMINENT BUT ONLY
LOW
LEVEL INFERENCES ARE REQUIRED SEE ALSO &IGURE
!NOTHER BENCHMARK IS THAT THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN
THE /%#$ COUNTRIES WITH THE THIRD HIGHEST AND THE THIRD LOWEST MEAN PERFORMANCE IS POINTS AND THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FIFTH HIGHEST AND THE FIFTH LOWEST /%#$ COUNTRIES IS POINTS
$IFFERENCES IN SCORES CAN ALSO BE VIEWED IN TERMS OF THE DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
DEMONSTRATED BY DIFFERENT GROUPS OF STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
s 4HE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THE HIGHEST NATIONAL QUARTERS OF STUDENTS ON THE 0)3!
INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS AND THE BOTTOM QUARTERS EQUALS ON AVER
AGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES POINTS 4ABLE A 4HAT IS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
POINTS SEPARATE STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT THEIR PARENTS ARE FOR EXAMPLE SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS OR MANAGERS OF A SMALL BUSINESS ENTERPRISE FROM THOSE WHOSE PARENTS ARE BRICKLAYERS
CARPENTERS OR PAINTERS
s 4HE DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE COMPLETED TERTIARY
EDUCATION AND THOSE WHO HAVE NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION EQUALS ON AVERAGE ACROSS
/%#$ COUNTRIES POINTS 4ABLE
s 4HE DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS WHO SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF THE ASSESSMENT MOST
OF THE TIME AND THOSE WHO DO NOT EQUALS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES POINTS 4ABLE
n &IRST THE WITHIN COUNTRY VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY VARIES oLÕÌÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
WIDELY BETWEEN COUNTRIES THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES VÌ>ÊÌ iÊÜÌ Ê>Ê
RANGING FROM POINTS IN +OREA TO MORE THAN POINTS IN !USTRALIA v>ÀÊ>ÀÀÜiÀÊÀ>}iÊÌ >Ê
"ELGIUM 'ERMANY .EW :EALAND 3WITZERLAND AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4ABLE Ì iÀð
A "ELGIUM SHOWS THE WIDEST DIFFERENCES WITH POINTS SEPARATING THE
TH AND TH PERCENTILES 4HIS DIFFERENCE CAN BE EXPLAINED AT LEAST PARTIALLY BY
THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THE &LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES
IN "ELGIUM SEE !NNEX " FOR DETAILS
n 3ECOND COUNTRIES WITH SIMILAR LEVELS OF AVERAGE PERFORMANCE SHOW A / ÃÊÃÊÌÀÕiÊiÛiÊ>}Ê
CONSIDERABLE VARIATION IN DISPARITY OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE &OR EXAMPLE VÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ ÊÃ>ÀÊ
+OREA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM BOTH SHOW ABOVE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE ON THE i>ÊÃVÀið
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AT AROUND POINTS 4HE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES IN +OREA IS POINTS SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE
#(!04%2 7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
/%#$ AVERAGE BUT IN THE 5NITED +INGDOM IT IS POINTS SIGNIFICANTLY
ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4HE SAME CAN BE OBSERVED IN COUNTRIES SCORING
BELOW THE AVERAGE 'ERMANY AND )TALY TWO COUNTRIES THAT PERFORM AT AROUND
POINTS SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE VARY IN THEIR INTERNAL
DIFFERENCES )N )TALY THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES IS
POINTS BUT IT IS POINTS IN 'ERMANY "RINGING THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF
STUDENTS CLOSER TO THEIR CURRENT MEAN WOULD BE ONE WAY FOR COUNTRIES WITH
WIDE INTERNAL DISPARITIES TO RAISE THE COUNTRYS OVERALL PERFORMANCE
ÃÌÊ«ÀÌ>ÌÞ]ÊÃiÊ n 4HIRD IT IS EVIDENT FROM A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE RANGE OF PERFORMANCE
VÕÌÀiÃÊ>V
iÛiÊLÌ
Ê WITHIN A COUNTRY AND ITS AVERAGE PERFORMANCE THAT WIDE DISPARITIES IN
}
Ê>ÛiÀ>}iÊ PERFORMANCE ARE NOT A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR A COUNTRY TO ATTAIN A HIGH
«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`ÊÃ>Ê LEVEL OF OVERALL PERFORMANCE !S AN ILLUSTRATION THE THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE
`ë>ÀÌið SMALLEST DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES &INLAND *APAN AND
+OREA ARE ALSO AMONG THE BEST
PERFORMING COUNTRIES IN READING LITERACY "Y
CONTRAST ONE OF THE THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES
'ERMANY SCORES SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
ÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
ÊÌ
iÊ %XAMINING THE RANGE FROM THE TH TO THE TH PERCENTILES PROVIDES AN INDICATION OF
}Ài>ÌiÃÌÊ`vviÀiViÃÊ PERFORMANCE BY THE LEAST SUCCESSFUL STUDENTS RELATIVE TO THE OVERALL PERFORMANCE
ÛiÀ>Ê>ÃÊ
>ÛiÊ>À}iÊ OF THE RESPECTIVE COUNTRY $OES THE RANGE OF PERFORMANCE BECOME WIDER AT
`vviÀiViÃÊ>}ÊÌ
iÊ THE BOTTOM END OF THE DISTRIBUTION 'ENERALLY COUNTRIES WITH A NARROW RANGE
i>ÃÌÊ>LiÊÃÌÕ`iÌð BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES SUCH AS &INLAND *APAN +OREA AND 3PAIN
ALSO SHOW A NARROW RANGE OF DISTRIBUTION AT THE BOTTOM END BETWEEN THE TH AND
TH PERCENTILES 4HE THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE WIDEST VARIATION BETWEEN THE TH AND
TH PERCENTILES "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND .EW :EALAND ALSO SHOW THE WIDEST RANGE
AT THE BOTTOM END OF THE PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH
AND TH PERCENTILE POINTS AMOUNTING TO MORE THAN POINTS
/
iÊÜiÃÌ«iÀvÀ}Ê )N THE FOUR /%#$ COUNTRIES WITH THE LOWEST PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
VÕÌÀiÃÊ
>ÛiÊ>ÊÃ>Ê READING LITERACY SCALE 'REECE ,UXEMBOURG -EXICO AND 0ORTUGAL LESS THAN A
ÀÌÞÊÜ
ÊÕÃÌÊ QUARTER OF STUDENTS SCORE ABOVE THE MEAN OF THE HIGHEST
PERFORMING COUNTRY AND
>>}iÊÌÊÕÌ«iÀvÀÊ IN ONE OF THESE -EXICO LESS THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS REACH THIS LEVEL )N
Ì
iÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ "RAZIL OVER PER CENT OF STUDENTS SCORE BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4HE TOP
iÃiÜ
iÀio PER CENT OF "RAZILIAN STUDENTS SCORE JUST ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND THE
TOP PER CENT SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE
oLÕÌÊÊÃiÊÌ iÀÊ )N SOME COUNTRIES WITH BELOW AVERAGE PERFORMANCE THE STUDENTS WHO PERFORM
LiÜ>ÛiÀ>}iÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê BEST NEVERTHELESS DO EXTREMELY WELL &OR EXAMPLE PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN
Ì iÊÌ«Êx¯Ê`ÊiÝÌÀiiÞÊ 'ERMANY SCORE ABOVE POINTS WHILE THE TOP PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN +OREA
Üi]ÊiÛiÊV«>Ài`ÊÜÌ Ê ONLY SCORE ABOVE POINTS n EVEN THOUGH THE MEAN SCORE OF 'ERMANY IS
Ì iÊÌ«ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW AND THAT OF +OREA SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
iÃiÜ iÀi° #ONVERSELY THE LEAST PROFICIENT STUDENTS CAN DO POORLY IN COUNTRIES WITH GOOD
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE )N ONE OF THE COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST AVERAGE READING
PERFORMANCE .EW :EALAND PER CENT OF THE POPULATION ARE BELOW THE COM
PARATIVELY LOW SCORE OF A HIGHER PROPORTION OF LOW SCORES THAN IN SEVERAL
COUNTRIES WITH ONLY MODERATE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE
7
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4HESE RESULTS POINT FURTHER TO THE NEED FOR TEACHERS SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
SYSTEMS TO ADDRESS THE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE THAT EXIST WITHIN CLASSES ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÕÃÌÊÌ
iÀivÀiÊ
SCHOOLS AND COUNTRIES LiÊ>``ÀiÃÃi`°
(OW STUDENT PERFORMANCE VARIES BETWEEN SCHOOLS
&IFTEEN
YEAR
OLDS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES ATTEND SCHOOLS IN A VARIETY OF EDUCATIONAL /
iÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊÊ*-Ê
AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS )N CERTAIN COUNTRIES SOME STUDENTS ENROL IN VOCATIONALLY >ÀiÊÊ>ÞÊ`vviÀiÌÊ
ORIENTED SCHOOLS WHILE OTHERS ATTEND SCHOOLS PRIMARILY DESIGNED TO PREPARE STUDENTS ÌÞ«iÃÊvÊÃV
o
FOR ENTRY INTO UNIVERSITY
LEVEL EDUCATION 3IMILARLY IN COUNTRIES WHERE THE TRANSI
TION FROM LOWER TO UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION OCCURS AROUND THE AGE OF SOME
STUDENTS SURVEYED BY 0)3! MAY STILL BE ATTENDING SCHOOL AT THE LOWER SECONDARY
LEVEL WHILE OTHER STUDENTS HAVE ALREADY PROGRESSED TO THE UPPER SECONDARY LEVEL
&URTHERMORE WHILE THE MAJORITY OF STUDENTS IN ALL BUT TWO /%#$ COUNTRIES ATTEND
PUBLIC SCHOOLS A SIGNIFICANT MINORITY OF STUDENTS IN SEVERAL /%#$ COUNTRIES ATTEND
SCHOOLS THAT ARE PRIVATELY MANAGED AND IN SOME CASES PRIVATELY FINANCED
4HE PRECEDING ANALYSIS HAS SHOWN THAT IN MOST COUNTRIES THERE ARE CONSIDERABLE o>`Ê>ÀiÊÃiÌiÃÊ
DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE WITHIN EACH EDUCATION SYSTEM 4HIS VARIATION MAY À}>Ãi`Ê>VVÀ`}ÊÌÊ
RESULT FROM THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS FROM THE >LÌÞ°
HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO SCHOOLS FROM CURRICULAR DIFFERENCES
FROM SELECTION POLICIES AND PRACTICES AND FROM THE WAY IN WHICH TEACHING IS
ORGANISED AND DELIVERED SEE ALSO #HAPTERS AND 3OME COUNTRIES HAVE
NON
SELECTIVE SCHOOL SYSTEMS THAT SEEK TO PROVIDE ALL STUDENTS WITH THE SAME
OPPORTUNITIES FOR LEARNING AND THAT ALLOW EACH SCHOOL TO CATER FOR THE FULL RANGE
OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE /THER COUNTRIES RESPOND TO DIVERSITY EXPLICITLY BY
FORMING GROUPS OF STUDENTS OF SIMILAR PERFORMANCE LEVELS THROUGH SELECTION
EITHER WITHIN OR BETWEEN SCHOOLS WITH THE AIM OF SERVING STUDENTS ACCORDING
TO THEIR SPECIFIC NEEDS !ND IN YET OTHER COUNTRIES COMBINATIONS OF THE
TWO APPROACHES OCCUR %VEN IN COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL SYSTEMS THERE MAY BE
SIGNIFICANT VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS DUE TO THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITIES THAT THE SCHOOLS SERVE OR TO GEOGRAPHICAL
DIFFERENCES SUCH AS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REGIONS PROVINCES OR STATES IN FEDERAL
SYSTEMS OR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS &INALLY THERE MAY BE
SIGNIFICANT VARIATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS THAT CANNOT BE EASILY QUANTIFIED
OR OTHERWISE DESCRIBED PART OF WHICH COULD RESULT FROM DIFFERENCES IN THE
QUALITY OR EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TEACHING THAT THOSE SCHOOLS PROVIDE
(OWEVER MIGHT WITHIN
COUNTRY DIFFERENCES BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO OTHER IDENTIFIABLE ÀiÊÃV
Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ
FACTORS BESIDES VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS OR SOCIAL GROUPS «ÀÌ>ÌÊÌÊ*-Ê
(OW DO THE POLICIES AND HISTORICAL PATTERNS THAT SHAPE EACH COUNTRYS SCHOOL `ë>ÀÌiö
SYSTEM AFFECT AND RELATE TO THE OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE $O
COUNTRIES WITH EXPLICIT TRACKING AND STREAMING POLICIES SHOW A HIGHER DEGREE OF
OVERALL DISPARITY IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAN COUNTRIES THAT HAVE NON
SELECTIVE
EDUCATION SYSTEMS 3UCH QUESTIONS OCCUR PARTICULARLY IN COUNTRIES WHERE ONE
OBSERVES COMPARABLY LARGE VARIATION IN OVERALL STUDENT PERFORMANCE SUCH AS
"ELGIUM 'ERMANY .EW :EALAND .ORWAY AND THE 5NITED 3TATES
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}ÕÀiÊÓ°ÈÊV«>ÀiÃÊÌ
iÊ &IGURE SHOWS THE EXTENT OF VARIATION ATTRIBUTABLE TO DIFFERENT FACTORS IN EACH
iÝÌiÌÊvÊÌ
iÊÛ>À>ÌÊ COUNTRY 4HE LENGTH OF THE BARS INDICATES THE TOTAL OBSERVED VARIATION IN STUDENT
ÜÌ
ÊVÕÌÀiÃo PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE #OLUMN IN 4ABLE
.OTE THAT THE VALUES IN &IGURE AND 4ABLE ARE EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES
OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION BETWEEN /%#$ COUNTRIES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE WHICH IS EQUAL TO UNITS ! VALUE
IN #OLUMN LARGER THAN INDICATES THAT VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS
GREATER IN THE CORRESPONDING COUNTRY THAN IN A TYPICAL /%#$ COUNTRY 3IMILARLY A
VALUE SMALLER THAN INDICATES BELOW
AVERAGE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
o>`ÊLÀi>ÃÊÌÊ`ÜÊ 4HE BAR FOR EACH COUNTRY IS ALIGNED IN &IGURE SO THAT VARIATION BETWEEN
ÌÊLiÌÜiiÃV
Ê>`Ê SCHOOLS IS REPRESENTED BY THE LENGTH OF THE BAR TO THE LEFT OF THE VERTICAL LINE
ÜÌ
ÃV
Ê DOWN THE CENTRE OF THE FIGURE AND VARIATION WITHIN SCHOOLS IS REPRESENTED BY
`vviÀiViÃo THE LENGTH OF THE BAR TO THE RIGHT OF THAT VERTICAL LINE ,ONGER SEGMENTS TO
THE LEFT OF THE VERTICAL LINE INDICATE GREATER VARIATION IN THE MEAN PERFORMANCE
OF SCHOOLS ,ONGER SEGMENTS TO THE RIGHT OF THE VERTICAL LINE INDICATE GREATER
VARIATION AMONG STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
oÃ
Ü}ÊÌ
>ÌÊÛiÀÊ
>vÊ !S SHOWN IN &IGURE IN MOST COUNTRIES A CONSIDERABLE PORTION OF THE
Ì
iÊÛ>À>ÌÊÊ VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE LIES BETWEEN SCHOOLS /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ /%#$ COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THIS COMPARISON DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS
>ÌÌÀLÕÌ>LiÊÌÊ ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE BETWEEN
STUDENT VARIATION )N
`vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ !USTRIA "ELGIUM THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY 'REECE (UNGARY )TALY AND
ÃV
ÃÊÊÀiÊÃiiVÌÛiÊ 0OLAND MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE BETWEEN
STUDENT VARIATION
ÃÞÃÌið IS BETWEEN SCHOOLS #OLUMN IN 4ABLE 7HERE THERE IS SUBSTANTIAL VARIATION
BETWEEN SCHOOLS AND LESS VARIATION BETWEEN STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS STUDENTS
WILL GENERALLY BE IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH OTHER STUDENTS PERFORM AT LEVELS SIMILAR
TO THEIR OWN 4HIS SELECTIVITY MAY REFLECT FAMILY CHOICE OF SCHOOL OR RESIDENTIAL
LOCATION OR POLICIES ON SCHOOL ENROLMENT ALLOCATION OF STUDENTS OR THE
CURRICULUM
-iÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
>ÛiÊÜÊ )N +OREA OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
Û>À>ÌÊLiÌÜiiÊ LITERACY SCALE IS ABOUT HALF THE /%#$ AVERAGE VARIATION AND ONLY PER
ÃV
ÃÊ>`ÊÜÌ
Ê CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS ATTRIBUTABLE
ÃV
Ão TO DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS +OREA THUS NOT ONLY ACHIEVES HIGH AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE IN READING AND LOW OVERALL DISPARITY BETWEEN STUDENTS BUT DOES SO
WITH RELATIVELY LITTLE VARIATION IN MEAN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS 3PAIN ALSO
SHOWS LOW OVERALL VARIATION AROUND THREE
QUARTERS OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND
LOW BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION PER CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE VARIATION IN
STUDENT PERFORMANCE BUT UNLIKE +OREA HAS A MEAN SCORE SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW
THE /%#$ AVERAGE &IGURE
o«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊÌ
ÃiÊÜÌ
Ê 4HE SMALLEST VARIATION IN READING PERFORMANCE AMONG SCHOOLS OCCURS IN &INLAND
Ì
iÊÜiÃÌÊÛiÀ>Ê )CELAND AND 3WEDEN WHERE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS ACCOUNT FOR ONLY
Û>À>Ì° BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF THE AVERAGE BETWEEN
STUDENT VARIATION IN /%#$
COUNTRIES )N THESE COUNTRIES PERFORMANCE IS LARGELY UNRELATED TO THE SCHOOLS
IN WHICH STUDENTS ARE ENROLLED 4HEY ARE THUS LIKELY TO ENCOUNTER A SIMILAR
7
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}ÕÀiÊÓ°È
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS AND WITHIN SCHOOLS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
%XPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN /%#$ COUNTRIES
6ARIANCE EXPLAINED BY GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS
"ETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION 7ITHIN SCHOOL VARIATION
"ELGIUM
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
!USTRIA
0OLAND
'REECE
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
)TALY
3WITZERLAND
-EXICO
0ORTUGAL
*APAN
5NITED 3TATES
,UXEMBOURG
5NITED +INGDOM
!USTRALIA
.EW :EALAND
+OREA
$ENMARK
)RELAND
#ANADA
3PAIN
.ORWAY
&INLAND
3WEDEN
)CELAND
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT IN TERMS OF THE ABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS )T IS
NOTEWORTHY THAT OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THESE COUNTRIES IS
BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND THAT VERY FEW STUDENTS PERFORM BELOW THE PASS
FAIL THRESHOLDS ESTABLISHED BY THEIR SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS 4HESE EDUCA
TION SYSTEMS SUCCEED BOTH IN MINIMISING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS AND IN
CONTAINING THE OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY
} ÊÛiÀ>ÊÛ>À>ÌÊ !USTRALIA .EW :EALAND AND .ORWAY WITH AND PER CENT OF THE
V>ÊÀiÃÕÌÊvÀÊ } Ê /%#$ AVERAGE BETWEEN STUDENT VARIATION RESPECTIVELY ARE AMONG THE COUN
ÜÌ ÃV Ê TRIES WITH THE HIGHEST OVERALL VARIATION IN READING PERFORMANCE BUT ONLY A COM
`vviÀiViÃo PARATIVELY SMALL PROPORTION AND PER CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF
STUDENT PERFORMANCE RESULTS FROM DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS )N THESE COUN
TRIES MOST VARIATION OCCURS WITHIN SCHOOLS SUGGESTING THAT INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS
NEED TO CATER FOR A MORE DIVERSE CLIENT BASE
o } ÊLiÌÜiiÃV Ê "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND AND PER CENT OF THE AVERAGE
`vviÀiViÃo BETWEEN STUDENT VARIATION IN /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE ALSO COUNTRIES WITH COM
PARATIVELY HIGH OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BUT A LARGE PROPORTION
OF THIS VARIATION AND PER CENT OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE VARIATION IN STU
DENT PERFORMANCE RESULTS FROM DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS
oÀÊ>ÊVL>ÌÊvÊ 4HE 5NITED 3TATES ANOTHER COUNTRY WITH COMPARATIVELY LARGE OVERALL VARIATION
Ì iÊÌÜ° IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE PER CENT OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION BETWEEN STUDENTS
IN /%#$ COUNTRIES IS SOMEWHERE IN THE MIDDLE PER CENT OF THE AVERAGE
/%#$ VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BEING FOUND BETWEEN SCHOOLS
"OX &ACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH BETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
-ANY FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE VARIATION IN AVERAGE STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS 3OME OF
THESE ARE AS FOLLOWS
s 3UB
NATIONAL DIFFERENCES )N SEVERAL COUNTRIES SCHOOL SYSTEMS OPERATE UNDER SUB
NATIONAL
JURISDICTIONS SUCH AS THE COMMUNITIES IN "ELGIUM THE PROVINCES IN #ANADA THE ,ËNDER IN
'ERMANY OR THE STATES IN !USTRALIA AND THE 5NITED 3TATES OR VARY BETWEEN A COMBINATION OF
SUB
NATIONAL JURISDICTIONS AND LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES AS IN 3WITZERLAND
s 2URAL AND URBAN AREAS 3CHOOLING AND CURRICULA OFTEN DIFFER BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL SETTINGS
s 0UBLICLY AND PRIVATELY MANAGED SCHOOLS )N MANY COUNTRIES PUBLICLY AND PRIVATELY MANAGED
SCHOOLS COMPETE )N SOME COUNTRIES PRIVATE SCHOOLS USUALLY HAVE MORE SELECTIVE ENROLMENT
POLICIES )N ADDITION SCHOOLS THAT ARE PRIVATELY FINANCED MAY HINDER PARTICIPATION BY STUDENTS FROM
DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
s 0ROGRAMME TYPE 3OME SYSTEMS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TYPES OF SCHOOL WHICH CAN DIFFER
SUBSTANTIALLY IN THE CURRICULUM OFFERED EG PREPARING STUDENTS EITHER FOR UNIVERSITY EDUCATION OR
7
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ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
FOR DIRECT ENTRY INTO THE LABOUR MARKET %VEN IN SYSTEMS IN WHICH DIFFERENTIATION OCCURS WITHIN
SCHOOLS THERE MAY BE DISTINCT VOCATIONAL AND GENERAL TRACKS
s ,EVEL OF EDUCATION )N A FEW COUNTRIES SOME
YEARS
OLD STUDENTS ATTEND UPPER SECONDARY
SCHOOLS WHILE OTHERS ATTEND LOWER SECONDARY DEPENDING EITHER ON THEIR MONTH OF BIRTH OR ON THE
PROMOTION PRACTICES USED )N OTHER COUNTRIES THE SAME SCHOOL MAY HOST MORE THAN ONE LEVEL OF
EDUCATION 4HIS MEANS THAT THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE DIFFERENCE
IN CURRICULUM BETWEEN LOWER AND UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION IS INCLUDED IN THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL
VARIATION IN THE FORMER CASE AND IN THE WITHIN
SCHOOL BETWEEN
STUDENT VARIATION IN THE LATTER
s 3OCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE 4HE SOCIO
ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITIES SERVED BY
SCHOOLS OFTEN VARY ALTHOUGH THE SIZE OF THIS VARIATION DIFFERS GREATLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HE
VARIATION IN SCHOOL INTAKE CAN AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDENTS ENROLLED
7HERE DOES THIS VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING -iÊvÊÌ
iÊÛ>À>ÌÊ
LITERACY SCALE ORIGINATE 4HE ANSWER WILL VARY BETWEEN COUNTRIES SEE ALSO "OX LiÌÜiiÊÃV
ÃÊÃÊ
0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES PROVIDED AN INDICATION OF THOSE GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMIC >ÌÌÀLÕÌ>LiÊÌÊ
OR INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF THEIR EDUCATION SYSTEMS CAPTURED BY 0)3! THAT THEY }i}À>«
Þ]ÊÃÌÌÕÌ>Ê
CONSIDERED MOST LIKELY TO ACCOUNT FOR DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN v>VÌÀÃÊÀÊÃiiVÌÊvÊ
SCHOOLS 4HE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACCOUNTED FOR BY THESE VARIABLES ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLÞÊ>LÌÞo
IS INDICATED IN &IGURE ON THE LEFT
HAND SIDE OF THE BAR
n )N !USTRALIA DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATES AND TERRITORIES REDUCES
THE BETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE FROM TO PER CENT
OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE BETWEEN STUDENT VARIATION SEE 4ABLE
n )N !USTRIA DISCOUNTING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE VARIOUS TRACKS TO WHICH
STUDENTS ARE ALLOCATED ACROSS SIX SCHOOL TYPES REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VAR
IATION FROM TO PER CENT )N "ELGIUM DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES AND BETWEEN SCHOOL TYPE REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL
VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT $ISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOL AND
PROGRAMME TYPES REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN 'ERMANY FROM
TO PER CENT IN (UNGARY FROM TO IN 0OLAND FROM TO AND IN
+OREA FROM TO PER CENT OVER THE /%#$ AVERAGE BETWEEN
STUDENT VARIA
TION
n $ISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS AND BETWEEN
UPPER SECONDARY AND LOWER SECONDARY PROGRAMMES REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC AND IN 'REECE
FROM TO PER CENT
n )N )RELAND DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOL TYPES BETWEEN REGULAR AND
SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS REDUCES BETWEEN SCHOOL
VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
n $ISCOUNTING LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND PROGRAMME TYPE REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN )TALY ,ICEI VERSUS VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FROM
TO PER CENT AND IN -EXICO FROM TO PER CENT
n )N #ANADA DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROVINCES REDUCES BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE FROM TO PER CENT
n )N )CELAND DISCOUNTING SCHOOL SIZE AND LEVEL OF URBANISATION REDUCES BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT
n )N .EW :EALAND DISCOUNTING SCHOOL INTAKE INCLUDING AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC
STATUS AND THE PROPORTION OF -AORI AND 0ACIFIC STUDENTS REDUCES VARIATION
BETWEEN SCHOOLS FROM TO PER CENT
n $ISCOUNTING IMMIGRANT STUDENTS REDUCES VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS IN .ORWAY
FROM TO PER CENT AND IN 3WEDEN FROM TO PER CENT
n )N 3PAIN DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLICLY AND PRIVATELY MANAGED
SCHOOLS REDUCES BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT
n )N 3WITZERLAND DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROGRAMME TYPES AND LEVELS
OF EDUCATION AND BETWEEN THE LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES IN WHICH SCHOOLS ARE
LOCATED REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT
n )N THE 5NITED +INGDOM DISCOUNTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS MANAGED BY
LOCAL AUTHORITIES VERSUS OTHER BODIES SUCH AS SELF
GOVERNING TRUSTS AND CHURCH
FOUNDATIONS BETWEEN CO
EDUCATIONAL AND SINGLE
GENDER SCHOOLS AND BETWEEN
REGIONS REDUCES THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION FROM TO PER CENT
oÜ V ÊV>ÊLiÊ "ROADLY THE DATA ALSO SUGGEST THAT IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS WITH DIFFERENTIATED SCHOOL
V«Õ`i`ÊLÞÊÌ iÊ TYPES THE CLUSTERING OF STUDENTS WITH PARTICULAR SOCIO ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
LÕV }ÊvÊÃV>ÞÊ IN CERTAIN SCHOOLS IS GREATER THAN IN SYSTEMS WHERE THE CURRICULUM DOES NOT
«ÀÛi}i`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃ]Ê VARY SIGNIFICANTLY BETWEEN SCHOOLS )N !USTRIA "ELGIUM THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC
«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ 'ERMANY )TALY AND THE .ETHERLANDS FOR EXAMPLE THE BETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION
ÜÌ Ê`vviÀiÌÊÌÞ«iÃÊvÊ ASSOCIATED WITH THE FACT THAT STUDENTS ATTEND DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHOOL IS
ÃiV`>ÀÞÊÃV o° CONSIDERABLY COMPOUNDED BY DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL AND FAMILY BACKGROUND 4HIS
MAY BE A CONSEQUENCE OF SELECTION OR SELF SELECTION WHEN THE SCHOOL MARKET
PROVIDES SOME DIFFERENTIATION STUDENTS FROM LOWER SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS MAY TEND
TO BE DIRECTED TO OR CHOOSE FOR THEMSELVES LESS DEMANDING STUDY PROGRAMMES
OR MAY OPT NOT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE SELECTION PROCEDURES OF THE EDUCATION
SYSTEM
oÃViÊÃÌÕ`iÌýÊÀiÃÕÌÃÊ 4HE FULLER ANALYSIS IN #HAPTER SUGGESTS THAT THE OVERALL SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF
>ÀiÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÌÊÞÊ A SCHOOLS INTAKE ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE TENDS TO BE GREATER THAN THE IMPACT
ÜÌ
ÊÌ
iÀÊÜÊ OF THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS SOCIAL BACKGROUND 3TUDENTS FROM A LOWER SOCIO
`Û`Õ>ÊL>V}ÀÕ`ÃÊ ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ATTENDING SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC
LÕÌÊqÊÌÊ>Ê}Ài>ÌiÀÊiÝÌiÌÊ BACKGROUND IS HIGH TEND TO PERFORM MUCH BETTER THAN WHEN THEY ARE ENROLLED
qÊÜÌ
ÊÌ
iÊL>V}ÀÕ`ÃÊ IN A SCHOOL WITH A BELOW
AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE n AND THE REVERSE
vÊÌ
iÀÃÊ>ÌÊÌ
iÀÊÃV
° IS TRUE FOR MORE ADVANTAGED STUDENTS IN LESS ADVANTAGED SCHOOLS 4HIS IS NOT
7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
SURPRISING BUT THE MAGNITUDE OF THE DIFFERENCE IS STRIKING !S SHOWN IN #HAPTER
THE DIFFERENCE IN THE EXPECTED RESULTS FOR A GIVEN STUDENT IN TWO ALTERNATIVE
SCHOOLS SEPARATED BY SAY POINTS IN THE AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS OF THEIR
STUDENTS AS DEFINED BY THE 0)3! INDEX WOULD BE GREATER THAN THE EXPECTED
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO STUDENTS SEPARATED BY POINTS ATTENDING THE SAME
SCHOOL 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT INSTITUTIONAL DIFFERENTIATION IN EDUCATION SYSTEMS OFTEN
COMPOUNDED BY THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF A SCHOOLS INTAKE AND SELF
SELECTION
BY STUDENTS ANDOR THEIR PARENTS CAN HAVE A MAJOR IMPACT ON AN INDIVIDUAL
STUDENTS SUCCESS AT SCHOOL
#ONCLUSIONS
4HE RESULTS OF 0)3! SHOW WIDE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF
YEAR
OLDS IN READING LITERACY /NE HUNDRED AND VÕÌÀiÃÊÊÀi>`}Ê
TWENTY
FOUR POINTS n PROFICIENCY LEVELS n SEPARATE THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST ÌiÀ>VÞÊ>ÀiÊÃÕLÃÌ>Ì>]Ê
AVERAGE PERFORMANCES BY /%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY Ì
Õ}
Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ
SCALE $IFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES REPRESENT HOWEVER ONLY A FRACTION OF OVERALL ÜÌ
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊiÃÊ>ÀiÊ
VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE WITHIN COUNTRIES }Ài>ÌiÀ°
BEING ON AVERAGE ABOUT TEN TIMES AS GREAT AS THE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRY
MEANS #ATERING FOR SUCH A DIVERSE CLIENT BASE AND NARROWING THE GAPS IN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE REPRESENT FORMIDABLE CHALLENGES FOR ALL COUNTRIES
!N AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF YEAR OLDS REACH THE HIGHEST PROFICIENCY LEVEL IN *-ÊÀiÛi>ÃÊ>Ê Õ}iÊ
0)3! DEMONSTRATING THE ABILITY TO COMPLETE SOPHISTICATED READING TASKS TO SHOW }>«ÊLiÌÜiiÊÌ iÊ£ä¯Ê
DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF TEXTS AND THE RELEVANCE OF THEIR COMPONENTS AND vÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊV>«>LiÊvÊ
TO EVALUATE INFORMATION CRITICALLY AND BUILD HYPOTHESES DRAWING ON SPECIALISED ë ÃÌV>Ìi`ÊÀi>`}Ê
KNOWLEDGE !T THE OTHER END OF THE SCALE AN AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF STUDENTS Ì>ÃÃÊ>`ÊÌ iÊȯÊ
DO NOT REACH PROFICIENCY ,EVEL 4HEY FAIL TO DEMONSTRATE ROUTINELY THE MOST V>«>LiÊvÊëiÊ
BASIC KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS THAT 0)3! SEEKS TO MEASURE 4HESE STUDENTS MAY STILL Ì>ÃÃo
BE ABLE TO READ IN A TECHNICAL SENSE BUT THEY SHOW SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES IN APPLYING
READING LITERACY AS A TOOL TO ADVANCE AND EXTEND THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN
OTHER AREAS !LTHOUGH THE PROPORTION OF THESE STUDENTS IS AS LOW AS PER CENT
IN THREE COUNTRIES AND EXCEEDS PER CENT IN ONLY TWO /%#$ COUNTRIES THE
EXISTENCE OF A SMALL BUT SIGNIFICANT MINORITY OF STUDENTS WHO NEAR THE END OF
COMPULSORY SCHOOLING LACK THE FOUNDATION OF LITERACY SKILLS NEEDED FOR FURTHER
LEARNING MUST BE OF CONCERN TO POLICY MAKERS SEEKING TO MAKE LIFELONG LEARNING
A REALITY FOR ALL 4HIS IS SO IN PARTICULAR IN THE FACE OF MOUNTING EVIDENCE THAT
CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING BEYOND SCHOOL TEND TO REINFORCE RATHER THAN
TO MITIGATE SKILL DIFFERENCES RESULTING FROM UNEQUAL SUCCESS IN INITIAL EDUCATION
!DDING TO THIS PROPORTION OF STUDENTS NOT REACHING ,EVEL THOSE WHO PERFORM o>ÃÊÜiÊ>ÃÊÌ iÊ£Ó¯Ê
ONLY AT ,EVEL NAMELY THOSE WHO ARE CAPABLE ONLY OF COMPLETING THE MOST BASIC V>«>LiÊÞÊvÊëiÊ
OF READING TASKS SUCH AS LOCATING A SIMPLE PIECE OF INFORMATION IDENTIFYING THE Ì>ÃÃ]ÊÜ Ê>ÃÊ«ÃiÊ
MAIN THEME OF A TEXT OR MAKING A SIMPLE CONNECTION WITH EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE >ÊÃiÀÕÃÊV >i}i]Ê
BRINGS THE PROPORTION OF LOW PERFORMERS TO AN AVERAGE OF PER CENT ACROSS iëiV>ÞÊÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
/%#$ COUNTRIES 0ARENTS EDUCATORS AND POLICY MAKERS IN SYSTEMS WITH LARGE Ü iÀiÊÌ iÞÊ>ÀiÊÃÌÊ
PROPORTIONS OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT OR BELOW ,EVEL NEED TO RECOGNISE THAT ÕiÀÕð
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS OF STUDENTS ARE NOT BENEFITING SUFFICIENTLY FROM AVAILABLE
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND ARE NOT ACQUIRING THE NECESSARY KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS TO DO SO EFFECTIVELY IN THEIR FURTHER SCHOOL CAREERS AND BEYOND )N COUNTRIES
SUCH AS "RAZIL AND -EXICO WHICH HAVE COMPARATIVELY LOW LEVELS OF NATIONAL
INCOME AND WHERE SPENDING ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS PER STUDENT UP TO
AGE IS ONLY AROUND ONE FOURTH OF THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4ABLE FOSTERING
THE EDUCATION OF THOSE MOST IN NEED REPRESENTS A CONSIDERABLE CHALLENGE AND
SPECIFIC POLICIES TO THAT END HAVE OFTEN ONLY BEEN RECENTLY INTRODUCED
ÛiÊÜ
iÀiÊÀi>ÌÛiÞÊviÜÊ 7IDE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE DOES NOT HOWEVER ALWAYS MEAN THAT A
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÕ`iÀ«iÀvÀÊ LARGE PART OF THE STUDENT POPULATION WILL HAVE A LOW LEVEL OF READING LITERACY
ÌiÀ>Ì>Þ]Ê>Ê>À}iÊ )N FACT IN SOME COUNTRIES WITH HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE SUCH AS !USTRALIA
ÕLiÀÊ>ÞÊLiÊLiÜÊ .EW :EALAND AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM THE TH PERCENTILE ON THE COMBINED
>Ì>ÊLiV
>Àð READING LITERACY SCALE LIES WELL WITHIN PROFICIENCY ,EVEL AROUND POINTS
INDICATING THAT STUDENTS AT THE TH PERCENTILE ARE DOING REASONABLY WELL BY
INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE STANDARDS .EVERTHELESS THE VARIATION IN THE DISTRIBU
TION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THESE COUNTRIES SUGGESTS THAT THE STUDENTS AT THE
TH PERCENTILE MAY BE PERFORMING SUBSTANTIALLY BELOW EXPECTED BENCHMARKS OF
GOOD PERFORMANCE IN THE COUNTRIES IN QUESTION
/
iÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ 4O WHAT EXTENT IS THE OBSERVED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE 0)3!
>V
iÛiÊLÌ
Ê
}
Ê ASSESSMENTS A REFLECTION OF THE INNATE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS ABILITIES
>ÛiÀ>}iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`Ê AND THUS A CHALLENGE FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS THAT CANNOT BE INFLUENCED DIRECTLY
Ài>ÌÛiÞÊÜÊÛ>À>ÌÊ BY EDUCATION POLICY 4HE ANALYSIS IN THIS CHAPTER HAS SHOWN NOT ONLY THAT THE
LiÌÜiiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ«ÀÛ`iÊ MAGNITUDE OF WITHIN
COUNTRY DISPARITIES IN READING LITERACY VARIES WIDELY BETWEEN
>ÊV
>i}iÊvÀÊÌ
iÀÃo COUNTRIES BUT ALSO THAT WIDE DISPARITIES IN PERFORMANCE ARE NOT A NECESSARY
CONDITION FOR A COUNTRY TO ATTAIN A HIGH LEVEL OF OVERALL PERFORMANCE !LTHOUGH
MORE GENERAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS NEED TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN SUCH DISPARITIES ARE
COMPARED BETWEEN COUNTRIES PUBLIC POLICY MAY THEREFORE HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO
MAKE AN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO PROVIDING EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND EQUITABLE
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR ALL STUDENTS 3HOWING THAT COUNTRIES DIFFER NOT JUST IN THEIR
MEAN PERFORMANCE BUT ALSO IN THE EXTENT TO WHICH THEY ARE ABLE TO CLOSE THE GAP
BETWEEN THE STUDENTS WITH THE LOWEST AND THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE AND
TO REDUCE SOME OF THE BARRIERS TO EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES IS
AN IMPORTANT FINDING WHICH HAS DIRECT RELEVANCE TO POLICY MAKING
o«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊÌ
ÃiÊÌ
>ÌÊ -ANY FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE $ISPARITIES CAN
>ÛiÊÃÞÃÌiÃÊ>Ü}Ê RESULT FROM THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS FROM THE
Ü`iÊ`vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO SCHOOLS FROM CURRICULAR DIFFERENCES
ÃV
Ão AND FROM THE WAY IN WHICH TEACHING IS ORGANISED AND DELIVERED !S THE CAUSES
OF VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE DIFFER SO TOO DO THE APPROACHES CHOSEN BY
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES TO ADDRESS THE CHALLENGE 3OME COUNTRIES HAVE NON
SELECTIVE
SCHOOL SYSTEMS THAT SEEK TO PROVIDE ALL STUDENTS WITH THE SAME OPPORTUNITIES
FOR LEARNING AND REQUIRE EACH SCHOOL TO CATER FOR THE FULL RANGE OF STUDENT PER
FORMANCE /THER COUNTRIES RESPOND TO DIVERSITY BY FORMING GROUPS OF STUDENTS
OF SIMILAR LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE THROUGH SELECTION EITHER WITHIN OR BETWEEN
SCHOOLS WITH THE AIM OF SERVING STUDENTS ACCORDING TO THEIR SPECIFIC NEEDS
7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
(OW DO SUCH POLICIES AND PRACTICES AFFECT ACTUAL STUDENT PERFORMANCE )T IS HARD oÃViÊ*-ÊÃÕ}}iÃÌÃ]Ê
TO GIVE A CLEAR ANSWER SINCE SUCH POLICIES AND PRACTICES ARE OFTEN APPLIED INFOR
ÃÊv>ÀÊÌiÌ>ÌÛiÞ]ÊÌ
>ÌÊ
MALLY WITHIN SCHOOLS AND DIFFICULT TO COMPARE TRANSNATIONALLY .ONETHELESS THE ÛiÀ>ÊÛ>À>ÌÊÃÊ
DATA FROM 0)3! SUGGEST THAT BOTH OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORM
}Ài>ÌiÀÊÜ
iÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
ANCE AND THE RELATIVE PROPORTION OF THAT VARIATION THAT IS FOUND BETWEEN SCHOOLS >ÀiÊV
>ii`ÊÌÊ
TEND TO BE GREATER IN THOSE COUNTRIES WITH EXPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION AT AN EARLY `vviÀiÌÊ`ÃÊvÊÃV
Ê
AGE BETWEEN TYPES OF PROGRAMME AND SCHOOL 4HE DATA ALSO SUGGEST THAT THE vÀÊ>Êi>ÀÞÊ>}i°
EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CLUSTERING ARE LARGER IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS WITH DIFFERENTIATED
TYPES OF SCHOOL THAN IN SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE CURRICULUM DOES NOT VARY SIGNIFI
CANTLY BETWEEN SCHOOLS 4HESE FINDINGS ARE EXAMINED MORE CLOSELY IN #HAPTER
TOGETHER WITH SOME POLICY LEVERS THAT APPEAR IN SOME COUNTRIES TO MODERATE
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND PERFORMANCE AND THUS TO HELP
TO FOSTER EQUAL LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL STUDENTS
)N COUNTRIES SUCH AS !USTRALIA .EW :EALAND AND .ORWAY WHERE THERE IS ÀÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌ
iÊ
CONSIDERABLE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY Ì>ÃÊÃÊÌÊÀi`ÕViÊ
SCALE WITHIN SCHOOLS REFORMS WITHIN SCHOOLS THAT AIM TO BOLSTER THE PERFORMANCE `vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
OF LESS SUCCESSFUL STUDENTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE EFFECTIVE IN IMPROVING OVERALL ÃV
Ã]ÊvÀÊÌ
iÀÃ]ÊÌÊ
STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAN REFORMS TARGETED AT IMPROVING PARTICULAR SCHOOLS Ài`ÕViÊ`vviÀiViÃÊÊ
#ONVERSELY IN COUNTRIES WHERE SCHOOLS VARY SUBSTANTIALLY IN PERFORMANCE ÜÌ
ÊÃV
Ã]Ê>`ÊÊ
SUCH AS !USTRIA "ELGIUM 'ERMANY (UNGARY AND 0OLAND REFORMS AIMED AT ÃiÊV>ÃiÃ]ÊLÌ
°
IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE SCHOOLS WITH THE LOWEST LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE
ARE LIKELY TO BE EFFECTIVE IN IMPROVING OVERALL PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ*-ÊÃ
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ
.OTES
4ECHNICALLY THE MEAN SCORE FOR STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES WAS SET AT POINTS AND THE STANDARD
DEVIATION AT POINTS WITH THE DATA WEIGHTED SO THAT EACH /%#$ COUNTRY CONTRIBUTED EQUALLY
4HE CONCEPT OF LITERACY USED IN 0)3! IS MUCH BROADER THAN THE HISTORICAL NOTION OF THE ABILITY TO READ AND WRITE )N
PARTICULAR THE 0)3! DEFINITION GOES BEYOND THE NOTION THAT READING LITERACY MEANS DECODING WRITTEN MATERIAL AND LITERAL
COMPREHENSION SO THAT THE 0)3! TESTS DID NOT SEEK TO MEASURE THAT KIND OF TECHNICAL LITERACY 4HOSE WHO FAIL TO REACH ,EVEL
MAY WELL BE LITERATE IN THE TECHNICAL SENSE
!S A RESULT OF THE FACT THAT ALL STUDENTS WITHIN A PROFICIENCY LEVEL INCLUDING THOSE AT THE LOWER END OF THE LEVEL ARE EXPECTED
TO ANSWER AT LEAST HALF OF THE ITEMS AT THAT LEVEL CORRECTLY AND GIVEN THE ESTABLISHED WIDTH OF THE PROFICIENCY LEVELS A STUDENT
WITH A PARTICULAR SCORE WILL BE EXPECTED TO HAVE A PER CENT CHANCE OF SUCCESS IN AN ITEM THAT HAS THE SAME NOTIONAL LEVEL
OF DIFFICULTY AS THEIR SCORE 4HIS IS SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS THE 20 RESPONSE PROBABILITY VALUE
)N ORDER TO CONFIRM THAT THESE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT THE RELATIVE PROBABILITY OF EACH COUNTRY ASSUMING EACH
RANK
ORDER POSITION ON EACH READING SCALE WAS DETERMINED FROM THE COUNTRYS MEAN SCORES THEIR STANDARD ERRORS AND THE
COVARIANCE BETWEEN THE PERFORMANCE SCALES 4HIS REVEALS WHETHER WITH A LIKELIHOOD OF PER CENT A COUNTRY WOULD RANK
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER AT THE SAME LEVEL OR STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER IN ONE READING SCALE THAN IN THE OTHER READING
SCALE &OR DETAILS ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
&OR DATA SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
-ULTIPLE
CHOICE ITEMS WERE EXCLUDED FROM THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE STUDENTS MIGHT ANSWER THESE CORRECTLY SIMPLY BY
GUESSING AT RANDOM
)N 'ERMANY PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE FOREIGN
BORN STANDARD ERROR PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE FOREIGN
BORN AND
SCORE AT ,EVEL OR BELOW STANDARD ERROR PER CENT OF STUDENTS WERE BORN IN 'ERMANY STANDARD ERROR
PER CENT OF STUDENTS WERE BORN IN 'ERMANY AND SCORE AT ,EVEL OR BELOW STANDARD ERROR )N ,UXEMBOURG
PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE FOREIGN
BORN STANDARD ERROR PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE FOREIGN
BORN AND SCORE AT
,EVEL OR BELOW STANDARD ERROR PER CENT OF STUDENTS WERE BORN IN ,UXEMBOURG STANDARD ERROR PER
CENT OF STUDENTS WERE BORN IN ,UXEMBOURG AND SCORE AT ,EVEL OR BELOW STANDARD ERROR
0OLANDS PERFORMANCE MAY BE SLIGHTLY OVERESTIMATED BECAUSE OF THE EXCLUSION OF THE PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN
PRIMARY SCHOOLS 4HIS MAY IMPLY THAT THE PERFORMANCE OF 0OLAND ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS OVERESTIMATED BY
UP TO TWO RANK
ORDER POSITIONS 4HE PERFORMANCE OF THE .ETHERLANDS CANNOT BE ESTIMATED ACCURATELY BECAUSE THE RESPONSE
RATE OF SCHOOLS WAS TOO LOW )T CAN HOWEVER BE SAID WITH CONFIDENCE THAT THE .ETHERLANDS WOULD LIE BETWEEN THE ND AND TH
POSITION AMONG /%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR DETAILS SEE !NNEX !
4HE RELATIVE PROBABILITY OF A COUNTRYS ASSUMING EACH RANK
ORDER POSITION ON EACH SCALE IS DETERMINED FROM THE COUNTRY
MEAN SCORES THEIR STANDARD ERRORS AND THE COVARIANCE BETWEEN THE PERFORMANCE SCALES OF TWO DOMAINS &ROM THIS IT CAN BE
CONCLUDED WHETHER WITH A LIKELIHOOD OF PER CENT A COUNTRY WOULD RANK STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER NOT STATISTICALLY
DIFFERENTLY OR STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER IN ONE DOMAIN THAN IN THE OTHER DOMAIN &OR DETAILS ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED
SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
/WING TO THE SAMPLING METHODS USED IN *APAN THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN *APAN INCLUDES VARIATION BETWEEN CLASSES
WITHIN SCHOOLS
6ARIATION IN &IGURE AND 4ABLE IS EXPRESSED BY STATISTICAL VARIANCE 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY SQUARING THE STANDARD DEVIATION
REFERRED TO EARLIER IN THIS CHAPTER 4HE STATISTICAL VARIANCE RATHER THAN THE STANDARD DEVIATION IS USED FOR THIS COMPARISON TO
ALLOW FOR THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE COMPONENTS OF VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE &OR REASONS EXPLAINED IN THE 0)3!
4ECHNICAL 2EPORT THE SUM OF THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL AND WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIANCE COMPONENTS MAY IN THE CASE OF SOME COUNTRIES
DIFFER SLIGHTLY FROM THE SQUARE OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION SHOWN IN 4ABLE 4HE AVERAGE IS CALCULATED OVER THE /%#$
COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN 4ABLE
#HAPTER
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)NTRODUCTION
>Ì i>ÌVÃÊ>`Ê &OR MUCH OF THE LAST CENTURY THE CONTENT OF SCHOOL MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE
ÃViViÊÌ`>ÞÊii`ÊÌÊLiÊ CURRICULA WAS DOMINATED BY THE NEED TO PROVIDE THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE PROFES
ÕÃi`ÊLÞÊÌ iÊ>Þ]ÊÌÊ SIONAL TRAINING OF A SMALL NUMBER OF MATHEMATICIANS SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
ÕÃÌÊÌ iÊviÜo 7ITH THE GROWING ROLE OF SCIENCE MATHEMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN LIFE
HOWEVER THE OBJECTIVES OF PERSONAL FULFILMENT EMPLOYMENT AND FULL PARTICIPA
TION IN SOCIETY INCREASINGLY REQUIRE THAT ALL ADULTS NOT JUST THOSE ASPIRING TO
A SCIENTIFIC CAREER SHOULD BE MATHEMATICALLY SCIENTIFICALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY
LITERATE
ovÊ«i«iÊ>ÀiÊÌÊ -ATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ARE IMPORTANT FOR UNDERSTANDING ENVIRON
Õ`iÀÃÌ>`Ê>`Ê MENTAL MEDICAL ECONOMIC AND OTHER ISSUES THAT CONFRONT MODERN SOCIETIES
«>ÀÌV«>ÌiÊÊÌ
iÊ WHICH RELY HEAVILY ON TECHNOLOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES &URTHER THE PER
`iÀÊÜÀ`° FORMANCE OF A COUNTRYS BEST STUDENTS IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS
MAY HAVE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PART WHICH THAT COUNTRY WILL PLAY IN TOMORROWS
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY SECTOR AND FOR ITS GENERAL INTERNATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS
#ONVERSELY DEFICIENCIES IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY CAN HAVE NEGATIVE
CONSEQUENCES FOR INDIVIDUALS LABOUR
MARKET AND EARNINGS PROSPECTS AND FOR
THEIR CAPACITY TO PARTICIPATE FULLY IN SOCIETY
*-ÊÃÊ>ÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃ½Ê #ONSEQUENTLY POLICY
MAKERS AND EDUCATORS ALIKE ATTACH GREAT IMPORTANCE TO
>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê>`Ê MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE EDUCATION !DDRESSING THE INCREASING DEMAND FOR MATH
ÃViÌvVÊÜi`}iÊ>`Ê EMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC SKILLS REQUIRES EXCELLENCE THROUGHOUT EDUCATION SYSTEMS
ÃÃÊÊÜ>ÞÃÊ«iÀÌiÌÊ AND IT IS IMPORTANT TO MONITOR HOW WELL COUNTRIES PROVIDE YOUNG ADULTS WITH
ÌÊÌ
iÀÊvÕÌÕÀiÃÊ>ÃÊ>`ÕÌð FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS IN THIS AREA -ATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
THEREFORE FORM AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE 0)3! LITERACY CONCEPT -OREOVER THE DEFI
NITION OF MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY USED IN 0)3! WHICH IS DESCRIBED
IN #HAPTER MAKES THE RESULTS MORE RELEVANT TO ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
THAN ASSESSMENTS THAT FOCUS SOLELY ON THE COMMON DENOMINATORS TO BE FOUND IN
NATIONAL CURRICULA
4HIS CHAPTER REVIEWS THE RESULTS OF 0)3! IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
AND EXAMINES THE DEGREE TO WHICH THESE COINCIDE WITH OR DIFFER FROM THE RESULTS
IN READING PRESENTED IN #HAPTER 4HE CHAPTER
n DESCRIBES THE CRITERIA FOR RATING PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITER
ACY AND GIVES EXAMPLES OF EASIER MEDIUM AND HARDER TASKS USED IN 0)3!
n SUMMARISES PERFORMANCE IN EACH COUNTRY IN TERMS OF THE MEAN SCORES ACHIEVED
BY STUDENTS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES ACROSS STUDENT POPULATIONS
n EXAMINES HOW PERFORMANCE VARIES BETWEEN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIEN
TIFIC LITERACY
#HAPTER BROADENS THIS DISCUSSION FURTHER BY ANALYSING THE NON
COGNITIVE
ASPECTS OF LEARNING OUTCOMES SUCH AS THE MOTIVATION OF
YEAR
OLDS THEIR
ENGAGEMENT THEIR LEARNING STRATEGIES AND THEIR BELIEF IN THEIR OWN CAPACITIES
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0)3! DEVOTED MOST ATTENTION TO READING LITERACY &OR THIS REASON THE
ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY WAS MORE LIMITED AND THE
ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS IS NOT AS DETAILED AS IN THE CASE OF READING 4HIS ANALYSIS WILL
BE DEEPENED IN 0)3! WHEN MOST ATTENTION WILL BE GIVEN TO MATHEMATICS
AND IN 0)3! WHEN MOST ATTENTION WILL BE GIVEN TO SCIENCE $ESCRIPTIONS
OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS UNDERLYING THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS OF MATHEMATICAL
AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ARE PROVIDED IN -EASURING 3TUDENT +NOWLEDGE AND 3KILLS n ! .EW
&RAMEWORK FOR !SSESSMENT /%#$ A
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
(OW MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IS MEASURED IN 0)3!
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i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊÃÊ
WHICH AS IN THE CASE OF READING LITERACY WAS CONSTRUCTED WITH AN AVERAGE SCORE À>Ìi`ÊÊ>ÊÃ}iÊÃV>i°°°
OF POINTS AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF POINTS AND WITH ABOUT TWO
THIRDS
OF STUDENTS ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES SCORING BETWEEN AND POINTS 4HE
SCALE MEASURES THE ABILITY OF STUDENTS TO RECOGNISE AND INTERPRET MATHEMATICAL
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THEIR WORLD TO TRANSLATE THESE PROBLEMS INTO A
MATHEMATICAL CONTEXT TO USE MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE AND PROCEDURES TO SOLVE
THE PROBLEMS WITHIN THEIR MATHEMATICAL CONTEXT TO INTERPRET THE RESULTS IN
TERMS OF THE ORIGINAL PROBLEM TO REFLECT UPON THE METHODS APPLIED AND TO
FORMULATE AND COMMUNICATE THE OUTCOMES
4HE CRITERIA THAT DEFINE THE LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY OF TASKS INVOLVE
n 4HE NUMBER AND COMPLEXITY OF PROCESSING OR COMPUTATIONAL STEPS INVOLVED IN THE TASKS 4ASKS oÊÜ
V
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STEP PROBLEMS REQUIRING STUDENTS TO RECALL AND REPRODUCE BASIC vÊÌ>ÃÃÊÃÊ`iÌiÀi`Ê
MATHEMATICAL FACTS OR TO COMPLETE SIMPLE COMPUTATIONS TO MULTI
STEP PROBLEMS LÞÊÌ
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CALLING FOR ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE AND COMPLEX DECISION
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n 4HE REQUIREMENT TO REPRESENT AND INTERPRET MATERIAL AND REFLECT ON SITUATIONS AND METHODS o>`ÊÌ
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4HIS RANGES FROM RECOGNISING AND USING A FAMILIAR FORMULA TO THE FORMULATION Ü
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BROAD DESCRIPTION OF PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE IN TERMS OF THE
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS THAT STUDENTS NEED TO DEMONSTRATE AT VARIOUS POINTS ON THE
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oiÃÃÊ`vvVÕÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊ n !T AROUND POINTS ON THE SCALE STUDENTS ARE TYPICALLY ABLE TO INTERPRET LINK
ÀiµÕÀiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌÊLÀ}Ê AND INTEGRATE DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS OF A PROBLEM OR DIFFERENT PIECES OF INFORMA
Ì}iÌ iÀÊ>`Ê«ÀViÃÃÊ TION ANDOR TO USE AND MANIPULATE A GIVEN MODEL OFTEN INVOLVING ALGEBRA OR OTHER
vÀ>Ìo SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS ANDOR TO VERIFY OR CHECK GIVEN PROPOSITIONS OR MODELS
3TUDENTS TYPICALLY WORK WITH GIVEN STRATEGIES MODELS OR PROPOSITIONS EG BY REC
OGNISING AND EXTRAPOLATING FROM A PATTERN AND THEY SELECT AND APPLY RELEVANT MATH
EMATICAL KNOWLEDGE IN ORDER TO SOLVE A PROBLEM THAT MAY INVOLVE A SMALL NUMBER OF
PROCESSING STEPS
oÜ iÊÌ iÊi>ÃiÃÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊ n !T THE LOWER END OF THE SCALE AROUND POINTS STUDENTS ARE USUALLY ABLE TO COM
ÀiµÕÀiÊÞÊ>ÊÃ}iÊ PLETE ONLY A SINGLE PROCESSING STEP CONSISTING OF REPRODUCING BASIC MATHEMATICAL
«ÀViÃÃ}ÊÃÌi«ÊÊ>Ê FACTS OR PROCESSES OR APPLYING SIMPLE COMPUTATIONAL SKILLS 3TUDENTS TYPICALLY REC
v>>ÀÊVÌiÝÌ° OGNISE INFORMATION FROM DIAGRAMMATIC OR TEXT MATERIAL THAT IS FAMILIAR AND STRAIGHT
FORWARD AND IN WHICH A MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION IS PROVIDED OR READILY APPARENT
!NY INTERPRETATION OR REASONING TYPICALLY INVOLVES RECOGNITION OF A SINGLE FAMILIAR
ELEMENT OF A PROBLEM 4HE SOLUTION CALLS FOR APPLICATION OF A ROUTINE PROCEDURE IN A
SINGLE PROCESSING STEP
)N THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT THE BEST PER CENT OF STUDENTS ACHIEVED POINTS ON
AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT REACHED POINTS AND PER
CENT POINTS !T THE LOWER END OF THE SCALE MORE THAN THREE QUARTERS
ACHIEVED AT LEAST POINTS MORE THAN PER CENT REACHED POINTS AND
MORE THAN PER CENT POINTS 4ABLE
>Ì i>ÌVÃʵÕiÃÌÃÊ 4HE TASKS USED FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN 0)3! VARY
Û>ÀÞÊÜ`iÞÊÊ`vvVÕÌÞ\o WIDELY IN DIFFICULTY &IGURE SHOWS THE TASKS FROM TWO OF THE UNITS USED
FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY ALONG WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE
CRITERIA USED TO MARK STUDENTS ANSWERS A MORE COMPLETE SET OF SAMPLE TASKS
CAN BE FOUND AT WWWPISAOECDORG
oÊÞÊ>ÊviÜÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 1UESTION IN THE UNIT !PPLES WAS THE MOST DIFFICULT OF THE SAMPLE QUESTIONS SHOWN
V>ÊÃÛiÊÌ>ÃÃÊÀiµÕÀ}Ê IN &IGURE 3TUDENTS WERE GIVEN A HYPOTHETICAL SCENARIO INVOLVING PLANTING
Ì
iÊÌÊÃ
ÜÊÃ}
ÌÊ APPLE TREES IN A SQUARE PATTERN WITH A hROWv OF PROTECTIVE CONIFER TREES AROUND
ÌÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê THE SQUARE 4HE SCENARIO REQUIRED STUDENTS TO SHOW INSIGHT INTO MATHEMATICAL
vÕVÌÃo FUNCTIONS BY COMPARING THE GROWTH OF A LINEAR FUNCTION WITH THAT OF A QUADRATIC
FUNCTION 3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO CONSTRUCT A VERBAL DESCRIPTION OF A GENERALISED
PATTERN AND TO DEVELOP AN ARGUMENT USING ALGEBRA )N ORDER TO ANSWER CORRECTLY
STUDENTS HAD TO UNDERSTAND BOTH THE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS USED TO DESCRIBE THE
PATTERN AND THE UNDERLYING FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN SUCH A WAY THAT THEY COULD
SEE AND EXPLAIN THE GENERALISATION OF THESE RELATIONSHIPS IN AN UNFAMILIAR CONTEXT
4O RECEIVE FULL CREDIT FOR 1UESTION WHICH CORRESPONDS TO A SCORE OF POINTS
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE STUDENTS HAD TO PROVIDE THE CORRECT ANSWER AS
WELL AS A VALID EXPLANATION 3TUDENTS WITH A SCORE OF POINTS SHOULD THEORETICALLY
BE ABLE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS OF THIS LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY CORRECTLY OUT OF TIMES
SEE ALSO "OX /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS
RECEIVED FULL CREDIT FOR THIS OPEN
ENDED QUESTION ! FURTHER PER CENT RECEIVED
PARTIAL CREDIT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
)N 1UESTION IN THE SAME UNIT n A SLIGHTLY LESS DIFFICULT QUESTION WITH A o>ʵÕ>ÀÌiÀÊV>ÊÃÛiÊ
DIFFICULTY OF POINTS ON THE 0)3! MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE n STUDENTS iÃÃÊ`vvVÕÌÊÌ>ÃÃÊ
WERE GIVEN TWO ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS DESCRIBING THE GROWTH IN THE NUMBER ÀiµÕÀ}ÊÌ
iÊÌÊ
OF TREES AS THE ORCHARD INCREASED IN SIZE 3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO FIND A VALUE ÌiÀ«ÀiÌÊiÝ«ÀiÃÃÃ]ÊÌÊ
FOR WHICH THE TWO EXPRESSIONS COINCIDE 4HIS QUESTION REQUIRED STUDENTS TO Ê`vviÀiÌÊ
INTERPRET EXPRESSIONS CONTAINING WORDS AND SYMBOLS AND TO LINK DIFFERENT Ài«ÀiÃiÌ>ÌÃÊ>`ÊÌÊ
REPRESENTATIONS PICTORIAL VERBAL AND ALGEBRAIC OF TWO RELATIONSHIPS ONE V«>ÀiÊÃÕÌÃo
QUADRATIC AND ONE LINEAR 3TUDENTS HAD TO FIND A STRATEGY FOR DETERMINING
WHEN THE TWO FUNCTIONS HAD THE SAME SOLUTION AND THEN TO COMMUNICATE THE
RESULT BY EXPLAINING THE REASONING AND CALCULATION STEPS INVOLVED /N AVERAGE
ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS RECEIVED FULL CREDIT FOR THIS
OPEN
ENDED QUESTION
4HE EASIEST QUESTION IN THE UNIT !PPLES ASKED STUDENTS TO COMPLETE A TABLE o
>vÊ>ÀiÊ>LiÊÌÊ
OF VALUES GENERATED BY THE FUNCTIONS DESCRIBING THE NUMBER OF TREES AS THE ÌÀ>Ã>ÌiÊ>Ê`iÃVÀ«ÌÊ
SIZE OF THE ORCHARD INCREASED 4HE QUESTION REQUIRED STUDENTS TO INTERPRET ÌÊ>ÊÌ>LiÊÌ
>ÌÊÌ
iÞÊ
A WRITTEN DESCRIPTION OF A SITUATION TO LINK THIS TO A TABULAR REPRESENTATION
>`ÊÌÊV«iÌio
OF SOME OF THE INFORMATION TO RECOGNISE A PATTERN AND THEN TO EXTEND THIS
PATTERN 3TUDENTS HAD TO WORK WITH GIVEN MODELS AND TO RELATE TWO DIFFERENT
REPRESENTATIONS PICTORIAL AND TABULAR OF TWO RELATIONSHIPS ONE QUADRATIC AND
ONE LINEAR IN ORDER TO EXTRAPOLATE FROM THE PATTERN /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$
COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS RECEIVED FULL CREDIT FOR THIS OPEN
ENDED
QUESTION AND A FURTHER PER CENT RECEIVED PARTIAL CREDIT
4HE SECOND SAMPLE UNIT SHOWN IN &IGURE 2ACING #AR PROVIDES QUESTIONS oÌÜÌ
À`ÃÊ>ÀiÊ>LiÊÌÊ
ILLUSTRATING THE MIDDLE AND THE LOWER END OF THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE )N ÌiÀ«ÀiÌÊ>Ê}À>«
ÊLÞÊ
1UESTION WHICH IS LOCATED AT POINTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE }ÊÌÜÊvi>ÌÕÀiÃo
STUDENTS WERE GIVEN A GRAPH SHOWING THE SPEED OF A CAR AS IT MOVES AROUND A
RACETRACK 3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO INTERPRET THE GRAPH TO FIND A DISTANCE THAT
SATISFIES A GIVEN CONDITION 3TUDENTS NEEDED TO INTERPRET THE GRAPH BY LINKING
A VERBAL DESCRIPTION WITH TWO PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THE GRAPH ONE SIMPLE AND
STRAIGHTFORWARD AND ONE REQUIRING A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF SEVERAL ELEMENTS
OF THE GRAPH AND WHAT IT REPRESENTS AND THEN TO IDENTIFY AND READ THE REQUIRED
INFORMATION FROM THE GRAPH SELECTING THE BEST OPTION FROM AMONG A NUMBER OF
GIVEN ALTERNATIVES /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS
ANSWERED THIS MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTION CORRECTLY
!T THE LOWER END OF THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 1UESTION WITH A LEVEL o>`ÊÌ iÊ}Ài>ÌÊ>ÀÌÞÊ
OF DIFFICULTY OF POINTS ASKED STUDENTS TO INTERPRET THE SPEED OF THE CAR AT A vÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊ>LiÊ
PARTICULAR POINT IN THE GRAPH 4HE QUESTION REQUIRED STUDENTS TO READ INFORMA ÌÊÀi>`Ê>`ÊÕ`iÀÃÌ>`Ê
TION FROM A GRAPH REPRESENTING A PHYSICAL RELATIONSHIP SPEED AND DISTANCE OF ÃÌÀ>} ÌvÀÜ>À`Ê
A CAR 3TUDENTS HAD TO IDENTIFY THE PLACE IN THE GRAPH REFERRED TO IN A VERBAL vÀ>ÌÊÊ>Ê}À>« °
DESCRIPTION TO RECOGNISE WHAT HAPPENS TO THE SPEED OF A VEHICLE AT THAT POINT
AND THEN TO SELECT THE BEST OPTION FROM AMONG A NUMBER OF GIVEN ALTERNATIVES
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT ANSWERED THIS MULTIPLE CHOICE
QUESTION CORRECTLY FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
#(!04%2 7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
4HE MEAN PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
ÕÌÀiÃÊÛ>ÀÞÊÜ`iÞÊÊ &OR POLICY
MAKERS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF STUDENT
Ì
iÀÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊiÛiÊvÊ PERFORMANCE HAVE BECOME AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF
>Ì
i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞ°°° THEIR COUNTRIES EDUCATION SYSTEMS 3UCH COMPARISONS OFFER AN EXTERNAL POINT OF
REFERENCE FOR THE OBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS
4HE FIRST QUESTION THAT IS OFTEN ASKED IS HOW NATIONS COMPARE IN THEIR MEAN
PERFORMANCE !S WITH READING PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY CAN BE
SUMMARISED BY COUNTRIES MEAN SCORES
&IGURE ORDERS COUNTRIES BY THE MEAN PERFORMANCE OF THEIR STUDENTS ON THE
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 4HE FIGURE ALSO SHOWS WHICH COUNTRIES HAVE A LEVEL OF
PERFORMANCE ABOVE BELOW OR ABOUT THE SAME AS THE /%#$ AVERAGE
!S IN THE CASE OF READING LITERACY ONLY THOSE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES THAT
ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT SHOULD BE TAKEN AS VALID &IGURE SHOWS THE PAIRS OF
COUNTRIES WHERE THE DIFFERENCE IN THEIR MEAN SCORES IS LARGE ENOUGH TO SAY WITH
CONFIDENCE THAT THE HIGHER PERFORMANCE BY SAMPLED STUDENTS IN ONE COUNTRY WOULD
HOLD FOR THE ENTIRE STUDENT POPULATION IN BOTH COUNTRIES 2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A
COUNTRY TO COMPARE ITS MEAN PERFORMANCE WITH THOSE OF THE COUNTRIES LISTED ALONG
THE TOP OF THE FIGURE 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF THE
COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON
COUNTRY NOT STATISTICALLY DIFFERENT FROM IT OR SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER
3TUDENTS IN *APAN DISPLAY THE HIGHEST MEAN SCORES IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY BUT
*APANS MEAN PERFORMANCE CANNOT BE DISTINGUISHED WITH STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
FROM THAT IN +OREA AND .EW :EALAND 4HE OTHER COUNTRIES THAT ALSO SCORE ABOVE
THE /%#$ AVERAGE ARE !USTRALIA !USTRIA "ELGIUM #ANADA $ENMARK &INLAND
&RANCE )CELAND ,IECHTENSTEIN THE .ETHERLANDS 3WEDEN 3WITZERLAND AND THE
5NITED +INGDOM
!LTHOUGH THE TASKS FOR THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY WERE
DESIGNED SO THAT STUDENTS NOT USING CALCULATORS WOULD NOT BE DISADVANTAGED
STUDENTS WERE ALLOWED TO USE THEIR OWN CALCULATORS OR THOSE PROVIDED BY TEST
ADMINISTRATORS 4HERE IS NO INDICATION THAT THE USE OF CALCULATORS PROVIDED AN
ADVANTAGE TO STUDENTS IN TERMS OF THEIR PERFORMANCE IN 0)3!
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
°°°LÕÌÊÛ>À>ÌÊÊ 7HILE THERE ARE LARGE DIFFERENCES IN MEAN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES THE
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÜÌ ÊÊ VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS WITHIN EACH COUNTRY IS AS IN THE
VÕÌÀiÃÊÃÊÃiÛiÀ>ÊÌiÃÊ CASE OF READING LITERACY MANY TIMES LARGER -EAN PERFORMANCE DOES NOT THERE
>À}iÀ°°° FORE PROVIDE A FULL PICTURE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND CAN MASK SIGNIFICANT
VARIATION WITHIN AN INDIVIDUAL CLASS SCHOOL OR EDUCATION SYSTEM /NE OF THE
MAJOR CHALLENGES FACED BY EDUCATION SYSTEMS IS TO ENCOURAGE HIGH PERFORMANCE
WHILE AT THE SAME TIME MINIMISING INTERNAL DISPARITIES
7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊΰÓ
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
2USSIAN &ED
,UXEMBOURG
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
"ELGIUM
&INLAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
#ANADA
!USTRIA
)CELAND
)RELAND
-EXICO
&RANCE
'REECE
0OLAND
,ATVIA
+OREA
*APAN
3PAIN
"RAZIL
)TALY
-EAN
3%
*APAN
+OREA
.EW :EALAND
&INLAND
!USTRALIA
#ANADA
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
"ELGIUM
&RANCE
!USTRIA
$ENMARK
)CELAND
,IECHTENSTEIN
3WEDEN
)RELAND
.ORWAY
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
2USSIAN &ED
3PAIN
0OLAND
,ATVIA
)TALY
0ORTUGAL
'REECE
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
"RAZIL
5PPER RANK
,OWER RANK
.OTE "ECAUSE DATA ARE BASED ON SAMPLES IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO REPORT EXACT RANK ORDER POSITIONS FOR COUNTRIES (OWEVER IT IS POSSIBLE TO
REPORT THE RANGE OF RANK ORDER POSITIONS WITHIN WHICH THE COUNTRY MEAN LIES WITH PER CENT LIKELIHOOD
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN .O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON
COUNTRY OR IF THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
#(!04%2 7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
&IGURE SHOWS THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE SCORES ON THE MATHEMATICAL
LITERACY SCALE 4HE GRADATION BARS SHOW THE RANGE OF PERFORMANCE IN EACH
COUNTRY BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES 4HE DENSITY OF THE BAR REPRESENTS
THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS PERFORMING AT THE CORRESPONDING SCALE POINTS )N
ADDITION 4ABLE SHOWS THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES IE THE SCALE POINTS THAT
MARK THE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS OF PERFORMERS IN EACH COUNTRY 4HE MIDDLE OF
EACH BAR SHOWS THE MEAN COUNTRY SCORE WHICH WAS THE SUBJECT OF THE DISCUSSION
IN THE PRECEDING SECTION TOGETHER WITH ITS CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
oÜÌ Ê>ÊÃ}vV>ÌÊ )N EVERY COUNTRY EDUCATION SYSTEMS EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS
ÀÌÞÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊ ARE CALLED TO SERVE STUDENTS WITH A WIDE RANGE OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AND TO
>ÞÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ >Û}Ê ENHANCE THESE EFFECTIVELY )N ABOUT HALF OF THE COUNTRIES MORE THAN PER CENT OF
`vvVÕÌÞÊ>««Þ}Ê STUDENTS DO NOT REACH THE MEAN SCORE OF THE /%#$ COUNTRY WITH THE LOWEST LEVEL
ëiÊV«ÕÌ>Ì>Ê OF PERFORMANCE 4ABLE &IGURE SHOWS THAT THESE STUDENTS WILL TYPICALLY FIND
ÃÃo IT DIFFICULT TO COMPLETE SIMPLE TASKS CONSISTING OF REPRODUCING BASIC MATHEMATICAL
FACTS OR PROCESSES OR APPLYING SIMPLE COMPUTATIONAL SKILLS &URTHERMORE TASKS
REQUIRING INTERPRETATION OR REASONING SKILLS THAT GO BEYOND RECOGNITION OF A SINGLE
FAMILIAR ELEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND SOLUTION PROCESSES MORE COMPLEX THAN THE
APPLICATION OF A ROUTINE PROCEDURE IN A SINGLE PROCESSING STEP WILL NORMALLY BE
BEYOND THE LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF THESE STUDENTS )N FACT ALL OF THE
SAMPLE QUESTIONS SHOWN IN &IGURE ARE TYPICALLY BEYOND THE ABILITY OF STUDENTS
PERFORMING BELOW THE MEAN PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF -EXICO POINTS
oÌ Õ} Ê>ÌÊi>ÃÌÊ£ä¯Ê !T THE OTHER END OF THE SCALE ALL COUNTRIES BUT TWO HAVE AT LEAST PER CENT OF
vÊÌ iÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊ>Ê STUDENTS PERFORMING ABOVE THE MEAN OF THE COUNTRY WITH THE BEST PERFORMANCE
LÕÌÊÌÜÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÀi>V Ê *APAN POINTS
Ì iÊi>ÊvÊÌ iÊ
LiÃÌ«iÀvÀ}ÊVÕÌÀÞ° 4HESE FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN MANY COUNTRIES NEED TO ADDRESS
A WIDE RANGE OF STUDENT NEEDS BOTH THOSE WITH THE GREATEST DIFFICULTIES AND THOSE
WHO PERFORM EXCEPTIONALLY WELL
-ÌÀ}Þ]ÊÌ
iÊÃ>iÃÌÊ )T IS EVIDENT FROM A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE RANGE OF PERFORMANCE WITHIN A COUN
`ë>ÀÌiÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊLiÊ TRY AND ITS AVERAGE PERFORMANCE THAT WIDE DISPARITIES IN PERFORMANCE ARE NOT A
ÊÜi«iÀvÀ}Ê NECESSARY CONDITION FOR A COUNTRY TO ATTAIN A HIGH LEVEL OF OVERALL PERFORMANCE
VÕÌÀiÃo /N THE CONTRARY IT IS STRIKING TO SEE THAT MEAN PERFORMANCE IN SIX OUT OF THE
EIGHT COUNTRIES WITH THE SMALLEST DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCEN
TILES WHICH COVERS THE MIDDLE HALF OF THE NATIONAL PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
NAMELY #ANADA $ENMARK &INLAND )CELAND *APAN AND +OREA ALL PERFORM STATIS
TICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4ABLE &URTHERMORE FOUR OF
THEM #ANADA &INLAND *APAN AND +OREA ARE AMONG THE SIX COUNTRIES WITH THE
BEST PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN THE /%#$
oÜ iÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ /N THE OTHER HAND FOUR OF THE FIVE COUNTRIES WITH THE MOST UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION
ÜÌ ÊÜÊi>Ê OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SKILLS AS MEASURED BY THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃ ÜÊÜ`iÊ AND TH PERCENTILES n 'ERMANY 'REECE (UNGARY AND 0OLAND n PERFORM STATIS
`ë>ÀÌið TICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE "ELGIUM IS THE EXCEPTION HAVING
A VERY UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES BUT A MEAN ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
7
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$ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
0ROFICIENCY SCALE 'RADATION BARS EXTEND FROM THE TH TO THE TH PERCENTILES
-EAN SCORE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL AROUND THE MEAN SCORE
-EAN SCORE OF FEMALES
-EAN SCORE OF MALES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
3WITZERLAND
.EW :EALAND
,ATVIA
!USTRALIA
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*APAN
&RANCE
3PAIN
+OREA
&INLAND
#ANADA
5NITED +INGDOM
"ELGIUM
!USTRIA
$ENMARK
)CELAND
3WEDEN
.ORWAY
5NITED 3TATES
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
0OLAND
)TALY
'REECE
-EXICO
,IECHTENSTEIN
"RAZIL
0ORTUGAL
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
4HE PATTERN IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL
LITERACY SCALE TENDS TO BE SIMILAR TO THAT IN READING LITERACY WITH "ELGIUM
'ERMANY 'REECE (UNGARY .EW :EALAND 0OLAND 3WITZERLAND AND THE
5NITED 3TATES SHOWING A RELATIVELY LARGE GAP BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PER
CENTILES n BETWEEN AND POINTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
4ABLE /N THE OTHER HAND &INLAND )CELAND )RELAND *APAN AND +OREA
SHOW COMPARATIVELY SMALL DISPARITIES LESS THAN POINTS SEPARATING THEIR
TH AND TH PERCENTILES 4HERE ARE EXCEPTIONS THOUGH FOR EXAMPLE
!USTRALIA SHOWS COMPARATIVELY LARGE DISPARITIES ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE WHILE ITS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES IN
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY POINTS IS BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE INTERQUAR
TILE RANGE
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ !S EXPLAINED IN #HAPTER STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! WERE ASKED TO REPORT
ÜÌ ÊÜÊ>Ì i>ÌV>Ê THE MARKS THAT THEY HAD RECEIVED IN MATHEMATICS IN THEIR LAST SCHOOL REPORT
«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>ÀiÊÌÊ AND TO INDICATE HOW THEIR MARKS WERE INTERPRETED BY THE SCHOOL &ROM THIS
iViÃÃ>ÀÞÊiÃÃÊiÞ]ÊÊ INFORMATION IT WAS DETERMINED WHETHER THE STUDENTS SCHOOL MARKS WERE ABOVE
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EARTHQUAKES WERE THE CAUSE THE DEATH RATES IN BOTH WARDS SHOULD BE ABOUT THE
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
}ÕÀiÊΰx
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
2USSIAN &ED
,UXEMBOURG
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
"ELGIUM
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
&INLAND
.ORWAY
#ANADA
)CELAND
3WEDEN
)RELAND
-EXICO
&RANCE
'REECE
!USTRIA
0OLAND
+OREA
*APAN
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
3PAIN
)TALY
-EAN
3%
+OREA
*APAN
&INLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
#ANADA
.EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA
!USTRIA
)RELAND
3WEDEN
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
&RANCE
.ORWAY
5NITED 3TATES
(UNGARY
)CELAND
"ELGIUM
3WITZERLAND
3PAIN
'ERMANY
0OLAND
$ENMARK
)TALY
,IECHTENSTEIN
'REECE
2USSIAN &ED
,ATVIA
0ORTUGAL
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
"RAZIL
5PPER RANK
,OWER RANK
.OTE "ECAUSE DATA ARE BASED ON SAMPLES IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO REPORT EXACT RANK ORDER POSITIONS FOR COUNTRIES (OWEVER IT IS POSSIBLE TO
REPORT THE RANGE OF RANK ORDER POSITIONS WITHIN WHICH THE COUNTRY MEAN LIES WITH PER CENT LIKELIHOOD
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN .O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF -EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON
COUNTRY OR IF THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN 3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊΰÈ
$ISTRIBUTION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE
0ROFICIENCY SCALE 'RADATION BARS EXTEND FROM THE TH TO THE TH PERCENTILES
-EAN SCORE ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL AROUND THE MEAN SCORE
-EAN SCORE OF FEMALES
-EAN SCORE OF MALES
/%#$ AVERAGE
.EW :EALAND
,ATVIA
&RANCE
+OREA
*APAN
&INLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
#ANADA
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
!USTRIA
3WEDEN
3PAIN
-EXICO
,IECHTENSTEIN
"RAZIL
.ORWAY
)CELAND
"ELGIUM
3WITZERLAND
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
(UNGARY
'ERMANY
0OLAND
$ENMARK
)TALY
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
4HE DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY WITHIN COUNTRIES
-iÊVÕÌÀiÃÊVLiÊ &IGURE SHOWS THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE SCORES ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
}
ÊiÛiÃÊvÊÃViÌvVÊ SCALE IN A FORMAT SIMILAR TO THAT OF &IGURE )N ADDITION 4ABLE PROVIDES
ÌiÀ>VÞÊÜÌ
ÊÜÊ AN INDICATION OF THE PROPORTION OF THIS VARIATION THAT LIES BETWEEN SCHOOLS &OR
`ë>ÀÌið THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE DATA REFER TO #HAPTER !S IN THE CASE OF READING
LITERACY AND MATHEMATICAL LITERACY THREE MAIN CONCLUSIONS APPLY VARIATION IN
STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHIN COUNTRIES IS MUCH GREATER THAN VARIATION IN MEAN
PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES THE EXTENT OF VARIATION WITHIN COUNTRIES VARIES
CONSIDERABLY AND THE SIZE OF THE VARIATION WITHIN COUNTRIES IS NOT RELATED TO THE
LEVEL OF THEIR OVERALL MEAN PERFORMANCE 4ABLE
0ERFORMANCE IN READING AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
>ÞÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
>ÛiÊ -OST COUNTRIES RANK ABOUT THE SAME IN SCIENTIFIC AS IN READING LITERACY BUT THESE
Ã>ÀÊÀ>ÊÀ`iÀÃÊÊ ARE EXCEPTIONS ! COMPARISON OF THE RELATIVE RANK ORDER OF COUNTRIES REVEALS
Ài>`}]Ê>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê THE FOLLOWING CONCERNING THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN READING AND SCIENTIFIC
>`ÊÃViÌvVÊÌiÀ>VÞ°°° LITERACY 6ALUES IN PARENTHESIS INDICATE MEAN SCORES FOR READING AND SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY RESPECTIVELY
°°°LÕÌÊÌ
iÀiÊ>ÀiÊ n !USTRIA THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY
iÝVi«Ìð *APAN AND +OREA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM
SHOW BETTER PERFORMANCE IN SCIENTIFIC LITERACY THAN IN READING LITERACY
n "ELGIUM #ANADA $ENMARK &INLAND
)CELAND )RELAND AND )TALY PERFORM
BETTER IN READING LITERACY THAN IN SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
n 4HE RELATIVE RANK ORDER POSITIONS OF THE REMAINING COUNTRIES ARE ESSENTIALLY THE
SAME ON BOTH SCALES
>Ì
i>ÌV>ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ 4HE PERFORMANCES OF COUNTRIES DIFFER WIDELY ESPECIALLY ON THE MATHEMATICAL
ÃVÀiÃÊÛ>ÀÞÊÀiÊLiÌÜiiÊ LITERACY SCALE POINTS MORE THAN ONE AND A HALF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
VÕÌÀiÃÊÌ
>ÊÀi>`}Ê DEVIATIONS SEPARATE THE TWO COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST MEAN SCORES
ÃVÀiÃ]Ê«ÃÃLÞÊLiV>ÕÃiÊ ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE AND POINTS SEPARATE THE TWO COUNTRIES
Ì
iÞÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊVÃiÞÊ WITH THE SECOND HIGHEST AND THE SECOND LOWEST MEAN SCORES 4ABLE 6ARIA
i`ÊÌÊÃV
}° TION IN MEAN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES IS SOMEWHAT SMALLER IN SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY AND SMALLEST IN READING LITERACY ! POSSIBLE REASON MIGHT BE THAT LEARN
ING IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE IS MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO SCHOOLING SO THAT
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN THESE DOMAINS APPEAR TO BE MORE PRO
NOUNCED THAN IN READING
)NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
/
iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊvÊ )N ANY COMPARISON OF THE OUTCOMES OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS IT IS NECESSARY TO TAKE
VÕÌÀiÃÊii`ÃÊÌÊLiÊ INTO ACCOUNT COUNTRIES ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES AND THE RESOURCES THAT THEY CAN
ÌiÀ«ÀiÌi`ÊÊÌ
iÊ DEVOTE TO EDUCATION 4HE RELATIVE PROSPERITY OF SOME COUNTRIES ALLOWS THEM TO
iVVÊVÌiÝÌ° SPEND MORE ON EDUCATION WHILE OTHER COUNTRIES FIND THEMSELVES CONSTRAINED BY
A RELATIVE LACK OF NATIONAL INCOME
7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊΰÇ>
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND NATIONAL INCOME
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AVERAGE PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
AND '$0 PER CAPITA IN 53 CONVERTED USING PURCHASING POWER PARITIES 000S
/%#$ COUNTRIES .ON /%#$ COUNTRIES
+OREA *APAN
&INLAND
5NITED +INGDOM !USTRALIA
!USTRIA )RELAND
3WEDEN
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC 3WITZERLAND
&RANCE
"ELGIUM .ORWAY
(UNGARY 5NITED 3TATES
2USSIAN 0OLAND
3PAIN
,IECHTENSTEIN
'ERMANY
$ENMARK
&EDERATION
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
)TALY
,ATVIA
-EXICO
"RAZIL
'$0 PER CAPITA 53 CONVERTED USING 000S
}ÕÀiÊΰÇL
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SPENDING PER STUDENT
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AVERAGE PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
AND CUMULATIVE EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS UP TO AGE IN 53 CONVERTED USING PURCHASING POWER PARITIES 000S
/%#$ COUNTRIES .ON /%#$ COUNTRIES
+OREA &INLAND *APAN
!USTRALIA
5NITED +INGDOM
3WEDEN
)RELAND 3WITZERLAND !USTRIA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC "ELGIUM
&RANCE
.ORWAY
5NITED 3TATES
(UNGARY
3PAIN 'ERMANY $ENMARK
)TALY
0OLAND
'REECE 0ORTUGAL
-EXICO
"RAZIL
#UMULATIVE EXPENDITURE 53 CONVERTED USING 000S
.OTE 4REND LINE DOES NOT TAKE NON
/%#$ COUNTRIES INTO ACCOUNT
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
&IGURE A DISPLAYS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADJUSTED NATIONAL INCOME '$0
PER CAPITA AND THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT
IN EACH COUNTRY &OR THIS COMPARISON THE MEAN PERFORMANCE OF COUNTRIES
HAS BEEN AVERAGED ACROSS THE READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
DOMAINS 4HE '$0 VALUES REPRESENT '$0 PER CAPITA IN AT CURRENT
PRICES ADJUSTED FOR DIFFERENCES IN PURCHASING POWER BETWEEN /%#$ COUNTRIES
4ABLE &OR THE /%#$ COUNTRIES FOR WHICH COMPARABLE DATA ARE
AVAILABLE FOR ALL COLUMNS IN 4ABLE THE FIGURE ALSO SHOWS A TREND LINE
THAT SUMMARISES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN '$0 PER CAPITA AND MEAN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE THREE LITERACY DOMAINS )T SHOULD BE BORNE IN MIND
HOWEVER THAT THE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES INVOLVED IN THIS COMPARISON IS SMALL
AND THAT THE TREND LINE IS THEREFORE STRONGLY AFFECTED BY THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED
IN THIS COMPARISON
ÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê
}
iÀÊ 4HE SCATTER PLOT SUGGESTS THAT COUNTRIES WITH HIGHER NATIONAL INCOME TEND TO
ViÊ«iÀÊV>«Ì>ÊÌi`Ê PERFORM BETTER ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
ÌÊ«iÀvÀÊLiÌÌiÀ]ÊÊ SCALE THAN COUNTRIES WITH LOWER NATIONAL INCOME )N FACT THE RELATIONSHIP
>ÛiÀ>}io SUGGESTS THAT PER CENT OF THE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES MEAN SCORES CAN
BE PREDICTED ON THE BASIS OF THEIR '$0 PER CAPITA
oLÕÌÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ`Ê #OUNTRIES CLOSE TO THE TREND LINE ARE WHERE THE PREDICTOR '$0 PER CAPITA
LiÌÌiÀÊÀÊÜÀÃiÊÌ
>ÊÌ
iÀÊ SUGGESTS THAT THEY WOULD BE EXAMPLES INCLUDE !USTRIA "ELGIUM &RANCE
ViÊÜÕ`Ê«Ài`VÌo )RELAND AND 3PAIN &OR EXAMPLE )RELAND OUTPERFORMS 3PAIN IN ALL THREE ASSESS
MENT DOMAINS TO AN EXTENT THAT ONE WOULD PREDICT FROM THE DIFFERENCE IN
THEIR '$0 PER CAPITA AS SHOWN IN &IGURE A #OUNTRIES ABOVE THE TREND LINE
HAVE HIGHER AVERAGE SCORES ON THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS THAN WOULD BE PREDICTED
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR '$0 PER CAPITA AND ON THE BASIS OF THE SPECIFIC SET OF
COUNTRIES USED FOR THE ESTIMATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP #OUNTRIES BELOW THE
TREND LINE SHOW LOWER PERFORMANCE THAN WOULD BE PREDICTED FROM THEIR '$0
PER CAPITA
oÃÊ>Ì>ÊViÊ /BVIOUSLY THE EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION DOES NOT NECESSARILY MEAN THAT THERE IS
Ài>ÌiÃÊÌÊLÕÌÊ`iÃÊÌÊ A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWO VARIABLES THERE ARE INDEED LIKELY TO BE
`iÌiÀiÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi° MANY OTHER FACTORS INVOLVED &IGURE A DOES SUGGEST HOWEVER THAT COUNTRIES
WITH HIGHER NATIONAL INCOME ARE AT A RELATIVE ADVANTAGE 4HIS SHOULD BE TAKEN
INTO ACCOUNT IN PARTICULAR IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF COUNTRIES
WITH COMPARATIVELY LOW LEVELS OF NATIONAL INCOME
Ì
iÀÊv>VÌÀÊÃÊ '$0 PER CAPITA PROVIDES A MEASURE OF A COUNTRYS ABILITY TO PAY FOR EDUCATION BUT
ëi`}Ê«iÀÊÃÌÕ`iÌo DOES NOT DIRECTLY MEASURE THE FINANCIAL RESOURCES ACTUALLY INVESTED IN EDUCATION
&IGURE B COMPARES THE MONEY THAT COUNTRIES SPEND PER STUDENT ON AVERAGE
FROM THE BEGINNING OF PRIMARY EDUCATION UP TO THE AGE OF WITH AVERAGE
STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE THREE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS 3PENDING PER STUDENT
IS APPROXIMATED BY MULTIPLYING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS PER STUDENT IN AT EACH LEVEL OF EDUCATION BY THE THEORETICAL
DURATION OF EDUCATION AT THE RESPECTIVE LEVEL UP TO THE AGE OF 4HE RESULTS
ARE EXPRESSED IN 53 DOLLARS USING PURCHASING POWER PARITIES /%#$
7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
4HE FIGURE SHOWS A POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPENDING PER STUDENT AND oÜ
V
ÊiÝ«>ÃÊ>ÊÃÝÌ
Ê
MEAN COUNTRY PERFORMANCE WHEN AVERAGED ACROSS THE THREE ASSESSMENT vÊVÕÌÀÞÊÛ>À>Ìð
DOMAINS 4ABLE !S EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
INCREASES SO ALSO DOES A COUNTRYS MEAN PERFORMANCE EXPENDITURE PER
STUDENT EXPLAINING PER CENT OF THE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN MEAN
PERFORMANCE
$EVIATIONS FROM THE TREND LINE SUGGEST THAT MODERATE SPENDING PER STUDENT iÞÊ>ÌÌiÀÃo
CANNOT AUTOMATICALLY BE EQUATED WITH POOR PERFORMANCE BY EDUCATION SYSTEMS
+OREA AND *APAN PERFORM SIMILARLY WELL ON AVERAGE ACROSS THE THREE ASSESSMENT
DOMAINS BUT +OREA SPENDS ONLY 000 53 PER STUDENT COMPARED WITH
000 53 IN *APAN 3IMILARLY )RELAND PERFORMS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY
BETTER THAN 'ERMANY IN ALL THREE DOMAINS BUT SPENDS ABOUT A QUARTER LESS PER
STUDENT THAN 'ERMANY
4HE FIGURES ALSO SUGGEST THAT AS MUCH AS SPENDING ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS oLÕÌÊÌÊÃÊÌÊÌ iÊÞÊ
IS A NECESSARY PREREQUISITE FOR THE PROVISION OF HIGH QUALITY EDUCATION SPENDING «ÀÌ>ÌÊv>VÌÀ°
ALONE IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO ACHIEVE HIGH LEVELS OF OUTCOMES 4HERE ARE A NUMBER
OF COUNTRIES FOR WHICH THE TREND LINE WOULD PREDICT HIGHER PERFORMANCE THAN
WHAT THEY ACHIEVE INCLUDING $ENMARK 'REECE )TALY -EXICO 0ORTUGAL AND THE
5NITED 3TATES
#ONCLUSIONS
)N AN INCREASINGLY TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD ALL ADULTS NOT JUST THOSE ASPIRING TO A /
iÊ}>ÊÌ
>ÌÊiÛiÀÞiÊ
SCIENTIFIC CAREER NEED TO BE MATHEMATICALLY AND SCIENTIFICALLY LITERATE 4HE WIDE Ã
Õ`ÊLiÊ
DISPARITIES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY >Ì
i>ÌV>ÞÊ>`Ê
SCALES THAT EMERGE FROM THE ANALYSIS IN THIS CHAPTER SUGGEST HOWEVER THAT THIS ÃViÌvV>ÞÊÌiÀ>ÌiÊÃÊ
REMAINS STILL A REMOTE GOAL AND THAT COUNTRIES NEED TO SERVE A WIDE RANGE OF ÃÌÊÀiÌio
STUDENT ABILITIES INCLUDING THOSE WHO PERFORM EXCEPTIONALLY WELL BUT ALSO THOSE
MOST IN NEED
!T THE SAME TIME THE ANALYSIS HAS SHOWN THAT AS WITH PERFORMANCE ON THE READ oLÕÌÊÌ iÀiÊ>ÀiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
ING LITERACY ASSESSMENT WIDE DISPARITIES IN PERFORMANCE ARE NOT A NECESSARY Ì >ÌÊÃÕVVii`ÊÜÌ Ê } Ê
CONDITION FOR A COUNTRY TO ATTAIN A HIGH LEVEL OF OVERALL PERFORMANCE )T IS STRIKING >ÛiÀ>}iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`Ê
TO NOTE THAT THE SIX OUT OF THE EIGHT COUNTRIES WITH THE SMALLEST INTERNAL VARIATION ÜÊ`ë>ÀÌið
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE ALL PERFORM STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE
/%#$ AVERAGE
!LTHOUGH THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHIN COUNTRIES IS MANY TIMES vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
LARGER THAN THE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VÕÌÀiÃÊVÕ`Ê>vviVÌÊ
COUNTRIES IN THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS SHOULD NOT BE OVERLOOKED 4O vÕÌÕÀiÊV«iÌÌÛiiÃð
THE EXTENT THAT THESE ARE PREDICTIVE OF STUDENT CAREER PATHS THESE DIFFERENCES
MAY PARTICULARLY IN SUBJECT AREAS SUCH AS MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE RAISE
QUESTIONS ABOUT COUNTRIES FUTURE COMPETITIVENESS )N ADDITION DIFFERENCES IN
COUNTRIES RELATIVE PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE THREE SUBJECT AREAS MAY POINT TO
SIGNIFICANT SYSTEMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 7
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i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ
}
iÀÊëi`}ÊÃÊ 4HE COMPARISON BETWEEN SPENDING PER STUDENT AND MEAN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
}
iÀÊ ACROSS COUNTRIES CANNOT BE INTERPRETED IN A CAUSAL WAY .EVERTHELESS THE DATA
«iÀvÀ>Vi]ÊLÕÌÊ`iÃÊ REVEAL A POSITIVE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE TWO !T THE SAME TIME AS MUCH AS
ÌÊ}Õ>À>ÌiiÊÌ° SPENDING ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IS A NECESSARY PREREQUISITE FOR THE PROVISION
OF HIGH
QUALITY EDUCATION THE COMPARISON ALSO SUGGESTS THAT SPENDING ALONE IS
NOT SUFFICIENT TO ACHIEVE HIGH LEVELS OF OUTCOMES AND THAT OTHER FACTORS INCLUDING
THE EFFECTIVENESS WITH WHICH RESOURCES ARE INVESTED PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE
7
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>ÌÊ£xÞi>À`ÃÊV>Ê`\Ê>Ê«ÀwiÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê>`ÊÃViÌwVÊÌiÀ>VÞ #(!04%2
.OTES
4ECHNICALLY THE MEAN SCORE FOR STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES WAS SET AT POINTS AND THE STANDARD
DEVIATION AT POINTS WITH THE DATA WEIGHTED SO THAT EACH /%#$ COUNTRY CONTRIBUTED EQUALLY
0OLANDSS PERFORMANCE MAY BE OVERESTIMATED SLIGHTLY DUE TO THE EXCLUSION OF THE PER CENT OF YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN
PRIMARY SCHOOLS 4HIS EXCLUSION IS UNLIKELY TO AFFECT ITS RANK ORDER POSITION ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE FOR DETAILS
SEE !NNEX !
4HE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN THE .ETHERLANDS CANNOT BE ESTIMATED ACCURATELY BECAUSE THE RESPONSE RATE OF ITS SCHOOLS WAS
TOO LOW )T CAN HOWEVER BE SAID WITH CONFIDENCE THAT THE .ETHERLANDS WOULD LIE BETWEEN THE ST AND TH POSITION AMONG
/%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 4HEREFORE THE .ETHERLANDS DOES NOT APPEAR IN &IGURE FOR DETAILS
SEE !NNEX !
)N !USTRALIA !USTRIA #ANADA THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK &INLAND 'ERMANY 'REECE )CELAND ,IECHTENSTEIN -EXICO
THE .ETHERLANDS .EW :EALAND .ORWAY 0ORTUGAL 3WEDEN 3WITZERLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES
BETWEEN ONE HALF AND THREE QUARTERS OF STUDENTS USED CALCULATORS DURING THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT )N "ELGIUM &RANCE (UNGARY
)TALY ,ATVIA THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND 3PAIN BETWEEN ONE THIRD AND ONE HALF OF STUDENTS USED CALCULATORS ,OWER RATES OF
CALCULATOR USE WERE REPORTED IN 0OLAND PER CENT )RELAND PER CENT ,UXEMBOURG PER CENT AND "RAZIL PER
CENT 3TUDENTS DID NOT USE CALCULATORS IN *APAN .O INFORMATION WAS AVAILABLE FOR +OREA 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF "RAZIL AND
'REECE SCORES ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE FOR STUDENTS WHO USED CALCULATORS IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT TENDED TO BE
HIGHER THAN FOR STUDENTS WHO DID NOT USE THEM (OWEVER THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SCORES OF STUDENTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL
LITERACY SCALE WHO USED CALCULATORS AND THOSE WHO DID NOT ARE VERY CLOSELY MIRRORED BY THE DIFFERENCES IN SCORES ON THE
READING LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN THESE TWO GROUPS WHICH DID NOT INVOLVE NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS 4HERE IS THEREFORE NO
INDICATION THAT THE USE OF CALCULATORS PROVIDED AN ADVANTAGE TO STUDENTS IN TERMS OF THEIR PERFORMANCE IN 0)3!
)N ADDITION 4ABLE PROVIDES AN INDICATION OF THE PROPORTION OF THIS VARIATION THAT LIES BETWEEN SCHOOLS &OR THE
INTERPRETATION OF THESE DATA REFER TO #HAPTER
4HE RELATIVE PROBABILITY OF EACH COUNTRY ASSUMING EACH RANK
ORDER POSITION ON EACH SCALE CAN BE DETERMINED FROM THE
COUNTRYS MEAN SCORES THEIR STANDARD ERRORS AND THE COVARIANCE BETWEEN THE PERFORMANCE SCALES OF TWO DOMAINS 4HIS
REVEALS WHETHER WITH A LIKELIHOOD OF PER CENT A COUNTRY WOULD RANK STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER AT THE SAME LEVEL
OR STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER IN ONE DOMAIN THAN IN THE OTHER DOMAIN &OR DETAILS ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED SEE THE
0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
0OLANDS PERFORMANCE MAY BE OVERESTIMATED SLIGHTLY DUE TO THE EXCLUSION OF THE PER CENT OF YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN
PRIMARY SCHOOLS !S A RESULT OF THIS 0OLANDS PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE MAY BE OVERESTIMATED BY TWO
RANK ORDER POSITIONS 4HE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN THE .ETHERLANDS CANNOT BE ESTIMATED ACCURATELY BECAUSE THE RESPONSE
RATE OF ITS SCHOOLS WAS TOO LOW )T CAN HOWEVER BE SAID WITH CONFIDENCE THAT THE .ETHERLANDS WOULD LIE BETWEEN THE RD AND
TH POSITION AMONG /%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE FOR DETAILS SEE !NNEX !
$IFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES CAN ALSO BE SUMMARISED IN TERMS OF THE OVERALL VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE OF
THE COMBINED /%#$ STUDENT POPULATION THAT IS ACCOUNTED FOR BY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HIS AMOUNTS TO PER
CENT ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE PER CENT ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND PER CENT ON THE SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY SCALE
#ANADA )CELAND ,UXEMBOURG AND .EW :EALAND ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT
CANNOT BE ESTIMATED ON A COMPARABLE BASIS
&OR THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THIS COMPARISON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN MEAN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS THE THREE
ASSESSMENT DOMAINS AND '$0 PER CAPITA IS 4HE EXPLAINED VARIATION IS OBTAINED AS THE SQUARE OF THE CORRELATION 4HE
CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND '$0 PER CAPITA CAN ALSO BE CALCULATED SEPARATELY FOR THE THREE ASSESSMENT
DOMAINS )N READING LITERACY IT AMOUNTS TO IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY TO AND IN SCIENTIFIC LITERACY TO
CHAPTER 3 What PISA shows that 15-year-olds can do: a profile of student performance in mathematical and scientific literacy
11. Cumulative expenditure for a given country is approximated as follows: let n(0), n(1) and n(2) be the typical number of
years spent by a student from the beginning of primary education up to the age of 15 years in primary, lower secondary
and upper secondary education. Let E(0), E(1) and E(2) be the annual expenditure per student in U.S dollars converted
using purchasing power parities in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education, respectively. The cumulative
expenditure is then calculated by multiplying current annual expenditure E by the typical duration of study n for each level
of education i using the following formula:
2
CE = ∑ n(i)* E(i)
i=0
Estimates for n(i) are based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (OECD, 1997).
12. The correlation for the overall relationship is 0.42. Taken separately, the correlation is 0.44 for the combined reading lit-
eracy scale, 0.47 for the mathematical literacy scale and 0.29 for the scientific literacy scale.
96
#HAPTER
, Ê"1/
"
-
"Ê
,
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
)NTRODUCTION
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊii`ÊÌÊi>ÛiÊ -OST CHILDREN COME TO SCHOOL READY AND WILLING TO LEARN (OW CAN SCHOOLS
ÃV
ÊÌÊÞÊÜÌ
Ê FOSTER AND STRENGTHEN THIS PREDISPOSITION AND ENSURE THAT YOUNG ADULTS LEAVE
ÃÕ`ÊÃÕLiVÌ>ÌÌiÀÊ SCHOOL WITH THE CAPACITY TO CONTINUE LEARNING THROUGHOUT LIFE 3TUDENTS WILL
Üi`}i]ÊLÕÌÊ>ÃÊ NEED TO BE ABLE TO USE THE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ACQUIRED IN READING MATHEMAT
Ài>`ÞÊÌÊVÌÕiÊ ICS AND SCIENCE IN THEIR FUTURE LIVES 7ITHOUT THIS KNOWLEDGE AND THESE SKILLS
i>À}o AND THE ABILITY TO ADD TO THEM INDIVIDUALS WILL NOT BE WELL PREPARED TO ACQUIRE
THE NEW KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS NECESSARY FOR SUCCESSFUL ADAPTATION TO CHANGING
CIRCUMSTANCES
o>`Ê>LiÊÌÊ>>}iÊ )N SCHOOLS MUCH OF THE LEARNING IS MANAGED FOR STUDENTS BY TEACHERS (OWEVER
Ì iÀÊÜÊi>À}° LEARNING IS ENHANCED IF STUDENTS HAVE A POSITIVE DISPOSITION TOWARDS LEARNING
AND CAN MANAGE THEIR OWN LEARNING AND ONCE THEY LEAVE SCHOOL PEOPLE HAVE TO
MANAGE MOST OF THEIR LEARNING FOR THEMSELVES 4O DO THIS THEY MUST BE ABLE TO
ESTABLISH GOALS TO PERSEVERE TO MONITOR THEIR PROGRESS TO ADJUST THEIR LEARNING
STRATEGIES AS NECESSARY AND TO OVERCOME DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING
*-ÊÓäääÊÃÕÀÛiÞi`Ê ! COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT OF hHOW WELL A COUNTRY IS DOINGv IN EDUCATION
ÃÌÕ`iÌýÊÌiÀiÃÌÊ>`Ê MUST LOOK AT SUCH GENERAL OUTCOMES AS WELL AS AT PERFORMANCE IN TRADITIONAL
i}>}iiÌÊÊi>À}Ê SCHOOL SUBJECTS 4O THIS END 0)3! SURVEYED
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS ATTITUDES
>ÃÊÜiÊ>ÃÊÌ
iÀÊ>LÌÞÊ TOWARDS READING AND MATHEMATICS AND THEIR MORE GENERAL ENGAGEMENT IN
ÌÊÀ}>ÃiÊÌ
iÊi>À}Ê LEARNING AND SCHOOLING )N ADDITION OF THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN
«ÀViÃÃo 0)3! TOOK UP AN OPTION TO SURVEYING STUDENTS APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND
BELIEFS IN THEIR OWN ABILITIES 4HIS CHAPTER PRESENTS THE RESULTS AND SEEKS TO
EXPAND ON THE 0)3! PROFILE OF WHAT YOUNG PEOPLE ARE LIKE AS LEARNERS AT AGE
4HE CHAPTER LOOKS FIRST AT THE MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT OF STUDENTS WITH
THE FOCUS ON IDENTIFYING PATTERNS OF INTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS AND OF
GENERAL ENGAGEMENT IN SCHOOLING )T THEN EXAMINES HOW STUDENTS MANAGE THE
LEARNING PROCESS AND THE LEARNING STRATEGIES WHICH THEY USE
o>`ÊiÝ>i`ÊÌ
iÊ 7HILE EFFECTIVE LIFELONG LEARNING STRATEGIES ARE AN IMPORTANT OUTCOME OF
Ài>ÌÃ
«ÊLiÌÜiiÊ SCHOOLING AND THEREFORE WARRANT EXAMINATION IN THEMSELVES QUESTIONS NATURALLY
Ì
iÃiÊV
>À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃÊ>`Ê ARISE ABOUT THE EXTENT TO WHICH EFFECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES ARE ALSO PREREQUI
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÊÌ
iÊ*-Ê SITES FOR SUCCESS AT SCHOOL 4O ADDRESS THESE QUESTIONS THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS NOT
ÌiÀ>VÞÊ`>ð ONLY THE NATURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEARNING AND THEIR
USE OF PARTICULAR LEARNING STRATEGIES BUT ALSO TRIES TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THESE FACTORS AND THE RESULTS OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS
/
iÊÀi>ÌÃ
«ÃÊ 4HIS IN TURN LEADS TO QUESTIONS ABOUT THE DIRECTION OF SUCH RELATIONSHIPS AND CAUSAL
LiÌÜiiÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi]Ê ITY "UT PERTINENT AS THESE QUESTIONS ARE THEY REMAIN DIFFICULT TO ANSWER )T MAY BE
>ÌÌÌÕ`iÃÊ>`Ê>««À>V
iÃÊ FOR EXAMPLE THAT GOOD PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEARNING ARE MUTUALLY
ÌÊi>À}Ê>ÞÊLiÊ REINFORCING OR THAT STUDENTS WITH HIGHER NATURAL ABILITY BOTH PERFORM WELL AND
ÕÌÕ>ÞÊÀivÀV}]Ê USE PARTICULAR LEARNING STRATEGIES 4HERE MAY ALSO BE THIRD FACTORS SUCH AS HOME
ÌÊëÞÊV>ÕÃ>ÊÊiÊ BACKGROUND OR DIFFERENCES IN THE SCHOOLING ENVIRONMENT TO WHICH STUDENTS ARE
`ÀiVÌ° EXPOSED )N WHAT FOLLOWS READERS ARE THEREFORE CAUTIONED THAT THE EXACT NATURE
AND STRENGTH OF CAUSE
AND
EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS ARE UNCERTAIN AND INDEED BEYOND
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
THE SCOPE OF THIS FIRST REPORT ON 0)3! $EMONSTRATION OF THE FACT THAT SUCH RELATION
SHIPS EXIST HOWEVER MAY STIMULATE POLICY DISCOURSE AND FUTURE RESEARCH
4HE IMPORTANT QUESTION OF HOW ATTITUDES MOTIVATION AND SELF
CONCEPT DIFFER
BETWEEN THE GENDERS IS DEFERRED TO #HAPTER
4HIS REPORT PRESENTS ONLY A SMALL SELECTION OF THE 0)3! DATA ON STUDENTS
APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND THEIR BELIEFS IN THEIR OWN ABILITIES NAMELY THOSE FOR
WHICH CROSS
NATIONAL COMPARABILITY HAS BEEN VERIFIED SEE "OX ! WIDER
RANGE OF MEASURES WILL BE PRESENTED IN A THEMATIC REPORT IN
-OTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
-OTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT ARE THE hENERGY BASEv OF LEARNING 3TUDENTS WHO ÌÛ>ÌÊ>`Ê
LEAVE SCHOOL WITH THE AUTONOMY TO SET THEIR OWN LEARNING GOALS AND WITH A SENSE i}>}iiÌÊ>ÀiÊViÌÀ>Ê
THAT THEY CAN REACH THOSE GOALS ARE POTENTIAL LEARNERS THROUGHOUT LIFE -OTIVATION ÌÊvi}Êi>À}o
"OX )NTERPRETING STUDENTS SELF REPORTS
-OST OF THE MEASURES PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER ARE BASED ON SELF
REPORTED BEHAVIOURS AND
PREFERENCES AND ON STUDENTS ASSESSMENTS OF THEIR OWN ABILITIES 4HESE MEASURES RELY ON REPORTS
FROM THE STUDENTS THEMSELVES RATHER THAN ON EXTERNAL OBSERVATIONS AND THEY MAY BE INFLUENCED
BY CROSS
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE BEHAVIOUR OR THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF CERTAIN RESPONSES
#OMPARISONS MUST BE UNDERTAKEN WITH CARE EVEN THOUGH THE INSTRUMENTS USED TO ASSESS STUDENTS
APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND THEIR BELIEFS IN THEIR OWN ABILITIES ARE BASED ON WELL
ESTABLISHED RESEARCH
AND WERE TESTED EXTENSIVELY BEFORE THEIR USE IN 0)3!
3EVERAL OF THE MEASURES ARE PRESENTED AS INDICES THAT SUMMARISE STUDENT RESPONSES TO A SERIES OF
RELATED QUESTIONS 4HE QUESTIONS WERE SELECTED FROM LARGER CONSTRUCTS ON THE BASIS OF ESTABLISHED
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH SEE ALSO !NNEX ! 3TRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING
WAS USED TO CONFIRM THE THEORETICALLY EXPECTED RESULTS OF THE INDICES AND TO VALIDATE THEIR COMPARA
BILITY ACROSS COUNTRIES &OR THIS PURPOSE A MODEL WAS ESTIMATED SEPARATELY FOR EACH COUNTRY AND
COLLECTIVELY FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
4HE INDICES WERE CONSTRUCTED IN SUCH A WAY THAT TWO
THIRDS OF THE /%#$ STUDENT POPULATION
ARE BETWEEN THE VALUES OF
AND WITH AN AVERAGE SCORE OF IE THE MEAN FOR THE COMBINED
STUDENT POPULATION FROM PARTICIPATING /%#$ COUNTRIES IS SET TO AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION IS
SET TO )T IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT NEGATIVE VALUES ON AN INDEX DO NOT NECESSARILY IMPLY THAT
STUDENTS RESPONDED NEGATIVELY TO THE UNDERLYING QUESTIONS ! NEGATIVE VALUE MERELY INDICATES THAT
A GROUP OF STUDENTS OR ALL STUDENTS COLLECTIVELY IN A SINGLE COUNTRY RESPONDED LESS POSITIVELY
THAN ALL STUDENTS DID ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ,IKEWISE A POSITIVE VALUE ON AN INDEX
INDICATES THAT A GROUP OF STUDENTS RESPONDED MORE FAVOURABLY OR MORE POSITIVELY THAN ALL STUDENTS
DID ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES &OR DETAILED INFORMATION ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
INDICES SEE !NNEX !
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
AND ENGAGEMENT CAN ALSO AFFECT STUDENTS QUALITY OF LIFE DURING THEIR ADOLESCENCE
AND CAN INFLUENCE WHETHER THEY WILL SUCCESSFULLY PURSUE FURTHER EDUCATIONAL OR
LABOUR MARKET OPPORTUNITIES
o>`Êi>À}Ê !UTONOMOUS LEARNING REQUIRES BOTH A CRITICAL REALISTIC JUDGEMENT OF THE DIFFI
>ÕÌÞÊV>ÊLiÊ CULTY OF A TASK AND THE ABILITY TO INVEST ENOUGH ENERGY TO ACCOMPLISH IT 4HESE
ÕÀÌÕÀi`Ê>ÌÊÃV ° SKILLS ARE THE PRODUCT OF LEARNING HABITS DEVELOPED AND SHAPED AMONG OTHER
THINGS BY REGULAR EXPOSURE TO SCHOOL TASKS AND TEACHERS EVALUATION OF SCHOOL
WORK "OTH ENJOYMENT OF LEARNING AND ACTIVITIES THAT PROMOTE LEARNING ALSO
ENHANCE MOTIVATION
3UBJECT INTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS
-ÕLiVÌÊÌiÀiÃÌÊV>Ê )NTEREST IN PARTICULAR SUBJECTS AFFECTS BOTH THE DEGREE AND CONTINUITY OF ENGAGE
>vviVÌÊi>À}Ê MENT IN LEARNING AND THE DEPTH OF UNDERSTANDING REACHED 4HIS EFFECT IS LARGELY
i}>}iiÌ° INDEPENDENT OF STUDENTS GENERAL MOTIVATION TO LEARN &OR EXAMPLE A STUDENT
WHO IS INTERESTED IN MATHEMATICS AND THEREFORE TENDS TO STUDY DILIGENTLY MAY
OR MAY NOT SHOW A HIGH LEVEL OF GENERAL LEARNING MOTIVATION AND VICE VERSA
(ENCE AN ANALYSIS OF THE PATTERN OF STUDENTS INTEREST IN VARIOUS SUBJECTS IS OF
IMPORTANCE 3UCH AN ANALYSIS CAN REVEAL SIGNIFICANT STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
IN ATTEMPTS BY EDUCATION SYSTEMS TO PROMOTE MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN VARIOUS
SUBJECTS AMONG DIFFERING SUB
GROUPS OF STUDENTS
*ÃÌÛiÊ>ÌÌÌÕ`iÃÊÌÊ !BOUT HALF OF THE YEAR OLDS SURVEYED IN 0)3! ARE GENERALLY POSITIVE ABOUT
Ài>`}ÊÛ>ÀÞÊÜ`iÞÊ READING /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ABOUT PER CENT OF STUDENTS
LiÌÜiiÊVÕÌÀiÃo AGREE THAT READING IS FUN AND THAT THEY WOULD NOT WANT TO GIVE IT UP !NOTHER
PER CENT OF STUDENTS AGREE hSOMEWHATv WITH THIS STATEMENT 4WENTY EIGHT
PER CENT OF STUDENTS ALSO INDICATE THAT THEY BECOME TOTALLY ABSORBED WHEN
READING AND ANOTHER PER CENT AGREE SOMEWHAT WITH THIS STATEMENT 4HERE
IS SUBSTANTIAL VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE RESPONSES TO EACH OF THESE
QUESTIONS &OR EXAMPLE WHILE FEWER THAN ONE THIRD OF STUDENTS IN "ELGIUM
&LEMISH #OMMUNITY AND +OREA AGREE FULLY OR SOMEWHAT THAT READING IS FUN
AND THAT THEY WOULD NOT WANT TO GIVE IT UP AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN
$ENMARK -EXICO AND 0ORTUGAL SHARE THESE FEELINGS ABOUT READING FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
&IGURE COMPARES COUNTRIES ON AN INDEX THAT SUMMARISES INTEREST IN READING
4HE INDEX IS CONSTRUCTED WITH THE AVERAGE SCORE ACROSS COUNTRIES SET AT AND
TWO
THIRDS SCORING BETWEEN AND
! POSITIVE VALUE ON THE INDEX INDICATES
THAT STUDENTS REPORT AN INTEREST IN READING HIGHER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND
A NEGATIVE VALUE AN INTEREST LOWER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE FOR THE DEFINITION
OF THE INDEX AND REFERENCES TO ITS CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX !
4HE UPPER PART OF &IGURE SHOWS THE DISTRIBUTION ON THE INTEREST
IN
READING
INDEX (ALF OF A STANDARD DEVIATION ON THIS INDEX SEPARATES $ENMARK &INLAND
AND 0ORTUGAL COUNTRIES IN WHICH STUDENTS REPORT A HIGH INTEREST IN READING FROM
"ELGIUM &LEMISH #OMMUNITY AND +OREA THE COUNTRIES WITH THE LOWEST LEVELS
OF INTEREST
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°£
)NTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN READING 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
!
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
"
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NDICES OF INTEREST IN READING AND MATHEMATICS
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDICES
.ETHERLANDS
+OREA
,ATVIA
"ELGIUM &L
!USTRIA
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)TALY
)RELAND
.ORWAY
,UXEMBOURG
3WITZERLAND
.EW :EALAND
$ENMARK
&INLAND
!USTRALIA
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
-EXICO
"RAZIL
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
)CELAND
,IECHTENSTEIN
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCOREMATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST
IN READING AND THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLES AND
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
o>`Ê«ÃÌÛiÊ>ÌÌÌÕ`iÃÊ &IGURE ALSO COMPARES THE READING PERFORMANCE OF THE QUARTER OF STUDENTS
>ÀiÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê IN EACH COUNTRY WHO HAVE THE GREATEST INTEREST IN READING WITH THE QUARTER OF
}
iÀÊÀi>`}Ê STUDENTS WITH THE LEAST INTEREST 7HAT THE RESULTS DO NOT SHOW IS THAT COUNTRIES
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÜÌ
Ê WITH KEENER READERS ACHIEVE ON AVERAGE BETTER READING RESULTS )N FACT SOME
VÕÌÀið COUNTRIES WITH ABOVE
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN READING SUCH AS !USTRIA AND
+OREA SHOW COMPARATIVELY LOW INTEREST IN READING 7HAT THE RESULTS DO SHOW
HOWEVER IS THAT WITHIN COUNTRIES STUDENTS WITH A GREATER INTEREST IN READING
TEND TO ACHIEVE BETTER RESULTS THAN THOSE WITH LESS INTEREST /N AVERAGE THE
DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN THE
STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE INTEREST
IN
READING INDEX IS
SUBSTANTIAL POINTS OR ABOUT THE SIZE OF A WHOLE PROFICIENCY LEVEL 4ABLE
)N THE COUNTRY WITH THE HIGHEST OVERALL VALUES &INLAND THE QUARTER OF STUDENTS
WHO REPORT THE LOWEST LEVEL OF INTEREST IN READING PERFORM AT THE LEVEL OF THE
/%#$ AVERAGE POINTS WHILE THE QUARTER WITH THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF INTEREST
SCORE POINTS A DIFFERENCE OF POINTS
4HE CAUSAL NATURE OF THIS RELATIONSHIP MAY WELL BE COMPLEX AND IS DIFFICULT TO
DISCERN )NTEREST IN THE SUBJECT AND PERFORMANCE MAY BE MUTUALLY REINFORCING
4HEY MAY ALSO BE AFFECTED BY OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS THE SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS
OF STUDENTS AND THEIR SCHOOLS 7HATEVER THE NATURE OF THIS RELATIONSHIP A
POSITIVE DISPOSITION TO READING REMAINS AN IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL GOAL IN ITS
OWN RIGHT
7HEN COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE BY STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX BETWEEN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES THE READER SHOULD BEAR IN MIND
THAT THE OVERALL LEVEL OF INTEREST IN READING MAY VARY ITSELF BETWEEN COUNTRIES
&URTHERMORE AS WILL BE SHOWN IN #HAPTER SOME OF THIS VARIATION IS ACCOUNTED
FOR BY GENDER DIFFERENCES &OR EXAMPLE AS SHOWN IN 4ABLE STUDENTS IN THE
TOP QUARTER OF THE INDEX IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK &INLAND AND )RELAND
REPORT A MUCH GREATER INTEREST IN READING THAN STUDENTS IN THE TOP QUARTER OF THE
INDEX IN "ELGIUM &LEMISH #OMMUNITY OR +OREA 3IMILARLY THE RANGE OF VALUES
OF THE INTEREST INDEX ALSO VARIES SUBSTANTIALLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES )N )RELAND THERE
IS MUCH WIDER VARIATION IN STUDENTS INTEREST IN READING THAN IN -EXICO 4O
ACCOUNT FOR THESE DIFFERENCES AND TO PROVIDE AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIVE IMPACT
OF INTEREST IN READING ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE &IGURE ALSO INDICATES HOW MUCH IMPROVEMENT IN READING PERFORMANCE
IN EACH COUNTRY IS ASSOCIATED WITH A SINGLE UNIT ON THE INTEREST
IN
READING INDEX
&OR EXAMPLE IN !USTRALIA AND 3WEDEN ONE UNIT INCREASE ON THE INTEREST
IN
READING INDEX IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASE IN READING PERFORMANCE OF MORE
THAN POINTS /%#$ AVERAGE POINTS
"ÞÊ>ÊÀÌÞÊvÊ !BOUT HALF OF YEAR OLDS CONSIDER MATHEMATICS TO BE IMPORTANT BUT RATHER
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÃiiÃÊ>Ì i>ÌVÃÊ FEWER THINK THIS A REASON FOR PURSUING IT FURTHER /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$
>ÃÊ«ÀÌ>ÌÊvÀÊÌ iÀÊ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT MATHEMATICS IS IMPORTANT FOR
vÕÌÕÀið THEM PERSONALLY !NOTHER PER CENT DECLARE THAT IT IS SOMEWHAT IMPORTANT
FOR THEM "Y CONTRAST ONLY PER CENT ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
AGREE THAT BECAUSE DOING MATHEMATICS IS FUN THEY WOULD NOT WANT TO GIVE IT UP
ANOTHER PER CENT DECLARE THIS TO BE SOMEWHAT THE CASE 4WENTY
SIX PER CENT
DISAGREE THAT MATHEMATICS IS FUN AND ANOTHER PER CENT DISAGREE SOMEWHAT
FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
)N ADDITION TO EXAMINING INTEREST IN READING &IGURE ALSO PROVIDES A
SUMMARY OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX AND
REFERENCES TO ITS CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX ! 4OWARDS THE
HIGHER END OF THE INDEX MORE STUDENTS REPORT THAT THEY BECOME TOTALLY
ABSORBED WHEN THEY DO MATHEMATICS THAT MATHEMATICS IS IMPORTANT TO THEM
PERSONALLY AND THAT BECAUSE DOING MATHEMATICS IS FUN THEY WOULD NOT WANT
TO GIVE IT UP
#OUNTRY MEANS VARY MORE ON THE INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS INDEX THAN THEY DO ÌiÀiÃÌÊÊ>Ì i>ÌVÃÊ
ON THE INTEREST IN READING INDEX n ALTHOUGH THE VARIATION WITHIN COUNTRIES IS Û>ÀiÃÊÀiÊÃÌÀ}ÞÊ
STILL MUCH LARGER THAN THAT BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4ABLE 3INCE MORE LEARNING LiÌÜiiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌ >Ê
TAKES PLACE IN SCHOOL IN THE CASE OF MATHEMATICS THAN IN THAT OF READING ÌiÀiÃÌÊÊÀi>`}°
SUCH DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES MAY SUGGEST THAT EDUCATION SYSTEMS HAVE
AN IMPACT ON THE ATTITUDES OF YOUNG PEOPLE TOWARDS MATHEMATICS 4HIS IF
CONFIRMED BY FURTHER RESEARCH WILL BE AN IMPORTANT FINDING FOR EDUCATION
POLICY 'IVEN THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS FOR STUDENTS FUTURE
LIVES IT IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS TO ENSURE THAT STUDENTS
HAVE BOTH THE INTEREST AND THE MOTIVATION TO CONTINUE LEARNING IN THIS AREA
BEYOND SCHOOL
!S IN READING THE COUNTRY LEVEL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS ÃÊÜÌ ÊÀi>`}]ÊÜÊ
AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE IS MIXED 4HE EXAMPLES OF >ÛiÀ>}iÊÌiÀiÃÌÊ`iÃÊÌÊ
$ENMARK AND TO A LESSER EXTENT )CELAND AND .EW :EALAND SHOW THAT A RELATIVELY >Ü>ÞÃÊi>Ê«ÀÊ
HIGH AVERAGE LEVEL OF STUDENTS INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS CAN BE COMBINED WITH VÕÌÀÞÊ«iÀvÀ>Vio
STRONG COUNTRY PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS 4ABLE !T THE SAME TIME
STUDENTS IN !USTRIA +OREA AND 3WEDEN PERFORM ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE ON THE
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BUT THEY DISPLAY LOW OR AVERAGE LEVELS OF INTEREST IN
MATHEMATICS
7HILE THE PATTERN VARIES BETWEEN COUNTRIES WITHIN COUNTRIES THE RELATIONSHIP o>Ì Õ} ÊÜÌ Ê
BETWEEN INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IS VÕÌÀiÃ]ÊÌiÀiÃÌÊÊ
POSITIVE ALBEIT LESS PRONOUNCED THAN IN READING /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ >Ì i>ÌVÃÊ>`Ê
COUNTRIES POINTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE SEPARATE THE TOP AND «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>ÀiÊ
BOTTOM QUARTERS OF STUDENTS ON THE INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS INDEX COMPARED «ÃÌÛiÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`°Ê
WITH POINTS IN READING LITERACY
4HE FACT THAT IN SOME COUNTRIES AT LEAST STUDENT INTEREST VARIES BETWEEN /
iÊv>VÌÊÌ
>ÌÊÌiÀiÃÌÊV>Ê
SUBJECT DOMAINS MAY BE ANOTHER INDICATION THAT INTEREST IS RELATED TO THE WAY Û>ÀÞÊLÞÊÃÕLiVÌÊÃÕ}}iÃÌÃÊ
IN WHICH LEARNING AND TEACHING OCCUR 4HE DIFFERENCE IS LARGEST IN $ENMARK Ì
>ÌÊÌÊ>ÞÊLiÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ
WHERE STUDENTS SHOW A MUCH STRONGER INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS THAN IN READING
ÜÊi>À}ÊVVÕÀð
n A PATTERN THAT IS MIRRORED IN ABOVE
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICAL
LITERACY COMPARED WITH ONLY AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY 4HE
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE NEXT LARGEST DIFFERENCES ARE &INLAND .ORWAY AND
3WEDEN 4HESE COUNTRIES SHOW A MUCH GREATER INTEREST IN READING THAN IN
MATHEMATICS
2EADING ACTIVITIES AND ENGAGEMENT IN READING
,i>`}Ê>VÌÛÌiÃÊ>`Ê )N ADDITION TO SUBJECT MOTIVATION READING ACTIVITIES AND ENGAGEMENT IN READ
i}>}iiÌÊÊÀi>`}Ê ING ARE DECISIVE FACTORS IN THE MAINTENANCE AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF READ
>ÀiÊ`iVÃÛiÊv>VÌÀÃÊÊ ING SKILLS 4HE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY FINDING THAT READING SKILLS
`iÛi«}Ê>`Ê CAN DETERIORATE AFTER THE COMPLETION OF INITIAL EDUCATION IF THEY ARE NOT USED
>Ì>}ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA POINTS TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MAINTE
ÃÃo NANCE OF LITERACY SKILLS 0OSITIVE READING ACTIVITIES AND ENGAGEMENT IN READING
ARE THEREFORE IMPORTANT OUTCOMES OF INITIAL EDUCATION AS WELL AS PREDICTORS OF
LEARNING SUCCESS THROUGHOUT LIFE
3TUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH FOR EXAMPLE THEY READ FOR
PLEASURE ENJOY TALKING ABOUT BOOKS OR VISIT BOOKSTORES AND LIBRARIES AND THE
GENERAL IMPORTANCE THEY ATTACH TO READING CAN INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH
THEY WILL READ IN THE FUTURE FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX AND REFERENCES TO ITS
CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX !
oLÕÌÊ>ÞÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ !MONG /%#$ COUNTRIES THE RESULTS OF 0)3! SUGGEST THAT MUCH MORE
Ài>`ÊÞÊvÊÌ iÞÊ >ÛiÊ NEEDS TO BE DONE TO FOSTER THE POSITIVE ENGAGEMENT OF STUDENTS IN READING
Ì]ÊÀÊVÃ`iÀÊÀi>`}Ê>Ê /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORT READING
Ü>ÃÌiÊvÊÌi° ONLY TO OBTAIN THE INFORMATION THAT THEY NEED MORE THAN ONE THIRD REPORT
THAT THEY READ ONLY IF THEY HAVE TO AND PER CENT AGREE OR STRONGLY
AGREE WITH THE STATEMENT THAT READING IS A WASTE OF TIME FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
&IGURE COMPARES COUNTRIES ON AN INDEX THAT SUMMARISES THE VARIOUS
QUESTIONS IN 0)3! ABOUT STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN READING 4HIS INDEX EXTENDS
THE INDEX SHOWN IN &IGURE BY INCORPORATING A BROADER RANGE OF ATTITUDES
TOWARDS READING ! POSITIVE VALUE ON THE INDEX INDICATES THAT STUDENTS IN THE
COUNTRY CONCERNED REPORT MORE FREQUENTLY THAN STUDENTS AT THE /%#$ AVERAGE
LEVEL THAT READING IS ONE OF THEIR FAVOURITE HOBBIES THAT THEY LIKE TALKING ABOUT
BOOKS WITH OTHER PEOPLE THAT THEY FEEL HAPPY IF THEY RECEIVE A BOOK AS A PRESENT
AND THAT THEY ENJOY GOING TO A BOOKSTORE OR A LIBRARY ! POSITIVE VALUE ALSO
INDICATES THAT STUDENTS REPORT LESS FREQUENTLY THAT THEY READ ONLY IF THEY HAVE TO
THAT THEY FIND IT HARD TO FINISH BOOKS THAT READING IS A WASTE OF TIME THAT THEY
READ ONLY TO GET THE INFORMATION THAT THEY NEED AND THAT THEY CANNOT SIT STILL AND
READ FOR MORE THAN A FEW MINUTES
}>}iiÌÊÊÀi>`}Ê &IGURE SHOWS THE MEAN VALUES FOR COUNTRIES ON THE ENGAGEMENT IN READING
`vviÀÃÊÜ`iÞÊLiÌÜiiÊ INDEX 4HE GAP BETWEEN COUNTRIES THAT REPORT HIGH LEVELS OF ENGAGEMENT IN
VÕÌÀiÃo READING SUCH AS THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC &INLAND -EXICO AND 0ORTUGAL AND THOSE
WITH LOW LEVELS OF ENGAGEMENT "ELGIUM THE .ETHERLANDS AND .ORWAY IS
APPROXIMATELY HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE INDEX 4ABLE
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°Ó
%NGAGEMENT IN READING AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
!
" 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
.ETHERLANDS
#ANADA
+OREA
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
'ERMANY
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
,UXEMBOURG
.ORWAY
3WITZERLAND
3WEDEN
5NITED 3TATES
!USTRALIA
&RANCE
)RELAND
$ENMARK
3PAIN
*APAN
)TALY
.EW :EALAND
)CELAND
&INLAND
0OLAND
(UNGARY
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
-EXICO
2USSIAN &EDERATION
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
oLÕÌÊÊiÛiÀÞÊVÕÌÀÞÊ &IGURE ALSO COMPARES PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
iiÊÀi>`iÀÃÊ«iÀvÀÊ BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS OF THE ENGAGEMENT
IN
READING
ÕV
ÊLiÌÌiÀÊÌ
>ÊÌ
ÃiÊ INDEX AND THE INCREASE IN PERFORMANCE PER UNIT CHANGE IN THE INDEX )N VIRTU
Ài«ÀÌ}ÊÜÊiÛiÃÊvÊ ALLY EVERY COUNTRY THERE IS A CLOSE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ENGAGEMENT IN READING
i}>}iiÌ° AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE WHICH IN OUT OF COUNTRIES EXCEEDS POINTS
IE ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION AND IN ALL BUT SEVEN COUNTRIES ONE
PROFICIENCY LEVEL 4ABLE
ÊÃÕLÃÌ>Ì>ÊÀÌÞÊ !NOTHER IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE EQUATION OF STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN READING IS
vÊÃÌÕ`iÌð°° THE TIME THAT STUDENTS SPEND READING FOR ENJOYMENT )N INTERPRETING THE OBSERVED
VARIATION IN THE TIME THAT STUDENTS ACTUALLY SPEND READING FOR ENJOYMENT IT IS OF
COURSE NECESSARY TO KEEP IN MIND THAT THE TIME STUDENTS CAN ACTUALLY DEVOTE TO
READING MAY ALSO VARY BETWEEN COUNTRIES AS A RESULT OF DIFFERENCES IN THE LENGTH OF
THE SCHOOL DAY HOMEWORK REQUIREMENTS OR OTHER OUT
OF
SCHOOL ACTIVITIES
o`ÊÌÊëi`ÊÌiÊ &IGURE SHOWS THE TIME THAT STUDENTS SPEND READING FOR ENJOYMENT EACH DAY
Ài>`}ÊvÀÊiÞiÌ° TOGETHER WITH PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE /N AVERAGE
ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS AND IN !USTRIA "ELGIUM
'ERMANY *APAN AND THE 5NITED 3TATES MORE THAN PER CENT REPORT THAT THEY
DO NOT READ FOR ENJOYMENT AT ALL 4HE MEAN AVERAGE PERFORMANCE FOR THESE
STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE n POINTS n IS WELL BELOW THE
AVERAGE FOR THE /%#$ AS A WHOLE 4ABLE
`ÕV>ÌÊÃÞÃÌiÃÊ !NOTHER PER CENT OF STUDENTS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES READ FOR
à Õ`ÊÃÌÀÛiÊvÀÊ>Ê MINUTES OR LESS PER DAY 4HEIR MEAN PERFORMANCE IS ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
i>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ POINTS ! FURTHER THIRD OF STUDENTS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES READ
Ì >ÌÊiVÕÀ>}iÃÊÀi>`}Ê FOR BETWEEN MINUTES AND HOURS PER DAY WITH PERFORMANCE LEVELS AROUND
LiÞ`ÊÃV ð POINTS 3TUDENTS WHO REPORT READING FOR LONGER SCORE POINTS CLOSE TO
THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4ABLE AND THEIR LOWER PERFORMANCE MIGHT BE EXPLAINED
BY THE FACT THAT THESE STUDENTS TAKE LONGER TO READ MATERIALS THAN HIGH ACHIEVERS
4HE LOW PERFORMANCE BY STUDENTS WHO DO NOT READ FOR ENJOYMENT POINTS TO THE
NEED FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS TO PROVIDE A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT THAT ENCOURAGES
READING OUTSIDE SCHOOL
"ROADER ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
*ÃÌÛiÊÀi>ÌÃ
«ÃÊ $ISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOUR POOR ATTENDANCE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL
ÜÌ
ÊÃV
Ê>ÀiÊ MAY OFTEN BE ASSOCIATED WITH LOW ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND THE DECISION TO
«ÀÌ>Ìo WITHDRAW FROM SCHOOL /N THE OTHER HAND RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT IF STUDENTS
BECOME INVOLVED IN THEIR SCHOOL CURRICULA OR EXTRA
CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND
DEVELOP STRONG TIES WITH OTHER STUDENTS AND TEACHERS THEY ARE MORE LIKELY TO DO
WELL IN THEIR STUDIES AND TO COMPLETE SECONDARY SCHOOL
oLÕÌÊÊ>ÞÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ )N 0)3! YEAR OLD STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO REPORT THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARDS
>À}iÊÕLiÀÃÊvÊ SCHOOL )N OF THE /%#$ COUNTRIES MORE THAN ONE QUARTER OF STUDENTS
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊviiÊi}>ÌÛiÊ AGREE OR STRONGLY AGREE THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE THEY DO NOT WANT TO GO )N
>LÕÌÊÃV o "ELGIUM #ANADA &RANCE (UNGARY )TALY AND THE 5NITED 3TATES THIS PROPORTION
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°Î
4IME SPENT READING FOR ENJOYMENT AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
! 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT THEY READ MORE THAN HOURS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
READ BETWEEN AND HOURS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
READ BETWEEN AND MINUTES EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
READ MINUTES OR LESS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
DO NOT READ FOR ENJOYMENT
,ATVIA
.ETHERLANDS
!USTRALIA
#ANADA
$ENMARK
&RANCE
'REECE
3PAIN
5NITED +INGDOM
"RAZIL
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
&INLAND
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
-EXICO
,UXEMBOURG
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
2USSIAN &EDERATION
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING READ MORE THAN HOURS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
LITERACY SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT THEY READ BETWEEN AND HOURS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
READ BETWEEN AND MINUTES EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
READ MINUTES OR LESS EACH DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
DO NOT READ FOR ENJOYMENT
.EW :EALAND
,ATVIA
.ETHERLANDS
!USTRALIA
#ANADA
&INLAND
&RANCE
'REECE
)CELAND
)RELAND
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
)TALY
*APAN
-EXICO
3PAIN
3WEDEN
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
5NITED 3TATES
"RAZIL
2USSIAN &EDERATION
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
RANGES IN ORDER FROM TO PER CENT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG %VEN
IN SOME OF THE COUNTRIES WITH THE BEST PERFORMANCE IN 0)3! SUCH AS !USTRALIA
#ANADA AND +OREA BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS AGREE OR STRONGLY
AGREE THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE THEY DO NOT WANT TO GO "Y CONTRAST THIS
FIGURE IS LESS THAN PER CENT IN $ENMARK -EXICO 0ORTUGAL AND 3WEDEN
)N ALMOST HALF OF THE /%#$ COUNTRIES THE MAJORITY OF STUDENTS ALSO AGREE OR
STRONGLY AGREE THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE IN WHICH THEY FEEL BORED AND IN 'REECE
)RELAND AND 3PAIN THESE FEELINGS ARE HELD BY AROUND TWO THIRDS OF STUDENTS "UT
AGAIN STUDENT RESPONSES VARY CONSIDERABLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG WHICH SUGGESTS THAT DISAFFECTION WITH SCHOOL AT THIS AGE IS
ALTHOUGH COMMON NOT INEVITABLE
o>`ÊÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ $OES IT MATTER THAT MANY STUDENTS DO NOT LIKE BEING AT SCHOOL 0ERHAPS YOUNG
«iÀvÀÊÜÀÃiÊÌ >ÊÌ ÃiÊ PEOPLE NEED NOT LIKE ALL THE THINGS THAT ARE GOOD FOR THEM 4HE EVIDENCE IS
ÜÌ ÊÀiÊ«ÃÌÛiÊÛiÜð HOWEVER THAT THOSE WHO DO LIKE SCHOOL PERFORM BETTER THAN THOSE WHO DO NOT
)N ALMOST ALL COUNTRIES STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE TO WHICH THEY
WANT TO GO PERFORM BETTER ON AVERAGE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
THAN STUDENTS WHO SAY THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE THEY DO NOT WANT TO GO FOR
DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
&IGURE SHOWS THAT ACROSS THE /%#$ AN AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF STUDENTS
REPORT THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE THEY MAKE FRIENDS EASILY AND THREE QUARTERS
SAY THAT SCHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE THEY FEEL THEY BELONG THE PROPORTION RANGING
FROM AROUND HALF OR LESS IN &RANCE AND 3PAIN TO PER CENT IN (UNGARY
AND -EXICO FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG "Y CONTRAST THERE IS A SMALL BUT
SIGNIFICANT GROUP OF STUDENTS FOR WHOM SCHOOL IS A DIFFICULT SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
/N AVERAGE ACROSS THE /%#$ PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT SCHOOL IS
A PLACE WHERE THEY FEEL AWKWARD AND OUT OF PLACE THOUGH IN 3WEDEN AND THE
5NITED +INGDOM THIS FIGURE IS LESS THAN PER CENT
i}>ÌÛiÊ>ÌÌÌÕ`iÃÊÌÊ 4HE DATA DO NOT ESTABLISH A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE FACTORS AND
ÃV
Ê`ÊÌÊiViÃÃ>ÀÞÊ STUDENT PERFORMANCE )N ADDITION THERE ARE OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BOTH
V>ÕÃiÊÜÊ>V
iÛiiÌ]Ê PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL OR CONVERSELY DOING WELL AT SCHOOL
LÕÌÊÌ
iÞÊ>ÀiÊ MIGHT CAUSE STUDENTS TO LIKE IT RATHER THAN VICE VERSA )N VIEW OF THE SUBSTANTIAL
Õ`iÃÀ>Lio INVESTMENT THAT ALL COUNTRIES MAKE IN EDUCATION HOWEVER IT IS UNSATISFACTORY
THAT A SIGNIFICANT MINORITY OF STUDENTS AND IN SOME CASES EVEN A MAJORITY
DISPLAY A LACK OF ENGAGEMENT AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL )T IS HARD TO
IMAGINE THAT SCHOOLS CAN ACHIEVE OPTIMAL RESULTS UNLESS STUDENTS ARE POSITIVELY
DISPOSED !LTHOUGH THIS IS A CONSIDERABLE CHALLENGE IN THE CASE OF THE AGE GROUP
ASSESSED IN 0)3! THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE SHOULD
DEVOTE SUFFICIENT ATTENTION TO CREATING AN ENGAGING LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR ALL
STUDENTS
o>`ÊV>Ê`iÌiÀÊvÕÌÕÀiÊ -OREOVER NOT ONLY IS THIS LACK OF ENGAGEMENT ASSOCIATED NEGATIVELY WITH STUDENT
i>À}° PERFORMANCE BUT STUDENTS WHO ARE DISAFFECTED WITH SCHOOL MAY ALSO BE LESS
LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES EITHER INSIDE OR OUTSIDE EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS IN LATER LIFE
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°{
"ROADER ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS WHO AGREE OR STRONGLY AGREE THAT h3CHOOL IS A PLACE WHERE
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
) OFTEN FEEL BOREDv
) DO NOT WANT TO GOv
) FEEL LONELYv
OTHER STUDENTS SEEM
TO LIKE MEv
) FEEL AWKWARD AND
OUT OF PLACEv
) FEEL LIKE ) BELONGv
) MAKE FRIENDS EASILYv
) FEEL LIKE AN OUTSIDER
OR LEFT OUT OF THINGS v
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
,EARNING STRATEGIES
#ONTROLLING THE LEARNING PROCESS
3TUDENTS DO NOT PASSIVELY RECEIVE AND PROCESS INFORMATION 4HEY ARE ACTIVE -ÌÕ`iÌÃÊii`ÊÌÊ
PARTICIPANTS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS CONSTRUCTING MEANING IN WAYS SHAPED «>ÀÌV«>ÌiÊ>VÌÛiÞÊÊ
BY THEIR OWN PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND NEW EXPERIENCES 3TUDENTS WITH A WELL
>>}}Êi>À}o
DEVELOPED ABILITY TO MANAGE THEIR OWN LEARNING ARE ABLE TO CHOOSE APPROPRIATE
LEARNING GOALS TO USE THEIR EXISTING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO DIRECT THEIR LEARNING
AND TO SELECT LEARNING STRATEGIES APPROPRIATE TO THE TASK IN HAND 7HILE THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THESE SKILLS AND ATTITUDES HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN AN EXPLICIT
FOCUS OF TEACHING IN SCHOOLS THEY ARE INCREASINGLY BEING IDENTIFIED EXPLICITLY AS
MAJOR GOALS OF SCHOOLING AND SHOULD THEREFORE ALSO BE REGARDED AS SIGNIFICANT
OUTCOMES OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
o>`ÊÌÊ`iÛi«Ê !N EFFECTIVE LEARNER PROCESSES INFORMATION EFFICIENTLY 4HIS REQUIRES MORE THAN
>««À«À>ÌiÊÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊvÀÊ THE CAPACITY TO MEMORISE NEW INFORMATION )T CALLS FOR THE ABILITY TO RELATE
i>V
Êi>À}ÊÌ>ð NEW MATERIAL TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE AND TO DETERMINE HOW KNOWLEDGE CAN BE
APPLIED IN THE REAL WORLD ! GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF LEARNING STRATEGIES STRENGTH
ENS STUDENTS CAPACITY TO ORGANISE THEIR OWN LEARNING 'OOD LEARNERS CAN APPLY
AN EFFECTIVE ARSENAL OF LEARNING STRATEGIES IN A SUITABLY FLEXIBLE MANNER /N THE
OTHER HAND STUDENTS WHO HAVE PROBLEMS LEARNING ON THEIR OWN OFTEN HAVE NO
ACCESS TO EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE AND MONITOR THEIR LEARNING OR FAIL TO
SELECT A STRATEGY APPROPRIATE TO THE TASK IN HAND
*-Ê>Ãi`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 3TUDENTS WERE ALSO ASKED ABOUT THE LEARNING PROCESS ITSELF !N INDEX OF CONTROL
>LÕÌÊÌ
iÊi>À}Ê STRATEGIES WAS DERIVED FROM RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ABOUT THE FREQUENCY WITH
«ÀViÃÃÊÌÃivo WHICH STUDENTS FIGURE OUT WHAT THEY NEED TO LEARN WORK OUT AS THEY GO
WHAT CONCEPTS THEY HAVE NOT UNDERSTOOD LOOK FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
WHEN THEY DO NOT UNDERSTAND CHECK WHETHER THEY REMEMBER WHAT THEY HAVE
LEARNED AND MAKE SURE THEY HAVE REMEMBERED THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS
4HE COMPOSITE INDEX WAS CONSTRUCTED WITH THE AVERAGE SCORE ACROSS COUNTRIES
SET AT AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION SET AT FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX AND
REFERENCES TO ITS CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX ! ! POSITIVE VALUE ON
THE INDEX INDICATES USE OF THESE CONTROL STRATEGIES THAT IS MORE FREQUENT THAN
THE /%#$ AVERAGE
&IGURE COMPARES COUNTRIES ON THE BASIS OF YEAR OLDS REPORTS ON THEIR
USE OF CONTROL STRATEGIES IN THE LEARNING PROCESS 4HE MEAN SCORE ON THE INDEX
OF CONTROL STRATEGIES VARIES STUDENTS IN !USTRIA THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY
(UNGARY )TALY AND 0ORTUGAL REPORTING THE MOST FREQUENT USE OF SELF REGULATING
CONTROL STRATEGIES 3TUDENTS IN &INLAND )CELAND +OREA AND .ORWAY REPORT USING
THEM LEAST FREQUENTLY 4ABLE
o>`ÊvÕ`ÊÌ
>ÌÊÌ
iÊ 5SING CONTROL STRATEGIES EFFECTIVELY IS POSITIVELY RELATED TO STUDENT
ÕÃiÊvÊÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊÌÊ PERFORMANCE 7ITHIN EACH COUNTRY STUDENTS WHO USE THEM MORE FREQUENTLY
>>}iÊ«iÀÃ>Ê TEND TO PERFORM BETTER ON THE COMBINED 0)3! READING LITERACY SCALE THAN
i>À}ÊÃÊ«ÃÌÛiÞÊ THOSE WHO DO NOT ALTHOUGH WHETHER THE LEARNING STRATEGIES CAUSE THE BETTER
Ài>Ìi`ÊÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi° RESULTS CANNOT BE ESTABLISHED 4HE ASSOCIATION IS MOST MARKED IN !USTRALIA
.EW :EALAND AND 0ORTUGAL WHERE THE QUARTER OF STUDENTS WHO USE THESE
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING THE MOST ARE ON AVERAGE A FULL PROFICIENCY LEVEL
AHEAD OF THE QUARTER WHO USE THEM LEAST !T THE /%#$ AVERAGE LEVEL THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS IS POINTS )N RELATIVE
TERMS A DIFFERENCE OF ONE UNIT ON THE INDEX CORRESPONDS TO POINTS ON
AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HE STRATEGIES ARE ESSENTIAL FOR EFFECTIVE
SELF
REGULATION OF LEARNING BECAUSE THEY HELP STUDENTS TO ADAPT THEIR LEARNING
TO THE PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THE TASK ON WHICH THEY ARE WORKING 3CHOOLS
MAY NEED TO GIVE MORE EXPLICIT ATTENTION TO ALLOWING STUDENTS TO MANAGE
AND CONTROL THEIR LEARNING IN ORDER TO HELP THEM ALL TO DEVELOP EFFECTIVE
STRATEGIES NOT ONLY TO SUPPORT THEIR LEARNING AT SCHOOL BUT ALSO TO PROVIDE
THEM WITH THE TOOLS TO MANAGE THEIR LEARNING LATER IN LIFE
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°x
#ONTROLLING THE LEARNING PROCESS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
!
" 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
.ETHERLANDS
!USTRALIA
!USTRIA
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
"ELGIUM &L
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
,IECHTENSTEIN
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
-EMORISATION AND ELABORATION
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊii`ÊLÌ ÊÌÊ -EMORISATION STRATEGIES EG READING MATERIAL ALOUD SEVERAL TIMES AND LEARNING
iÀÃiÊiÜÊ KEY TERMS ARE IMPORTANT IN MANY TASKS BUT THEY COMMONLY ONLY LEAD TO
vÀ>ÌÊ>`ÊÌÊ VERBATIM REPRESENTATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE NEW INFORMATION BEING STORED IN THE
Õ`iÀÃÌ>`Ê ÜÊÌÊÀi>ÌiÃÊ MEMORY WITH LITTLE FURTHER PROCESSING 7HERE THE LEARNERS GOAL IS TO BE ABLE TO
ÌÊÌ iÀÊ«ÀÀÊÜi`}i° RETRIEVE THE INFORMATION AS PRESENTED MEMORISATION IS AN APPROPRIATE STRATEGY
BUT SUCH hLEARNING BY ROTEv RARELY LEADS TO DEEP UNDERSTANDING )N ORDER TO
ACHIEVE UNDERSTANDING NEW INFORMATION MUST BE INTEGRATED INTO A LEARNERS
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE BASE %LABORATION STRATEGIES EG EXPLORING HOW THE MATERIAL
RELATES TO THINGS ONE HAS LEARNED IN OTHER CONTEXTS OR ASKING HOW THE INFORMA
TION MIGHT BE APPLIED IN OTHER CONTEXTS CAN BE USED TO REACH THIS GOAL
iÀÃ>ÌÊ>`Ê 3TUDENTS WERE ASKED SEPARATE QUESTIONS ON THEIR USE OF MEMORISATION AND ELABORATION
i>LÀ>ÌÊÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊ>ÀiÊ STRATEGIES /N THE BASIS OF THEIR RESPONSES AN INDEX WAS CREATED FOR EACH OF THESE
V«iiÌ>ÀÞ° LEARNING STRATEGIES 4HE MEMORISATION INDEX IS DERIVED FROM RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS
ABOUT THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THE STUDENT TRIES TO MEMORISE EVERYTHING COVERED
AIMS TO MEMORISE NEW MATERIAL IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO RECITE IT AND PRACTISES BY SAYING
THE MATERIAL OVER AND OVER AGAIN 4HE ELABORATION INDEX IS DERIVED FROM RESPONSES
TO QUESTIONS ABOUT THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THE STUDENT TRIES TO UNDERSTAND THE
MATERIAL BETTER BY RELATING IT TO THINGS ALREADY KNOWN TRIES TO RELATE THE NEW MATERIAL
TO THINGS LEARNED IN OTHER SUBJECTS OR FIGURES OUT HOW THE INFORMATION MIGHT BE
USEFUL IN THE REAL WORLD FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDICES AND REFERENCES TO THEIR
CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX ! 4HE INDICES ARE CONSTRUCTED WITH THE
AVERAGE SCORE ACROSS COUNTRIES SET AT AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION SET AT
&IGURE USES THE MEMORISATION AND ELABORATION INDICES TO COMPARE COUNTRIES
ON THE BASIS OF
YEAR
OLDS REPORTED USE OF THESE TWO TYPES OF STRATEGIES
/
iÊÕÃiÊvÊi>LÀ>ÌÊ &REQUENT USE OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES TENDS TO BE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH PERFORMANCE
ÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊÃÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THE TOP
ÜÌ
Ê}`Ê AND BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTERS ON THE INDEX BEING POINTS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$
«iÀvÀ>Vio COUNTRIES 4HE APPARENT ADVANTAGE OF USING THESE STRATEGIES VARIES GREATLY HOWEVER
THE TOP QUARTER OF STUDENTS BEING POINTS AHEAD ALMOST ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL OF
THE BOTTOM QUARTER IN 0ORTUGAL POINTS AHEAD IN +OREA AND POINTS IN 'ERMANY
BUT LESS THAN POINTS AHEAD IN "ELGIUM &LEMISH #OMMUNITY )RELAND )TALY THE
.ETHERLANDS .EW :EALAND AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4ABLE
oÜ
iÊiÀÃ>ÌÊ 5SE OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES SHOWS A MIXED RELATIONSHIP WITH STUDENT
ÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊ«>ÞÊ>ÊiÃÃÊ PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE %LEVEN COUNTRIES SHOW
LÛÕÃÊÀi° HIGHER PERFORMANCE BY STUDENTS IN THE TOP QUARTER OF THE INDEX THAN BY THOSE
IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER FIVE COUNTRIES SHOW THE REVERSE AND THE REMAINING
COUNTRIES SHOW NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES 4ABLE
-V
ÃÊÃ
Õ`Ê
i«ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ /VERALL THE DATA SUGGEST THAT ELABORATION STRATEGIES ARE MORE STRONGLY RELATED
ÌÊÕ`iÀÃÌ>`Ê>`Ê`iÛi«Ê TO STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4HEY MAY THUS BE MORE IMPORTANT THAN STRAIGHTFORWARD
ÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊvÀÊ>>}}ÊÌ
iÀÊ MEMORISATION STRATEGIES WHICH STUDENTS MIGHT USE MORE INTUITIVELY !S WITH CONTROL
ÜÊi>À}° STRATEGIES IT IS CLEAR THAT SCHOOLS SHOULD HELP STUDENTS TO UNDERSTAND AND DEVELOP THE
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°È
-EMORISATION AND ELABORATION STRATEGIES AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
! )NDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
)NDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
0ERFORMANCE ON THE INDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
"
0ERFORMANCE ON THE INDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NDICES OF MEMORISATION AND ELABORATION STRATEGIES
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDICES
.ETHERLANDS
.ORWAY
)TALY
)CELAND
!USTRIA
+OREA
&INLAND
)RELAND
,UXEMBOURG
'ERMANY
"ELGIUM &L
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
3WITZERLAND
-EXICO
0ORTUGAL
!USTRALIA
3WEDEN
$ENMARK
.EW :EALAND
(UNGARY
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE INDICES OF MEMORISATION AND ELABORATION STRATEGIES
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLES AND
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
STRATEGIES THAT WILL BEST ENHANCE THEIR LEARNING 4HERE WILL BE A BENEFIT WHILE THEY ARE
AT SCHOOL BUT POTENTIALLY AN EVEN LARGER BENEFIT WHEN THEY LEARN WITH LESS SUPPORT IN
ADULT LIFE !S EVER ANY CONCLUSIONS NEED TO BE DRAWN HOWEVER IN CLOSE CONNECTION
WITH THE CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT OF THE COUNTRY CONCERNED
#O
OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING
«iÀ>ÌÛiÊ>`Ê ,EARNING IN ADULT LIFE OCCURS MOST FREQUENTLY IN CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH PEOPLE
V«iÌÌÛiÊi>À}ÊV>Ê WORK TOGETHER AND DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER )N FORMAL EDUCATION PARTICULARLY AT
V«iiÌÊi>V
ÊÌ
iÀ° THE SECONDARY AND TERTIARY LEVELS LEARNING OFTEN OCCURS IN ISOLATION IN A CONTEXT
OF PREPARATION FOR COMPETITIVE ASSESSMENT !LTHOUGH CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING AND
COMPETITIVE LEARNING CAN BE IN CONFLICT BOTH CAN LEAD TO HIGH PERFORMANCE 4HE
RESULTS OF 0)3! SUGGEST THAT IF ACQUIRED IN TANDEM BOTH TYPES OF LEARNING
MAY ADD TO LEARNING EFFICIENCY
3EPARATE 0)3! INDICES FOR CO
OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING WERE CREATED
FROM STUDENTS REPORTS 4HE CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING INDEX IS DERIVED FROM RESPONSES
TO QUESTIONS ABOUT WHETHER STUDENTS LIKE WORKING WITH OTHERS LIKE HELPING OTHERS
DO WELL IN A GROUP LEARN MOST WHEN WORKING WITH OTHERS AND PERFORM BEST WHEN
WORKING WITH OTHERS 4HE COMPETITIVE LEARNING INDEX IS DERIVED FROM RESPONSES
TO QUESTIONS ABOUT WHETHER STUDENTS LIKE TRYING TO DO BETTER THAN OTHERS LIKE
BEING THE BEST AT SOMETHING WORK WELL WHEN TRYING TO BE BETTER THAN OTHERS AND
LEARN FASTER WHEN TRYING TO BE BETTER THAN OTHERS .OTE THAT IT WAS POSSIBLE FOR
STUDENTS TO PROVIDE POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE ANSWERS INDEPENDENTLY TO EITHER SET OF
QUESTIONS 4HE INDICES ARE CONSTRUCTED WITH THE AVERAGE SCORE ACROSS COUNTRIES SET
AT AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION SET AT FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDICES AND REFER
ENCES TO THEIR CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE !NNEX !
ÊÃiÛiÀ>ÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê 4HE MEAN SCORES OF THE INDICES ARE SHOWN IN &IGURE AND FURTHER DETAILS CAN
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÀi«ÀÌÊÌ iÊÕÃiÊ BE FOUND IN 4ABLES AND 3TUDENTS IN $ENMARK .EW :EALAND 0ORTUGAL
vÊLÌ ÊV«iÀ>ÌÛiÊ>`Ê AND THE 5NITED 3TATES REPORT HIGH SCORES ON THE CO OPERATIVE LEARNING INDEX "Y
V«iÌÌÛiÊi>À}Ê CONTRAST +OREAN STUDENTS ARE MARKEDLY NEGATIVE ABOUT BOTH CO OPERATIVE AND
«À>VÌViÃo COMPETITIVE LEARNING ALTHOUGH LESS SO ABOUT THE LATTER
oÊLÌ
ÊÌÞ«iÃÊLi}Ê "OTH COMPETITIVE AND CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING TEND TO BE POSITIVELY RELATED TO
«ÃÌÛiÞÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ALTHOUGH THE RELATIONSHIP IS
«iÀvÀ>Vio MORE PRONOUNCED IN THE CASE OF COMPETITIVE THAN IN THAT OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES POINTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE SEPARATE THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS ON THE CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING INDEX THE
DIFFERENCE BEING STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN OUT OF COUNTRIES )N COMPETITIVE
LEARNING THE AVERAGE GAP IS POINTS AND STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN COUNTRIES
oÜ
V
ÊÃÕ}}iÃÌÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ 3TUDENTS WHO LIKE CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING TEND TO PERFORM BETTER THAN THOSE
>VÌÛiÊi>ÀiÀÃÊÕÃiÊLÌ
Ê WHO DO NOT 4HOSE WHO LIKE COMPETITIVE LEARNING ALSO TEND TO PERFORM BETTER
ÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃ]Ê>ÃÊ THAN THOSE WHO DO NOT "EHIND THIS IS A GENERAL TENDENCY FOR THOSE WHO LIKE
>««À«À>Ìi° CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING ALSO TO LIKE COMPETITIVE LEARNING n AND PERHAPS THEY HAVE
A POSITIVE DISPOSITION TOWARDS LEARNING IN GENERAL 4HIS EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊ{°Ç
#O
OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING
)NDEX OF CO OPERATIVE LEARNING )NDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
(UNGARY
)CELAND
3WEDEN
'ERMANY
"ELGIUM &L
"ELOW !BOVE !USTRIA "ELOW !BOVE
/%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC /%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE
3WITZERLAND
&INLAND
!USTRALIA
.ORWAY
)TALY
-EXICO
)RELAND
.EW :EALAND
5NITED 3TATES
$ENMARK
0ORTUGAL
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,IECHTENSTEIN
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLES AND
ACTIVE LEARNERS USE BOTH STRATEGIES ON DIFFERENT OCCASIONS RATHER THAN LIMITING
THEMSELVES TO A SINGLE STRATEGY THAT MAY NOT BE THE BEST IN A PARTICULAR SITUATION
&URTHER RESEARCH IS NEEDED TO EXPLORE THESE ASPECTS IN MORE DETAIL
#OMPUTERS AS A TOOL FOR LEARNING
/%#$ ECONOMIES ARE INCREASINGLY DEPENDENT ON TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND
«ÕÌiÀÊÃÃÊ>ÀiÊÜÊ
SKILLS IN THE LABOUR FORCE 3TUDENTS WITH LITTLE OR NO EXPOSURE TO COMPUTERS AND iÃÃiÌ>°
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY MAY FACE DIFFICULTIES IN MAKING A SMOOTH TRANSITION TO
THE MODERN LABOUR MARKET
0)3! EXPLORED THREE ASPECTS OF FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS AMONG
YEAR
OLDS INTEREST IN COMPUTERS SELF
ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS ATTITUDES AND ABILITY TO
WORK WITH COMPUTERS AND USE OF AND EXPERIENCE WITH COMPUTERS 4HIS SURVEY
WAS AN INTERNATIONAL OPTION IN WHICH OF THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN
0)3! TOOK PART
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
/ iÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE /%#$ COUNTRIES SURVEYED PER CENT OF STUDENTS
>ÀiÊÌiÀiÃÌi`ÊÊÕÃ}Ê STATE THAT THEY USE A COMPUTER BECAUSE THEY ARE VERY INTERESTED IN DOING SO AND
V«ÕÌiÀÃo IN NO COUNTRY IS THIS FIGURE LESS THAN PER CENT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
!N AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF THE STUDENTS CONSIDER IT VERY IMPORTANT TO WORK
WITH A COMPUTER
&IGURE COMPARES COUNTRIES ON AN INDEX THAT SUMMARISES THE VARIOUS QUES
TIONS ON INTEREST IN COMPUTERS 4HE INDEX IS CONSTRUCTED WITH THE AVERAGE
SCORE ACROSS ALL COUNTRIES SET AT AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION SET AT FOR
THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX AND REFERENCES TO ITS CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE
!NNEX ! ! POSITIVE VALUE ON THE INDEX INDICATES THAT STUDENTS FREQUENTLY
REPORT THAT IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO THEM TO WORK WITH A COMPUTER THAT PLAYING
OR WORKING WITH A COMPUTER IS FUN THAT THEY USE A COMPUTER BECAUSE THEY
ARE VERY INTERESTED AND THAT THEY FORGET THE TIME WHEN THEY ARE WORKING WITH
A COMPUTER 4HE FIGURE SHOWS THE MEAN SCORES ON THE INTEREST
IN
COMPUTERS
INDEX
}ÕÀiÊ{°n
)NTEREST IN COMPUTERS
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS
5NITED 3TATES
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
'ERMANY
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
"ELOW !BOVE
"ELGIUM &L /%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE
)RELAND
(UNGARY
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
#ANADA
&INLAND
!USTRALIA
$ENMARK
.EW :EALAND
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,IECHTENSTEIN
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
3TUDENTS IN 'ERMANY ,UXEMBOURG -EXICO AND THE 5NITED 3TATES REPORT THE oLÕÌÊÌ iÀiÊ>ÀiÊ
GREATEST LEVEL OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS WELL OVER HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION ABOVE `vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
THE VALUES IN $ENMARK AND .EW :EALAND THE COUNTRIES WITH THE LOWEST LEVEL OF VÕÌÀiÃo
INTEREST IN COMPUTERS 4ABLE
)N MOST COUNTRIES MALES SHOW MUCH STRONGER INTEREST IN COMPUTERS THAN o>`ÊLiÌÜiiÊÌ
iÊ
FEMALES BUT THE 5NITED 3TATES IS AN EXCEPTION TO THIS WITH BOTH MALES AND }i`iÀð
FEMALES SHOWING AN EQUALLY STRONG INTEREST IN COMPUTERS 4ABLE
!N INTEREST IN COMPUTERS MAY BE A PREREQUISITE FOR THEIR EFFECTIVE USE BUT /
iÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
FAMILIARITY IS ALSO NEEDED /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF >ÀiÊ>ÃÊVvÀÌ>LiÊÜÌ
Ê
STUDENTS SAY THEY ARE COMFORTABLE OR VERY COMFORTABLE WITH USING A COMPUTER TO V«ÕÌiÀð
WRITE A PAPER AND PER CENT ARE COMFORTABLE OR VERY COMFORTABLE TAKING A TEST
ON A COMPUTER FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
&IGURE COMPARES COUNTRIES ON AN INDEX THAT SUMMARISES THE VARIOUS QUESTIONS
ON COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS 4HE INDEX IS CONSTRUCTED
WITH THE AVERAGE SCORE ACROSS COUNTRIES SET AT AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION SET AT
}ÕÀiÊ{°
#OMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
)NDEX OF COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
5NITED 3TATES
#ANADA
!USTRALIA
.EW :EALAND
"ELGIUM &L
.ORWAY "ELOW !BOVE
/%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE
$ENMARK
,UXEMBOURG
3WEDEN
&INLAND
)RELAND
-EXICO
3WITZERLAND
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
"RAZIL
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
FOR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX AND REFERENCES TO ITS CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING SEE
!NNEX ! ! POSITIVE VALUE ON THE INDEX INDICATES THAT STUDENTS FREQUENTLY REPORT THAT
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO THEM TO WORK WITH A COMPUTER THAT THEY ARE COMFORTABLE WITH
USING A COMPUTER THAT THEY ARE COMFORTABLE WITH USING A COMPUTER TO WRITE A PAPER
THAT THEY ARE COMFORTABLE WITH TAKING A TEST ON A COMPUTER AND THAT THEY RATE THEIR
ABILITY TO USE A COMPUTER AS HIGHER THAN THAT OF OTHER
YEAR
OLDS 4ABLE
ÌiÀiÃÌÊÊV«ÕÌiÀÃÊÃÊ 3TUDENTS WITH HIGHER VALUES ON THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS TEND TO
>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
}
iÀÊ PERFORM BETTER ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HIS RELATIONSHIP NEEDS
Ài>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞ]ÊLÕÌÊÌ
iÊ HOWEVER TO BE INTERPRETED WITH GREAT CAUTION SINCE NOT ONLY INFORMATION ON
Ài>ÌÃ
«ÊÃÊ THE DIRECTION OF THIS RELATIONSHIP IS ABSENT BUT THERE MAY ALSO BE THIRD FACTORS
V«V>Ìi`° IN OPERATION SUCH AS THAT STUDENTS IN MORE AFFLUENT FAMILIES OR WITH MORE
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AT HOME OR AT SCHOOL ALSO HAVE BETTER ACCESS TO COMPUTERS
AND THEREFORE GREATER INTEREST IN THEM
/
iÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 4O WHAT EXTENT IS WORKING WITH A COMPUTER RELATED TO SCHOOL /N AVERAGE
ÕÃiÊV«ÕÌiÀÃÊÀi}Õ>ÀÞÊ ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLDS USE A COMPUTER AT HOME
>ÌÊ
iÊ>`ÊÃV
o ALMOST EVERY DAY OR AT LEAST A FEW TIMES PER WEEK BUT THIS RANGES FROM PER
CENT IN -EXICO AND PER CENT IN (UNGARY AND THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC TO
MORE THAN PER CENT IN !USTRALIA #ANADA .ORWAY AND 3WEDEN FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG 4HE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO USE A COMPUTER AT SCHOOL
ALMOST EVERY DAY OR AT LEAST A FEW TIMES PER WEEK IS MUCH LOWER AT PER
CENT AT THE /%#$ AVERAGE LEVEL WITH PROPORTIONS RANGING FROM PER CENT
IN 'ERMANY TO PER CENT OR MORE IN $ENMARK (UNGARY AND THE 5NITED
+INGDOM
o>`]ÊÊÃiÊ /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ONE QUARTER OF STUDENTS USE A COMPUTER
VÕÌÀiÃ]Êi>ÀÞÊ >vÊÕÃiÊ TO ACCESS THE )NTERNET EVERY DAY AND ANOTHER QUARTER AT LEAST A FEW TIMES EACH
Ì iÊÌiÀiÌÊ>ÃÌÊ`>Þ° WEEK 4HE MOST FREQUENT USE OF THE )NTERNET IS MADE IN #ANADA AND 3WEDEN
WHERE AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS RESPECTIVELY USE A COMPUTER TO ACCESS
THE )NTERNET ALMOST EVERY DAY !N AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF STUDENTS USE A
COMPUTER FOR ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION ALMOST EVERY DAY OR AT LEAST A FEW
TIMES PER WEEK AND PER CENT USE ONE TO LEARN SCHOOL MATERIAL FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
/
iÊVÀ«À>ÌÊvÊ !LTHOUGH PROGRESS WITH INCORPORATING COMPUTERS INTO TEACHING AND LEARNING IS
V«ÕÌiÀÃÊÌÊÌi>V
}Ê GRADUAL 0ELGRUM AND !NDERSON THE RESULTS OF 0)3! SUGGEST THAT
>`Êi>À}ÊÃÊ>Ê COMPUTERS ARE ALREADY A TOOL THAT CAPTURES THE INTEREST OF
YEAR
OLDS AND THAT
}À>`Õ>Ê«ÀViÃÃ]ÊLÕÌÊÌ
iÞÊ MANY OF THEM ARE COMFORTABLE WITH USING COMPUTERS FOR EVERYDAY PURPOSES
>ÀiÊ>Ài>`ÞÊ>ÊiÞÊÌÊvÀÊ
Ì`>Þ½ÃÊ£xÞi>À`ð #ONCLUSIONS
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜ Êi>ÛiÊÃV Ê ,IFELONG LEARNING IS A WELL RECOGNISED NEED FOR INDIVIDUALS THAT CONTEMPORARY
>LiÊÌÊÃiÌÊÌ iÀÊÜÊi>À}Ê EDUCATION POLICY INCREASINGLY SEEKS TO ADDRESS 4HE NEED RAISES IMPORTANT
}>ÃÊ>`ÊÜÌ Ê>ÊÃiÃiÊÌ >ÌÊ QUESTIONS OF OPPORTUNITIES AND ACCESS BEYOND FORMAL EDUCATION BUT ALSO
Ì iÞÊV>Ê>V iÛiÊÌ iÊ>ÀiÊ IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ABOUT HOW TO DEVELOP THE CAPACITIES OF INDIVIDUALS TO
«ÌiÌ>Êi>ÀiÀÃÊvÀÊvio BENEFIT FROM THOSE OPPORTUNITIES
iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À} #(!04%2
$EVELOPING THE PREDISPOSITION OF STUDENTS TO ENGAGE WITH LEARNING AND THE
CAPACITY TO DO SO EFFECTIVELY IS AN IMPORTANT GOAL OF SCHOOL EDUCATION AND IS
INCREASINGLY EXPLICIT IN NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICIES ESPECIALLY WITH AN EYE TO
FOSTERING LIFELONG LEARNING 3TUDENTS WHO LEAVE SCHOOL WITH THE AUTONOMY TO SET
THEIR OWN LEARNING GOALS AND WITH A SENSE THAT THEY CAN REACH THOSE GOALS ARE
POTENTIAL LEARNERS FOR LIFE -OTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT CAN ALSO AFFECT STUDENTS
QUALITY OF LIFE DURING THE ADOLESCENCE AND CAN INFLUENCE WHETHER THEY WILL
SUCCESSFULLY PURSUE FURTHER EDUCATIONAL OR LABOUR MARKET OPPORTUNITIES
4HE RESULTS OF 0)3! SHOW THAT THOSE MOST LIKELY TO MEMORISE INFORMATION DO NOT o>`Ê*-Ê«ÌÃÊÌÊ
ALWAYS ACHIEVE THE BEST RESULTS BUT THOSE WHO PROCESS OR ELABORATE WHAT THEY ÃiÊvÊÌ
iÊi>À}Ê
LEARN DO WELL &INALLY 0)3! DOES NOT INDICATE THAT CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING IS SUPE
ÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊÌ
>ÌÊV>Ê
i«Ê
RIOR TO COMPETITIVE LEARNING OR VICE VERSA 4HE EVIDENCE SUGGESTS RATHER THAT ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÀi>V
ÊÌ
iÃiÊ
THE TWO STRATEGIES CAN BE USED IN A COMPLEMENTARY FASHION TO PROMOTE HIGHER }>ð
PERFORMANCE 3INCE THE USE OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING IN PARTICULAR IS CLOSELY
DEPENDENT ON THE WAY IN WHICH LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES ARE ORGANISED IN SCHOOLS
THIS CONCLUSION IS RELEVANT FOR BOTH EDUCATION POLICY AND EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE
'IVEN THE SUBSTANTIAL INVESTMENT THAT ALL COUNTRIES MAKE IN EDUCATION IT IS ÀiÊii`ÃÊÌÊLiÊ`iÊÌÊ
UNSATISFACTORY THAT A SIGNIFICANT MINORITY OF STUDENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES DISPLAY NEG
vÃÌiÀÊ«ÃÌÛiÊ
ATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEARNING AND A LACK OF ENGAGEMENT WITH SCHOOL EVEN IF i}>}iiÌÊLÞÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
THIS MAY TO SOME EXTENT BE DETERMINED BY THE AGE OF THE POPULATION ASSESSED ÜÌ
Êi>À}o
.OT ONLY DO NEGATIVE ATTITUDES SEEM TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH POOR STUDENT PER
FORMANCE BUT STUDENTS WHO ARE DISAFFECTED WITH LEARNING AT SCHOOL WILL ALSO BE
LESS LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES EITHER INSIDE OR OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL IN
LATER LIFE
/F COURSE THE LINKS BETWEEN ATTITUDES MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE ARE oÃÊÌ
>ÌÊÃÌÀ}Ê
COMPLEX AND THE ANALYSIS IN THIS CHAPTER DOES NOT PRETEND TO HAVE ESTABLISHED «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`Ê
CAUSAL LINKS )NDEED FOR PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDES THE RELATIONSHIP MAY WELL Ã>ÌÃv>VÌÊÜÌ
ÊÃV
Ê
BE RECIPROCAL STUDENTS LIKING WHAT THEY DO WELL AT AND DOING WELL AT WHAT ÀivÀViÊiÊ>Ì
iÀ°
THEY LIKE 3CHOOLS AND EDUCATION SYSTEMS NEED TO AIM AT BOTH PERFORMANCE AND
SATISFACTION AND SHOULD NOT TAKE THE RISK OF ADDRESSING ONE IN THE BELIEF THAT THE
OTHER WILL FOLLOW )F BOTH ARE ACHIEVED A MORE SECURE FOUNDATION FOR PRODUCTIVE
ENGAGEMENT WITH LIFELONG LEARNING WILL HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED
#(!04%2 iiÀ>ÊÕÌViÃÊvÊi>À}
.OTES
4HE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN THE INTERNATIONAL OPTION ON STUDENTS APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND THEIR BELIEFS IN THEIR OWN
ABILITIES INCLUDED /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HE /%#$ AVERAGE REFERS TO THESE COUNTRIES ONLY $ATA FOR "ELGIUM REFER TO THE
&LEMISH #OMMUNITY ONLY
4HE SCALE HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hDISAGREEv hDISAGREE SOMEWHATv hAGREE SOMEWHATv AND hAGREEv
)N ALL COUNTRIES EXCEPT -EXICO THE DIFFERENCE IN READING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF
THE INTEREST
IN
READING INDEX IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT (OWEVER THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS IS LESS CLEAR
SOME COUNTRIES EVEN SHOWING REVERSALS BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS
4HIS IS ESTIMATED BY THE UNSTANDARDISED REGRESSION COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ON THE
0)3! INDEX OF INTEREST IN READING 4HESE COEFFICIENTS INDICATE THE DIFFERENCE IN READING PERFORMANCE ASSOCIATED WITH ONE UNIT
INCREASE IE ONE STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE 0)3! INTEREST
IN
READING INDEX )N ALL COUNTRIES THE RELATIONSHIP IS STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE RELATIONSHIP EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE SEE !NNEX !
4HIS AND THE REMAINING SCALES IN THIS SECTION HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hDISAGREEv hDISAGREE SOMEWHATv hAGREE SOMEWHATv
AND hAGREEv
)N ALL COUNTRIES EXCEPT ,IECHTENSTEIN ,UXEMBOURG -EXICO AND 3WITZERLAND THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE INTEREST
IN
MATHEMATICS INDEX IS
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT (OWEVER THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS IS LESS CLEAR SOME COUNTRIES EVEN SHOWING
REVERSALS BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS
4HESE STUDENTS AGREED OR STRONGLY AGREED WITH THE STATEMENT h) READ ONLY TO GET THE INFORMATION ) NEEDv ON A SCALE WITH THE
RESPONSE CATEGORIES hSTRONGLY DISAGREEv hDISAGREEv hAGREEv AND hSTRONGLY AGREEv
4HE SCALE HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hSTRONGLY DISAGREEv hDISAGREEv hAGREEv AND hSTRONGLY AGREEv
)N ALL COUNTRIES THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN STUDENTS ON THE TOP
AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE ENGAGEMENT
IN
READING INDEX IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT (OWEVER THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS IS LESS CLEAR SOME COUNTRIES EVEN SHOWING REVERSALS BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE QUARTERS 4HE UNSTANDARDISED
REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS ARE ALSO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL COUNTRIES
4HE SCALE HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES h) DO NOT READ FOR ENJOYMENTv h MINUTES OR LESS EACH DAYv hMORE THAN MINUTES
TO LESS THAN MINUTES EACH DAYv h TO HOURS EACH DAYv AND hMORE THAN HOURS EACH DAYv
4HE SCALE HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hSTRONGLY DISAGREEv hDISAGREEv hAGREEv AND hSTRONGLY AGREEv
4HE SCALE HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hSTRONGLY DISAGREEv hDISAGREEv hAGREEv AND hSTRONGLY AGREEv
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE RELATIONSHIP EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE OVERALL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
$IFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO QUARTERS IN "ELGIUM &LEMISH #OMMUNITY THE .ETHERLANDS AND THE 5NITED 3TATES ARE NOT
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
4HE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN THE INTERNATIONAL OPTION ON FAMILIARITY WITH COMPUTERS INCLUDED /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HE
/%#$ AVERAGE REFERS TO THESE COUNTRIES ONLY
4HE SCALES REFERRED TO IN THIS SECTION HAD THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES hALMOST EVERY DAYv hA FEW TIMES EACH WEEKv hBETWEEN
ONCE A WEEK AND ONCE A MONTHv hLESS THAN ONCE A MONTHv AND hNEVERv
#HAPTER
,Ê
,
-
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
)NTRODUCTION
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÃiiÊÌÊ 2ECOGNISING THE IMPACT THAT EDUCATION HAS ON PARTICIPATION IN LABOUR MARKETS
Ài`ÕViÊ}i`iÀÊ OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE ALL COUNTRIES EMPHASISE THE
`vviÀiViÃo IMPORTANCE OF REDUCING EDUCATIONAL DISPARITIES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
o>`Ê
>ÛiÊ}iiÀ>ÞÊ 3IGNIFICANT PROGRESS HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN REDUCING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATIONAL
`iÊÃÊÃÕVViÃÃvÕÞÊÊ ATTAINMENT 9OUNGER WOMEN TODAY ARE FAR MORE LIKELY TO HAVE COMPLETED A TERTI
ÀiëiVÌÊvÊÊi`ÕV>Ì>Ê ARY QUALIFICATION THAN WOMEN YEARS AGO IN OF THE /%#$ COUNTRIES WITH
>ÌÌ>iÌo COMPARABLE DATA MORE THAN TWICE AS MANY WOMEN AGED TO HAVE COMPLETED
TERTIARY EDUCATION AS WOMEN AGED TO YEARS &URTHERMORE UNIVERSITY
LEVEL
GRADUATION RATES FOR WOMEN NOW EQUAL OR EXCEED THOSE FOR MEN IN OF THE
/%#$ COUNTRIES FOR WHICH COMPARABLE DATA ARE AVAILABLE /%#$
o>Ì
Õ}
ÊÜiÊ .EVERTHELESS IN CERTAIN FIELDS OF STUDY GENDER DIFFERENCES IN TERTIARY QUALIFI
Ài>ÊÕ`iÀ CATIONS REMAIN PERSISTENTLY HIGH 4HE PROPORTION OF WOMEN AMONG UNIVERSITY
Ài«ÀiÃiÌi`ÊÊÃiÊ GRADUATES IN MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE IS BELOW PER CENT ON AVERAGE
ÕÛiÀÃÌÞÊÃÕLiVÌð AMONG /%#$ COUNTRIES )N !USTRIA THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY )CELAND THE
.ETHERLANDS .ORWAY AND 3WITZERLAND THE PROPORTION IS BETWEEN AND PER
CENT 4HOUGH MUCH SMALLER IN SCALE A GENDER GAP IN UNIVERSITY
LEVEL GRADUATION
RATES IS ALSO EVIDENT IN THE LIFE SCIENCES AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES /%#$ )N
THIS CONTEXT IT IS NOTEWORTHY THAT PAST INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS INDICATE THAT
RELATIVELY SMALL GENDER DIFFERENCES IN FAVOUR OF MALES IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE
PERFORMANCE IN THE EARLY GRADES BECOME MORE PRONOUNCED AND PERVASIVE IN
MANY COUNTRIES AT HIGHER GRADE LEVELS SEE "OX
i>iÃÊÜÊ«iÀvÀÊÃÊ )N THE PAST CONCERN ABOUT GENDER DIFFERENCES HAS THEREFORE ALMOST UNIVERSALLY
ÜiÊÊÃiÊ>Ài>ÃÊÌ >ÌÊ ADDRESSED THE UNDERACHIEVEMENT OF FEMALES (OWEVER AS FEMALES HAVE FIRST
Ì iÀiÊÃÊ}ÀÜ}ÊVViÀÊ CLOSED THE GAP AND THEN SURPASSED MALES IN MANY ASPECTS OF EDUCATION THERE
>LÕÌÊÌ iÊ ARE NOW MANY INSTANCES IN WHICH THERE IS CONCERN ABOUT THE UNDERACHIEVEMENT
Õ`iÀ>V iÛiiÌÊvÊ OF MALES 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE NEED TO RECEIVE CLOSE
>ið ATTENTION FROM POLICY MAKERS
/
ÃÊV
>«ÌiÀÊÃÊ>ÌÊ 4HIS CHAPTER CONCLUDES THE PROFILE OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE BEGUN IN THE
}i`iÀÊ}>«ÃÊÊ PRECEDING CHAPTERS BY EXAMINING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
«iÀvÀ>Vi]Ê>ÃÊÜiÊ>ÃÊ IN THE THREE LITERACY DOMAINS AND DESCRIBING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE INTEREST
ÊÜ`iÀÊ>ëiVÌÃÊvÊ SHOWN BY STUDENTS IN VARIOUS SUBJECT AREAS IN MOTIVATION AND IN hSELF
CONCEPTv
i>À}° 4HE REMAINING CHAPTERS OF THIS REPORT SITUATE STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN THE
CONTEXT OF THEIR BACKGROUNDS AND THE BROADER LEARNING ENVIRONMENT LOOK AT THE
HUMAN AND FINANCIAL RESOURCES THAT COUNTRIES INVEST IN EDUCATION AND AT SELECTED
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS AND EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL PERFORMANCE AND FAMILY BACKGROUND
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
&IGURE SHOWS DIFFERENCES IN MEAN PERFORMANCE IN THE THREE 0)3! ASSESSMENT
DOMAINS 4HE SCALE USED FOR COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE OF MALES AND FEMALES
IS THE SAME AS THAT USED IN #HAPTERS AND FOR COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊx°£
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
$IFFERENCES IN 0)3! SCALE SCORES
#OMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 3CIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE
&EMALES -ALES &EMALES -ALES &EMALES -ALES
PERFORM BETTER PERFORM BETTER PERFORM BETTER PERFORM BETTER PERFORM BETTER PERFORM BETTER
+OREA
-EXICO
3PAIN
0ORTUGAL
$ENMARK
5NITED +INGDOM
!USTRIA
,UXEMBOURG
5NITED 3TATES
)RELAND
&RANCE
.ETHERLANDS
*APAN
3WITZERLAND
(UNGARY
#ANADA
"ELGIUM
!USTRALIA
'ERMANY
0OLAND
3WEDEN
'REECE
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
)TALY
)CELAND
.ORWAY
.EW :EALAND
&INLAND
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,ATVIA
.OTE 3TATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES ARE MARKED IN BLACK AND RED
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
OF COUNTRIES /N THAT SCALE ABOUT TWO THIRDS OF YEAR OLDS IN THE /%#$ ARE
WITHIN POINTS OF THE MEAN SCORE ROUGHLY POINTS SEPARATE THE COUNTRIES
WITH THE FIFTH HIGHEST AND THE FIFTH LOWEST PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE AND ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL IS EQUAL TO JUST OVER POINTS !S IN
#HAPTERS AND IT ALSO NEEDS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT THAT THE MEAN SCORE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES IN THIS CHAPTER MAY MASK SIGNIFICANT
VARIATION IN GENDER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIFFERENT EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES
SCHOOLS OR TYPES OF STUDENTS
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
"OX #HANGES IN GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS AND
SCIENCE PERFORMANCE AS STUDENTS GET OLDER
)N THE )%! 4HIRD )NTERNATIONAL -ATHEMATICS AND 3CIENCE 3TUDY 4)-33 REVEALED
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS AMONG TH
GRADE STUDENTS IN ONLY THREE OUT
OF THE PARTICIPATING /%#$ COUNTRIES *APAN +OREA AND THE .ETHERLANDS IN FAVOUR OF MALES IN
ALL CASES (OWEVER THE SAME STUDY SHOWED STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS
AT THE TH
GRADE LEVEL IN SIX OF THE SAME /%#$ COUNTRIES ALL IN FAVOUR OF MALES !ND FINALLY IN
THE LAST YEAR OF UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLING GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS LITERACY PERFORMANCE
IN THE 4)-33 ASSESSMENT WERE LARGE AND STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL PARTICIPATING /%#$ COUNTRIES
EXCEPT (UNGARY AND THE 5NITED 3TATES AGAIN ALL IN FAVOUR OF MALES ! SIMILAR AND EVEN MORE
PRONOUNCED PICTURE EMERGED IN SCIENCE "EATON ET AL -ULLIS ET AL
!LTHOUGH THE GROUPS OF STUDENTS ASSESSED AT THE TWO GRADE LEVELS WERE NOT MADE UP OF THE SAME
INDIVIDUALS THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE BECOME MORE
PRONOUNCED AND PERVASIVE IN MANY /%#$ COUNTRIES AT HIGHER GRADE LEVELS
$ESPITE THIS GENERAL TENDENCY 4)-33 ALSO SHOWED THAT SOME COUNTRIES WERE MANAGING TO CONTAIN
THE GROWTH IN GENDER DISPARITIES AT HIGHER GRADE LEVELS /%#$ /%#$
i>iÃÊ
>ÛiÊ
}
iÀÊ 0)3! SHOWS A PATTERN OF GENDER DIFFERENCES THAT IS FAIRLY CONSISTENT ACROSS
iÛiÃÊvÊÀi>`}ÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ COUNTRIES IN EVERY COUNTRY ON AVERAGE FEMALES REACH HIGHER LEVELS OF PERFORM
iÛiÀÞÜ
iÀiÆÊ>iÃÊ
>ÛiÊ ANCE IN READING LITERACY THAN MALES )N MATHEMATICAL LITERACY THERE ARE STATISTI
}
iÀÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê CALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN ABOUT HALF THE COUNTRIES IN ALL OF WHICH MALES
ÌiÀ>VÞÊÊ
>vÊÌ
iÊ DO BETTER )N SCIENTIFIC LITERACY THERE ARE FEWER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND
VÕÌÀið FEMALES AND THE PATTERN OF THE DIFFERENCES IS NOT CONSISTENT 4WENTY
FOUR /%#$
COUNTRIES SHOW NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SCIENCE PERFORM
ANCE 4ABLE A
/
iÊ>`Û>Ì>}iÊvÊ 4HE BETTER PERFORMANCE OF FEMALES IN READING IS NOT ONLY UNIVERSAL BUT ALSO
vi>iÃÊÊÀi>`}Ê LARGE /N AVERAGE IT IS POINTS ALMOST HALF OF ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL AND GEN
ÌiÀ>VÞÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ ERALLY GREATER THAN THE TYPICAL DIFFERENCE IN MEAN SCORES BETWEEN COUNTRIES
>À}io 4HE AVERAGE GAP IN MATHEMATICS IS AROUND ONE THIRD OF THIS VALUE POINTS
IN FAVOUR OF MALES )N SCIENCE GENDER DIFFERENCES AVERAGE OUT ACROSS COUNTRIES
4ABLE A
oLÕÌÊÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ 4HE SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGE OF FEMALES IN READING LITERACY IN ALL COUNTRIES AND
ÕV
Ê>À}iÀÊÌ
>ÊÊ THE ADVANTAGE OF MALES IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN MANY COUNTRIES MAY BE THE
Ì
iÀÃo RESULT OF THE BROADER SOCIETAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OR OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND
PRACTICES 7HATEVER THE CAUSE THEY SUGGEST THAT COUNTRIES ARE HAVING DIFFERING
SUCCESS AT ELIMINATING GENDER GAPS AND THAT FEMALES TYPICALLY REMAIN BETTER AT
READING AND MALES BETTER AT MATHEMATICS
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
(OWEVER THE WIDE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN GENDER DIFFERENCES IN READING oÃÕ}}iÃÌ}ÊÌ >ÌÊ
LITERACY FROM POINTS OR LESS IN $ENMARK +OREA -EXICO 0ORTUGAL AND 3PAIN }i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊ>ÀiÊ
TO ABOUT TWICE THAT AMOUNT IN &INLAND AND ,ATVIA AND IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY ÌÊiÛÌ>Li°
FROM NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN /%#$ COUNTRIES TO POINTS
IN !USTRIA "RAZIL AND +OREA SUGGESTS THAT THE CURRENT DIFFERENCES ARE NOT THE
INEVITABLE OUTCOMES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOUNG MALES AND FEMALES IN LEARNING
STYLES 4HESE GAPS CAN BE CLOSED
3OME COUNTRIES DO APPEAR TO PROVIDE A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT THAT BENEFITS -iÛiÀ>ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
BOTH GENDERS EQUALLY EITHER AS A DIRECT RESULT OF A EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS OR VLiÊÜÊ}i`iÀÊ
BECAUSE OF A MORE FAVOURABLE SOCIETAL CONTEXT )N READING LITERACY +OREA AND iµÕ>ÌÞÊÜÌ
Ê
}
Ê
TO A LESSER EXTENT )RELAND *APAN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ACHIEVE BOTH HIGH «iÀvÀ>Vio
MEAN SCORES AND LIMITED GENDER DIFFERENCES )N MATHEMATICAL LITERACY "ELGIUM
&INLAND *APAN .EW :EALAND AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ACHIEVE BOTH HIGH MEAN
PERFORMANCE AND SMALL GENDER DIFFERENCES 4ABLE A
!T THE SAME TIME SOME OF THE COUNTRIES WITH THE LARGEST GENDER GAPS HAVE HIGH oLÕÌÊÃiÊvÊÌ iÊÜ`iÃÌÊ
MEAN PERFORMANCES )N &INLAND FOR EXAMPLE IT IS NOT THAT MALES DO POORLY IN }i`iÀÊ}>«ÃÊVVÕÀÊ>ÃÊ
READING LITERACY n THEIR SCORES ARE WELL ABOVE THE AVERAGE FOR ALL STUDENTS IN 0)3! Ê } «iÀvÀ}Ê
AND THERE IS NO OTHER COUNTRY WHERE MALES DO BETTER n BUT RATHER THAT FEMALES VÕÌÀið
SCORE EXCEPTIONALLY WELL POINTS AHEAD OF THE COUNTRY WITH THE NEXT HIGHEST
SCORING FEMALES .EW :EALAND
$IFFERENCES IN READING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES TEND TO BE i>iÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊLiÊ
LARGER ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE THAT IS ON TASKS REQUIRING CRITICAL vÕÀÌ
iÃÌÊ>
i>`ÊÊÌ
iÊ
EVALUATION AND THE RELATING OF TEXT TO PERSONAL EXPERIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND ÀiviVÌÊ>`ÊiÛ>Õ>ÌÊ
IDEAS /N AVERAGE GENDER DIFFERENCES ARE POINTS ON THE REFLECTION AND >ëiVÌÃÊvÊÀi>`}°
EVALUATION SCALE IN FAVOUR OF FEMALES COMPARED WITH POINTS ON THE INTER
PRETATION SCALE AND POINTS ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE 4ABLE B
)N &INLAND THE COUNTRY WITH THE GREATEST GENDER DIFFERENCES FEMALES HAVE AN
EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH MEAN ON THE REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE POINTS
WHILE MALES SCORE ONLY AT THE /%#$ AVERAGE POINTS 4HESE FINDINGS MAY
BE ASSOCIATED WITH THE TYPES OF READING MATERIAL TO WHICH YOUNG MEN AND
WOMEN ARE EXPOSED OR WHICH THEY TEND TO FAVOUR SEE BELOW
&UTURE 0)3! SURVEYS WILL ALLOW FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH }Ê>`ÕÌÃ]ÊÜiÊ
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE CHANGE OVER TIME )N THE MEANTIME ÃiiÊ>Ài>`ÞÊÌÊLiÊ
A COMPARISON OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY «Õ}Ê>
i>`ÊÊ
3URVEY )!,3 BETWEEN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS SUGGESTS THAT WOMEN HAVE Ài>`}°
BEEN PULLING AHEAD !MONG TO
YEAR
OLDS AS AN ILLUSTRATION MEN OUT
PERFORMED WOMEN ON THE )!,3 DOCUMENT SCALE IN OUT OF COUNTRIES
(OWEVER THIS DIFFERENCE WAS COUNTER
BALANCED AMONG TO
YEAR
OLDS
3IMILARLY ON THE )!,3 PROSE SCALE MEN WERE AT AN ADVANTAGE AMONG TO
YEAR
OLDS IN THE MAJORITY OF COUNTRIES BUT WOMEN HAD THE ADVANTAGE IN
ALL BUT TWO )!,3 COUNTRIES AMONG TO
YEAR
OLDS /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS
#ANADA
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
i>iÃÊ>ÀiÊiÃÃÊv>ÀÊ 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY IN WHICH MALES HAVE OFTEN
Li `Ê>iÃÊÊ BEEN MORE PROFICIENT IN THE PAST TEND TO BE MUCH SMALLER THAN THE DIFFERENCE
>Ì i>ÌVÃÊ>`ÊÃViViÊ IN FAVOUR OF FEMALES IN READING )N SCIENCE THERE IS NO CLEAR PATTERN OF GENDER
Ì >ÊÜ>ÃÊÌ iÊV>ÃiÊÊ DIFFERENCES FEMALES PERFORMING BETTER THAN MALES IN ,ATVIA .EW :EALAND AND THE
/ --o 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND MALES PERFORMING BETTER IN !USTRIA $ENMARK AND +OREA )N
THE REMAINING COUNTRIES THE DIFFERENCES ARE NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT 4ABLE A
4HESE RESULTS ARE QUITE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF THE )%! 4HIRD )NTERNATIONAL -ATHEMATICS
AND 3CIENCE 3TUDY 4)-33 WHERE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SCIENCE PERFORMANCE AMONG
TH GRADE STUDENTS WERE MUCH LARGER ALMOST ALWAYS FAVOURING MALES
oÜ
V
Ê>ÞÊLiÊLiV>ÕÃiÊ 4HE DIFFERENCES IN RESULTS BETWEEN 0)3! AND 4)-33 MAY BE EXPLAINED IN PART BY
vÊ*-½ÃÊi«
>ÃÃÊÊ THE FACT THAT THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY PLACED GREATER EMPHASIS
>««V>ÌÊ>`Ê THAN 4)-33 ON LIFE SCIENCES 4HIS WAS AN AREA IN WHICH FEMALES TENDED TO PERFORM
`vviÀiViÃÊÊ WELL ALSO IN 4)-33 WHICH PLACED GREATER EMPHASIS THAN 0)3! ON PHYSICS IN WHICH
ÃÕLiVÌ>ÌÌiÀÊvVÕÃ°Ê MALES GENERALLY TEND TO PERFORM WELL )N ADDITION 0)3! PLACED GREATER EMPHASIS ON
SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES AND THE APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE &INALLY THE FACT THAT 0)3! HAD
A HIGHER PROPORTION OF OPEN
ENDED AND CONTEXTUALISED ITEMS IN WHICH FEMALES TEND
TO DO BETTER RATHER THAN MULTIPLE
CHOICE ITEMS IN WHICH MALES TEND TO DO BETTER
MAY ALSO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE HIGHER PERFORMANCE BY FEMALES
ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê )N ALL COUNTRIES GENDER DIFFERENCES TEND TO BE SIMILAR IN THE THREE CONTENT AREAS OF
}i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊÛ>ÀÞÊ READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SUGGESTING THAT THERE ARE UNDERLYING
LiÌÜiiÊÃÕLiVÌÃ]Ê FEATURES OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS ANDOR SOCIETIES AND CULTURES THAT AFFECT GENDER
ÃÕ}}iÃÌ}ÊÌ >ÌÊ DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE THROUGHOUT SCHOOL CAREERS .ONETHELESS SOME IMPORTANT
`vviÀiViÃÊ>ÞÊÀiÃÕÌÊ DIFFERENCES DO EXIST &INLAND FOR EXAMPLE SHOWS THE HIGHEST GENDER DIFFERENCES ON
vÀÊi>À}Ê THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE POINTS IN FAVOUR OF FEMALES WHILE ITS GENDER
iÝ«iÀiVið DIFFERENCES ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES ARE SMALL #ONVERSELY
+OREA SHOWS THE LOWEST GENDER DIFFERENCES IN READING LITERACY POINTS IN FAVOUR
OF FEMALES WHILE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY POINTS IN FAVOUR OF
MALES AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY POINTS IN FAVOUR OF MALES ARE AMONG THE LARGEST IN
THE /%#$ 3UCH VARIATION ACROSS THE DOMAINS SUGGESTS THAT THESE DIFFERENCES ARE THE
RESULT OF STUDENTS LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND THUS AMENABLE TO CHANGES IN POLICY
Ê>ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÀiÊ 4HE LARGE GENDER DIFFERENCES AMONG THE STUDENTS WITH THE LOWEST LEVELS OF
>iÃÊÌ
>Êvi>iÃÊ>ÀiÊ PERFORMANCE IS OF CONCERN TO POLICY
MAKERS &IGURE )N ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
>}ÊÌ
iÊÜi>iÃÌÊ MALES ARE MORE LIKELY THAN FEMALES TO BE AMONG THE LOWEST
PERFORMING STUDENTS
Ài>`iÀÃo IE TO PERFORM AT ,EVEL AND BELOW ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE WITH
THE RATIO OF MALES TO FEMALES AT THIS LEVEL RANGING FROM TO IN /%#$ COUN
TRIES )N #ANADA &INLAND *APAN AND +OREA PER CENT OR LESS OF FEMALES PERFORM AT
,EVEL OR BELOW COMPARED WITH BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF MALES 4ABLE A
%VEN IN THE COUNTRY WITH THE BEST PERFORMANCE &INLAND ONLY PER CENT OF FEMALES
ARE AT ,EVEL OR BELOW COMPARED WITH PER CENT OF MALES
/N THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE MALES TEND TO PERFORM BETTER THAN
FEMALES OVERALL (OWEVER MUCH OF THIS DIFFERENCE IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO LARGER
DIFFERENCES IN FAVOUR OF MALES AMONG THE BETTER STUDENTS NOT A RELATIVE ABSENCE
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊx°Ó
0ROPORTIONS OF MALES AND FEMALES AMONG THE LOWEST PERFORMERS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0ERCENTAGE OF MALES AND FEMALES AT OR BELOW ,EVEL
-ALES &EMALES
&INLAND
+OREA
*APAN
#ANADA
3WEDEN
)RELAND
.EW :EALAND
)CELAND
!USTRALIA
.ORWAY
!USTRIA
&RANCE
3PAIN
)TALY
"ELGIUM
3WITZERLAND
0OLAND
.ETHERLANDS
5NITED +INGDOM
(UNGARY
'REECE
'ERMANY
0ORTUGAL
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
5NITED 3TATES
$ENMARK
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,IECHTENSTEIN
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
OF MALES AMONG THE POORER PERFORMERS !MONG STUDENTS WHO PERFORM AT LEAST o>`ÊÊ>Ì
i>ÌV>Ê
POINTS BELOW THE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE ÌiÀ>VÞ]Ê>iýÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ
IE THOSE STUDENTS TYPICALLY ABLE TO COMPLETE ONLY A SINGLE PROCESSING STEP >`Û>Ì>}iÊÃÊ
i>ÛÞÊ
CONSISTING OF REPRODUCING BASIC MATHEMATICAL FACTS OR PROCESSES OR APPLYING vÕiVi`ÊLÞÊÃiÊ
SIMPLE COMPUTATIONAL SKILLS THE PROPORTION OF FEMALES AND MALES IS ROUGHLY >iÃÊ`}ÊÛiÀÞÊÜi°
EQUAL 4ABLE B "Y CONTRAST IN OF THE PARTICIPATING /%#$ COUNTRIES
MEN ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE AMONG THE BEST
PERFORMING STUDENTS SCORING MORE
THAN ONE STANDARD DEVIATION ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE WHILE IN NO COUNTRY IS
THE REVERSE THE CASE
4HESE FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT THE UNDERACHIEVEMENT OF YOUNG MEN IS A SIGNIFICANT 1`iÀ>V
iÛiiÌÊ
CHALLENGE FOR EDUCATION POLICY THAT WILL NEED PARTICULAR ATTENTION IF THE GENDER >}Ê£xÞi>À`Ê
GAP IS TO BE CLOSED AND THE PROPORTION OF STUDENTS AT THE LOWEST LEVELS OF >iÃÊÃÊÌ
iÀivÀiÊ>Ê
PROFICIENCY IS TO BE REDUCED «ÀÌ>ÌÊVViÀ°
/NE FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO GENDER DIFFERENCES MAY BE SELECTION AND SELF SELECTION -iiVÌÊ>`Ê
PRACTICES IN DIFFERENTIATED EDUCATION SYSTEMS 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF +OREA GIRLS ÃivÃiiVÌÊ«À>VÌViÃÊÊ
ARE OVER REPRESENTED IN THE MORE DEMANDING UPPER SECONDARY PROGRAMMES `vviÀiÌ>Ìi`Êi`ÕV>ÌÊ
PREPARING FOR ENTRY TO UNIVERSITY /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE COUNTRIES ÃÞÃÌiÃÊ>ÞÊVÌÀLÕÌiÊ
WITH TRACKED EDUCATION SYSTEMS THAT REPORT STUDENT PARTICIPATION BY TYPE OF ÌÊ}i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVið
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
PROGRAMME THE PROPORTION OF GIRLS IN PROGRAMMES ORIENTED TOWARDS UNIVER
SITY
LEVEL EDUCATION IS PERCENTAGE POINTS HIGHER THAN THAT OF BOYS AND IN 0OLAND
IT IS MORE THAN PERCENTAGE POINTS HIGHER FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
!MONG THOSE ENROLLED IN PROGRAMMES PREPARING FOR ENTRY TO UNIVERSITY GENDER
DIFFERENCES IN READING LITERACY TEND TO BE SMALLER IN FAVOUR OF FEMALES WHILE
THEY TEND TO BE TWICE AS LARGE ON AVERAGE IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN FAVOUR OF
MALES WHEN COMPARED WITH THE OVERALL POPULATION OF
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN SUBJECT INTEREST
>iÃÊ>`Êvi>iÃÊ>ÃÊ &IGURE A COMPARES STUDENTS INTEREST IN READING HORIZONTAL AXIS WITH PER
`vviÀÊÊÌ iÀÊÌiÀiÃÌÊÊ FORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE VERTICAL AXIS 4HE INDEX OF
`vviÀiÌÊÃÕLiVÌÊ INTEREST IN READING IS DESCRIBED IN #HAPTER %ACH COUNTRY IS REPRESENTED BY TWO
`>ð SYMBOLS IN THIS DIAGRAM THE SYMBOLS IN GREY SHOW THE MEAN INDEX OF INTEREST IN
READING FOR MALES AND THEIR MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE 4HE CORRESPONDING COUNTRY POSITIONS FOR FEMALES ARE SHOWN IN RED 4HE
TOP OF THE VERTICAL AXIS REPRESENTS HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY
4HE RIGHT HAND END OF THE HORIZONTAL AXIS INDICATES THAT ON AVERAGE STUDENTS
MORE FREQUENTLY REPORT THAT THEY OFTEN READ IN THEIR SPARE TIME THAT READING
IS IMPORTANT TO THEM PERSONALLY THAT THEY WOULD NOT WANT TO GIVE UP READING
BECAUSE IT IS FUN AND THAT THEY SOMETIMES BECOME TOTALLY ABSORBED IN READING
}ÕÀiÊx°Î>
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
-ALES &EMALES
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE
,OW INTEREST IN READING (IGH INTEREST IN READING
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN READING
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊx°ÎL
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
0ERFORMANCE ON THE -ALES &EMALES
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
,OW INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS (IGH INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
&IGURE B SHOWS THE PATTERN OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON
THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
&IGURES A AND B SHOW CLEARLY THAT FEMALES TEND TO EXPRESS GREATER INTEREST i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊÊ
IN READING THAN MALES WHILE THE REVERSE IS THE CASE IN MATHEMATICS 'ENDER ÃÕLiVÌ>ÌÌiÀÊÌiÀiÃÌÊ
DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE IN READING AND MATHEMATICAL LITERACY ARE THUS CLOSELY VÃiÞÊÀÀÀÊÌ
ÃiÊÊ
MIRRORED IN STUDENT INTEREST IN THE RESPECTIVE SUBJECT AREAS 4HIS OVERALL RELATION
«iÀvÀ>Vio
SHIP CAN BE SAID TO HOLD TRUE IN ALL COUNTRIES 4ABLES AND IN THE CASE OF
READING AND IN THE MAJORITY OF COUNTRIES IN THAT OF MATHEMATICS 0ORTUGAL BEING
THE ONLY COUNTRY WHERE FEMALES REPORT A HIGHER LEVEL OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
THAN MALES
4HE CAUSAL NATURE OF THIS RELATIONSHIP CANNOT BE CONCLUDED FROM THESE DATA AND oÃÕ}}iÃÌ}ÊÌ
>ÌÊ
MAY WELL BE COMPLEX IN THAT INTEREST AND PERFORMANCE PROBABLY REINFORCE ONE ÃV
ÃÊ>`ÊÃViÌiÃÊ`Ê
ANOTHER .ONETHELESS THE FACT THAT SUBJECT INTEREST DIFFERS CONSISTENTLY BETWEEN ÌÊÌÛ>ÌiÊ>iÃÊ>`Ê
THE GENDERS AND THAT IT IS SO CLOSELY INTERRELATED WITH LEARNING OUTCOMES IN THE vi>iÃÊiµÕ>Þ°
RESPECTIVE DOMAINS IS IN ITSELF OF RELEVANCE FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT )T REVEALS
INEQUALITIES BETWEEN THE GENDERS IN THE EFFECTIVENESS WITH WHICH SCHOOLS AND
SOCIETIES PROMOTE MOTIVATION AND INTEREST IN THE DIFFERENT SUBJECT AREAS 4HE
FINDINGS ALSO POINT TO THE POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES OF THESE INEQUALITIES IN TERMS
OF EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING
i>iÃÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊVÃiÞÊ 'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN FAVOUR OF FEMALES ARE ALSO REFLECTED IN THE BROADER ENGAGE
i}>}i`ÊÊÀi>`}o MENT OF STUDENTS IN READING ACTIVITIES WHICH 0)3! MEASURES THROUGH SELF
REPORTS
ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS READ FOR PLEASURE ENJOY TALKING ABOUT
BOOKS AND VISIT BOOKSTORES AND LIBRARIES AND ON THE GENERAL IMPORTANCE WHICH
THEY ATTACH TO READING
oÜÌ Ê>iÃÊÌi`}ÊÌÊ 4HERE APPEARS TO BE ONLY LIMITED ENGAGEMENT IN READING AMONG YEAR OLD MALES
Ài>`ÊÞÊvÊÌ iÞÊ >ÛiÊ BEYOND WHAT IS REQUIRED OF THEM &IGURE /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE /%#$ COUN
Ìo TRIES PER CENT OF MALES READ ONLY IF THEY HAVE TO WHEREAS THIS IS TRUE FOR ONLY
PER CENT OF FEMALES FOR DATA ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
&URTHERMORE PER CENT OF MALES AS AGAINST PER CENT OF FEMALES REPORT
}ÕÀiÊx°{
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING n ATTITUDES TOWARDS READING
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF MALES AND FEMALES WHO AGREE OR STRONGLY AGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS
#OUNTRY MEAN #OUNTRY MEAN /%#$ AVERAGE PERCENTAGE /%#$ AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF
PERCENTAGE OF MALES PERCENTAGE OF FEMALES OF MALES STANDARD ERROR FEMALES STANDARD ERROR
) CANNOT SIT STILL AND READ
FOR MORE THAN A FEW MINUTES
) READ ONLY TO GET
INFORMATION THAT ) NEED
) ENJOY GOING TO A
BOOKSTORE OR LIBRARY
&OR ME READING IS A
WASTE OF TIME
) FEEL HAPPY IF ) RECEIVE
A BOOK AS A PRESENT
) FIND IT HARD TO
FINISH BOOKS
) LIKE TALKING ABOUT
BOOKS WITH OTHER PEOPLE
2EADING IS ONE OF MY
FAVOURITE HOBBIES
) READ ONLY IF ) HAVE TO
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
THAT THEY READ ONLY TO GET THE INFORMATION THEY NEED AND THIS FIGURE RISES TO
MORE THAN TWO
THIRDS OF MALES IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY )RELAND AND
-EXICO 3IMILARLY PER CENT OF FEMALES REPORT THAT READING IS ONE OF THEIR
FAVOURITE HOBBIES AND PER CENT SAY THAT THEY LIKE TALKING ABOUT BOOKS WITH
OTHER PEOPLE COMPARED WITH ONLY PER CENT OF MALES FOR DATA ON INDIVIDUAL
COUNTRIES SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
-ALES ALSO TEND TO SPEND MUCH LESS TIME READING FOR ENJOYMENT THAN FEMALES o>`Ê}ÀÃÊÀiÊiÞÊ
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF FEMALES REPORT THAT THEY ÌÊÀi>`ÊvÀÊiÞiÌ°
READ FOR ENJOYMENT FOR MORE THAN MINUTES EACH DAY THE PROPORTION RANGING
FROM PER CENT OF FEMALES IN *APAN TO MORE THAN TWICE THAT FIGURE IN THE #ZECH
2EPUBLIC &INLAND 0OLAND AND 0ORTUGAL 4HE COMPARABLE FIGURE FOR MALES IS
PER CENT THE PROPORTION RANGING FROM PER CENT OR LESS IN !USTRIA THE
.ETHERLANDS AND 3WITZERLAND TO OVER PER CENT IN 'REECE +OREA AND 0OLAND
&IGURE AND 4ABLE
!LTHOUGH THESE FINDINGS DO NOT PERMIT THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CAUSAL LINKS THEY / iÊ`vviÀ}ÊÀi>`}Ê
SUGGEST THAT THE DIFFERING READING HABITS OF FEMALES AND MALES MAY HAVE FAR >LÌÃÊvÊ>iÃÊ>`Ê
REACHING CONSEQUENCES FOR LEARNING THAT NEED TO BE ADDRESSED IF GENDER EQUALITY vi>iÃÊ>ÞÊ >ÛiÊv>À
IS TO BE ACHIEVED WITHIN SCHOOL SYSTEMS Ài>V }ÊVÃiµÕiVið
}ÕÀiÊx°x
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING n TIME SPENT READING FOR ENJOYMENT
0ERCENTAGES OF MALES AND FEMALES WHO READ FOR MORE THAN MINUTES PER DAY FOR ENJOYMENT
-ALES &EMALES
.ETHERLANDS
*APAN
#ANADA
&RANCE
5NITED 3TATES
.ORWAY
+OREA
)CELAND
3WEDEN
!USTRIA
.EW :EALAND
'ERMANY
"ELGIUM
3WITZERLAND
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
3PAIN
,UXEMBOURG
$ENMARK
)TALY
-EXICO
(UNGARY
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
0OLAND
&INLAND
2USSIAN &EDERATION
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
}ÕÀiÊx°È
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENGAGEMENT IN READING n DIVERSITY OF READING MATERIALS
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF MALES AND FEMALES WHO REPORT READING THE FOLLOWING MATERIALS SEVERAL TIMES A MONTH
OR SEVERAL TIMES PER WEEK
#OUNTRY MEAN #OUNTRY MEAN /%#$ AVERAGE PERCENTAGE /%#$ AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF
PERCENTAGE OF MALES PERCENTAGE OF FEMALES OF MALES STANDARD ERROR FEMALES STANDARD ERROR
.EWSPAPERS
%
MAILS AND 7EB PAGES
.ON
FICTION BOOKS
&ICTION
NOVELS NARRATIVES STORIES
#OMIC BOOKS
-AGAZINES
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
>iÃÊ>`Êvi>iÃÊ>ÃÊ &INALLY
YEAR
OLD MALES AND FEMALES DIFFER NOT ONLY WITH REGARD TO THEIR
iÊÀi>`}Ê`vviÀiÌÊ ENGAGEMENT IN READING BUT ALSO IN THE MATERIALS THAT THEY READ VOLUNTARILY
Ì
}Ão &IGURE )N GENERAL FEMALES ARE MORE LIKELY TO READ MORE DEMANDING TEXTS
FOR DATA ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
oÜÌ Êvi>iÃÊÀi>`}Ê /N AVERAGE ACROSS COUNTRIES FEMALES ARE MORE LIKELY THAN MALES TO READ FICTION
ÀiÊvVÌ]Ê>`Ê>iÃÊ PER CENT OF FEMALES SEVERAL TIMES PER MONTH OR SEVERAL TIMES PER WEEK
ÀiÊiÜë>«iÀÃ]Ê COMPARED WITH PER CENT OF MALES -ALES ARE MORE LIKELY THAN FEMALES TO
VVÃ]Êi>ÃÊ>`Ê7iLÊ READ NEWSPAPERS PER CENT OF MALES SEVERAL TIMES PER MONTH OR PER WEEK
«>}ið COMPARED WITH PER CENT OF FEMALES COMIC BOOKS PER CENT OF MALES
SEVERAL TIMES PER MONTH OR PER WEEK COMPARED WITH PER CENT OF FEMALES
AND E MAILS AND 7EB PAGES PER CENT OF MALES SEVERAL TIMES PER MONTH OR
PER WEEK AND PER CENT OF FEMALES &OR DATA ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
&EMALES AND MALES ARE ON AVERAGE ACROSS COUNTRIES EQUALLY LIKELY TO READ MAGAZINES
AROUND TWO THIRDS OF BOTH FEMALES AND MALES SEVERAL TIMES PER WEEK AND NON FICTION
PER CENT OF BOTH FEMALES AND MALES SEVERAL TIMES PER MONTH OR PER WEEK
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
'ENDER DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SELF CONCEPT
#HAPTER PROVIDES A PROFILE OF THE STUDENT LEARNING STRATEGIES REPORTED BY i>À}ÊÃÌÀ>Ìi}iÃÊ>ÃÊ
STUDENTS IN 0)3! )T IS NOTEWORTHY THAT THE STRATEGIES REPORTED BY STUDENTS `vviÀÊLÞÊ}i`iÀo
DIFFER CONSISTENTLY BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES
)N THE MAJORITY OF COUNTRIES
YEAR
OLD FEMALES REPORT EMPHASISING °°°ÜÌ
Êvi>iÃÊ
MEMORISATION STRATEGIES MORE THAN MALES ONLY THREE COUNTRIES SHOWING A i«
>ÃÃ}Ê
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE IN THE OTHER DIRECTION 4ABLE #ONVERSELY iÀÃ>ÌÊ>`Ê>iÃÊ
MALES REPORT USING ELABORATION STRATEGIES MORE OFTEN THAN FEMALES THERE BEING i>LÀ>ÌÊÃÌÀ>Ìi}ið
ONLY ONE COUNTRY IN WHICH A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT PROPORTION OF FEMALES REPORT
MORE FREQUENT USE OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES 4ABLE
(OWEVER IN ALMOST ALL COUNTRIES WITH STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT GENDER DIFFERENCES i>iÃÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊiÞÊ
FEMALES REPORT USING CONTROL STRATEGIES MORE OFTEN THAN MALES 4ABLE 4HIS ÌÊiÛ>Õ>ÌiÊÌ iÀÊÜÊ
SUGGESTS THAT FEMALES ARE MORE LIKELY TO ADOPT A SELF EVALUATING PERSPECTIVE DURING i>À}°
THE LEARNING PROCESS THOUGH IN MOST COUNTRIES THEY COULD BENEFIT FROM TRAINING IN
THE USE OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES -ALES ON THE OTHER HAND COULD BENEFIT FROM MORE
GENERAL ASSISTANCE IN PLANNING ORGANISING AND STRUCTURING LEARNING ACTIVITIES
&INALLY THERE IS ABUNDANT EVIDENCE THAT INDIVIDUALS BELIEFS ABOUT THEMSELVES ÀiÊVv`iÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
ARE STRONGLY RELATED TO SUCCESSFUL LEARNING 3UCCESSFUL LEARNERS ARE CONFIDENT OF Ìi`ÊÌÊ`ÊLiÌÌiÀo
THEIR ABILITIES AND BELIEVE THAT INVESTMENT IN LEARNING CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE "Y
CONTRAST STUDENTS WHO LACK CONFIDENCE IN THEIR ABILITY TO LEARN WHAT THEY JUDGE
TO BE IMPORTANT ARE EXPOSED TO FAILURE NOT ONLY AT SCHOOL BUT ALSO IN THEIR ADULT
LIVES &OR THIS REASON 0)3! EXAMINED STUDENTS hSELF
CONCEPTv IN READING
AND MATHEMATICS 4HIS IS SHOWN IN TWO INDICES THAT SUMMARISE STUDENT RESPONSES
TO A SERIES OF RELATED QUESTIONS ON SELF
CONCEPT WHICH IN TURN WERE SELECTED
FROM CONSTRUCTS USED IN PREVIOUS RESEARCH SEE ALSO !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE USED
IN THE INDICES PLACES TWO
THIRDS OF THE /%#$ STUDENT POPULATION BETWEEN THE
VALUES OF
AND WITH AN AVERAGE SCORE OF ZERO
&IGURE A SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF CONCEPT IN READING AND PERFORMANCE o>`ÊÌ iÊ
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE $OTS REPRESENT THE AVERAGE POSITION OF ÃivVv`iViÊvÊ>iÃÊ
MALES AND FEMALES IN PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES )N ALL COUNTRIES EXCEPT +OREA FEMALES >`Êvi>iÃÊÊÀi>`}Ê
STATE MORE FREQUENTLY THAT THEY RECEIVE GOOD MARKS IN LANGUAGE RELATED SUBJECTS >`Ê>Ì i>ÌVÃÊ
AND THAT THEY LEARN THINGS QUICKLY 4HE DIFFERENCES ARE ESPECIALLY PRONOUNCED VÀÀië`ÃÊÌÊÌ iÀÊ
IN &INLAND 'ERMANY )TALY AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4ABLE A )N MATHEMATICS «iÀvÀ>Vio
&IGURE B MALES TEND TO EXPRESS A HIGHER SELF CONCEPT THAN FEMALES PARTICULARLY
IN 'ERMANY .ORWAY AND 3WITZERLAND 4ABLE B 4HESE GENDER DIFFERENCES HAVE
A CLOSE RELATIONSHIP WITH GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN READING AND
MATHEMATICS 3ELF CONCEPT IS POSITIVELY RELATED TO STUDENT PERFORMANCE MORE SO IN
MATHEMATICS THAN IN READING
-ANY OF THESE ISSUES WILL NEED TO BE FURTHER EXPLORED AND THIS WILL BE SUBJECT oÊÀ>Ã}ÊÃÃÕiÃÊvÀÊ
OF A THEMATIC REPORT THAT IS CURRENTLY BEING PREPARED (OWEVER IT IS ALREADY vÕÀÌ iÀÊ>>ÞÃð
CLEAR THAT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE NEED TO BE REVIEWED AND
#(!04%2 i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃ
}ÕÀiÊx°Ç>
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF
CONCEPT IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED -ALES &EMALES
READING LITERACY SCALE
,OW SELF CONCEPT IN READING (IGH SELF CONCEPT IN READING
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN READING
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
}ÕÀiÊx°ÇL
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE FOR MALES AND FEMALES
0ERFORMANCE ON THE -ALES &EMALES
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
,OW SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS (IGH SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE B
i`iÀÊ`vviÀiVià #(!04%2
ANALYSED IN CLOSE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE HABITS ATTITUDES AND SELF
CONCEPTS OF
YOUNG MALES AND FEMALES
#ONCLUSIONS
0OLICY
MAKERS HAVE GIVEN CONSIDERABLE PRIORITY TO ISSUES OF GENDER EQUALITY 7
iÊÃiÊ
WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION BEING PAID TO THE DISADVANTAGES FACED BY FEMALES 4HE `Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÃÊÀi>ÊvÀÊ
RESULTS OF 0)3! POINT TO SUCCESSFUL EFFORTS IN MANY COUNTRIES BUT ALSO TO A GROW
vi>iÃ]Ê>iýÊ
ING PROBLEM FOR MALES PARTICULARLY IN READING LITERACY AND AT THE LOWER TAIL OF Õ`iÀ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ>Ê
THE PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION )N MATHEMATICS FEMALES REMAIN AT A DISADVANTAGE }ÀÜ}Ê«ÀLio
IN MANY COUNTRIES ON AVERAGE BUT THE ADVANTAGE OF MALES IN THOSE COUNTRIES
WHERE THIS PERSISTS IS MAINLY DUE TO HIGH LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE OF A COMPARA
TIVELY SMALL NUMBER OF MALES
!T THE SAME TIME THERE IS SIGNIFICANT VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE SIZE OF oÌ Õ} ÊÃiÊ
GENDER DIFFERENCES 4HE EVIDENCE FROM THOSE COUNTRIES WHERE FEMALES ARE NO VÕÌÀiÃÊ >ÛiÊ
LONGER AT A DISADVANTAGE IS THAT EFFECTIVE POLICIES AND PRACTICES CAN OVERCOME `iÃÌÀ>Ìi`ÊÌ >ÌÊ
WHAT WERE LONG TAKEN TO BE THE INEVITABLE OUTCOMES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN }i`iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊV>ÊLiÊ
MALES AND FEMALES IN LEARNING STYLE AND EVEN IN UNDERLYING CAPACITIES )NDEED ÃÕVViÃÃvÕÞÊ>``ÀiÃÃi`°
THE RESULTS OF 0)3! MAKE CLEAR THAT SOME COUNTRIES PROVIDE A LEARNING ENVI
RONMENT OR BROADER CONTEXT THAT BENEFITS BOTH GENDERS EQUALLY 4HE ENDURING
DIFFERENCES IN OTHER COUNTRIES AND THE WIDESPREAD DISADVANTAGE NOW FACED BY
YOUNG MALES IN READING LITERACY REQUIRE SERIOUS POLICY ATTENTION
4HE ANALYSIS ALSO REVEALS INEQUALITIES BETWEEN THE GENDERS IN THE EFFECTIVENESS i`iÀÊiµÕ>ÌiÃÊ
WITH WHICH SCHOOLS AND SOCIETIES PROMOTE MOTIVATION AND INTEREST IN DIFFERENT Ài>ÊÊÌ
iÊ«ÀÌÊ
SUBJECT AREAS 4HE CLOSE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBJECT INTEREST AND LEARNING vÊÌÛ>ÌÊ>`Ê
OUTCOMES ALSO SUGGESTS THAT THE DIFFERING HABITS AND INTERESTS OF YOUNG FEMALES ÌiÀiÃÌÊÊ`vviÀiÌÊ
AND MALES HAVE FAR
REACHING CONSEQUENCES FOR LEARNING AND THAT EDUCATION ÃÕLiVÌð
POLICY NEEDS TO ADDRESS THESE
%DUCATION SYSTEMS HAVE MADE SIGNIFICANT STRIDES TOWARDS CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN «ÀÛ}Ê>iýÊ
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN RECENT DECADES /%#$ BUT MUCH REMAINS TO i}>}iiÌÊÊÀi>`}Ê
BE DONE !T AGE MANY STUDENTS ARE ABOUT TO FACE THE TRANSITION FROM EDUCA
>`Êvi>iýÊÌiÀiÃÌÊ>`Ê
TION TO WORK 4HEIR PERFORMANCE AT SCHOOL AND THEIR MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDES ÃivVVi«ÌÊÊ
IN DIFFERENT SUBJECT AREAS CAN HAVE A SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE ON THEIR FURTHER EDUCA
>Ì
i>ÌVÃÊÀi>ÃÊ
TIONAL AND OCCUPATIONAL PATHWAYS 4HESE IN TURN WILL HAVE AN IMPACT NOT ONLY ON iÃÃiÌ>ÊÊÀ`iÀÊÌÊ
INDIVIDUAL CAREER AND SALARY PROSPECTS BUT ALSO ON THE BROADER EFFECTIVENESS WITH iÃÕÀiÊÌ
>ÌÊ>ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
WHICH HUMAN CAPITAL IS DEVELOPED AND UTILISED IN /%#$ ECONOMIES AND SOCIETIES Ài>ÃiÊÌ
iÀÊ«ÌiÌ>°
)MPROVING THE LEVEL OF ENGAGEMENT OF MALES IN READING ACTIVITIES AND STIMULATING
INTEREST AND SELF
CONCEPT AMONG FEMALES IN MATHEMATICS NEED TO BE MAJOR POLICY
OBJECTIVES IF GREATER GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES IS TO BE ACHIEVED
.OTE
4HESE ARE PROGRAMMES CLASSIFIED AT ,EVEL ! IN THE )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF %DUCATION )3#%$
Chapter
6
FAMILY BACKGROUND AND
STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
)NTRODUCTION
-V
ÃÊii`ÊÌÊV>ÌiÀÊ 3TUDENTS COME FROM A VARIETY OF FAMILY SOCIO
ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL
vÀÊV
`ÀiÊvÀÊ>Ê BACKGROUNDS !S A RESULT SCHOOLS NEED TO PROVIDE APPROPRIATE AND EQUITABLE
L>V}ÀÕ`Ão OPPORTUNITIES FOR A VERY DIVERSE STUDENT BODY 4HE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT CAN
BE ENHANCED BY THE VARIETY OF STUDENTS BACKGROUNDS AND INTERESTS (OWEVER
HETEROGENEOUS LEVELS OF ABILITY AND DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOL PREPAREDNESS INCREASE
THE CHALLENGES THAT SCHOOLS FACE IN MEETING THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS FROM WIDELY
VARYING SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
o>`Ê}Ê>ÌÊÃÊ )DENTIFYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDENTS MOST LIKELY TO PERFORM POORLY CAN
LiÌÜiiÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`Ê HELP EDUCATORS AND POLICY
MAKERS TO LOCATE AREAS REQUIRING ACTION 3IMILARLY
«iÀvÀ>ViÊV>Ê
i«Ê IDENTIFYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WHO MAY FLOURISH ACADEMICALLY CAN
Ì
iÊÌÊ`ÊÃÊÀiÊ ASSIST POLICY
MAKERS TO PROMOTE HIGH LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE )F IT CAN BE SHOWN
ivviVÌÛiÞ° THAT SOME COUNTRIES FIND IT EASIER THAN OTHERS TO ACCOMMODATE BOTH GROUPS THIS
WOULD SUGGEST THAT IT IS FEASIBLE TO FOSTER BOTH EQUITY AND QUALITY
4HIS CHAPTER EXAMINES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN
READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY AND VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THEIR HOME
BACKGROUNDS SUCH AS THEIR PARENTS LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND OCCUPATIONS THEIR
EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS LEVELS OF CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC CAPITAL THEIR COUNTRY OF
BIRTH AND THE LANGUAGE THAT THEY SPEAK AT HOME SEE "OX
"OX )NTERPRETING THE 0)3! INDICES
4HE 0)3! INDICES ARE BASED ON STUDENTS AND SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ACCOUNTS OF THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATION OF SCHOOLS AND OF THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXTS IN WHICH LEARNING
TAKES PLACE 4HE INDICES RELY ON SELF
REPORTS RATHER THAN ON EXTERNAL OBSERVATIONS AND MAY BE
INFLUENCED BY CROSS
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE BEHAVIOUR OR THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF CERTAIN
RESPONSES
3EVERAL OF THE INDICES SUMMARISE THE RESPONSES OF STUDENTS OR SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TO A SERIES OF
RELATED QUESTIONS 4HE QUESTIONS WERE SELECTED FROM LARGER CONSTRUCTS ON THE BASIS OF THEORETICAL
CONSIDERATIONS AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH
5NLESS OTHERWISE NOTED COMPARISONS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THIS CHAPTER REFER TO THE PERFORMANCE
OF STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
3TRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING WAS USED TO CONFIRM THE THEORETICALLY EXPECTED DIMENSIONS OF THE
INDICES AND TO VALIDATE THEIR COMPARABILITY ACROSS COUNTRIES &OR THIS PURPOSE A MODEL WAS ESTIMATED
SEPARATELY FOR EACH COUNTRY AND COLLECTIVELY FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
/CCUPATIONAL STATUS
(IGHER PARENTAL OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CAN INFLUENCE STUDENTS OCCUPATIONAL ASPI
*>ÀiÌ>ÊVVÕ«>ÌÊ
RATIONS AND EXPECTATIONS AND IN TURN THEIR COMMITMENT TO LEARNING AS THE ÃÊ>Êi>ÃÕÀiÊvÊ
MEANS OF SATISFYING THOSE ASPIRATIONS (IGH PARENTAL OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CAN ALSO ÃViVVÊÃÌ>ÌÕÃÊ>`Ê
INCREASE THE RANGE OF OPTIONS OF WHICH CHILDREN ARE AWARE V>ÊvÕiViÊÃÌÕ`iÌýÊ
>ëÀ>ÌÃÊ>`Ê>ÌÌÌÕ`ið
0)3! CAPTURES THIS ASPECT OF STUDENTS HOME BACKGROUNDS THROUGH INFORMATION
ON PARENTS OCCUPATIONS AND THE ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THOSE OCCUPATIONS IN
A WAY THAT IS INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE 4HE RESULTING SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS 'ANZEBOOM ET AL WHICH HAS VALUES RANGING FROM TO
MEASURES THE ATTRIBUTES OF OCCUPATION THAT CONVERT A PERSONS EDUCATION INTO
INCOME 4HE HIGHER THE VALUE ON THE INDEX THE HIGHER THE OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF
A STUDENTS PARENTS /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE VALUE OF THE INDEX
IS AND ITS STANDARD DEVIATION IS SEE "OX
!S CAN BE SEEN IN &IGURE DIFFERENCES IN THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPA -ÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜ ÃiÊ«>ÀiÌÃÊ
TIONAL STATUS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LARGE DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHIN >ÛiÊ } iÀÃÌ>ÌÕÃÊLÃÊ
COUNTRIES 4ABLE A !MONG THOSE IN THE TOP NATIONAL QUARTERS OF STUDENTS ON Ã ÜÊ } iÀÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ
THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX THE MEAN SCORE OF /%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE COMBINED «iÀvÀ>ViÊÊ
READING LITERACY SCALE IS POINTS OR POINTS ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE "Y >ÛiÀ>}io
CONTRAST THE AVERAGE SCORE AMONG THE BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTERS OF STUDENTS ON
THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX IS ONLY POINTS 4HE AVERAGE GAP BETWEEN THE TWO
GROUPS IS MORE THAN THE MAGNITUDE OF AN ENTIRE PROFICIENCY LEVEL IN READING
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE TOTAL
VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE
!NNEX ! 3IMILAR RESULTS ARE EVIDENT IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
4ABLES B C
&IGURE ALSO SHOWS THAT THE GAP IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING oLÕÌÊÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRYS TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE Ì
iÊ>`Û>Ì>}iÊÃÊÕV
Ê
SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX DIFFERS CONSIDERABLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HE SMALLEST GAP }Ài>ÌiÀÊÌ
>ÊÊÌ
iÀÃo
IS FOUND IN +OREA POINTS WHERE STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE LOWER LEVELS
OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS PERFORM WELL BOTH IN RELATIVE TERMS IE WHEN COMPARED
WITH THOSE +OREAN STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE HIGH OCCUPATIONAL STATUS AND IN
ABSOLUTE TERMS IE WHEN COMPARED WITH STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE SIMILAR
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS IN OTHER COUNTRIES &INLAND AND )CELAND ARE THE TWO %UROPEAN
COUNTRIES IN THE /%#$ WITH THE SMALLEST DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO EXTREME
QUARTERS AND POINTS RESPECTIVELY 4HESE THREE COUNTRIES ALSO HAVE THE
SMALLEST GAPS BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE INDEX IN
TERMS OF PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
4HE LARGEST DIFFERENCES OF POINTS OR MORE IN ALL THREE LITERACY DOMAINS
ARE FOUND IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND )N 'ERMANY THE DIFFERENCE IS
PARTICULARLY STRIKING 3TUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE THE BEST JOBS THE TOP QUARTER
ON THE OCCUPATIONAL INDEX SCORE ON AVERAGE ABOUT AS WELL AS THE AVERAGE STUDENT
IN &INLAND THE BEST
PERFORMING COUNTRY IN 0)3! THOSE WHOSE PARENTS HAVE
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
4HE 0)3! INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS GROUPS STUDENTS ACCORDING TO
THEIR PARENTS OCCUPATIONS RANKED BY THE DIRECT ROLE THAT OCCUPATION PLAYS IN MAXIMISING INCOME
)N EACH COUNTRY THE POPULATION IS DIVIDED INTO QUARTERS RANKED BY THE NATIONAL VALUES ON THE INDEX
4HE SKILLS REQUIRED TO PERFORM THE REQUIREMENTS OF AN OCCUPATION SERVE AS THE PRIMARY CRITERION FOR
DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT LEVELS OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
&IGURE COMPARES THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCES OF STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE
INDEX IN EACH COUNTRY 4HUS THE LENGTH OF THE DIFFERENT LINES DEMONSTRATES THE GAP IN EACH COUNTRY
BETWEEN PEOPLE IN ITS HIGHEST AND LOWEST NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS .OTE THAT THE AVERAGE
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF EACH QUARTER DIFFERS BETWEEN /%#$ COUNTRIES ALTHOUGH THE MEAN OF THE
BOTTOM QUARTER VARIES NO MORE THAN POINTS ON A
POINT INDEX FOR ALL BUT FOUR /%#$ COUNTRIES
)N THE TOP QUARTER THERE IS SOMEWHAT MORE VARIATION
4YPICAL OCCUPATIONS AMONG PARENTS OF
YEAR
OLDS WITH BETWEEN AND POINTS ON THE INDEX
INCLUDE SMALL
SCALE FARMING METALWORKING MOTOR MECHANICS TAXI AND LORRY
DRIVING AND WAITING
"ETWEEN AND INDEX POINTS THE MOST COMMON OCCUPATIONS ARE BOOK
KEEPING SALES SMALL
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AND NURSING !S THE REQUIRED SKILLS INCREASE SO ALSO DOES THE STATUS OF THE
OCCUPATION "ETWEEN AND INDEX POINTS TYPICAL OCCUPATIONS ARE MARKETING MANAGEMENT
TEACHING CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ACCOUNTANCY &INALLY BETWEEN AND POINTS THE TOP INTERNATIONAL
QUARTER OF THE INDEX OCCUPATIONS INCLUDE MEDICINE UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND LAW
THE LOWEST STATUS JOBS SCORE ABOUT THE SAME AS STUDENTS IN -EXICO THE /%#$
COUNTRY WITH THE LOWEST PERFORMANCE
!LSO THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES
HAVE DIFFERENCES OF MORE THAN POINTS FOR STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUAR
TERS OF THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX IN ALL THREE DOMAINS WELL ABOVE THE EQUIVALENT
OF ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL !S IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND STUDENTS IN
THESE COUNTRIES WHO ARE IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE OCCUPATIONAL INDEX ARE
MORE THAN TWICE AS LIKELY AS OTHER STUDENTS ALSO TO BE AMONG THE BOTTOM PER
CENT OF THEIR COUNTRYS PERFORMERS ON THE 0)3! LITERACY SCALES 4ABLE A
o>`Ê>ÞÊv>VÌÀÃÊ )T CANNOT BE ASSUMED HOWEVER THAT ALL OF THESE DIFFERENCES ARE A DIRECT RESULT
VÌÀLÕÌiÊÌÊÌ ÃÊ OF THE HOME ADVANTAGES AND HIGHER EXPECTATIONS CONFERRED BY PARENTS IN HIGHER
Ài>ÌÃ «° OCCUPATIONS -ANY FACTORS AFFECT STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN THE THREE DOMAINS
&OR EXAMPLE SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS MAY BE RELATED TO WHERE STUDENTS LIVE AND
THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS TO WHICH THEY HAVE ACCESS THIS WOULD BE IMPORTANT
IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS THAT ARE DEPENDENT ON LOCAL TAXES TO THE LIKELIHOOD THAT
THEY ARE ENROLLED IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS TO THE LEVEL OF PARENTAL SUPPORT AND
INVOLVEMENT ETC
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÈ°£
/CCUPATIONAL STATUS OF PARENTS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
!
" 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%)
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
-EXICO
&RANCE
,UXEMBOURG
'REECE
+OREA
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
0OLAND
"ELGIUM
)RELAND
)TALY
$ENMARK
3WITZERLAND
&INLAND
'ERMANY
5NITED 3TATES
(UNGARY
3WEDEN
.EW :EALAND
5NITED +INGDOM
!USTRALIA
#ANADA
)CELAND
!USTRIA
.ORWAY
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE PER UNITS STANDARD DEVIATION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE A
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê )T IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT ALTHOUGH STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTER
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
Ê«>ÀiÌÃÊ HAVE LOWER MEAN SCORES THAN THEIR PEERS IN A GIVEN COUNTRY THEY DO NOT
ÊÜiÀÃÌ>ÌÕÃÊLÃÊ NECESSARILY FARE POORLY IN ABSOLUTE TERMS &OR EXAMPLE STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM
«iÀvÀÊLiÌÌiÀÊÌ
>ÊÌ
iÊ QUARTER OF THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX IN &INLAND AND +OREA HAVE MEAN SCORES
>ÛiÀ>}iÊ"
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌ° STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF IN EACH DOMAIN AND
HAVE HIGHER AVERAGE SCORES THAN STUDENTS IN THE TOP QUARTER IN TWO COUNTRIES
)N OTHER WORDS WHILE HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS PROVIDES A PERFORMANCE
hADVANTAGEv WITHIN COUNTRIES THIS ADVANTAGE DOES NOT NECESSARILY OCCUR IN ALL
COUNTRIES 3IMILARLY PLACEMENT IN THE TOP QUARTER ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX
DOES NOT NECESSARILY CONVEY THE SAME RELATIVE ADVANTAGE IN EVERY COUNTRY
)T SHOULD ALSO BE RECOGNISED THAT BEING IN THE TOP OR BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTER
ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX IN ONE COUNTRY IS NOT NECESSARILY COMPARABLE TO
BEING IN THE TOP OR BOTTOM QUARTER IN ANOTHER COUNTRY ,IKEWISE THE hDISTANCEv
OR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THOSE IN THE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS VARIES CONSIDERABLY
BETWEEN COUNTRIES &OR EXAMPLE BOTH THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC AND &RANCE HAVE IDENTICAL
MEAN VALUES INDEX POINTS ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
SEE 4ABLE A BUT THE AVERAGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE LOWEST AND
HIGHEST QUARTERS IS POINTS IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC AND IN &RANCE THUS INDICATING
A LARGER GAP IN SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS IN &RANCE THAN IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC )N
ORDER TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT SUCH DIFFERENCES IT IS POSSIBLE TO COMPARE THE DIFFERENCES
IN AVERAGE SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS IN READING
LITERACY THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A DIFFERENCE OF ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION
UNITS ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS 4ABLES A B
AND C 4HIS ANALYSIS CONFIRMS THE RELATIVELY HIGH IMPORTANCE OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC
STATUS IN SOME COUNTRIES AND ITS RELATIVELY LOW IMPORTANCE IN OTHERS
vviÀiViÃÊÊ 4HESE FINDINGS HAVE POTENTIALLY IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY
MAKERS !S
«iÀvÀ>ViÊ
`iÀÊ THE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3TUDY HAS SHOWN READING LITERACY IS A SKILL THAT
iVVÊ>`ÊÃV>Ê ENHANCES OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS
LÌÞÊvÀÊiÊ #ANADA &URTHERMORE PERFORMANCE IN READING IS ALSO AN IMPORTANT
}iiÀ>ÌÊÌÊÌ
iÊiÝÌ° FOUNDATION FOR LIFELONG LEARNING )N CONSEQUENCE INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY
FROM LOWER TO HIGHER LEVELS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS MAY BE LIMITED IN COUNTRIES
WITH HIGH PERCENTAGES OF WEAKER OR MARGINALLY PROFICIENT READERS 4HE WEAKER
READERS AS WELL AS THOSE WEAK IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY MAY BE
THE ONES LEAST LIKELY TO OBTAIN EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES THAT OFFER THE PROMISE
OF ECONOMIC MOBILITY !S THE DISCUSSION OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS REVEALS
HOWEVER THESE DISPARITIES DIFFER WIDELY BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HIS MAY INDICATE
THAT THEY ARE NOT INEVITABLE
&AMILY WEALTH
7
iÊv>ÞÊÜi>Ì
ÊÃ
Õ`Ê 2ELATIVE WEALTH TYPICALLY CLOSELY RELATED TO OCCUPATION IS GENERALLY AN ADVAN
ÌÊ>vviVÌÊi`ÕV>Ì>Ê TAGE "Y DEFINITION WEALTHIER PEOPLE HAVE ACCESS TO MORE RESOURCES 4HEY ALSO
««ÀÌÕÌiÃÊÊ«ÕLVÊ TEND TO HAVE MORE DISCRETIONARY INCOME THAN DO THE LESS WEALTHY AND FIND IT
i`ÕV>ÌÊÃÞÃÌiÃo EASIER TO ACQUIRE WHAT THEY WANT INCLUDING GOODS AND SERVICES OF HIGH QUALITY
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
(OWEVER IN PUBLICLY SUPPORTED EDUCATION SYSTEMS COMMITTED TO EQUALITY OF
OPPORTUNITY THE WEALTH OF A STUDENTS FAMILY SHOULD NOT INFLUENCE ACCESS TO EDU
CATIONAL QUALITY
4O ASSESS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEALTH AND OUTCOMES REPORTS WERE OBTAINED
FROM STUDENTS ON THE AVAILABILITY OF VARIOUS ITEMS IN THEIR HOMES ! COMPOSITE
INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH WAS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE RESPONSES &OR THE /%#$
COUNTRIES THIS INDEX HAS AN AVERAGE OF ZERO AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF ONE
!S 4ABLE SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEALTH AND PERFORMANCE IN 0)3! IS oÊ«À>VÌVi]ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
MIXED BUT GENERALLY POSITIVE 3TUDENTS FROM WEALTHIER FAMILIES TYPICALLY DO BETTER vÀÊÜi>Ì iÀÊv>iÃÊ
THAN STUDENTS FROM THE LEAST WEALTHY FAMILIES IN EACH DOMAIN 7EALTHIER STUDENTS DO Ìi`ÊÌÊ`ÊLiÌÌiÀ]Ê
TEND TO HAVE HIGHER AVERAGE SCORES THAN LESS WEALTHY STUDENTS WITHIN COUNTRIES /N >Ì Õ} ÊÌ iÊ«>ÌÌiÀÊÃÊ
AVERAGE STUDENTS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES IN THE TOP QUARTER OF THE WEALTH INDEX SCORE iÃÃÊ«ÀÕVi`ÊÌ >ÊÊ
ABOUT POINTS HIGHER ON THE READING LITERACY SCALE THAN STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM QUAR Ì iÊV>ÃiÊvÊ«>ÀiÌ>Ê
TER THE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL BUT THREE /%#$ COUNTRIES VVÕ«>Ì>ÊÃÌ>ÌÕð
!MONG THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES THE 5NITED 3TATES SHOWS THE LARGEST ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌ
iÊ
DIFFERENCES THE GAP IN READING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE TOP Ài>ÌÃ
«ÊÃÊÕV
Ê
AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF WEALTH BEING POINTS /%#$ AVERAGE DIFFERENCE ÀiÊ«ÀÕVi`ÊÌ
>Ê
POINTS %XPRESSED DIFFERENTLY STUDENTS IN THE 5NITED 3TATES ARE AT LEAST TWICE ÊÌ
iÀÃo
AS LIKELY TO BE AMONG THE PER CENT LOWEST PERFORMERS IN READING LITERACY IF
THEY ARE IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE 0)3! INDEX OF WEALTH AS IF THEY ARE IN THE
TOP QUARTER "RAZIL -EXICO AND 0ORTUGAL HAVE THE NEXT LARGEST GAPS AVERAGING
ABOUT POINTS FOR THE THREE DOMAINS SEE 4ABLE FOR READING LITERACY AND
WWWPISAOECDORG FOR MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAMILY WEALTH AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS COMPARA
oÜ
iÀiÊÊ>ÊÀi>ÌÛiÊ>VÊ
TIVELY WEAK IN THE .ORDIC COUNTRIES IN !USTRIA "ELGIUM )TALY *APAN ,ATVIA AND vÊÜi>Ì
ÊÃÊÌÊ>ÊL>ÀÀiÀÊ
0OLAND &URTHERMORE IN SEVERAL /%#$ COUNTRIES A RELATIVE LACK OF WEALTH IS ÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>LÛiÊÌ
iÊ
NOT A BARRIER TO PERFORMANCE ABOVE THE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE )NDEED STUDENTS ÌiÀ>Ì>Ê>ÛiÀ>}i°
IN THE BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTER OF WEALTH HAVE MEAN SCORES AT OR ABOVE THE
/%#$ AVERAGE LITERACY SCORES IN ABOUT A THIRD OF COUNTRIES !MONG STUDENTS
IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER FOR WEALTH HIGH SCORES ARE FOUND IN &INLAND IN READING
LITERACY AND IN *APAN IN ALL THREE DOMAINS SEE 4ABLE FOR READING LITERACY
AND WWWPISAOECDORG FOR MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY 3TUDENTS IN THE
BOTTOM QUARTER OF WEALTH IN THESE COUNTRIES HAVE HIGHER MEAN SCORES THAN THOSE
OF STUDENTS IN THE TOP QUARTER OF WEALTH IN MANY OTHER /%#$ COUNTRIES
0OSSESSIONS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE
)N ADDITION TO FAMILY WEALTH STUDENTS MAY ALSO HAVE ACCESS TO POSSESSIONS *-Ê>ÃÊ>Ãi`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
RELATED TO CLASSICAL CULTURE THAT RESEARCH HAS FREQUENTLY SHOWN TO BE RELATED TO >LÕÌÊ«ÃÃiÃÃÃÊÊ
EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS 5NLIKE FAMILY WEALTH WHICH TYPICALLY DEPENDS ON PARENTS Ì
iÀÊ
iÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ
SUCCESS IN THE MARKETPLACE CULTURAL POSSESSIONS ARE MORE READILY AVAILABLE IN V>ÃÃV>ÊVÕÌÕÀi]ÊÃÕV
Ê>ÃÊ
PRINCIPLE AT LEAST TO WHOEVER SEEKS THEM 4O ASSESS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ÌiÀ>ÌÕÀiÊ>`Ê>ÀÌ°
CULTURAL POSSESSIONS AND PERFORMANCE IN THE THREE DOMAINS THE 0)3! SURVEY
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
ASKED STUDENTS TO INDICATE WHETHER THEY HAD CLASSIC LITERATURE BOOKS OF POETRY
AND WORKS OF ART SUCH AS PAINTINGS IN THEIR HOMES 4HE RESPONSES WERE
COMBINED TO CREATE A SUMMARY INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME
IT WAS SET TO HAVE AN AVERAGE OF ZERO AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF ONE FOR THE
/%#$ COUNTRIES
4HE HIGHEST LEVELS OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO CLASSICAL CULTURE ARE FOUND IN )CELAND
,ATVIA AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION 4ABLE )N )CELAND FOR EXAMPLE PER
CENT OR MORE OF STUDENTS INDICATE THAT THEIR HOMES CONTAIN CLASSIC LITERATURE
BOOKS OF POETRY OR WORKS OF ART FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG )N THE 2USSIAN
&EDERATION NEARLY PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT THEY HAVE CLASSIC LITERATURE
AND BOOKS OF POETRY AT HOME 4HESE PERCENTAGES CONTRAST WITH COUNTRIES SUCH AS
-EXICO AND .EW :EALAND WHERE LESS THAN ONE
THIRD OF STUDENTS REPORT HAVING
CLASSIC LITERATURE AT HOME AND "RAZIL &RANCE AND -EXICO WHERE ONE
THIRD OR
LESS STUDENTS HAVE WORKS OF ART IN THEIR HOMES
7Ì
ÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê 4HE POSSESSION OF ITEMS RELATED TO CLASSICAL CULTURE IS CLOSELY RELATED TO
VÕÌÕÀ>Ê«ÃÃiÃÃÃÊ>ÀiÊ DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE AS CAN BE SEEN IN &IGURE AND GENERALLY MORE
>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÀiÊVÃiÞÊ CLOSELY THAN FAMILY WEALTH -OREOVER THE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN
ÜÌ
Ê«iÀvÀ>ViÊÌ
>ÊÃÊ STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM AND TOP NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF CULTURAL
v>ÞÊÜi>Ì
o POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME ARE CONSISTENTLY HIGH RANGING ON AVERAGE ACROSS
/%#$ COUNTRIES FROM POINTS IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY TO POINTS IN READING
LITERACY SEE 4ABLE FOR READING LITERACY AND WWWPISAOECDORG FOR MATHEMATICAL
AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY 4HIS RELATIONSHIP IS NATURALLY CLOSELY INTERTWINED WITH
OTHER BACKGROUND FACTORS SUCH AS SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS AND WEALTH
o>Ì
Õ}
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 4HE LACK OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO CLASSICAL CULTURE IS OF COURSE RELATIVE
Ü
Ê>VÊVÕÌÕÀ>Ê 3TUDENTS IN SOME COUNTRIES MAY HAVE FEW SUCH POSSESSIONS AND PERFORM POORLY
«ÃÃiÃÃÃÊ`ÊÌÊ IN COMPARISON WITH THEIR FELLOW STUDENTS !T THE SAME TIME HOWEVER SUCH
iÛiÀÞÜ
iÀiÊ«iÀvÀÊ STUDENTS MAY PERFORM WELL WHEN COMPARED WITH STUDENTS AT THE BOTTOM QUARTER
«ÀÞÊÊÌiÀ>Ì>Ê OF THE INDEX IN OTHER COUNTRIES ! RELATIVE LACK OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO CLASSICAL
ÌiÀð CULTURE THEREFORE DOES NOT SEEM TO PREVENT STUDENTS IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES FROM
EXCEEDING THE /%#$ AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN EACH DOMAIN
/
iʵÕ>ÀÌiÀÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ 3TUDENTS WITH THE HIGHEST VALUES ON THE INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS TYPICALLY
ÜÌ
ÊÌ
iÊÃÌÊVÕÌÕÀ>Ê DO EXCEPTIONALLY WELL %IGHT /%#$ COUNTRIES HAVE AVERAGE SCORES OF POINTS
«ÃÃiÃÃÃÊ
>ÛiÊÛiÀÞÊ OR MORE IN EACH DOMAIN AMONG SUCH STUDENTS )N READING THIS WOULD PLACE
}
ÊÃVÀiÃÊÊ>ÞÊ THESE STUDENTS AROUND THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN PROFICIENCY ,EVELS AND )N
VÕÌÀiÃo !USTRALIA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AVERAGE SCORES FOR STUDENTS IN THE TOP
QUARTER EXCEED POINTS IN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY AND
ARE WELL WITHIN ,EVEL IN READING LITERACY /N AVERAGE IN /%#$ COUNTRIES
PERFORMANCE INCREASES BY POINTS IN READING FOR EACH INCREASE OF ONE UNIT ON
THE INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS 4ABLE
o>`ÊÕV
ÊvÊÌ
iÊ )T IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO EXAMINE HOW 0)3! LITERACY SCORES PROGRESSIVELY INCREASE
`vviÀiViÊÃÊLiÌÜiiÊÌ
iÊ AMONG STUDENTS WITH SUCCESSIVELY HIGHER LEVELS OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS %VEN
LÌÌʵÕ>ÀÌiÀÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀiÃÌ° MORE PRONOUNCED THAN IN THE CASE OF FAMILY WEALTH AN AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÈ°Ó
0OSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
!
" 4OP QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER "OTTOM QUARTER
! )NDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME
" 0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
.ETHERLANDS
"ELGIUM
2USSIAN &EDERATION
&RANCE
-EXICO
*APAN
#ANADA
)RELAND
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
5NITED 3TATES
0ORTUGAL
!USTRALIA
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRIA
.ORWAY
&INLAND
3WEDEN
3PAIN
+OREA
0OLAND
)TALY
'REECE
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
(UNGARY
)CELAND
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
THIS DIFFERENCE LIES BETWEEN THE BOTTOM AND THE SECOND QUARTERS ON THE INDEX OF
CULTURAL POSSESSIONS )N )CELAND )TALY *APAN ,ATVIA 0OLAND THE 2USSIAN &EDERA
TION AND 3PAIN THE PROPORTION IS MORE THAN PER CENT
!LTHOUGH CULTURAL POSSESSIONS ARE CLOSELY INTERRELATED WITH OTHER FACTORS IT DOES
SEEM THAT THE KIND OF CULTURAL CAPITAL ON WHICH SCHOOL CURRICULA OFTEN BUILD AND
WHICH EXAMINATIONS AND TESTS ASSESS MAKES A DIFFERENCE 4HE FACT THAT THE EFFECTS
ARE EVEN HIGHER IN READING THAN IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY FOR DATA
ON THESE SUBJECTS WWWPISAOECDORG EMPHASISES THAT THERE IS EDUCATIONAL BENEFIT
IN HOME
BASED ACCESS TO LITERATURE AND OTHER CULTURAL POSSESSIONS
*-Ê>ÃÊ>Ãi`Ê>LÕÌÊ 0)3! ALSO ASKED STUDENTS TO INDICATE THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THEY
>VÌÛÌiÃÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ PARTICIPATED IN ACTIVITIES RELATED TO CLASSICAL CULTURE SUCH AS VISITING A MUSEUM
V>ÃÃV>ÊVÕÌÕÀio OR ART GALLERY WATCHING LIVE THEATRE OR ATTENDING AN OPERA BALLET OR CLASSICAL
SYMPHONY CONCERT ! COMPOSITE INDEX OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES WAS CREATED FROM
THE RESPONSES )NDEX VALUES ABOVE ZERO INDICATE THAT STUDENTS PARTICIPATE IN
CULTURAL ACTIVITIES MORE FREQUENTLY THAN THE AVERAGE OF STUDENTS ACROSS ALL /%#$
COUNTRIES VALUES BELOW ZERO INDICATE THAT STUDENTS PARTICIPATE LESS FREQUENTLY
THAN THE TYPICAL OR AVERAGE
YEAR
OLD IN THE /%#$ COUNTRIES
oÜ
V
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊvÀÊ #OUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST FREQUENCIES OF PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
`vviÀiÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ INCLUDE THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY AND ,ATVIA 4ABLE .EARLY PER CENT
Õ`iÀÌÊÜÌ
ÊÛ>ÀÞ}Ê OF STUDENTS IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC AND (UNGARY SAID THAT THEY HAD WATCHED LIVE
vÀiµÕiVÞo THEATRE THREE OR MORE TIMES IN THE PAST YEAR COMPARED WITH AN INTERNATIONAL
AVERAGE OF ONLY PER CENT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG 3IMILARLY ONE
THIRD
OF (UNGARIAN STUDENTS HAD VISITED A MUSEUM OR ART GALLERY THREE OR MORE TIMES
IN THE PAST YEAR COMPARED WITH THE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE OF PER CENT /N
THE OTHER HAND AN AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF THE STUDENTS REPORTED THAT THEY HAD
NEVER VISITED A MUSEUM OR ART GALLERY
o>`ÊÌÊÜ>ÃÊvÕ`Ê 4HE FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES AS MEASURED BY THE INDEX
ÛÀÌÕ>ÞÊiÛiÀÞÜ
iÀiÊÌ
>ÌÊ EXPLAINS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN
Ì
ÃiÊÛÛi`ÊÊÃÕV
Ê STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX ! )N
>VÌÛÌiÃÊÀiÊvÀiµÕiÌÞÊ EVERY COUNTRY EXCEPT "RAZIL THERE IS A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
>`Ê
}
iÀÊÌiÀ>VÞÊ THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCES OF STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTER OF THE INDEX
ÃVÀiÃÊÊ>ÛiÀ>}i° OF PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND THOSE IN THE TOP QUARTER WITH PARTICULARLY
LARGE DIFFERENCES OF SCALE POINTS OR MORE IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY 3PAIN THE
5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4ABLE
#OMMUNICATION ON SOCIAL ISSUES AND ASPECTS OF CULTURE
*>ÀiÌ>ÊÛÛiiÌÊÃÊ 0ARENTS SUPPORT FOR THEIR CHILDRENS EDUCATION IS WIDELY DEEMED TO BE AN
Ü`iÞÊÃiiÊ>ÃÊiÃÃiÌ>Ê ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF SUCCESS AT SCHOOL 7HEN PARENTS INTERACT AND COMMUNICATE
vÀÊÃÕVViÃÃÊ>ÌÊÃV
o WELL WITH THEIR CHILDREN THEY CAN OFFER ENCOURAGEMENT DEMONSTRATE THEIR
INTEREST IN THEIR CHILDRENS PROGRESS AND OTHERWISE CONVEY THEIR CONCERN FOR
HOW THEIR CHILDREN ARE DOING BOTH IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL )NDEED CONSIDERABLE
PREVIOUS RESEARCH HAS DEMONSTRATED THE IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT AND CHILDRENS ACADEMIC SUCCESS
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
0)3! ASKED STUDENTS TO INDICATE HOW OFTEN THEIR PARENTS INTERACTED OR o>`Ê*-ÊÌ
iÀivÀiÊ
COMMUNICATED WITH THEM IN SIX AREAS DISCUSSING POLITICAL OR SOCIAL ISSUES >Ãi`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
ÜÊ
DISCUSSING BOOKS FILMS OR TELEVISION PROGRAMMES LISTENING TO MUSIC TOGETHER vÀiµÕiÌÞÊÌ
iÞÊ
DISCUSSING HOW WELL THE STUDENT WAS DOING IN SCHOOL EATING THE MAIN MEAL VÕV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
WITH THE STUDENT AND SPENDING TIME JUST TALKING 2ESEARCH CONFIRMS THAT THESE Ì
iÀÊ«>ÀiÌÃo
INDICATORS OPERATE IN MANY COUNTRIES AS GOOD PROXIES FOR SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
2ESPONSES TO THE FIRST THREE QUESTIONS WERE COMBINED TO CREATE AN INDEX OF oÊVÕÌÕÀ>Ê>`ÊÃV>Ê
CULTURAL COMMUNICATION RESPONSES TO THE LAST THREE QUESTIONS WERE COMBINED VÌiÝÌð
TO CREATE AN INDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION /N BOTH INDICES VALUES ABOVE
THE /%#$ AVERAGE WHICH WAS SET AT ZERO REFLECT COMPARATIVELY HIGH LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN STUDENTS AND THEIR PARENTS .OTE THAT VALUES BELOW THE
AVERAGE DO NOT SIGNIFY THE ABSENCE OF COMMUNICATION BUT RATHER THAT STUDENTS
REPORT THAT COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION OCCUR LESS FREQUENTLY THAN ON AVERAGE
ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
!CCORDING TO STUDENTS REPORTS )TALIAN PARENTS FOLLOWED BY THOSE IN (UNGARY
AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION DISPLAY THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION ON
SOCIAL ISSUES WITH THEIR CHILDREN 4ABLE AND &IGURE )N THESE THREE
COUNTRIES FOR EXAMPLE MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS INDICATE THAT THEIR
PARENTS DISCUSS HOW WELL THEY ARE DOING AT SCHOOL OR hSPEND TIME JUST TALKINGv
WITH THEM SEVERAL TIMES A WEEK FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG 3TUDENTS IN
)TALY AGAIN REPORT HAVING THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION ON ASPECTS OF
CULTURE FOLLOWED IN ORDER BY STUDENTS IN (UNGARY &RANCE AND ,ATVIA 4ABLE
AND &IGURE )N "RAZIL (UNGARY )TALY AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION MORE
THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS INDICATE THAT THEIR PARENTS DISCUSS BOOKS FILMS
OR TELEVISION PROGRAMMES WITH THEM SEVERAL TIMES A WEEK 4HIS PERCENTAGE
CONTRASTS WITH THE SITUATION IN SEVERAL OTHER COUNTRIES WHERE PER CENT OR
MORE OF STUDENTS NEVER DISCUSS BOOKS OR FILMS WITH THEIR PARENTS OR DO SO ONLY A
FEW TIMES A YEAR FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
/N BOTH INDICES THE MORE FREQUENT THE REPORTED COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION ,iÃÕÌÃÊ>ÀiÊLiÌÌiÀÊvÀÊ
THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE MEAN SCORES IN EVERY COUNTRY ON THE COMBINED READING Ì
ÃiÊVÕV>Ì}Ê
LITERACY SCALE /N AVERAGE CULTURAL COMMUNICATION SHOWS A STRONGER RELATIONSHIP Ài]ÊiëiV>ÞÊÊ
WITH READING SCORES THAN DOES SOCIAL COMMUNICATION "Y WAY OF ILLUSTRATION THE VÕÌÕÀ>Ê>ÌÌiÀð
/%#$ AVERAGE SCORE IN READING RISES FROM POINTS FOR THE BOTTOM QUARTER ON
THE INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION TO FOR THE TOP QUARTER A DIFFERENCE OF
ALMOST POINTS AND FROM POINTS TO A DIFFERENCE OF POINTS ON THE
INDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION 4ABLES AND
!GAIN THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL COMMUNICATION NEEDS TO BE EVALUATED IN THE
CONTEXT OF OTHER BACKGROUND FACTORS SEE ALSO #HAPTER .ONETHELESS THIS
SIMPLE ANALYSIS INDICATES THAT EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS MAY BE RELATED TO POSITIVE
SYNERGIES BETWEEN THE HOME AND SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS AND THAT COMMUNICA
TION BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN CAN BE OF EDUCATIONAL BENEFIT TO CHILDREN !N
IMPORTANT OBJECTIVE FOR PUBLIC POLICY MAY THEREFORE BE TO WORK WITH PARENTS
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
}ÕÀiÊÈ°Î
3OCIAL AND CULTURAL COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)NDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION AND INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
)NDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION )NDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
)TALY
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
3PAIN
&RANCE
'REECE
5NITED 3TATES "ELOW
/%#$ AVERAGE
!BOVE
/%#$ AVERAGE
0OLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
)RELAND
-EXICO
)CELAND
"ELGIUM
+OREA
*APAN
,UXEMBOURG
#ANADA
&INLAND
'ERMANY
3WITZERLAND
!USTRIA
.EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA
2USSIAN &EDERATION
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
.ETHERLANDS
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLES AND
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
PARTICULARLY THOSE WHOSE OWN EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IS MORE LIMITED IN ORDER TO
FACILITATE THEIR INTERACTION WITH THEIR CHILDREN AND THEIR CHILDRENS SCHOOLS IN WAYS
THAT ENHANCE THEIR CHILDRENS LEARNING 4HIS IS NO EASY TASK BUT IT IS IMPORTANT THAT
SUPPORT IN PARENTING IS SEEN AS A KEY ADJUNCT TO THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN
0ARENTAL EDUCATION
2ESEARCH SHOWS CONSISTENTLY THAT THE PARENTAL LEVEL OF EDUCATION CONTINUES TO *>ÀiÌ>ÊiÛiÊvÊ
BE A SIGNIFICANT SOURCE OF DISPARITIES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE NOTWITHSTANDING i`ÕV>ÌÊV>Ê>ÃÊ
THE CONSIDERABLE EFFORTS UNDERTAKEN TO GUARANTEE EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNI
VÌÀLÕÌiÊÌÊ>Ê
TIES FOR ALL ! HIGHLY SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AT HOME TO WHICH A HIGH ÃÕ««ÀÌÛiÊ
iÊ
LEVEL OF PARENTAL EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT CAN CONTRIBUTE IS LIKELY TO BE REFLECTED iÛÀiÌ°
IN HIGHER EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE BY THEIR CHILDREN ! SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT
CAN BE EQUATED NOT ONLY WITH THE FINANCIAL CAPITAL TO SUPPORT CHILDRENS EDUCA
TION n INCLUDING HIGHER EDUCATION n AND HENCE HIGHER OCCUPATIONAL STATUS BUT
ALSO WITH DAY
TO
DAY INTERACTION BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN THAT IS OF GREATER
VALUE FOR THE TYPE OF EDUCATION WITH WHICH SCHOOLS ARE CONCERNED
&IGURE USES THREE CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT COMPLETION OF PRI
MARY OR LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
AND COMPLETION OF TERTIARY EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS MOTHERS AND PROVIDES MEAN
PERFORMANCE SCORES IN READING FOR EACH COUNTRY 4HESE CATEGORIES ARE DEFINED
IN SUCH A WAY THAT THEY ARE INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE ON THE BASIS OF THE )NTER
NATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF %DUCATION )3#%$ 4HE MOTHERS EDUCATION
WAS CHOSEN BECAUSE THE LITERATURE OFTEN IDENTIFIES THIS AS A STRONGER PREDICTOR FOR
STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAN THE FATHERS EDUCATION
3TUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION ACHIEVE Ì
iÀýÊi`ÕV>ÌÊÃÊ
HIGHER LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE IN READING THAN OTHER STUDENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES AND «ÃÌÛiÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
IN MOST COUNTRIES THE MOTHERS COMPLETION OF TERTIARY EDUCATION GIVES A FURTHER ÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vio
ADVANTAGE 4ABLE
3TUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION ARE oÜÌ
Ê«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊÜÊ
PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE )N ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES MEAN READING SCORES FOR STUDENTS «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>}Ê
WITH MOTHERS IN THIS CATEGORY ARE ON AVERAGE LOWER BY ABOUT POINTS IN ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜ
ÃiÊÌ
iÀÃÊ
READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY THAN FOR STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS
>ÛiÊÌÊV«iÌi`Ê
HAVE COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION 4ABLE 4HE LARGEST DIFFERENCES Õ««iÀÊÃiV`>ÀÞÊ
BETWEEN THE MIDDLE AND LOWEST CATEGORIES OF ATTAINMENT IN READING ARE IN i`ÕV>Ìo
'ERMANY POINTS -EXICO POINTS "ELGIUM AND 3WITZERLAND POINTS
EACH AND THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC POINTS )N THESE COUNTRIES STUDENTS WHOSE
MOTHERS HAVE NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION ARE BETWEEN AND
TIMES AS LIKELY TO PERFORM IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE NATIONAL STUDENT
POPULATION THAN STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY
EDUCATION 4HE EXTENT OF THE DISADVANTAGE SUFFERED BY THOSE WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE
NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION IS SUMMARISED IN &IGURE SECOND
PANEL WHERE IT IS SHOWN AS THE INCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF CHILDREN OF MOTHERS
WITHOUT UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION BEING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE NATIONAL
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
}ÕÀiÊÈ°{
-OTHERS EDUCATION AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
0ERCENTAGE OF MOTHERS WHO HAVE COMPLETED VARIOUS LEVELS OF EDUCATION
-OTHERS WITH TERTIARY EDUCATION )3#%$ ,EVELS OR
-OTHERS WITH COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION HIGHEST LEVEL IS )3#%$ ,EVEL
-OTHERS WITH COMPLETED PRIMARY OR LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION HIGHEST LEVEL IS )3#%$ ,EVELS OR
.ETHERLANDS
#ANADA
3WEDEN
.EW :EALAND
$ENMARK
.ORWAY
&RANCE
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
&INLAND
'REECE
)CELAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
"ELGIUM
(UNGARY
'ERMANY
0OLAND
!USTRIA
3WITZERLAND
3PAIN
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
0ORTUGAL
-EXICO
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
SCORING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE NATIONAL READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
.ETHERLANDS
#ANADA
3WEDEN
.EW :EALAND
$ENMARK
.ORWAY
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
&INLAND
'REECE
)CELAND
(UNGARY
'ERMANY
0OLAND
!USTRIA
3WITZERLAND
3PAIN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
0ORTUGAL
)TALY
-EXICO
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,ATVIA
"RAZIL
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
"ELGIUM
&RANCE
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR ALL COUNTRIES THE RATIO IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER THAN
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
DISTRIBUTION IN READING PERFORMANCE $ESPITE THESE FINDINGS THE EXPECTED RELA
TIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MOTHERS EDUCATION AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS NOT UNI
VERSAL n AND MAY THEREFORE NOT BE AUTOMATIC OR INEVITABLE
! MOTHERS COMPLETION OF TERTIARY LEVEL EDUCATION PROVIDES LITTLE OR NO ADDITIONAL oÜ iÀi>ÃÊÌiÀÌ>ÀÞÊ
BOOST IN SOME COUNTRIES IN THE MEAN SCORE OF HER CHILD BEYOND THAT ASSOCIATED i`ÕV>ÌÊÃÊiÃÃÊ
WITH THE COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION )N OTHERS IT MAKES A BIG VÃÃÌiÌÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê
DIFFERENCE ÜÌ ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi°
!LTHOUGH THE DATA INDICATE THAT STUDENTS WITH THE LEAST EDUCATED MOTHERS OFTEN ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]ÊiÛiÊ
HAVE THE LOWEST MEAN SCORES hLOWv SCORES SHOULD BE PLACED IN PERSPECTIVE ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
ÊiÃÃÊ
)N !USTRALIA &INLAND AND +OREA MEAN PERFORMANCE SCORES FOR THESE STUDENTS i`ÕV>Ìi`ÊÌ
iÀÃÊ`ÊÜiÊ
ARE ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE IN ALL THREE DOMAINS )N )RELAND IN READING AND ÊÌiÀ>Ì>ÊÌiÀÃo
IN #ANADA )CELAND AND .EW :EALAND IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY STUDENTS WITH
THE LEAST EDUCATED MOTHERS ARE ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE SEE #HAPTER AND
4ABLE 4HIS ALSO SUGGESTS THAT OTHER EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIETAL FACTORS CAN
COMPENSATE FOR DEFICIENCIES IN PARENTAL EDUCATION
)N SOCIETIES THAT AIM FOR EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN oÜ
V
ÊÃÕ}}iÃÌÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ
STUDENTS EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE AND THEIR MOTHERS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT Ì
iÀÊi`ÕV>Ì>Ê>`Ê
SEEMS HIGH !LTHOUGH 0)3! DATA ARE NOT SUITABLE FOR DIRECT PREDICTIONS ABOUT ÃViÌ>Êv>VÌÀÃÊV>Ê
DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE BEYOND THE AGE OF DATA FROM THE V«iÃ>ÌiÊvÀÊ
)NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY )!,3 PROVIDE EVIDENCE OF THE PROBABILITY `ivViViÃÊÊ«>ÀiÌ>Ê
OF OBTAINING A TERTIARY QUALIFICATION FOR GROUPS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE REACHED i`ÕV>Ìo
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ATTAINMENT 4ABLE SHOWS THE RATIO OF THE CHANCE OF
OBTAINING A TERTIARY QUALIFICATION IF AT LEAST ONE PARENT REACHED THAT LEVEL TO THE
CHANCE OF DOING SO IF NEITHER PARENT HAS COMPLETED SECONDARY SCHOOL
)N THE COUNTRIES SURVEYED IN )!,3 THE INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY RANGES o>`Ê«iÀ >«ÃÊÀi`ÕViÊ
FROM IN !USTRALIA TO IN 0OLAND THAT IS HAVING WELL EDUCATED PARENTS Ì iÊÀi>}Ê>`Ê
MAKES ONE TWICE AS LIKELY IN !USTRALIA AND NEARLY SIX TIMES AS LIKELY IN 0OLAND ÃÕLÃÌ>Ì>ÊL>ÀÀiÀÃÊÌÊ
TO COMPLETE TERTIARY EDUCATION THAN IF ONE HAS POORLY EDUCATED PARENTS 4HESE i`ÕV>Ì>ÊLÌÞ°
FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT IN MANY /%#$ COUNTRIES BUT IN SOME MORE THAN IN
OTHERS BARRIERS TO EDUCATIONAL MOBILITY PERSIST WHICH IN TURN CAN CREATE
PROBLEMS IN TERMS OF EQUITY AND IN RAISING THE OVERALL LEVEL OF THE STOCK OF
HUMAN CAPITAL
&AMILY STRUCTURE
4HE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT MAY ALSO PROMOTE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 0ARENTS MAY -}iÊ«>ÀiÌÃÊ>ÞÊv`Ê
READ TO YOUNG LEARNERS ASSIST THEM WITH HOMEWORK AND IN SOME COUNTRIES ÌÊ
>À`iÀÊÌ
>ÊVÕ«iÃÊÌÊ
VOLUNTEER TO HELP IN SCHOOLS &OR OLDER STUDENTS A SUPPORTIVE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT }ÛiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÃÕvvViÌÊ
CAN ALSO BE HELPFUL WITH RESPECT TO HOMEWORK ENCOURAGEMENT AND ATTENDANCE ÃÕ««ÀÌ°
AT MEETINGS WITH TEACHERS OR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS 0ROVIDING AND MAINTAINING
SUCH AN ENVIRONMENT MAY BE DIFFICULT WHEN STUDENTS LIVE IN A SINGLE
PARENT
FAMILY WHERE PARENTS OFTEN FIND THEMSELVES HAVING TO COPE WITH THE DOUBLE
RESPONSIBILITY OF WORK AND EDUCATION
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
-ÌÕ`iÌÃÊvÀÊ>ÊÃ}i 4HE 0)3! CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES ASKED STUDENTS WHO USUALLY LIVED AT HOME
«>ÀiÌÊv>ÞÊ«iÀvÀÊ WITH THEM &ROM THE RESPONSES IT WAS POSSIBLE TO COMPARE THE PERFORMANCE OF
iÃÃÊÜiÊÌ
>ÊÌ
iÀÃÊÊ STUDENTS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAMILY STRUCTURE !MONG ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
ÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃo APPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF 0)3! STUDENTS REPORT THAT THEY LIVE IN SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES 4ABLE ,ATVIA .EW :EALAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE
5NITED 3TATES HAVE THE HIGHEST PROPORTIONS SLIGHTLY OVER PER CENT WHILE
'REECE +OREA AND 0OLAND HAVE THE LOWEST PROPORTIONS ALL LESS THAN PER CENT
)N THE MAJORITY OF /%#$ COUNTRIES THE FINDINGS OF 0)3! SHOW THAT STUDENTS
IN SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES DO LESS WELL THAN THEIR PEERS IN OTHER TYPES OF FAMILY
ENVIRONMENT
o>`ÊÜ iÀiÊÃ}i /VERALL THERE IS A POINT DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
«>ÀiÌÊv>iÃÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊ LITERACY SCALE TO THE DISADVANTAGE OF THOSE IN SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES 4HE LARG
V]ÊÌ iÊ}>«ÊÃÊ EST DIFFERENCES EXCEEDING POINTS OR MORE ARE FOUND IN THE .ETHERLANDS
}Ài>ÌiÃÌo THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4ABLE 4HAT IS TWO OUT OF
THE THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST PROPORTION OF STUDENTS IN SINGLE PARENT
FAMILIES ALSO HAVE THE LARGEST DIFFERENCES IN MEAN SCORES IN READING 4HAT IS NOT
ONLY IS LIVING IN A SINGLE PARENT FAMILY MORE COMMON IN THE 5NITED +INGDOM
AND THE 5NITED 3TATES BUT THE ASSOCIATION WITH STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS ALSO
MORE PRONOUNCED /THER COUNTRIES WITH COMPARATIVELY LARGE DIFFERENCES
INCLUDE "ELGIUM &INLAND &RANCE $ENMARK )RELAND +OREA .EW :EALAND
.ORWAY AND 3WEDEN
oLÕÌÊÌ iÊÀi>ÌÃ «Ê (OWEVER OTHER SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS INCLUDING WEALTH OFTEN REINFORCE THIS
ÃÊV«iÝÊ>`Ê>ÞÊ RELATIONSHIP SEE ALSO #HAPTER ALTHOUGH TO DIFFERENT DEGREES GIVEN THAT THE
v>VÌÀÃÊ>ÀiÊÛÛi`° SOCIAL PROFILE OF SINGLE PARENTS VARIES CONSIDERABLY
)SSUES OF FAMILY STRUCTURE ARE SENSITIVE AS WELL AS IMPORTANT %VIDENCE THAT
CHILDREN IN FAMILIES WITH TWO PARENTS PERFORM BETTER MIGHT SEEM TO OFFER ONLY
A COUNSEL OF DESPAIR TO THOSE FOR WHOM AN ARRANGEMENT WITH ONE PARENT IS
PREFERABLE ON NON
EDUCATIONAL GROUNDS AND IN ANY CASE ALREADY EXISTS /N THE
OTHER HAND IF THERE IS EVIDENCE OF DISADVANTAGE IT NEEDS TO BE ADDRESSED 4HE
ISSUE IS HOW TO FACILITATE PRODUCTIVE HOME SUPPORT FOR CHILDRENS LEARNING IN
WAYS THAT DO NOT DEMAND MORE TIME THAN SINGLE PARENTS CAN PROVIDE 3TRATEGIC
ALLOCATION OF TIME TO ACTIVITIES WITH THE GREATEST POTENTIAL YIELD WILL INCREASE
EFFICIENCY WHERE TIME IS LIMITED 4HE POLICY QUESTION FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS AND
INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS INTERACTING WITH PARENTS IS WHAT KINDS OF PARENTAL ENGAGEMENT
SHOULD BE ENCOURAGED
0LACE OF BIRTH AND LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME
VÀi>Ãi`Ê}À>ÌÊV>Ê -IGRATION FROM ONE COUNTRY TO ANOTHER IS INCREASINGLY COMMON AS INTERNA
V>ÕÃiÊi`ÕV>Ì>Ê TIONAL TRADE EXPANDS AS EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES ATTRACT PEOPLE TO BETTER OR
`vvVÕÌiÃo DIFFERENT LIVELIHOODS AND AS COUNTRIES FIND THEMSELVES ASSISTING REFUGEES FROM
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TURMOIL 7HATEVER THE REASONS FOR WHICH PEOPLE MIGRATE
FROM ONE COUNTRY TO ANOTHER THEIR CHILDREN OF SCHOOL AGE OFTEN FIND THEMSELVES
IN A NEW ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THEY ARE DIFFERENT IN SOME WAYS OR IN WHICH
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION IS UNFAMILIAR TO THEM !LTHOUGH IT IS VERY DIFFICULT
TO COMPARE THE CONTEXT OF MIGRATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES CROSS
NATIONAL ANALYSIS
MAY PROVIDE SOME INSIGHT INTO THE CHARACTERISTICS THAT HELP CERTAIN COUNTRIES TO
SUCCEED BETTER THAN OTHERS IN ACCOMMODATING THESE DISPARITIES
)N ORDER TO EXAMINE THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRANT AND LANGUAGE STATUS ON PERFORMANCE o>`Ê*-ÊÌ
iÀivÀiÊ
IN THE THREE DOMAINS THE 0)3! CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE ASKED STUDENTS TO INDICATE >Ãi`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>LÕÌÊ
WHETHER THEY THEMSELVES AND EACH OF THEIR PARENTS WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY IN Ì
iÀÊ}À>ÌÊÃÌ>ÌÕÃÊ
WHICH THEY WERE LIVING OR IN ANOTHER COUNTRY 3TUDENTS WERE ALSO ASKED WHAT >`Ê
iÊ>}Õ>}i°
LANGUAGE THEY SPOKE AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME
)T IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNISE THE LIMITATIONS OF THE DATA AVAILABLE 0)3! DID /
iÃiʵÕiÃÌÃÊ``ÊÌÊ
NOT ASK STUDENTS HOW LONG THEY HAD LIVED IN THE COUNTRY WHERE THE ASSESS
Ì>iÊvÕÊ>VVÕÌÊvÊ
MENT TOOK PLACE 7HILE MANY OF THEM WERE CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANT PARENTS AND Ì
iÊÛ>Ài`ÊÃÌÕ>ÌÊvÊ
PROBABLY FLUENT IN THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION OTHERS WERE DOUBTLESS RECENT V
`ÀiÊÊ}À>ÌÊ
ARRIVALS AND ONLY IN THEIR SECOND YEAR OF SCHOOLING IN THEIR hNEWv COUNTRY v>ið
,IKEWISE THERE IS NO INFORMATION ABOUT HOW SIMILAR OR DIFFERENT A STUDENTS
FIRST LANGUAGE MIGHT BE TO THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION /NE MIGHT REASONABLY
EXPECT FOR EXAMPLE THAT HAVING PARENTS BORN SAY IN .EW :EALAND WOULD
HAVE LESS IMPACT ON THE SCORE OF A STUDENT NOW LIVING IN !USTRALIA OR THE
5NITED 3TATES THAN HAVING PARENTS BORN SAY IN A COUNTRY SPEAKING A LANGUAGE
OTHER THAN %NGLISH (OWEVER ACCOMMODATING SCHOOLS IN THE hNEWv COUNTRIES
MIGHT BE THE DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE MIGHT REDUCE PERFORMANCE IN READING
IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE OR IN MATHEMATICAL OR SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ESPECIALLY
AMONG RECENT ARRIVALS
4O ASSESS THE EFFECT OF PLACE OF BIRTH ON PERFORMANCE THREE CATEGORIES OF /
iÊ>>ÞÃÃÊV«>ÀiÃ\
STUDENTS WERE COMPARED AS SHOWN IN &IGURE
n THOSE STUDENTS WHO WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY WHERE THE ASSESSMENT TOOK PLACE o»>ÌÛi»ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
AND WHO HAD AT LEAST ONE PARENT BORN IN THAT COUNTRY REFERRED TO BELOW AS
hNATIVE STUDENTSv
n THOSE BORN IN THE COUNTRY WHERE THE ASSESSMENT TOOK PLACE BUT WHOSE PARENTS WERE o»vÀÃÌ}iiÀ>Ì»Ê
BORN IN ANOTHER COUNTRY REFERRED TO BELOW AS hFIRST
GENERATIONv STUDENTS AND ÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
n THOSE BORN OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY WHERE THE ASSESSMENT TOOK PLACE AND WHOSE o>`Ê»>ÌÛi»Ê
PARENTS WERE ALSO BORN IN ANOTHER COUNTRY REFERRED TO BELOW AS hNON
NATIVEv ÃÌÕ`iÌð
STUDENTS
&OR MANY OF THE NON NATIVE STUDENTS THE LANGUAGE OF THE TEST WILL HAVE BEEN A >}Õ>}iÊÃÊ>ÊiÞÊÃÃÕiÊ
SECOND LANGUAGE AND SOME OF THESE STUDENTS WILL NOT HAVE HAD MANY YEARS OF vÀÊ>ÞÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLÀÊ
EXPERIENCE IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF THE COUNTRY IN WHICH THEY WERE TESTED >LÀ>`ÊÀÊÜÌ Ê
&IRST GENERATION STUDENTS ARE ALSO IN FAMILIES IN WHICH THE FIRST LANGUAGE OR THE }À>ÌÊ«>ÀiÌð
LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MAY NOT BE THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION 2EGARDLESS OF
THEIR PLACE OF BIRTH STUDENTS IN THE SECOND AND THIRD CATEGORIES NEED TO ACQUIRE
THE SAME KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS THAT NATIVE BORN STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO HAVE AS
THEY MOVE TOWARDS THE COMPLETION OF THEIR FORMAL EDUCATION
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
}ÕÀiÊÈ°x
0LACE OF BIRTH HOME LANGUAGE AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
,EFT SCALE
0ERCENTAGE OF NON
NATIVE AND FIRST
GENERATION STUDENTS LEFT SCALE AND
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO
PERFORMANCE OF NON
NATIVE FIRST
GENERATION AND NATIVE STUDENTS WERE FOREIGN
BORN AND WHOSE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE RIGHT SCALE PARENTS WERE ALSO FOREIGN
BORN NON
NATIVE STUDENTS
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO
WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF
ASSESSMENT BUT WHOSE PARENTS
WERE FOREIGN
BORN FIRST
GENERATION STUDENTS
2IGHT SCALE
-EAN PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO WERE
BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF
ASSESSMENT WITH AT LEAST ONE
OF THEIR PARENTS BORN IN THE
SAME COUNTRY NATIVE
STUDENTS
-EAN PERFORMANCE ON THE
.ETHERLANDS
&RANCE
,UXEMBOURG
!USTRALIA
3WITZERLAND
#ANADA
.EW :EALAND
'ERMANY
5NITED 3TATES
"ELGIUM
3WEDEN
!USTRIA
$ENMARK
.ORWAY
-EXICO
0ORTUGAL
)RELAND
3PAIN
,ATVIA
5NITED +INGDOM
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO WERE
BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF
ASSESSMENT BUT WHOSE PARENTS
WERE FOREIGN
BORN FIRST
GENERATION STUDENTS
-EAN PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO WERE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO SPEAK A LANGUAGE AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME THAT IS DIFFERENT FOREIGN
BORN AND WHOSE
FROM THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT FROM OTHER OFFICIAL LANGUAGES OR PARENTS WERE ALSO FOREIGN
BORN NON
NATIVE STUDENTS
FROM OTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS LEFT SCALE AND PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS ON
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY LANGUAGE GROUP RIGHT SCALE
,EFT SCALE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO
SPEAK A LANGUAGE AT HOME
MOST OF THE TIME THAT IS
DIFFERENT FROM THE LANGUAGE
OF ASSESSMENT FROM OTHER
OFFICIAL LANGUAGES OR FROM
OTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS
2IGHT SCALE
-EAN PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO SPEAK
A LANGUAGE AT HOME MOST OF
THE TIME THAT IS THE SAME AS
THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT
OTHER OFFICIAL LANGUAGES OR
ANOTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS
.ETHERLANDS
,UXEMBOURG
!USTRALIA
#ANADA
3WITZERLAND
&RANCE
.EW :EALAND
'ERMANY
5NITED 3TATES
"ELGIUM
3WEDEN
!USTRIA
$ENMARK
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
&INLAND
'REECE
)CELAND
2USSIAN &EDERATION
5NITED +INGDOM
,IECHTENSTEIN
-EAN PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF STUDENTS WHO SPEAK
A LANGUAGE AT HOME MOST OF
THE TIME THAT IS DIFFERENT FROM
THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT
FROM OTHER OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX ! OR FROM OTHER NATIONAL
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE DIALECTS
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
! COMPARISON OF THE PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY OF FIRST GENERATION STUDENTS ÊÃÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ Ê
WITH THAT OF NATIVE STUDENTS IN THE COUNTRIES IN WHICH FIRST GENERATION Ã}vV>ÌÊ}À>ÌÊ
STUDENTS REPRESENT AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS ASSESSED IN 0)3! REVEALS ««Õ>ÌÃ]ÊvÀÃÌ
COMPARATIVELY LARGE AND STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES n IN FAVOUR OF NATIVE }iiÀ>ÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÀi>`Ê
STUDENTS n IN TEN COUNTRIES 4HE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED ÜiÊLiÜÊÌ iÊiÛiÊvÊ
READING LITERACY SCALE RANGE FROM TO POINTS IN &RANCE .EW :EALAND 3WEDEN >ÌÛiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
AND THE 5NITED 3TATES FROM ABOUT TO POINTS IN !USTRIA ,IECHTENSTEIN
AND 3WITZERLAND EXCEED POINTS OR APPROXIMATELY A FULL PROFICIENCY LEVEL IN
'ERMANY ,UXEMBOURG AND THE .ETHERLANDS AND RISE TO POINTS IN "ELGIUM
4ABLE ! SIMILAR PATTERN EXISTS FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLACE OF BIRTH
AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
4HESE ARE TROUBLING DIFFERENCES BECAUSE BOTH GROUPS OF STUDENTS WERE BORN IN oiÛiÊÌ Õ} ÊÌ iÞÊÜiÀiÊ
THE COUNTRY WHERE THE ASSESSMENT TOOK PLACE AND PRESUMABLY HAD EXPERIENCED Ì iÃiÛiÃÊLÀÊÊÌ iÊ
THE SAME CURRICULUM THAT THE NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM OFFERS TO ALL STUDENTS VÕÌÀÞÊqÊÜ V ÊÃÊ
$ESPITE WHATEVER SIMILARITIES THERE MIGHT BE IN THEIR EDUCATIONAL hHISTORIESv `ÃÌÕÀL}°
SOMETHING ABOUT BEING A FIRST GENERATION STUDENT PUTS THEM AT A RELATIVE
DISADVANTAGE IN THESE COUNTRIES #ONCERN ABOUT SUCH DIFFERENCES IS ESPECIALLY
JUSTIFIED IN THOSE COUNTRIES WITH SIGNIFICANT PERFORMANCE GAPS AND COMPARATIVELY
LARGE PERCENTAGES OF FIRST GENERATION STUDENTS INCLUDING "ELGIUM PER CENT
&RANCE PER CENT ,UXEMBOURG PER CENT AND 3WITZERLAND PER CENT
!S ONE WOULD EXPECT NON NATIVE STUDENTS TEND TO LAG EVEN FURTHER BEHIND -ÌÕ`iÌÃÊLÀÊ>LÀ>`Ê
NATIVE STUDENTS THAN DO FIRST GENERATION STUDENTS /N AVERAGE IN OUT OF THE >}ÊLi `ÊiÛiÊÀi]Ê
COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THIS COMPARISON NATIVE STUDENTS OUTSCORE THEIR NON >Ì Õ} ÊÌÊÜ`iÞÊ
NATIVE PEERS IN READING LITERACY BY AT LEAST POINTS OR A FULL PROFICIENCY LEVEL Û>ÀÞ}Ê`i}ÀiiÃÊÊ
4HE DIFFERENCES RANGE FROM TO POINTS IN ,IECHTENSTEIN ,UXEMBOURG AND `vviÀiÌÊVÕÌÀið
3WITZERLAND AND FROM TO POINTS IN !USTRIA "ELGIUM $ENMARK 'ERMANY
'REECE THE .ETHERLANDS .ORWAY AND 3WEDEN 4HE SMALLEST BUT STILL STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES ARE IN #ANADA POINTS .EW :EALAND POINTS AND
THE 5NITED 3TATED POINTS )N THE CASE OF .EW :EALAND THIS IS ABOUT THE SAME
DIFFERENCE AS BETWEEN NON NATIVE AND FIRST GENERATION STUDENTS IN THAT COUNTRY
!USTRALIA AND #ANADA PROVIDE INTERESTING EXCEPTIONS TO THE GENERAL PATTERN )N ÊviÜÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÃÌ>`Ê
!USTRALIA NEITHER A STUDENTS PLACE OF BIRTH NOR THE BIRTHPLACE OF HIS OR HER ÕÌÊLiV>ÕÃiÊÌ iÞÊ>««i>ÀÊ
PARENTS SEEMS ON AVERAGE TO INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE IN READING MATHEMATICAL ÌÊ>Û`ÊÌ iÃiÊ
AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY !USTRALIA ACHIEVES THESE RESULTS IN THE FACE OF HIGH PROPOR `vviÀiVið
TIONS OF NON NATIVE STUDENTS PER CENT OF ALL STUDENTS AND FIRST GENERATION
STUDENTS PER CENT 3IMILAR PATTERNS OF SUCCESS ARE ALSO FOUND IN #ANADA
AS THE THREE GROUPS OF #ANADIAN STUDENTS SCORE STATISTICALLY ABOVE THE /%#$
AVERAGE IN TWO OUT OF THE THREE DOMAINS
/NE CAN HYPOTHESISE THAT STUDENTS WHO SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT OR ÌÊÃÕÀ«ÀÃ}Þ]ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
ANOTHER NATIONAL LANGUAGE OR DIALECT AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME hMAJORITY ÌÊëi>}ÊÌ iÊ>ÀÌÞÊ
LANGUAGE STUDENTSv WILL PERFORM BETTER IN 0)3! THAN STUDENTS WHO ROUTINELY >}Õ>}iÊ>ÌÊ iÊ
CONVERSE WITH THEIR PARENTS AND SIBLINGS IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE hMINORITY «iÀvÀÊÕV ÊiÃÃÊÜiÊ
LANGUAGEv STUDENTS /N THE WHOLE THE DATA SUPPORT THIS HYPOTHESIS !MONG Ì >ÊÌ ÃiÊÜ Ê`o
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
THE /%#$ COUNTRIES THE AVERAGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS IS POINTS
IN READING AND IN SCIENTIFIC LITERACY AND POINTS IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY 4ABLE
o>`Ê>ÀiÊÕV ÊÀiÊ /NE IMPLICATION OF THESE DIFFERENCES IS THAT THE YEAR OLD STUDENTS IN "ELGIUM
iÞÊÌÊÃVÀiÊ>}Ê $ENMARK 'ERMANY ,UXEMBOURG AND 3WITZERLAND WHO DO NOT SPEAK THE LAN
Ì iÊÜiÃÌʵÕ>ÀÌiÀÊvÊ GUAGE OF ASSESSMENT OR ANOTHER NATIONAL LANGUAGE OR NATIONAL DIALECT AT HOME ARE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊi>V Ê AT LEAST TWO AND A HALF TIMES MORE LIKELY TO BE AMONG THE PER CENT LOWEST
VÕÌÀÞo PERFORMERS IN READING LITERACY THAN THOSE STUDENTS WHO SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF
ASSESSMENT MOST OF THE TIME )N !USTRIA &RANCE 'REECE THE .ETHERLANDS .EW
:EALAND 3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED 3TATES MINORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS ARE MORE
THAN TWICE AS LIKELY AS MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS TO BE IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER
OF PERFORMANCE IN EACH DOMAIN
oÜ
V
ÊV>Ê>vviVÌÊ>Ê 4HE DIFFERENCES IN MEAN READING SCORES BETWEEN MAJORITY AND MINORITY
LAN
VÕÌÀÞ½ÃÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ GUAGE STUDENTS CLEARLY AFFECT COUNTRIES OVERALL PERFORMANCE IN READING !S AN
Ài>`}ÊÃVÀiÊ ILLUSTRATION IF 'ERMANY WERE ABLE TO RAISE THE MEAN SCORES OF MINORITY
LANGUAGE
Ã}vV>ÌÞ° SPEAKERS TO THE SAME LEVEL AS THAT OF MAJORITY
LANGUAGE SPEAKERS THE NATIONAL
MEAN SCORE IN 'ERMANY WOULD BE ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF POINTS IN
MATHEMATICAL LITERACY RATHER THAN POINTS BELOW IT
#ONCLUSIONS
vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ 4HE GOAL OF PUBLIC POLICY IN EDUCATION MUST BE TO PROVIDE EQUAL OPPORTUNI
VÕÌÀiÃÊÊÌ
iÊ«>VÌÊ TIES FOR ALL STUDENTS TO ACHIEVE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL 7HILE REACHING THIS GOAL
vÊ
iÊL>V}ÀÕ`ÊÊ CAN BE FRUSTRATED BY THE STRONG IMPACT OF HOME BACKGROUND FACTORS ON STUDENT
ÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ}ÛiÊ PERFORMANCE THE FACT THAT THE IMPACT DIFFERS GREATLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES
ÃiÊ
«iÊÌ
>ÌÊÌÊV>ÊLiÊ GIVES RISE TO OPTIMISM THAT GREATER EQUALITY IN EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IS
Ài`ÕVi`° ATTAINABLE
4HE ASPECTS OF HOME BACKGROUND INVESTIGATED IN THIS CHAPTER ARE RELATED AND
THEIR EFFECTS ARE NOT INDEPENDENT .EVERTHELESS IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY ARISE
FROM EACH ONE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY
*>ÀiÌ>ÊVVÕ«>ÌÊÃÊ n 0ARENTAL OCCUPATIONAL STATUS HAS A PARTICULARLY STRONG ASSOCIATION WITH STUDENT
ÃÌÀ}ÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê PERFORMANCE IN READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY (AVING PARENTS
«iÀvÀ>Vio IN MORE PRESTIGIOUS JOBS CAN INFLUENCE STUDENTS OWN JOB EXPECTATIONS AND
RAISE THEIR COMMITMENT TO LEARNING AS THE MEANS OF SATISFYING HIGH OCCUPA
TIONAL ASPIRATIONS (IGH PARENTAL OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CAN ALSO WIDEN THE RANGE
OF OPTIONS OF WHICH CHILDREN ARE AWARE %DUCATION SYSTEMS NEED TO WIDEN
OCCUPATIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND ASPIRATIONS AS WELL AS TACKLING MORE IMMEDIATE
ISSUES OF EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE
o>ÃÊ>ÀiÊ«ÃÃiÃÃÃÊ>`Ê n 4HE ROLE OF POSSESSIONS AND ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE IS
>VÌÛÌiÃÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ COMPLEX BUT THE POSSESSION OF THE KIND OF CULTURAL CAPITAL ON WHICH SCHOOL
ºV>ÃÃV>»ÊVÕÌÕÀi° CURRICULA TEND TO BUILD AND WHICH EXAMINATIONS AND TESTS ASSESS APPEARS
TO BE RELATED TO STUDENT PERFORMANCE 7HILE POSSESSION OF SUCH ADVANTAGES
>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi #(!04%2
IS RELATED TO THE OTHER HOME BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS ITS EFFECTS IN
ISOLATION ARE GENERALLY STRONG 4HE FACT THAT THE EFFECTS ARE EVEN HIGHER IN
READING LITERACY THAN IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY EMPHASISES THE
EDUCATIONAL BENEFIT OF HOME
BASED ACCESS TO LITERATURE AND OTHER CULTURAL
POSSESSIONS
n 0ARENTAL EDUCATION AND PATTERNS OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COMMUNICATION BETWEEN *>ÀiÌýÊi`ÕV>ÌÊ>`Ê
PARENTS AND CHILDREN PARTICULARLY COMMUNICATIONS RELATED TO SCHOOL AND µÕ>ÌÞÊvÊ
LEARNING ARE INTERCONNECTED AND TOGETHER MAY BE OF SIGNIFICANT EDUCATIONAL VÕV>ÌÊÜÌ
Ê
BENEFIT FOR CHILDREN 4HE RESULTS OF 0)3! SUGGEST THAT EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS MAY V
`ÀiÊÃ
ÜÊ>Ê«ÃÌÛiÊ
BE RELATED TO PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN !N >ÃÃV>ÌÊ>ÃÊÜio
IMPORTANT OBJECTIVE FOR PUBLIC POLICY MAY THEREFORE BE TO SUPPORT PARENTS
PARTICULARLY THOSE WHOSE OWN EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IS LIMITED TO FACILITATE
THEIR INTERACTION WITH THEIR CHILDREN AND THEIR CHILDRENS SCHOOLS IN WAYS THAT
ENHANCE THEIR CHILDRENS LEARNING
n &AMILY WEALTH INTERRELATED WITH PARENTAL OCCUPATIONS IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH oÜ iÊv>ÞÊÜi>Ì Ê
HIGHER LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE ALTHOUGH THE RELATIONSHIP APPEARS TO BE WEAKER Ìi`ÃÊÌÊLiÊiÃÃÊÃÌÀ}ÞÊ
THAN THAT OF THE OTHER FACTORS EXAMINED IN THIS CHAPTER >ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
«iÀvÀ>Vi°
n &INALLY ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE EXPERIENCING INCREASED MIGRATION MUCH / iÊ`Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÃÊvÊ
OF IT OF PEOPLE WHOSE HOME LANGUAGE IS NOT THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION }À>ÌÃÊ>ÀiÊV«iÝÊ
IN THE SCHOOLS THAT THEIR CHILDREN ATTEND 4HE NATURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL >`ÊÛ>Ài`]ÊLÕÌÊii`ÊÌÊ
DISADVANTAGE THAT STUDENTS WITH ETHNIC MINORITY BACKGROUND ANDOR THE LiÊ>``ÀiÃÃi`°
CHILDREN OF MIGRANTS SUFFER IS SUBSTANTIALLY INFLUENCED BY THE CIRCUMSTANCES
FROM WHICH THEY HAVE COME %DUCATIONAL DISADVANTAGE IN THEIR COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN CAN BE MAGNIFIED IN THEIR COUNTRY OF ADOPTION EVEN THOUGH IN
ABSOLUTE TERMS THEIR EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE MIGHT HAVE BEEN RAISED
#ONCENTRATED HELP IN THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION COULD BE ONE POLICY
OPTION FOR SUCH STUDENTS 4HESE STUDENTS MAY BE ACADEMICALLY DISADVAN
TAGED EITHER BECAUSE THEY ARE IMMIGRANTS ENTERING A NEW EDUCATION SYSTEM
OR BECAUSE THEY NEED TO LEARN A NEW LANGUAGE IN A HOME ENVIRONMENT
THAT MAY NOT FACILITATE THIS LEARNING )N EITHER CASE THEY MAY BE IN NEED OF
SPECIAL OR EXTRA ATTENTION
4OGETHER THE FINDINGS HAVE POTENTIALLY IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY
>ÞÊ`Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÊÜÊ
MAKERS ,ITERACY SKILLS ARE AN IMPORTANT FOUNDATION FOR LIFELONG LEARNING AND Ài>ÊvÀÊ}iiÀ>ÌÊ
ENHANCE FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS )N CONSEQUENCE ÌÊ}iiÀ>ÌÊÕiÃÃÊ
INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY FROM LOWER TO HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS MAY BE i`ÕV>ÌÊÃÞÃÌiÃÊÌ>iÊ
LIMITED IN COUNTRIES WITH HIGH PERCENTAGES OF WEAKER OR MARGINALLY PROFICIENT ÃÌi«ÃÊÌÊÌ}>ÌiÊÌÃÊ
READERS 4HE WEAKER STUDENTS MAY BE THE ONES LEAST LIKELY TO OBTAIN EMPLOY
ivviVÌ°
MENT OPPORTUNITIES THAT OFFER THE PROMISE OF ECONOMIC MOBILITY #HAPTER
TAKES THE ANALYSIS FURTHER BY CONSIDERING HOW THE DIFFERENT BACKGROUND FACTORS
INTERACT AND EXPLORES WHAT POLICY LEVERS EXIST IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES BOTH TO
IMPROVE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE AND TO MODERATE THE IMPACT OF FAMILY BACKGROUND
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 >ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi
.OTES
&OR DETAILED INFORMATION ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
)N ALL COUNTRIES THE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
)N STANDARDISED TERMS THE EQUIVALENT INCREASES PER UNIT ON THE WEALTH INDEX ARE POINTS ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE SEE 4ABLE POINTS FOR MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND POINTS FOR SCIENTIFIC LITERACY FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
4HE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES AND IN ALL THREE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS
)N THE CASE OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION THE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL COUNTRIES )N THAT OF SOCIAL
COMMUNICATION THEY ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL COUNTRIES EXCEPT )TALY 4HE INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION EXPLAINS
PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HE INDEX OF SOCIAL
COMMUNICATION EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
!NOTHER WAY TO ASSESS THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IS TO CONSIDER THEIR RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION TO
DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE )N ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES AN INCREASE OF ONE UNIT ON THE
INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION ADDS ABOUT POINTS TO THE AVERAGE READING SCORE COMPARED WITH A DIFFERENCE OF ONLY
POINTS IN READING FOR EACH ADDITIONAL UNIT ON THE INDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION
4HESE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN ALL COUNTRIES AND ALL THREE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS EXCEPT FOR 0ORTUGAL AND
0OLAND IN MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
)N THE DISCUSSION THAT FOLLOWS STUDENTS IN SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES ARE COMPARED WITH STUDENTS IN ALL OTHER TYPES OF FAMILY
ENVIRONMENT INCLUDING NUCLEAR FAMILIES IE A TRADITIONAL FAMILY WITH A MOTHER AND A FATHER MIXED FAMILIES A FAMILY WITH
A MOTHER AND A MALE GUARDIAN A FATHER AND A FEMALE GUARDIAN OR TWO GUARDIANS AND OTHER POSSIBLE FAMILY ENVIRONMENTS
EG LIVING WITH GRANDPARENTS OR SIBLINGS
4HE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IN COUNTRIES
!LTHOUGH STUDENTS IN SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES IN THE 5NITED +INGDOM DO LESS WELL THAN THEIR PEERS IN OTHER FAMILY STRUCTURES
THE SCORES OF BOTH GROUPS OF STUDENTS ARE CLOSE TO OR EXCEED THE /%#$ AVERAGE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HIS
IS NOT THE CASE IN THE 5NITED 3TATES
3TUDENTS WHO WERE UNABLE TO READ OR SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF THE TEST BECAUSE THEY HAD RECEIVED LESS THAN ONE YEAR OF TEACHING
IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE ASSESSMENT WERE EXCLUDED FROM THE ASSESSMENT SEE !NNEX !
)N RESPONSE TO THE QUESTION hWHAT LANGUAGE DO YOU SPEAK AT HOME MOST OF THE TIMEv STUDENTS COULD INDICATE THAT THEY
SPOKE THE LANGUAGE IN WHICH THE ASSESSMENT WAS UNDERTAKED AN hOTHER OFFICIAL NATIONAL LANGUAGEv hOTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS OR
LANGUAGESv OR hOTHER LANGUAGESv 4HE DATA PRESENTED HERE COMPARE STUDENTS IN THE LAST GROUP IE hOTHER LANGUAGESv WITH
STUDENTS IN THE FIRST THREE GROUPS IN THE COUNTRIES IN WHICH AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS INDICATED THAT THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN
IN THEIR HOME MOST OF THE TIME WAS AN hOTHER LANGUAGEv
#HAPTER
/
Ê
, Ê
6,"
/
Ê/
Ê", -/" Ê
"Ê-
""
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
)NTRODUCTION
/
ÃÊV
>«ÌiÀÊVÃ`iÀÃÊ 4HE AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ACQUIRED DEPENDS GREATLY ON THE EXTENT
ÜÊÌ
iÊÃV
Ê TO WHICH STUDENTS HAVE ACCESS TO EFFECTIVE LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES BOTH AT HOME
iÛÀiÌÊÃÊ AND AT SCHOOL 4HIS CHAPTER TAKES THE SEARCH FOR FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EDUCA
>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ TIONAL SUCCESS FURTHER BY TURNING ATTENTION TO THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT THAT
ÃÕVViÃð SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES PROVIDE FOR
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS AND BY COMPARING ASPECTS
OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND FINANCING
"OX )NTERPRETING THE 0)3! INDICES
3EVERAL OF THE INDICES SUMMARISE THE RESPONSES OF STUDENTS OR SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TO A SERIES OF RELATED
QUESTIONS 4HE QUESTIONS WERE SELECTED FROM LARGER CONSTRUCTS ON THE BASIS OF THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH &OR DETAILED INFORMATION ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
4HE 0)3! INDICES ARE BASED ON STUDENTS AND SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ACCOUNTS OF THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATION OF SCHOOLS AND OF THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXTS IN WHICH LEARNING
TAKES PLACE 4HE INDICES RELY ON SELF
REPORTS RATHER THAN ON EXTERNAL OBSERVATIONS AND MAY BE INFLUENCED
BY CROSS
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE BEHAVIOUR OR THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF CERTAIN RESPONSES
3EVERAL LIMITATIONS OF THE INFORMATION COLLECTED FROM PRINCIPALS SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA )N MOST COUNTRIES NO MORE THAN PRINCIPALS WERE SURVEYED )N
ADDITION ALTHOUGH PRINCIPALS ARE BEST SUITED TO PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THEIR SCHOOLS GENERALIS
ING FROM A SINGLE SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR EACH SCHOOL AND THEN hMATCHINGv THAT INFORMATION WITH
STUDENTS REPORTS IS NOT STRAIGHTFORWARD -OST IMPORTANTLY STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN EACH OF THE
DOMAINS DEPENDS ON MANY FACTORS INCLUDING ALL THE EDUCATION THAT THEY HAVE RECEIVED IN EARLIER
YEARS NOT JUST THE PERIOD IN WHICH THEY HAVE INTERACTED WITH THEIR CURRENT TEACHERS .EVERTHELESS
THE INFORMATION FROM THE SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE CAN BE INSTRUCTIVE AS IT PROVIDES UNIQUE INSIGHTS INTO
THE WAYS IN WHICH NATIONAL AND SUB
NATIONAL AUTHORITIES IMPLEMENT THEIR EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
7HERE INFORMATION BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IS PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT IT HAS BEEN
WEIGHTED SO THAT IT REFLECTS THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN EACH SCHOOL
5NLESS OTHERWISE NOTED COMPARISONS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THIS CHAPTER REFER TO THE
PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
3CHOOL AND CLASSROOM CLIMATE
,iÃi>ÀV
ÊÃÕ}}iÃÌÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ
4EACHER SUPPORT
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLiivÌÊvÀÊ
Vi>ÀÊiÝ«iVÌ>ÌÃÊÊÌ
iÀÊ 4HE LITERATURE ON SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS SUGGESTS THAT STUDENTS PARTICULARLY THOSE
«iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`Ê`ÊLiÌÌiÀÊ WITH A LOW LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE BENEFIT FROM TEACHING PRACTICES THAT DEMON
vÊÌi>V
iÀÃÊ>ÀiÊÌiÀiÃÌi`Ê STRATE TEACHERS INTEREST IN THE PROGRESS OF THEIR STUDENTS GIVE THE CLEAR MESSAGE
ÊÌ
iÀÊ«À}ÀiÃÃÊ>`Ê THAT ALL STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO ATTAIN REASONABLE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS AND
Ü}ÊÌÊ
i«ÊÌ
iÊiiÌÊ SHOW A WILLINGNESS TO HELP ALL STUDENTS TO MEET THESE STANDARDS )N ORDER TO
Ì
iÊiÝ«iVÌ>Ìð EXAMINE THE EXTENT TO WHICH SUCH PRACTICES ARE COMMON IN DIFFERENT /%#$
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
COUNTRIES AND THE EXTENT TO WHICH THEY PROMOTE HIGHER LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE
STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO INDICATE THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH TEACHERS IN THE
LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT SHOW AN INTEREST IN EVERY STUDENTS LEARNING GIVE STU
DENTS AN OPPORTUNITY TO EXPRESS OPINIONS HELP STUDENTS WITH THEIR WORK AND
CONTINUE TO TEACH UNTIL STUDENTS UNDERSTAND
! SUMMARY INDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT WAS CREATED FROM THE RESPONSES TO THESE
AND RELATED QUESTIONS 6ALUES ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE WHICH IS SET AT INDI
CATE HIGHER THAN AVERAGE STUDENT PERCEPTIONS THAT TEACHERS ARE SUPPORTIVE AT
LEAST IN LESSONS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT WHILE NEGATIVE VALUES INDICATE
BELOW
AVERAGE STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS SUPPORTIVENESS
3TUDENTS IN !USTRALIA "RAZIL #ANADA .EW :EALAND 0ORTUGAL THE 5NITED /
iÊ}Ài>ÌÊ>ÀÌÞÊvÊ
+INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES HAVE THE MOST POSITIVE PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊviiÊÜiÊ
TEACHERS SUPPORTIVENESS "Y CONTRAST STUDENTS IN !USTRIA "ELGIUM THE #ZECH ÃÕ««ÀÌi`ÊÊÃiÊ
2EPUBLIC &RANCE 'ERMANY )TALY *APAN +OREA ,ATVIA ,UXEMBOURG AND VÕÌÀiÃÊLÕÌÊÞÊ>Ê
0OLAND REPORT BELOW
AVERAGE SUPPORT FROM THEIR TEACHERS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ÀÌÞÊÊÌ
iÀð
ASSESSMENT 4ABLE
&OR EXAMPLE IN !USTRALIA #ANADA $ENMARK )CELAND .EW :EALAND 0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM BETWEEN TWO THIRDS AND THREE QUARTERS OF
STUDENTS REPORT THAT THEIR TEACHERS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT CONTINUE TO
TEACH UNTIL STUDENTS UNDERSTAND IN MOST LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON #ONVERSELY
IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC *APAN +OREA AND 0OLAND LESS THAN HALF OF STUDENTS
MAKE SUCH A REPORT 3IMILARLY IN !USTRALIA #ANADA $ENMARK (UNGARY )CELAND
.EW :EALAND 0ORTUGAL 3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM TWO THIRDS OR MORE
OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT THEIR TEACHERS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT DO A LOT TO
HELP STUDENTS IN MOST LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON WHILE LESS THAN HALF OF STUDENTS
IN &RANCE +OREA *APAN ,UXEMBOURG AND 0OLAND MAKE THAT REPORT FOR DATA
SEE WWWPISAOECDORG &ROM THE DATA AVAILABLE THERE IS NO WAY OF ASSESSING
THE EXTENT TO WHICH THESE RESULTS REFLECT TRUE DIFFERENCES IN TEACHERS ATTITUDES
AND PRACTICES n WITHIN AND BETWEEN COUNTRIES n RATHER THAN DIFFERENCES IN
STUDENTS SUBJECTIVE REPORTS SINCE STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRY APPLIED ONLY THEIR
OWN JUDGEMENT $ESPITE THIS CAVEAT SOME OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES
ARE SO LARGE THAT THEY MERIT ATTENTION
4O THE EXTENT THAT TEACHERS TYPICALLY USE MORE hSUPPORTIVEv PRACTICES IN CLASSES /
iÊÀi>ÌÃ
«ÊLiÌÜiiÊ
ATTENDED BY A MAJORITY OF LESS ABLE STUDENTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SUPPORT Ìi>V
iÀÊÃÕ««ÀÌÊ>`Ê
AND PERFORMANCE WOULD BE EXPECTED TO BE NEGATIVE !T THE SAME TIME TO THE «iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ
EXTENT THAT THE ENCOURAGEMENT OFFERED IS EFFECTIVE ONE WOULD EXPECT THAT V«iÝo
PERFORMANCE WOULD BE HIGHER IN CLASSES THAT RECEIVE MORE SUPPORT THAN IN
OTHER CLASSES
!S MIGHT BE ANTICIPATED FROM THIS THE RELATIONSHIP IS MIXED AND GENERALLY WEAK oLÕÌÊÊÃÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ Ê
(OWEVER IN MOST COUNTRIES WITH A VALUE ON THE TEACHER SUPPORT INDEX ABOVE THE } ÊiÛiÃÊvÊÌi>V iÀÊÃÕ««ÀÌÊ
/%#$ AVERAGE THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEACHER SUPPORT AND PERFORMANCE IN Ì iÊ>ÃÃV>ÌÊÜÌ Ê«iÀvÀ>ViÊ
READING LITERACY TENDS TO BE POSITIVE AND STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT &IGURE Ìi`ÃÊÌÊLiÊÜi>ÞÊ«ÃÌÛi°
#(!04%2 /
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}
}ÕÀiÊÇ°£
4EACHER SUPPORT AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#ORRELATION BETWEEN THE INDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0OSITIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN .O STATISTICALLY .EGATIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN
TEACHER SUPPORT INDEX AND SIGNIFICANT TEACHER SUPPORT INDEX AND
PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED CORRELATION PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE READING LITERACY SCALE
-EAN INDEX OF TEACHER !USTRALIA "RAZIL #ANADA 'REECE (UNGARY ,IECHTENSTEIN
SUPPORT IS ABOVE THE $ENMARK &INLAND )RELAND -EXICO 3WITZERLAND
/%#$ AVERAGE )CELAND .EW :EALAND 0ORTUGAL 3PAIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3WEDEN 5NITED +INDOM
5NITED 3TATES
-EAN INDEX OF TEACHER *APAN +OREA ,ATVIA !USTRIA "ELGIUM 'ERMANY
SUPPORT IS BELOW THE .ORWAY 0OLAND #ZECH 2EPUBLIC )TALY ,UXEMBOURG
/%#$ AVERAGE &RANCE .ETHERLANDS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
ÊiÃÃÊ )N COUNTRIES WHERE STUDENTS REPORT LOWER TEACHER SUPPORT THAN THE /%#$
ÃÕ««ÀÌÊÛiÀ>]ÊÌ
iÊ AVERAGE THE PATTERN OF RELATIONSHIPS IS MIXED &OR EXAMPLE *APAN +OREA
«VÌÕÀiÊÃÊÀiÊÝi`o ,ATVIA AND 0OLAND ARE COUNTRIES WITH BELOW
AVERAGE VALUES ON THE INDEX
OF TEACHER SUPPORT BUT THOSE STUDENTS WHO BENEFIT FROM MORE SUPPORTIVE
TEACHERS SHOW HIGHER 0)3! SCORES THAN OTHER STUDENTS "Y CONTRAST "ELGIUM
THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY )TALY AND ,UXEMBOURG ARE COUNTRIES WITH BELOW
AVERAGE TEACHER SUPPORT IN WHICH STUDENTS WHO REPORT MORE TEACHER SUPPORT
TEND TO ACHIEVE LOWER RESULTS )N THESE COUNTRIES AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS
SAY THAT THEIR TEACHERS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT NEVER SHOW INTEREST IN
EVERY STUDENTS LEARNING OR DO SO ONLY IN SOME LESSONS AS OPPOSED TO MOST
LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON AT LEAST PER CENT OF STUDENTS SAY THAT THEIR TEACHERS
NEVER OR ONLY IN SOME LESSONS PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY FOR STUDENTS TO EXPRESS
THEIR OPINIONS AND PER CENT OR MORE OF STUDENTS SAY THAT THEIR TEACHERS
NEVER OR ONLY IN SOME LESSONS HELP THEM WITH THEIR LEARNING FOR DATA SEE
WWWPISAOECDORG
o«iÀ >«ÃÊLiV>ÕÃiÊ -ANY FACTORS MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THIS PATTERN AND FURTHER RESEARCH IS NEEDED TO
Ìi>V iÀÊÃÕ««ÀÌÊÌi`ÃÊÌÊ EXPLORE THESE )N THE COUNTRIES WITH BELOW AVERAGE LEVELS OF TEACHER SUPPORT
LiÊÌi`ÊÌÊÌ iÊÜi>Ê AND A NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH PERFORMANCE hSUPPORTIVENESSv MAY BE INCLUDED
«iÀvÀiÀð IN TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL CULTURE TO A LESSER EXTENT THAN IN OTHER COUNTRIES
AND TEACHERS MAY TEND TO LIMIT THEIR EFFORTS TO CLASSES OR INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS
EXPERIENCING THE MOST SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES /R PERHAPS IT IS ONLY ONCE A CRITICAL
MASS OF TEACHER SUPPORT IS PROVIDED IN A SCHOOL THAT THE EFFECTS ON STUDENT
PERFORMANCE BECOME SUFFICIENTLY BENEFICIAL TO HAVE A POSITIVE IMPACT ON STUDENT
PERFORMANCE
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
3TUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHOOL CLIMATE
"OTH THE SCHOOL AND STUDENT CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES IN 0)3! INCLUDED QUESTIONS *-Êi`Ê>ÌÊ
ÜÊ
THAT ALLOW THE IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF STUDENTS AND PRINCIPALS v>ÀÊi>À}ÊÃÊ
`iÀi`Ê
PERCEPTIONS OF FACTORS THAT AFFECT SCHOOLS CLIMATE FOR LEARNING 0RINCIPALS WERE LÞÊ>««À«À>ÌiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
ASKED TO INDICATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH LEARNING IS HINDERED BY SUCH FACTORS AS Li
>ÛÕÀÃÊqÊÊÌ
iÊiÞiÃÊ
STUDENT ABSENTEEISM THE USE OF ALCOHOL OR ILLEGAL DRUGS AND DISRUPTION OF CLASSES vÊ«ÀV«>ð
BY STUDENTS 3TUDENTS IN TURN WERE ASKED HOW FREQUENTLY CERTAIN DISRUPTIVE
SITUATIONS OCCUR IN THEIR CLASSES OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT &OR EXAMPLE
STUDENTS INDICATED THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH hSTUDENTS CANNOT WORK WELLv hTHERE
IS NOISE AND DISORDERv AND hAT THE START OF CLASS MORE THAN FIVE MINUTES ARE SPENT
DOING NOTHINGv 3UCH DATA SHOULD BE INTERPRETED WITH SOME CAUTION THOUGH
0RINCIPALS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES DO NOT NECESSARILY APPLY THE SAME CRITERIA
WHEN CONSIDERING THE LEARNING CLIMATE &OR EXAMPLE PRINCIPALS IN COUNTRIES
WITH GENERALLY LOW ABSENTEEISM MAY CONSIDER A MODEST LEVEL OF ABSENTEEISM IN
THEIR SCHOOL TO BE A MAJOR CAUSE OF DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS WHEREAS PRINCIPALS IN
COUNTRIES WITH HIGHER LEVELS OF ABSENTEEISM MAY SEE THINGS DIFFERENTLY
}ÕÀiÊÇ°Ó
4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n THE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERSPECTIVE
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHERE PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT LEARNING IS HINDERED TO
SOME EXTENT OR A LOT BY THE FOLLOWING FACTORS
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
3TUDENTS INTIMIDATING OR
BULLYING OTHER STUDENTS
4HE USE OF ALCOHOL OR
ILLEGAL DRUGS
3TUDENTS LACKING RESPECT
FOR TEACHERS
3TUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES
$ISRUPTION OF CLASSES BY
STUDENTS
3TUDENT ABSENTEEISM
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
ÃiÊÌÊ
>vÊvÊ )N ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES PRINCIPALS IDENTIFY STUDENT ABSENTEEISM AS THE MOST
«ÀV«>ÃÊ>ÀiÊVViÀi`Ê FREQUENT OBSTACLE TO LEARNING PER CENT OF THEM ON AVERAGE IDENTIFYING THIS AS
>LÕÌÊÌ
iÊivviVÌÃÊvÊ HINDERING LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS EITHER TO SOME EXTENT OR A LOT SEE &IGURE
>LÃiÌiiÃÊ>`Ê AND WWWPISAOECDORG $ISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOUR IS THE NEXT MOST FREQUENTLY INDICATED
`ÃÀÕ«Ìo CAUSE MENTIONED BY PER CENT THEN STUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES MENTIONED BY
PER CENT AND STUDENTS LACKING RESPECT FOR TEACHERS MENTIONED BY PER CENT
&OURTEEN PER CENT OF PRINCIPALS INDICATE THAT STUDENTS INTIMIDATION OR BULLYING OF
OTHER STUDENTS HINDERS LEARNING TO SOME EXTENT OR EVEN A LOT
oÜ iÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊ &ROM THE STUDENTS PERSPECTIVE WASTING TIME AT THE BEGINNING OF LESSONS IS THE
ÃÌÊVViÀi`Ê>LÕÌÊ MOST FREQUENTLY REPORTED DISCIPLINARY PROBLEM !N AVERAGE OF PER CENT OF
`i>ÞÃÊÊ}iÌÌ}Ê`ÜÊ STUDENTS REPORT THAT IN MOST LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESS
ÌÊÜÀ° MENT MORE THAN FIVE MINUTES AT THE START OF CLASS IS SPENT DOING NOTHING AND
A QUARTER OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT STUDENTS DO NOT START WORKING FOR A LONG TIME
AFTER LESSONS BEGIN SEE &IGURE AND WWWPISAOECDORG /N AVERAGE ACROSS
/%#$ COUNTRIES A THIRD OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT THE TEACHER MUST WAIT A LONG
}ÕÀiÊÇ°Î
4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n THE STUDENTS PERSPECTIVE
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS
ARE TRUE FOR MOST LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
!T THE START OF CLASS MORE
THAN FIVE MINUTES ARE SPENT
DOING NOTHING
4HERE IS NOISE AND
DISORDER
3TUDENTS DONT START
WORKING FOR A LONG TIME
AFTER THE LESSON BEGINS
3TUDENTS DONT LISTEN TO
WHAT THE TEACHER SAYS
3TUDENTS CANNOT WORK WELL
4HE TEACHER HAS TO WAIT A
LONG TIME FOR THE STUDENTS TO
hQUIETEN DOWNv
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
TIME FOR STUDENTS TO QUIETEN DOWN IN MOST LESSONS OR EVERY LESSON AND THAT THERE
IS NOISE AND DISORDER IN THEIR LESSONS OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT ,ESS THAN
ONE IN FIVE STUDENTS IN $ENMARK )CELAND *APAN -EXICO 0OLAND 3WITZERLAND
AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM REPORT THAT STUDENTS TEND NOT TO LISTEN TO WHAT THE
TEACHER SAYS WHILE ABOUT A THIRD OF STUDENTS IN +OREA AND )TALY DO SO
4HESE AVERAGES INDICATE A GENERAL PATTERN THROUGHOUT THE /%#$ BUT IT SHOULD ÕÌÊ«>ÌÌiÀÃÊÛ>ÀÞÊLÞÊ
BE NOTED THAT THE AVERAGES DISGUISE CONSIDERABLE VARIATION WITHIN AND BETWEEN VÕÌÀÞ]Ê>ÃÊÃ ÜÊÊ
/%#$ COUNTRIES 4O EXAMINE HOW COUNTRIES DIFFER SUMMARY INDICES WERE ÌÜÊ`ViÃ]ÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌýÊ
CONSTRUCTED USING DATA FROM BOTH PRINCIPALS AND STUDENTS )N THE CASE OF THE >`Ê«ÀV«>ýÊÛiÜÃÊvÊ
STUDENT LEVEL INDEX THE HIGHER THE SCORE ABOVE ZERO THE MORE POSITIVE AN Ì iÊi>À}ÊV>Ìi°
EDUCATION SYSTEMS LEARNING CLIMATE IN THE OPINION OF STUDENTS /N THE SCHOOL
LEVEL INDEX VALUES ABOVE ZERO REFLECT A POSITIVE PERCEPTION ON THE PART OF SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS OF THE DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE IE THE VIEW THAT LEARNING IS HINDERED
BY THE VARIOUS FACTORS MENTIONED IN THIS INDEX TO LESS THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE
DEGREE "Y CONTRAST SCORES BELOW ZERO REFLECT THE OPINION THAT THE LEARNING
CLIMATE ON THE SCHOOL LEVEL INDEX AND DISCIPLINE ON THE STUDENT LEVEL INDEX
ARE WORSE THAN THE AVERAGE IN EACH CASE
!MONG SCHOOL PRINCIPALS THOSE IN 'REECE AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION BELIEVE *ÀV«>ÃÊ`iÃÌÀ>ÌiÊ
THAT THEIR SCHOOLS HAVE THE GREATEST PROBLEMS WITH SUCH DISCIPLINARY ISSUES ÃÌÊVViÀÊÊÀiiViÊ
AS ABSENTEEISM DISRUPTION BY STUDENTS AND STUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES )N THE >`ÊÌ iÊ,ÕÃÃ>Ê
2USSIAN &EDERATION FOR EXAMPLE PRINCIPALS IN SCHOOLS REPRESENTING PER CENT i`iÀ>Ìo
OF THAT COUNTRYS YEAR OLD STUDENTS SAY THAT STUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES HINDERS
LEARNING TO SOME EXTENT OR A LOT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
#OUNTRIES DEEMED BY THEIR PRINCIPALS TO HAVE THE FEWEST DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS o>`Êi>ÃÌÊVViÀÊÊ
INCLUDE THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK *APAN AND +OREA 4ABLE %VEN IN Ì
iÊ
âiV
Ê,i«ÕLV]Ê
THESE COUNTRIES HOWEVER WHICH COMPARE RELATIVELY WELL INTERNATIONALLY WITH i>À]Ê>«>Ê>`Ê
REGARD TO THEIR LEARNING CLIMATE RESPONSES FROM PRINCIPALS DO NOT SUGGEST THE Ài>o
ABSENCE OF PROBLEMS
#ONSIDER FOR EXAMPLE *APAN AND +OREA TWO OF THE THREE COUNTRIES WITH THE oÊLÕÌÊÌ iÀiÊÃÊÕV Ê
HIGHEST SCORES ON THE INDEX THAT SUMMARISES PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENT ÀÊvÀÊ«ÀÛiiÌÊ
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE )N *APAN PER CENT OF PRINCIPALS iÛiÊÊÌ iÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
NONETHELESS REPORT THAT LEARNING IS HINDERED A LOT OR TO SOME EXTENT BY STUDENT ÜÌ ÊÌ iÊviÜiÃÌÊ«ÀLið
ABSENTEEISM /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT PER CENT REPORT THAT IT IS SIMILARLY
HINDERED BY STUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT PER CENT
THAT IT IS SIMILARLY HINDERED BY STUDENTS LACKING RESPECT FOR TEACHERS /%#$
AVERAGE PER CENT AND PER CENT THAT IT IS SIMILARLY HINDERED BY STUDENTS
INTIMIDATING OR BULLYING OTHER STUDENTS /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT SEE
&IGURE AND WWWPISAOECDORG 3IMILARLY PER CENT OF PRINCIPALS IN +OREA
IDENTIFY STUDENT ABSENTEEISM PER CENT DISRUPTION OF CLASSES BY STUDENTS
PER CENT STUDENTS SKIPPING OF CLASSES AND PER CENT STUDENTS LACKING
RESPECT FOR TEACHERS AS OBSTACLES THAT HINDER LEARNING TO SOME EXTENT OR A LOT
4HIS SUGGESTS THAT THERE IS ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT EVEN IN THE COUNTRIES WITH THE
FEWEST PROBLEMS
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
}ÕÀiÊÇ°{
4HE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING n A SUMMARY PICTURE
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AND INDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE )NDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL
BASED ON REPORTS BY STUDENTS CLIMATE BASED ON REPORTS BY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
*APAN
0OLAND
3WITZERLAND
(UNGARY
+OREA
!USTRIA
-EXICO
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,UXEMBOURG
"ELOW !BOVE
'ERMANY /%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE
)RELAND
5NITED 3TATES
5NITED +INGDOM
0ORTUGAL
)CELAND
!USTRALIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
.EW :EALAND
&INLAND
3PAIN
3WEDEN
$ENMARK
)TALY
.ORWAY
'REECE
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLES AND
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
3TUDENTS IN ,ATVIA ,IECHTENSTEIN *APAN 0OLAND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND
3WITZERLAND ARE THE MOST LIKELY TO INDICATE THAT THEY RARELY OR ONLY INFREQUENTLY
ENCOUNTER DISRUPTIVE CONDITIONS IN THEIR CLASSROOMS 4ABLE "Y CONTRAST
STUDENTS IN "RAZIL 'REECE AND .ORWAY JUDGE THEIR CLASSROOMS TO BE DISRUPTED
BY INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR RELATIVELY FREQUENTLY
(OW DO THE PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS AND PRINCIPALS COMPARE !S NOTED ABOVE Ê>ÞÊÀiëiVÌÃ]Ê
ALTHOUGH BOTH QUESTIONNAIRES CONCERNED THE CLIMATE FOR LEARNING THEY ADOPTED «ÀV«>ÃÊ>`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND ASKED DIFFERENT QUESTIONS .ONETHELESS IT IS POSSIBLE iÝ«ÀiÃÃÊÃ>ÀÊÛiÜÃÊ
TO COMPARE THEIR PERSPECTIVES ON THE LEARNING CLIMATE INDIRECTLY BY COMPARING >LÕÌÊÌ
iÊÃV
ÊV>Ìi°
HOW THE TWO GROUPS RESPONDED TO THEIR RESPECTIVE SETS OF QUESTIONS )N MANY
COUNTRIES THERE IS A RELATIVELY HIGH LEVEL OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE VIEWS OF
STUDENTS AND THEIR PRINCIPALS ON STUDENT
RELATED ASPECTS OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
BUT THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS AS CAN BE SEEN IN &IGURE
-OST IMPORTANTLY WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNING -ÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ
CLIMATE AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4ABLES AND SHOW MEAN SCORES ON VÃiÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR THE TOP AND BOTTOM NATIONAL QUARTERS V>Ìi]ÊiëiV>ÞÊÊÌ
iÊ
OF THE SCHOOL CLIMATE INDICES THE TOP QUARTER BEING ASSOCIATED WITH MORE ÛiÜÊvÊ«ÀV«>Ão
DESIRABLE LEARNING CLIMATES )N MANY COUNTRIES SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS
OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO STUDENT
PERFORMANCE )N PARTICULAR IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY (UNGARY )TALY *APAN 0OLAND
THE .ETHERLANDS AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM THE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS INDEX OF
STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE EXPLAINS BETWEEN AND PER
CENT OF THE VARIATION IN READING PERFORMANCE )N THESE COUNTRIES BETWEEN
AND POINTS SEPARATE THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE
PRINCIPALS VIEWS FALL IN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE INDICES ON STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE 4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS
PERCEPTIONS OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AND READING PERFORMANCE TENDS TO BE WEAKER
BUT IS CLEARLY VISIBLE IN MANY COUNTRIES
4HE QUESTIONS OF HOW THESE RELATIONSHIPS OPERATE AND WHAT CONTEXTUAL AND o>Ì
Õ}
ÊÌ
iÀiÊ>ÞÊ
MEDIATING FACTORS MAY AFFECT THEM REMAIN BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THIS INITIAL REPORT LiÊ>ÞÊVÌiÝÌÕ>Ê>`Ê
AND WILL REQUIRE FURTHER RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS i`>Ì}Êv>VÌÀÃÊ
VÌÀLÕÌ}ÊÌÊÌ
ÃÊ
4EACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHOOL CLIMATE Ài>ÌÃ
«°
0RINCIPALS IN 0)3! WERE ALSO ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT THEIR PERCEPTIONS *-Ê>ÃÊi`Ê>ÌÊ
OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE )N PARTICULAR PRINCIPALS Ü
iÌ
iÀÊÌi>V
iÀÊ
WERE ASKED TO INDICATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH THEY PERCEIVED LEARNING IN THEIR Li
>ÛÕÀÊ>`Ê>ÌÌÌÕ`iÃÊ
SCHOOLS TO BE HINDERED BY SUCH FACTORS AS THE LOW EXPECTATIONS OF TEACHERS >ÀiÊ«iÀViÛi`ÊÌÊ
`iÀÊ
POOR STUDENT
TEACHER RELATIONS ABSENTEEISM AMONG TEACHERS STAFF RESISTANCE i>À}o
TO CHANGE TEACHERS NOT MEETING INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS NEEDS AND STUDENTS NOT
BEING ENCOURAGED TO ACHIEVE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL 4HE RESPONSES WERE COMBINED
TO CREATE A COMPOSITE INDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
0OSITIVE VALUES REFLECT PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS THAT TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS
AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE HINDER LEARNING TO A LESSER EXTENT AND NEGATIVE VALUES
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
THAT SCHOOL PRINCIPALS BELIEVE TEACHERS BEHAVIOUR TO HINDER LEARNING TO A GREATER
EXTENT COMPARED TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE
#OMPARED WITH OTHER COUNTRIES SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IN 'REECE ,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO THE .ETHERLANDS AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION WERE MOST CONCERNED ABOUT
TEACHER RELATED FACTORS POSING AN OBSTACLE TO LEARNING "Y CONTRAST SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK (UNGARY )CELAND +OREA AND ,ATVIA REPORT THE
FEWEST PROBLEMS WITH TEACHER RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE 4ABLE
o>`ÊvÕ`Ê>ÊÜi>Ê !S ONE WOULD EXPECT IN MOST COUNTRIES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL PRINCI
«ÃÌÛiÊÀi>ÌÃ «ÊÜÌ Ê PALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND READING
ÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi° PERFORMANCE TENDS TO BE POSITIVE IE THE HIGHER THE CONCERN WITH TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE THE LOWER THE STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN
READING (OWEVER THE RELATIONSHIP IS WITH FEW EXCEPTIONS NOT VERY STRONG SEE
4ABLE
*ÀV«>ÃÊÜiÀiÊ>ÃÊ>Ãi`Ê )N ADDITION TO QUESTIONS ON TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
>LÕÌÊÌi>V
iÀÊÀ>iÊ>`Ê SCHOOL PRINCIPALS WERE ASKED TO PROVIDE THEIR VIEWS ON TEACHERS MORALE AND
VÌiÌo COMMITMENT 4O DO SO THEY WERE ASKED TO INDICATE HOW STRONGLY THEY AGREED OR
}ÕÀiÊÇ°x
4EACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHERE PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT LEARNING
IS HINDERED TO SOME EXTENT OR A LOT BY THE FOLLOWING FACTORS
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
3TUDENTS NOT BEING
ENCOURAGED TO ACHIEVE THEIR
FULL POTENTIAL
3TAFF RESISTING CHANGE
4EACHER ABSENTEEISM
4EACHERS NOT MEETING
INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS NEEDS
0OOR STUDENT
TEACHER RELATIONS
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
DISAGREED WITH STATEMENTS SUCH AS hTEACHERS WORK WITH ENTHUSIASMv hTEACHERS
TAKE PRIDE IN THIS SCHOOLv AND hTHE MORALE OF TEACHERS IN THIS SCHOOL IS HIGHv
&ROM THE RESPONSES AN INDEX OF TEACHER MORALE AND COMMITMENT WAS CREATED
WITH AN /%#$ COUNTRY AVERAGE OF ZERO (IGHER INDEX SCORES INDICATE GREATER
PERCEIVED MORALE AND COMMITMENT
!USTRIA HAS THE HIGHEST POSITIVE VALUE INDICATING IN THE OPINION OF ITS PRINCIPALS
HIGH MORALE AND COMMITMENT AMONG ITS TEACHERS "Y CONTRAST PRINCIPALS IN
+OREA )TALY 0OLAND AND 0ORTUGAL BELIEVE THAT THEIR TEACHERS HAVE COMPARATIVELY
LOW LEVELS OF MORALE AND COMMITMENT 4ABLE
4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER MORALE AND o>`ÊÌ
iÊ>ÃÃV>ÌÊ
COMMITMENT AND THEIR STUDENTS SCORES IN READING LITERACY TENDS TO BE MODEST ÜÌ
Ê«iÀvÀ>ViÊ
(OWEVER THERE ARE COUNTRIES WHERE THE ASSOCIATION IS STRONGER &OR EXAMPLE >««i>ÀÃÊÌÊLiÊ`iÃÌ]Ê
IN "ELGIUM *APAN ,UXEMBOURG AND 0OLAND THE INDEX OF TEACHER MORALE AND Ì
Õ}
ÊÃÌÀ}iÀÊÊÃiÊ
COMMITMENT EXPLAINS BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN READING VÕÌÀið
PERFORMANCE AND IN !USTRALIA (UNGARY +OREA THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION 3PAIN
AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM IT EXPLAINS STILL MORE THAN PER CENT
,EARNING OUTSIDE SCHOOL
0OLICY
MAKERS LOOKING TO IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES SEEK TO INCREASE OR USE i>À}ÊÌiÊii`ÃÊÌÊ
MORE EFFECTIVELY THE TIME FOR WHICH STUDENTS ARE ENGAGED IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES LiÊ`i«Þi`ÊivviVÌÛiÞ°
4HE INSTRUCTION TIME IE THE NUMBER OF HOURS THAT EACH STUDENT SPENDS IN
ORGANISED LEARNING IS CLOSELY RELATED TO FACTORS SUCH AS CLASS SIZE TEACHERS
WORKING HOURS TEACHING TIME AND RATIOS OF STUDENTS TO TEACHING STAFF 4HE
OPTIMAL BALANCE BETWEEN THESE FACTORS MAY VARY IN DIFFERENT SUBJECT AREAS AND AT
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF EDUCATION
(OMEWORK POLICIES AND PRACTICES ARE ANOTHER ELEMENT IN THIS EQUATION THAT CAN iÜÀÊ>`ÊÌ
iÀÊ
HAVE A SUBSTANTIAL INFLUENCE ON HOW MUCH TIME STUDENTS DEVOTE TO LEARNING ÕÌvÃV
Êi>À}Ê
)N MANY /%#$ COUNTRIES HOMEWORK CONSTITUTES A MAJOR PART OF STUDENTS «>ÞÊ>Ê«ÀÌ>ÌÊ
LEARNING TIME )N 0)3! STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO SPECIFY HOW MUCH TIME «>ÀÌo
THEY SPENT EACH WEEK ON HOMEWORK IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS
AND SCIENCE &IGURE
!DDING THESE RESPONSES RESULTS IN AN AVERAGE OF HOURS PER WEEK IN THE THREE oÜÌ
ÊVÃiÊÌÊÌ
iÊ
SUBJECT AREAS ALONE RANGING FROM HOURS OR LESS IN *APAN AND 3WEDEN TO iµÕÛ>iÌÊvÊ>ÊÌ
À`Ê
HOURS OR MORE IN 'REECE AND (UNGARY &IGURE 4HIS AMOUNT COMPARES vÊÌ
iÊÃÌÀÕVÌÊÌiÊ
TO AN AVERAGE OF HOURS PER WEEK OF STATUTORY INSTRUCTION TIME IN THESE SUBJECT >ÌÊÃV
ÊÊÌ
iÊ*-Ê
AREAS /%#$ )N ADDITION A SUBSTANTIAL PROPORTION OF STUDENTS REPORT `>ÃÊ`iÛÌi`ÊÌÊ
SOMETIMES OR REGULARLY ATTENDING ADDITIONAL OR REMEDIAL COURSES OUTSIDE THEIR
iÜÀ°Ê
SCHOOL IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THEIR SKILLS &OR EXAMPLE ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$
COUNTRIES PER CENT OF STUDENTS REPORT THAT IN THE LAST THREE YEARS THEY
SOMETIMES OR REGULARLY ATTENDED COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT COURSES
IN OTHER SUBJECTS OR ADDITIONAL COURSES OUTSIDE THEIR SCHOOL )N THE CASE OF *APAN
AND +OREA THE FIGURES ARE AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY 4ABLE
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
}ÕÀiÊÇ°È
4IME SPENT ON HOMEWORK
)NDEX OF TIME SPENT IN HOMEWORK FOR LANGUAGE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES
%STIMATED MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS SPENT ON HOMEWORK
FOR LANGUAGE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES
'REECE
(UNGARY
5NITED +INGDOM
3PAIN
0OLAND
-EXICO
)TALY
)RELAND
0ORTUGAL
&RANCE
#ANADA
.EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA
"ELOW !BOVE
$ENMARK /%#$ AVERAGE /%#$ AVERAGE
)CELAND
'ERMANY
5NITED 3TATES
.ORWAY
"ELGIUM
+OREA
3WITZERLAND
,UXEMBOURG
&INLAND
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
3WEDEN
!USTRIA
*APAN
2USSIAN &EDERATION M
,ATVIA M
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN M
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
.OTE &OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
(OMEWORK INCREASES A STUDENTS OPPORTUNITY TO SPEND TIME IN LEARNING AND ÀÊÛ>ÀÕÃÊÀi>ÃÃ]Ê
SHOULD THEREFORE BE POSITIVELY RELATED TO LEARNING OUTCOMES (OWEVER SEVERAL ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊëi`}ÊÀiÊ
FACTORS COMPLICATE THIS RELATIONSHIP &OR EXAMPLE TEACHERS MAY TEND TO ASSIGN ÌiÊÊ
iÜÀÊ>ÀiÊ
MORE OR MORE REGULAR HOMEWORK TO THOSE STUDENTS WHO NEED IT MOST TO ÌÊ>Ü>ÞÃÊÌ
iÊLiÃÌÊ
IMPROVE THEIR PERFORMANCE !LTERNATIVELY SLOWER LEARNERS MAY NEED MORE TIME «iÀvÀiÀÃo
TO COMPLETE THE SAME AMOUNT OF HOMEWORK #ONVERSELY STUDENTS WHO REPORT
SPENDING RELATIVELY LITTLE TIME ON HOMEWORK MAY EITHER BE ABLE STUDENTS WHO
CAN COMPLETE THEIR HOMEWORK QUICKLY OR DISENGAGED STUDENTS WHO DO NOT CARE
TO SPEND MUCH TIME ON SCHOOL ACTIVITIES AT HOME
$ESPITE THIS MULTIFACETED RELATIONSHIP THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE TIME SPENT o>Ì Õ} ÊÌ iÞÊ«iÀvÀÊ
ON HOMEWORK IN THE THREE SUBJECT AREAS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE TENDS TO BE LiÌÌiÀÊÊ>ÛiÀ>}io
CONSISTENTLY POSITIVE )N ORDER TO ANALYSE THIS ASSOCIATION IT IS TECHNICALLY MOST
APPROPRIATE TO CONSTRUCT AN INDEX SIMILAR TO THOSE USED EARLIER IN THIS CHAPTER IN
THIS CASE COMBINING STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE TIME THAT THEY SPEND ON HOMEWORK
IN SUBJECTS RELATED TO THE THREE 0)3! ASSESSMENT DOMAINS 4HIS INDEX IS SHOWN IN
4ABLE AND &IGURE
4HE HOMEWORK INDEX EXPLAINS BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF VARIATION IN READING o«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊÊ
PERFORMANCE IN !USTRALIA "ELGIUM &RANCE 'REECE (UNGARY )TALY 0OLAND VÕÌÀiÃÊÜ
iÀiÊÌ
iÊ
3PAIN THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4HE >ÛiÀ>}iÊ
iÜÀÊ>`Ê
ASSOCIATION TENDS TO BE STRONGER IN COUNTRIES WHERE THE MEAN INDEX IS GREATER ÃÊV«>À>ÌÛiÞÊ
}
°
THAN PERHAPS SUGGESTING THAT A CERTAIN LEVEL OF HOMEWORK NEEDS TO BE
REACHED IN AN EDUCATION SYSTEM BEFORE THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF HOMEWORK BECOME
CONSISTENT OR CLEARLY VISIBLE
/NE CONSIDERATION IS THAT HOMEWORK MAY REINFORCE DISPARITIES IN STUDENT ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]ÊLÕÌÊ
PERFORMANCE THAT RESULT FROM HOME BACKGROUND FACTORS !ND IN FACT IN SOME ÌÊ>]ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊvÀÊ
COUNTRIES SUCH AS "ELGIUM 'REECE (UNGARY +OREA AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ÀiÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê
iÃÊ
THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS EXPLAINS PER CENT OR MORE OF `ÊÀiÊ
iÜÀÊÊ
THE VARIATION IN THE HOMEWORK INDEX (OWEVER IN OTHER COUNTRIES INCLUDING >ÛiÀ>}i°
)TALY AND 0OLAND THE 0)3! HOMEWORK INDEX IS POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH READING
PERFORMANCE AND THERE IS ALMOST NO RELATIONSHIP WITH THE 0)3! SOCIO
ECONOMIC
INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT HOMEWORK CAN BE GIVEN IN WAYS
THAT ENGAGE SOCIO
ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS AS WELL SEE 4ABLE
AND !NNEX !
2ESOURCES INVESTED IN EDUCATION
4EACHER SHORTAGE
4HE RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION OF A HIGHLY QUALIFIED TEACHING FORCE IS A MAJOR
ÕÌÀiÃÊ>ÀiÊÜÀÀi`Ê
POLICY CONCERN IN /%#$ COUNTRIES !GEING TEACHER POPULATIONS AND RISING >LÕÌÊÌ
iÊÃÕ««ÞÊvÊ
STUDENT PARTICIPATION RATES CONTINUE TO PUT PRESSURE ON THE DEMAND FOR TEACHERS µÕ>vi`ÊÌi>V
iÀÃo
IN MANY COUNTRIES BUT ASPIRING TEACHERS IN SOME COUNTRIES FIND THAT TEACHING CAN
BE UNDULY STRESSFUL THAT THE PROFESSION IS UNDER
APPRECIATED AND THAT SALARIES
ARE LOW BY COMPARISON WITH SALARIES IN PROFESSIONS WITH COMPARABLE QUALIFICA
TIONS /%#$
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
o>`Ê*-ÊÌ
iÀivÀiÊ 4HE 0)3! SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE PROVIDES AN OPPORTUNITY TO ASSESS SCHOOL PRIN
>Ãi`Ê«ÀV«>ÃÊÌÊÜ
>ÌÊ CIPALS PERSPECTIVES OF THE ADEQUACY OF TEACHER SUPPLY AS WELL AS THE IMPACT OF
iÝÌiÌÊÌi>V
iÀÊÃ
ÀÌ>}iÃÊ PERCEIVED SHORTAGES ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE 5SING RESPONSES TO FOUR QUESTIONS
`iÀÊi>À}° ABOUT THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE SHORTAGE OR INADEQUACY OF TEACHERS IN THE LANGUAGE
OF ASSESSMENT AND IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE HINDERS LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS
AN INDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE WAS CONSTRUCTED AND ITS EFFECT ON STUDENT LEARN
ING EXAMINED 4HIS INDEX HAS A MEAN VALUE OF ZERO FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
4HE GREATER THE VALUE OF THE INDEX ABOVE THE AVERAGE THE GREATER THE PERCEIVED
ADEQUACY OF TEACHER SUPPLY AT LEAST IN THE OPINION OF PRINCIPALS 6ALUES BELOW
ZERO INDICATE A PERCEIVED HIGHER THAN AVERAGE SHORTAGE OR INADEQUACY OF TEACHERS
HINDERING LEARNING AMONG
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS
/F ALL THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! PRINCIPALS IN 'REECE AND THE 2USSIAN
&EDERATION WERE THE MOST LIKELY TO PERCEIVE THAT A SHORTAGE OR INADEQUACY
OF TEACHERS HINDERED LEARNING IN THEIR SCHOOLS 0RINCIPALS ALSO INDICATED COM
PARATIVELY HIGH LEVELS OF CONCERN ABOUT PERCEIVED SHORTAGES OF TEACHERS IN )CE
LAND -EXICO THE .ETHERLANDS AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM )N !USTRIA THE #ZECH
2EPUBLIC AND 3PAIN PRINCIPALS WERE THE LEAST LIKELY TO BELIEVE THAT A SHORTAGE OF
TEACHERS HINDERED LEARNING 4ABLE
)N THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE RESPONSES IT NEEDS TO BE BORNE IN MIND THAT
TEACHER SHORTAGE WAS NOT MEASURED IN TERMS OF AN INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT SUCH AS THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER TEACHER BUT THAT THE
FOCUS OF 0)3! WAS ON THE EXTENT TO WHICH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEIVED THAT THE
INADEQUACY OF TEACHER SUPPLY HINDERED LEARNING &OR EXAMPLE SOME OF THE COUN
TRIES IN WHICH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS EXPRESSED AN ABOVE
AVERAGE CONCERN ABOUT THE
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF TEACHER SUPPLY ON STUDENT LEARNING SUCH AS 'REECE )TALY AND
.ORWAY HAVE SOME OF THE SMALLEST STUDENTTEACHING STAFF RATIOS IN /%#$ COUN
TRIES /%#$
"ÛiÀ>]ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ /VERALL THERE APPEARS TO BE A MODEST NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A SHORTAGE
«iÀvÀÊÃiÜ
>ÌÊÜÀÃiÊ OF TEACHERS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN READING !S THE SHORTAGES PERCEIVED BY
ÊÃV
ÃÊÜÌ
Ê}Ài>ÌiÀÊ SCHOOL PRINCIPALS INCREASE PERFORMANCE DECREASES AS MIGHT BE EXPECTED 4HE
Ã
ÀÌ>}iÃo HIGHEST READING SCORES ARE TYPICALLY FOUND AMONG SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS IN THE TOP
QUARTER WHERE HIGHER INDEX VALUES REFLECT LITTLE OR NO CONCERN ABOUT A SHORTAGE
OR INADEQUACY OF TEACHERS
oLÕÌÊÌ ÃÊ}>«ÊÃÊ>À}iÀÊ /N AVERAGE ACROSS ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES THE OVERALL DIFFERENCE IN AVERAGE READING
ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ>`Ê SCORES BETWEEN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE
>LÃiÌÊÊÌ iÀÃo IS POINTS BUT THE RANGE OF SCORES AMONG COUNTRIES IS CONSIDERABLE )N SEVERAL
COUNTRIES AVERAGE READING SCORES DROP BY AS MUCH AS POINTS OR MORE IN !USTRIA
"ELGIUM THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 0OLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND ESPECIALLY 'ERMANY
POINTS BETWEEN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS ON THE INDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE
4ABLE "Y CONTRAST MEAN READING SCORES DO NOT DIFFER STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY
BETWEEN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS IN 'REECE )RELAND )TALY ,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO THE .ETHERLANDS .ORWAY AND THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION ALTHOUGH PRINCIPALS
IN THOSE COUNTRIES ALSO BELIEVE THAT THEY DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH TEACHERS
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
7HILE PRINCIPALS IN !USTRALIA )CELAND )RELAND *APAN .EW :EALAND .ORWAY o>`ÊÃ
ÀÌ>}iÃÊ`ÊÌÊ
3WEDEN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ALL PERCEIVE ABOVE
AVERAGE TEACHER SHORTAGES IN VÃÃÌiÌÞÊ«ÀiÛiÌÊ
EACH OF THESE COUNTRIES THE QUARTER OF STUDENTS WHOSE SCHOOLS REPORT THE GREATEST ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊvÀÊ`}ÊÜiÊ
DIFFICULTIES IN THIS RESPECT STILL SCORE AROUND OR ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE IN READING ÌiÀ>Ì>Þ°
4HE QUALITY OF SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES
%NSURING THE AVAILABILITY OF A SUITABLE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND AN ADEQUATE Õ`}Ã]ÊLÃÊ>`Ê
SUPPLY OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES MAY NOT GUARANTEE HIGH PERFORMANCE BUT THE Ì
iÀÊÀiÃÕÀViÃÊ
ABSENCE OF SUCH AN ENVIRONMENT WILL POSSIBLY AFFECT LEARNING "UILDINGS IN GOOD VÌÀLÕÌiÊÌÊÌ
iÊ
CONDITION AND ADEQUATE AMOUNTS OF TEACHING SPACE ALL CONTRIBUTE TO A PHYSICAL i>À}ÊiÛÀiÌo
ENVIRONMENT THAT IS CONDUCIVE TO LEARNING -UCH THE SAME CAN BE SAID FOR SCHOOLS
WITH ADEQUATE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES SUCH AS COMPUTERS LIBRARY AND TEACHING
MATERIALS INCLUDING TEXTBOOKS AND MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES FOR LEARNING
5SING PRINCIPALS RESPONSES TO A SERIES OF QUESTIONS ABOUT THE PERCEIVED EXTENT o>`Ê«ÀV«>ÃÊÜiÀiÊ>Ãi`Ê
TO WHICH MATERIAL AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES HINDER LEARNING AMONG
YEAR
OLD Ü
iÌ
iÀÊ>VÊvÊ«
ÞÃV>Ê
STUDENTS TWO COMPOSITE INDICES WERE CREATED n ONE FOR THE PERCEIVED QUALITY OF >`Êi`ÕV>Ì>ÊÀiÃÕÀViÃÊ
`iÀÃÊi>À}°
}ÕÀiÊÇ°Ç
0RINCIPALS VIEWS ON THE QUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AT SCHOOL
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHERE PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT LEARNING
IS HINDERED TO SOME EXTENT OR A LOT BY THE FOLLOWING FACTORS
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
)NADEQUATE FACILITIES FOR
THE FINE ARTS
)NADEQUATE SCIENCE
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
,ACK OF MULTI
MEDIA
RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTION
,ACK OF INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS IN THE LIBRARY
.OT ENOUGH COMPUTERS
FOR INSTRUCTION
,ACK OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
EG TEXTBOOKS
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE OTHER FOR THE PERCEIVED QUALITY OF
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES ,IKE THE INDICES DISCUSSED EARLIER THESE INDICES HAVE
AN AVERAGE OF ZERO AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF ONE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
0OSITIVE VALUES ON THE INDEX REFLECT A BELOW
AVERAGE CONCERN AMONG SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS THAT THE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AVAILABLE
IN THEIR SCHOOLS HINDER LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS
)N THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY AND 3WITZERLAND FEW PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT
THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS INFRASTRUCTURE HINDERS LEARNING 4ABLE 4HE
OTHER COUNTRIES IN WHICH PRINCIPALS REPORT LESS FREQUENTLY THAT THEIR SCHOOLS
PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE HINDERS LEARNING ARE "ELGIUM "RAZIL #ANADA AND )CE
LAND "Y CONTRAST PRINCIPALS IN 'REECE +OREA ,UXEMBOURG -EXICO .ORWAY
THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM REPORT BEING MORE CONCERNED
ABOUT THE CONSEQUENCES FOR LEARNING OF WHAT THEY DEEM TO BE INADEQUATE
PHYSICAL FACILITIES AT LEAST RELATIVE TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE &IGURE
*
ÞÃV>ÊÀiÃÕÀViÃÊ>ÀiÊ>ÌÊ )N "ELGIUM (UNGARY 3WITZERLAND AND THE 5NITED 3TATES SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
ÃÌÊÜi>ÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê REPORT COMPARATIVELY INFREQUENTLY THAT THE QUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
ÜÌ
Ê«iÀvÀ>Vio HINDERS LEARNING 4ABLE "Y CONTRAST PRINCIPALS IN 'REECE ,ATVIA -EXICO
.ORWAY THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM ARE BY COMPARISON
WITH THE /%#$ AVERAGE MORE CONCERNED ABOUT THE INADEQUACY OF THEIR SCHOOLS
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
$O DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AFFECT STUDENT PERFORMANCE
!LTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS SCALE SCORES IN READING
LITERACY BETWEEN THE TOP AND BOTTOM QUARTERS ON THE INDEX OF SCHOOLS
PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE MOST OF THE DIFFERENCES ARE SMALL AND NOT STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT
oÜ
iÊÌ
iÊ>ÃÃV>ÌÊ %DUCATIONAL RESOURCES APPEAR TO BE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO PERFORMANCE THAN
ÜÌ
Êi`ÕV>Ì>Ê PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE )N /%#$ COUNTRIES PLUS "RAZIL DIFFERENCES IN
ÀiÃÕÀViÃÊÃÊÃiÜ
>ÌÊ EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENCES OF MORE THAN POINTS
ÃÌÀ}iÀ° IN READING PERFORMANCE THE LARGEST DIFFERENCES BEING IN -EXICO POINTS
,UXEMBOURG POINTS 'ERMANY POINTS "RAZIL POINTS AND THE
5NITED +INGDOM POINTS BETWEEN THE BOTTOM AND THE TOP QUARTERS OF THE
INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 4HE AVERAGE DIFFERENCE FOR THE /%#$ COUNTRIES
AS A WHOLE IS ABOUT POINTS
!PPROACHES TO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND FINANCING
3CHOOL AUTONOMY AND TEACHER PARTICIPATION
*ÀV«>ÃÊÀi«ÀÌi`ÊÊ 0LACING MORE DECISION
MAKING AUTHORITY AT LOWER LEVELS HAS BEEN A MAIN
*-ÊÊÜ
Ê
>ÃÊ AIM OF THE RESTRUCTURING AND SYSTEMIC REFORM OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN
ÀiëÃLÌÞÊvÀÊÛ>ÀÕÃÊ MANY COUNTRIES SINCE THE EARLY S 3CHOOL
BASED MANAGEMENT IS INTENDED
>ëiVÌÃÊvÊÃV
Ê«VÞÊ TO INCREASE CREATIVITY AND RESPONSIVENESS TO COMMUNITY NEEDS 4HIS INVOLVES
>`Ê>>}iiÌÊÊ ENHANCING THE DECISION
MAKING RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY OF PRINCIPALS
Ì
iÀÊÃV
° AND IN SOME CASES THE MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHERS OR DEPARTMENT
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊÇ°n
3CHOOL AUTONOMY AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE
$ISTRIBUTION OF MEAN PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHERE PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT THE SCHOOL HAS
AT LEAST SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS OF SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
/%#$ AVERAGE STANDARD ERROR
$ECIDING WHICH COURSES
ARE OFFERED
$ETERMINING COURSE
CONTENT
#HOOSING WHICH
TEXTBOOKS ARE USED
!PPROVING STUDENTS FOR
ADMITTANCE TO SCHOOL
%STABLISHING STUDENT
ASSESSMENT POLICIES
%STABLISHING STUDENT
DISCIPLINARY POLICIES
$ECIDING ON BUDGET
ALLOCATIONS WITHIN THE SCHOOL
&ORMULATING THE SCHOOL
BUDGET
$ETERMINING TEACHERS
SALARY INCREASES
%STABLISHING TEACHERS
STARTING SALARIES
$ISMISSING TEACHERS
!PPOINTING TEACHERS
.OTE #OUNTRIES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE SQUARE SYMBOLS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
HEADS .ONETHELESS WHILE SCHOOL AUTONOMY MAY STIMULATE RESPONSIVENESS TO
LOCAL REQUIREMENTS IT IS SOMETIMES SEEN AS CREATING MECHANISMS FOR CHOICE THAT
FAVOUR GROUPS IN SOCIETY THAT ARE ALREADY ADVANTAGED
)N ORDER TO GAUGE THE EXTENT TO WHICH SCHOOL STAFF HAVE A SAY IN DECISIONS RELAT
ING TO SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT PRINCIPALS WERE ASKED TO REPORT WHETHER
TEACHERS DEPARTMENT HEADS THE PRINCIPAL AN APPOINTED OR ELECTED BOARD OR
EDUCATION AUTHORITIES HAD THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY FOR APPOINTING TEACHERS
DISMISSING TEACHERS ESTABLISHING TEACHERS STARTING SALARIES DETERMINING TEACH
ERS SALARY INCREASES FORMULATING SCHOOL BUDGETS ALLOCATING BUDGETS WITHIN THE
SCHOOL ESTABLISHING STUDENT DISCIPLINARY POLICIES ESTABLISHING STUDENT ASSESS
MENT POLICIES APPROVING STUDENTS FOR ADMITTANCE TO SCHOOL CHOOSING WHICH
TEXTBOOKS TO USE DETERMINING COURSE CONTENT AND DECIDING WHICH COURSES WERE
OFFERED &IGURE
4ABLE SHOWS THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHOSE PRINCIPALS
HAVE AT LEAST SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT FOR
DATA ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
ÃÌÊÃV ÃÊÊÃÌÊ 5NLIKE PRIVATE SECTOR ENTERPRISES SCHOOLS IN MOST COUNTRIES HAVE LITTLE SAY IN THE
VÕÌÀiÃÊ >ÛiÊÊÃ>ÞÊÊ ESTABLISHMENT OF TEACHERS STARTING SALARIES )N ALL COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE #ZECH
Ìi>V iÀýÊÌ>Ê«>Þo 2EPUBLIC 'REECE THE .ETHERLANDS THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES
TWO THIRDS OR MORE OF YEAR OLDS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHOSE PRINCIPALS REPORT
THAT SCHOOLS HAVE NO RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TEACHERS STARTING
SALARIES 4HE SCOPE TO REWARD TEACHERS FINANCIALLY ONCE THEY HAVE BEEN HIRED IS
ALSO LIMITED /NLY IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'REECE 3WEDEN THE 5NITED +INGDOM
AND THE 5NITED 3TATES ARE MORE THAN TWO THIRDS OF THE STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS
WHICH HAVE SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR DETERMINING TEACHERS SALARY INCREASES
oÜ
iÊ>ÞÊ`Ê
>ÛiÊ>Ê 4HERE APPEARS TO BE GREATER FLEXIBILITY FOR SCHOOLS WITH REGARD TO THE APPOINT
Ã>ÞÊÊÌ
iÊ>««ÌiÌÊ MENT AND DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS 'ERMANY AND )TALY ARE THE ONLY COUNTRIES IN
>`Ê`ÃÃÃ>ÊvÊ WHICH ABOUT PER CENT OR MORE OF
YEAR
OLDS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS
Ìi>V
iÀð WHOSE PRINCIPALS REPORT THAT THE SCHOOL HAS NO RESPONSIBILITY IN THESE MATTERS
#ONVERSELY IN "ELGIUM THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK )CELAND 3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES BETWEEN AND PER
CENT OF STUDENTS ATTEND SCHOOLS THAT HAVE SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE APPOINT
MENT OF TEACHERS /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT )N THE MAJORITY OF COUNTRIES
PRINCIPALS TEND TO REPORT A MORE PROMINENT ROLE FOR THE SCHOOL IN APPOINTING
TEACHERS THAN IN DISMISSING THEM THE LARGEST DIFFERENCES BEING FOUND IN #ANADA
AND $ENMARK AND PERCENTAGE POINTS RESPECTIVELY )N "ELGIUM THE
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC (UNGARY )CELAND ,ATVIA THE .ETHERLANDS .EW :EALAND THE
2USSIAN &EDERATION AND THE 5NITED 3TATES MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE STUDENTS
ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHOSE PRINCIPALS REPORT HAVING SOME SAY IN THE DISMISSAL
OF TEACHERS /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT
4HERE IS VARIATION ALSO WITH REGARD TO THE ROLES THAT SCHOOLS PLAY IN THE
FORMULATION OF BUDGETS !USTRIA AND 'ERMANY REPORTING THE LEAST INVOLVEMENT
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
OF SCHOOLS WITH THIS TASK 3CHOOLS IN !USTRALIA "ELGIUM )TALY ,UXEMBOURG /
iÀiÊÃÊ}Ài>ÌiÀÊÛ>À>ÌÊ
THE .ETHERLANDS .EW :EALAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES ÊÜ
iÌ
iÀÊÃV
ÃÊ
HAVE A COMPARATIVELY HIGH DEGREE OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY WITH REGARD TO BUDGET vÀÕ>ÌiÊLÕ`}iÌÃÊ>`Ê
FORMULATION )N MOST COUNTRIES PRINCIPALS GENERALLY REPORT A HIGH DEGREE OF `iV`iÊÊ
ÜÊiÞÊÃÊ
SCHOOL INVOLVEMENT IN DECISIONS ON HOW MONEY IS SPENT WITHIN SCHOOLS /%#$ ëiÌÊÜÌ
ÊÃV
ð
AVERAGE PER CENT
)N ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES THE MAJORITY OF
YEAR
OLDS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS ÃÌÊÃV
ÃÊ
>ÛiÊÃiÊ
WHICH HAVE SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR OWN ADMISSIONS /%#$ AVERAGE PER ÀiëÃLÌÞÊvÀÊ
CENT >`ÃÃÃo
7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF 'ERMANY )TALY AND 3WITZERLAND THE MAJORITY OF YEAR o>`Ê`iV`iÊÊVÕÀÃiÃ]Ê
OLDS ARE ALSO ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN DECIDING ON THE COURSES `ÃV«i]Ê>ÃÃiÃÃiÌÊ
OFFERED /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT &INALLY MOST PRINCIPALS /%#$ AVERAGE >`ÊÌiÝÌLð
AROUND PER CENT REPORT THAT DISCIPLINARY POLICIES ASSESSMENT POLICIES AND
CHOICE OF TEXTBOOKS ARE SCHOOL RESPONSIBILITIES
$OES THE DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION
MAKING RESPONSIBILITIES AFFECT STUDENT ÌÊÃÊ
>À`ÊÌÊÊiÛiÃÊvÊ
PERFORMANCE )N THIS FIELD THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF >ÕÌÞÊÜÌ
Ê
SCHOOL AUTONOMY AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHIN A GIVEN COUNTRY IS OFTEN «iÀvÀ>Vio
WEAK 4HIS IS UNDERSTANDABLE BECAUSE NATIONAL LEGISLATION FREQUENTLY SPECIFIES
THE DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION
MAKING RESPONSIBILITIES #ONSEQUENTLY THERE IS LITTLE
VARIATION WITHIN COUNTRIES
(OWEVER THE DATA SUGGEST THAT IN THOSE COUNTRIES IN WHICH PRINCIPALS REPORT ON oLÕÌÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊ
AVERAGE A HIGHER DEGREE OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY WITH REGARD TO CHOICE OF COURSES `ÊLiÌÌiÀÊÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ
THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE TENDS TO BE ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ ÊÀiÊ
HIGHER THE CORRELATION BETWEEN COUNTRY AVERAGES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND >ÕÌÞ]Ê«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊ
THE RESPECTIVE PROPORTION OF SCHOOLS INVOLVED IN DECISIONS CONCERNING CHOICE ÊV ViÊvÊVÕÀÃiÃÊ>`Ê
OF COURSES IS 4HE PICTURE IS SIMILAR THOUGH LESS PRONOUNCED FOR OTHER ÊLÕ`}iÌÊ>V>Ì°
ASPECTS OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY INCLUDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEAN PERFORM
ANCE AND THE DEGREE OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY IN BUDGET ALLOCATION WITHIN THE SCHOOL
COUNTRY LEVEL CORRELATION 4ABLE
4ABLE SHOWS THE PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH ÊÃÌÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê
TEACHERS HAVE THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE VARIOUS DECISION
MAKING AREAS Ìi>V
iÀÃÊ
>ÛiÊÌ
iÊ>Ê
)N MOST COUNTRIES THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT ÀiëÃLÌÞÊvÀÊÌ
iÊ
FOCUS AMONG THE QUESTIONS COVERED ON THE CHOICE OF TEXTBOOKS /%#$ V
ViÊvÊÌiÝÌLÃ]Ê
AVERAGE PER CENT COURSE CONTENT /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT ASSESS
VÕÀÃiÊVÌiÌ]Ê
MENT POLICIES /%#$ AVERAGE PER CENT AND DISCIPLINARY POLICIES /%#$ >ÃÃiÃÃiÌÊ«ViÃÊ>`Ê
AVERAGE PER CENT 4HERE ARE FEW SCHOOLS IN WHICH TEACHERS HAVE THE MAIN `ÃV«>ÀÞÊ«Við
RESPONSIBILITY FOR DECISIONS CONCERNING SALARY POLICIES THE APPOINTMENT AND
DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS AND BUDGET FORMULATION
ÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÜ
iÀiÊÌi>V
iÀÃÊ
!GAIN COUNTRIES WITH A STRONG INVOLVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
>ÛiÊ}Ài>ÌiÀÊÀiëÃLÌÞÊ
SEEM TO PERFORM BETTER ON AVERAGE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE vÀÊÌi>V
}ÊVÌiÌ]Ê
4HE COUNTRY
LEVEL CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE PROPORTIONS OF SCHOOLS IN WHICH ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊ`ÊLiÌÌiÀo
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
TEACHERS HAVE THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY IN DECISIONS REGARDING COURSE CONTENT AND
CHOICE OF COURSES AND MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE ARE AND RESPECTIVELY 4ABLE
o>Ì Õ} ÊÌÊV>ÌÊ !S IN OTHER ANALYSES OF THIS KIND SUCH CORRELATIONS CANNOT BE INTERPRETED IN A
LiÊviÀÀi`ÊÌ >ÌÊ CAUSAL SENSE SINCE MANY OTHER FACTORS MAY BE AT PLAY .ONETHELESS THE FINDINGS
>ÕÌÞÊ«ÀÛiÃÊ DO SUGGEST THAT SCHOOL AUTONOMY AND TEACHER INVOLVEMENT IN DECISION MAKING
ÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi° TEND AT LEAST AT THE CROSS COUNTRY LEVEL TO BE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH READING
PERFORMANCE
0UBLIC AND PRIVATE STAKEHOLDERS
/
iÊ«ÀÛ>ÌiÊÃiVÌÀÊ«>ÞÃÊ>Ê 3CHOOL EDUCATION IS MAINLY A PUBLIC ENTERPRISE )N TWO
THIRDS OF /%#$
Ã>ÊLÕÌÊ}ÀÜ}ÊÀiÊÊ COUNTRIES THE PRIVATE SHARE OF THE FUNDS INVESTED IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
ÃV
}o EDUCATION IS BELOW PER CENT AND IN )TALY .ORWAY 0ORTUGAL AND 3WEDEN
LESS THAN PER CENT OF SCHOOL FUNDING ORIGINATES FROM PRIVATE SOURCES SEE
/%#$ .EVERTHELESS THE DEGREE OF PRIVATE FUNDING IS GROWING
AND WITH AN INCREASING VARIETY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES PROGRAMMES
AND PROVIDERS GOVERNMENTS ARE FORGING NEW PARTNERSHIPS TO MOBILISE
RESOURCES FOR EDUCATION AND TO DESIGN NEW POLICIES THAT ALLOW THE DIFFERENT
STAKEHOLDERS TO PARTICIPATE MORE FULLY AND TO SHARE COSTS AND BENEFITS MORE
EQUITABLY
oÜÌ ]ÊÊ>ÛiÀ>}i]ÊȯÊvÊ /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE /%#$ COUNTRIES WITH AVAILABLE DATA PER CENT OF
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊÃV ÃÊÌ >ÌÊ YEAR OLD STUDENTS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS THAT ARE PRIVATELY MANAGED AND
>ÀiÊ«Ài`>ÌÞÊ«ÀÛ>ÌiÞÊ PREDOMINANTLY PRIVATELY FINANCED REFERRED TO AS INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS
vÕ`i`Ê>`ÊÀÕÊo 4ABLE 4HESE ARE SCHOOLS WHICH PRINCIPALS REPORT TO BE MANAGED BY
NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS SUCH AS CHURCHES TRADE UNIONS OR BUSINESS
ENTERPRISES ANDOR TO HAVE GOVERNING BOARDS CONSISTING MOSTLY OF MEMBERS
NOT SELECTED BY A PUBLIC AGENCY !T LEAST PER CENT OF THEIR FUNDS COME FROM
PRIVATE SOURCES SUCH AS FEES PAID BY PARENTS DONATIONS SPONSORSHIPS OR PARENTAL
FUND RAISING AND OTHER NON PUBLIC SOURCES
o>`Ê>ÀÕ`Ê>ÊÌ
À`ÊÊ 4HERE ARE ONLY A FEW COUNTRIES IN WHICH SUCH A MODEL OF PRIVATE EDUCATION
ÌÜÊVÕÌÀið IS COMMON /NLY IN +OREA PER CENT *APAN PER CENT AND -EXICO
PER CENT IS THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN INDEPENDENT PRIVATE
SCHOOLS GREATER THAN PER CENT 4ABLE "Y CONTRAST IN MANY COUNTRIES
THE FINANCING OF SCHOOLS BY STUDENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES IS CONSIDERED A POTEN
TIAL BARRIER TO STUDENT ACCESS )N OF THE COUNTRIES WITH AVAILABLE DATA
FOR EXAMPLE LESS THAN PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLDS ARE ENROLLED IN INDEPENDENT
PRIVATE SCHOOLS
ÕÌÊÌ
iÀÊvÀÃÊvÊ 0RIVATE EDUCATION IS NOT ONLY A WAY OF MOBILISING RESOURCES FROM A WIDER
«ÀÛ>ÌiÊÃV
}Ê>ÀiÊ RANGE OF FUNDING SOURCES BUT IS SOMETIMES ALSO REGARDED AS A WAY OF MAKING
ÀiÊVÊÊ"
Ê EDUCATION MORE COST
EFFECTIVE 0UBLICLY FINANCED SCHOOLS DO NOT NECESSARILY HAVE
VÕÌÀiÃo TO BE PUBLICLY MANAGED )NSTEAD GOVERNMENTS CAN TRANSFER FUNDS TO PUBLIC
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
AND PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS ALLOCATION MECHANISMS
/%#$ "Y MAKING THE FUNDING FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS DEPENDENT
ON PARENTS CHOOSING TO ENROL THEIR CHILDREN GOVERNMENTS SOMETIMES SEEK TO
INTRODUCE INCENTIVES FOR INSTITUTIONS TO ORGANISE PROGRAMMES AND TEACHING IN
WAYS THAT BETTER MEET DIVERSE STUDENT REQUIREMENTS AND INTERESTS THUS REDUCING
THE COSTS OF FAILURE AND MISMATCHES $IRECT PUBLIC FUNDING OF INSTITUTIONS BASED
ON STUDENT ENROLMENTS OR STUDENT CREDIT
HOURS IS ONE MODEL FOR THIS 'IVING
MONEY TO STUDENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES THROUGH FOR EXAMPLE SCHOLARSHIPS OR
VOUCHERS TO SPEND IN PUBLIC OR PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF THEIR CHOICE
IS ANOTHER METHOD
3CHOOLS THAT ARE PRIVATELY MANAGED BUT PREDOMINANTLY FINANCED THROUGH THE o«>ÀÌVÕ>ÀÞÊ
PUBLIC PURSE DEFINED HERE AS GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS ARE A }ÛiÀiÌ`i«i`iÌÊ
MUCH MORE COMMON MODEL OF PRIVATE SCHOOLING IN /%#$ COUNTRIES THAN ARE «ÀÛ>ÌiÊÃV
ð
PRIVATELY FINANCED SCHOOLS /N AVERAGE ACROSS THE /%#$ COUNTRIES WITH
COMPARABLE DATA PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLDS ARE ENROLLED IN GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND IN )RELAND AND THE .ETHERLANDS BETWEEN AND
PER CENT ARE IN SUCH SCHOOLS
(OW DO THESE INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS RELATE TO STUDENT PERFORMANCE /N -ÌÕ`iÌÃÊÊLÌ
Ê`ÃÊ
AVERAGE ACROSS THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THIS COMPARISON STUDENTS IN vÊ«ÀÛ>ÌiÊÃV
Ê«iÀvÀÊ
INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY OUTPERFORM STUDENTS IN Üio
READING LITERACY IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN TEN COUNTRIES 4HE DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE BETWEEN GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS
IS ABOUT HALF THIS SIZE IN FAVOUR OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS &IGURE
)N THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE FIGURES IT IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNISE THAT STUDENTS oLÕÌÊÌ iÀÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÞÊ
ARE USUALLY NOT DISTRIBUTED RANDOMLY BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS ÌiÊLiÊÀi«ÀiÃiÌ>ÌÛio
)NSUFFICIENT FAMILY WEALTH CAN FOR EXAMPLE BE AN IMPORTANT IMPEDIMENT TO
STUDENTS WANTING TO ATTEND INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF
TUITION FEES %VEN GOVERNMENT DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS THAT CHARGE NO TUITION
FEES CAN CATER FOR A DIFFERENT CLIENTELE OR APPLY MORE RESTRICTIVE TRANSFER OR SELEC
TION PRACTICES
/NE WAY TO EXAMINE THIS IS TO COMPARE THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS o>`Ê>ÊiÝ>>ÌÊ
OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHOOL 4ABLE SHOWS THE PER
vÊÌ
iÀÊÃV>Ê
CENTAGES OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND THEIR MEAN L>V}ÀÕ`Ão
SCORES AS WELL AS THE AVERAGE POSITIONS ON THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC
INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN THE VARIOUS TYPES OF
SCHOOL
oÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
>ÌÊ«ÀÛ>ÌiÊÃV
ÃÊ
!S CAN BE SEEN IN MOST COUNTRIES THE MEAN INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊ
INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS DIFFERS LITTLE BETWEEN GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT iÀÊÀiÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê
PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS WITH LARGER DIFFERENCES FOUND BETWEEN ÃÌÕ`iÌÃ]ÊÌ
Õ}
ÊÌ
ÃÊÃÊiÃÃÊ
PUBLIC AND INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN FAVOUR OF INDEPENDENT PRIVATE «ÀÕVi`ÊÊ}ÛiÀiÌ
SCHOOLS `i«i`iÌÊÃV
ð
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
}ÕÀiÊÇ°
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE AND PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CONTROL
$IFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT SCHOOLS IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE AND IN THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
$IFFERENCES IN SCORES ON $IFFERENCES ON THE INTERNATIONAL
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
'ERMANY
#ANADA
0UBLIC SCHOOLS 0RIVATE )RELAND 0UBLIC SCHOOLS 0RIVATE
PERFORM BETTER GOVERNMENT
HAVE HIGHER GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT 3WITZERLAND SOCIO
ECONOMIC DEPENDENT
SCHOOLS INTAKE SCHOOLS HAVE
PERFORM BETTER !USTRIA HIGHER
SOCIO
ECONOMIC
3PAIN INTAKE
5NITED 3TATES
.ORWAY
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
&INLAND
3WEDEN
+OREA
$ENMARK
,UXEMBOURG
.ETHERLANDS
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES ARE MARKED IN BLACK AND RED
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#ONCLUSIONS
-ÌÕ`iÌýʫiÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊ )MPORTANT AS SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS ARE IN INFLUENCING STUDENT PERFORMANCE
>ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ ÊÌ iÊ SCHOOL POLICIES AND PRACTICES CAN MAKE AN IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE AND EFFECTIVE
V >À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃÊvÊÌ iÀÊ LEARNING DEPENDS ON STUDENTS HAVING ACCESS TO HIGH QUALITY LEARNING OPPORTU
ÃV ÃÊ>ÃÊÜiÊ>ÃÊÌ iÀÊ NITIES 3CHOOL POLICIES AND PRACTICES CAN HAVE BOTH DIRECT EFFECTS ON OUTCOMES
v>ÞÊL>V}ÀÕ`° AND INDIRECT EFFECTS THAT MITIGATE THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS SEE
#HAPTERS AND
-iÊÃV Ê«ÀV«>ÃÊ 7HILE ALL COUNTRIES INVEST CONSIDERABLE RESOURCES IN EDUCATION SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Ài«ÀÌÊ>`iµÕ>ViÃÊÊ IN SOME COUNTRIES PERCEIVE CONSIDERABLE DEFICIENCIES IN THE QUALITY OF THE EDUCA
ÃV ÊÀiÃÕÀViÃo TIONAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES AT THE DISPOSAL OF THESE SCHOOLS )N MANY COUNTRIES
THESE DEFICIENCIES APPEAR TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH LOWER STUDENT PERFORMANCE
oLÕÌÊÌ
iÊV>ÌiÊvÊÌ
iÊ "UT NOT ALL OBSTACLES THAT SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEIVE AS HINDERING LEARNING IN THEIR
ÃV
Ê>`ÊÌ
iÊV>ÃÃÀÊÃ
ÜÊ SCHOOLS ARE OF A MATERIAL NATURE $ISCIPLINARY CLIMATE IS ANOTHER FACTOR WHICH
>ÊÕV
ÊÃÌÀ}iÀÊ>ÃÃV>ÌÊ 0)3! SHOWS TO BE CLOSELY RELATED TO STUDENT PERFORMANCE 3TUDENT ABSENTEEISM
ÜÌ
ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊo DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOUR STUDENTS LACKING RESPECT FOR TEACHERS AND BULLYING OF
/
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
} #(!04%2
STUDENTS ARE THE FACTORS REFERRED TO MOST FREQUENTLY BY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AS
OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE LEARNING &ROM THE STUDENT PERSPECTIVE WASTING TIME AT
THE BEGINNING OF LESSONS NOISE AND DISORDER AND STUDENTS TENDING NOT TO LISTEN
TO WHAT THE TEACHER SAYS ARE THE MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED IMPEDIMENTS TO
DISCIPLINE !DDRESSING THESE ISSUES IS NOT AN ISSUE OF MONEY ALONE
,EARNING DOES NOT BEGIN WITH THE SCHOOL DAY AND DOES NOT END WITH IT (OME
o>ÃÊ`iÃÊÃV
ÊÜÀÊ
WORK AND IN SOME COUNTRIES EXTENSION OR REMEDIAL COURSES OUTSIDE SCHOOL OFTEN `iÊÕÌÃ`iÊÃV
°
ACCOUNT FOR A CONSIDERABLE PORTION OF STUDENT LEARNING TIME AND TYPICALLY ADD UP
TO MORE THAN ONE THIRD OF STATUTORY INSTRUCTION TIME IN THE THREE 0)3! DOMAINS
'IVEN THE AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED IT IS IMPORTANT TO ENSURE THAT THIS TIME IS
SPENT EFFECTIVELY AND THAT THE CORRESPONDING LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES ARE ORGANISED
APPROPRIATELY /NE CONCERN IS THAT HOMEWORK AND LEARNING OUTSIDE SCHOOL MAY
REINFORCE THE DISPARITIES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAT RESULT FROM SOCIO
ECONOMIC
FACTORS OR VARIATION IN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OR SUPPORT AT HOME (OWEVER THE
EXPERIENCES OF SOME COUNTRIES WHERE HOMEWORK IS POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH
STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND WHERE THERE APPEARS TO BE NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
HOME BACKGROUND AND PERFORMANCE SUGGEST THAT LEARNING CAN BE EXTENDED
OUTSIDE SCHOOL WITHOUT PUTTING DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS AT RISK
&INALLY THERE MAY BE MORE ROOM FOR INNOVATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS -V Ê>ÕÌÞÊ>ÞÊ
)N MOST COUNTRIES FEW SCHOOLS SEEM TO HAVE A SAY IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF LiÊ>Ì iÀÊ«ÀÌ>ÌÊ
TEACHERS SALARIES OR SALARY INCREASES 4HERE APPEARS TO BE SOMEWHAT GREATER v>VÌÀÊÊÌ ÃÊiµÕ>Ì°
FLEXIBILITY WITH REGARD TO THE APPOINTMENT AND DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS AND THE
ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SCHOOL BUDGETS (OWEVER THE DEGREE OF
FREEDOM FOR SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS IS ONCE AGAIN LIMITED IN MANY COUNTRIES
4HE TENDENCY FOR COUNTRIES WITH GREATER DEGREES OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY TO SHOW
HIGHER AVERAGE LEVELS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE MAY SUGGEST THAT THERE IS A CASE FOR
PURSUING SCHOOL AUTONOMY AS ONE ROUTE TO SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT
3INCE THE FACTORS EXAMINED IN THIS CHAPTER ARE INTERRELATED IT IS DIFFICULT
>«ÌiÀÊnÊ}ÛiÃÊ>ÊLiÌÌiÀÊ
TO ASSESS THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE 4HE NEXT CONCLUDING CHAPTER SEEKS TO `i>ÊvÊ
ÜÊÌ
iÃiÊv>VÌÀÃÊ
GAUGE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES AND OF SCHOOL POLICY AND >ÀiÊÌiÀÀi>Ìi`°
PRACTICES IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 4HIS MAY PROVIDE INDICATIONS OF
WHAT EDUCATIONAL POLICY CAN DO BOTH TO IMPROVE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE AND TO
MODERATE THE IMPACT OF FAMILY BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 /
iÊi>À}ÊiÛÀiÌÊ>`ÊÌ
iÊÀ}>Ã>ÌÊvÊÃV
}
.OTES
3TRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING WAS USED TO CONFIRM THE THEORETICALLY EXPECTED DIMENSIONS OF THE INDICES AND TO VALIDATE THEIR
COMPARABILITY ACROSS COUNTRIES &OR THIS PURPOSE A MODEL WAS ESTIMATED SEPARATELY FOR EACH COUNTRY AND COLLECTIVELY FOR
ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
.OTE THAT STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO INDICATE THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF A SINGLE GROUP OF TEACHERS IN A SINGLE YEAR OF LEARNING
#ONSEQUENTLY RESULTS SHOULD NOT BE INTERPRETED AS A CHARACTERISATION OF ALL TEACHERS THAT
YEAR
OLDS HAVE ENCOUNTERED
DURING THEIR YEARS AS STUDENTS
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND THIS EXCEEDS PER CENT ONLY IN COUNTRIES SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE SCHOOL
LEVEL INDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE EXPLAINS
PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE STUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN
STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
&OR EACH OF THE THREE SUBJECT AREAS STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO REPORT WHETHER THEY SPENT hNO TIMEv hLESS THAN HOUR A WEEKv
hBETWEEN AND HOURS A WEEKv OR h HOURS OR MORE A WEEKv ON HOMEWORK 4HE TOTAL WEEKLY HOMEWORK TIME WAS ESTIMATED
BY ADDING THESE RESPONSES hNO TIMEv BEING CODED AS hLESS THAN HOUR A WEEKv AS hBETWEEN AND HOURS A WEEKv AS
AND h HOURS OR MORE A WEEKv AS 3TUDENTS WHO HAD MISSING RESPONSES FOR ANY OF THE THREE SUBJECT AREAS WERE EXCLUDED
FROM THIS COMPARISON
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
/N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE INDEX EXPLAINS PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE SEE !NNEX !
)N COUNTRIES THESE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
4ECHNICALLY THIS PERCENTAGE WAS DERIVED BY SUBTRACTING FROM THE WEIGHTED PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS WHO HAD
CHECKED THE RESPONSE CATEGORY hNOT A SCHOOL RESPONSIBILITYv FOR THE RELEVANT QUESTION
Chapter
8
WHAT MAKES A DIFFERENCE
TO PISA RESULTS:
SOME INDICATIONS
FOR POLICY
#(!04%2 7 >ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
)NTRODUCTION INFLUENCES INSIDE AND OUTSIDE SCHOOL
vÕiViÃÊÊ 0ERFORMANCE IN SCHOOL IS AFFECTED BY MORE THAN WHAT HAPPENS IN SCHOOL
«iÀvÀ>ViÊvÀÊÃ`iÊ &AMILY NEIGHBOURHOOD AND THE WIDER COMMUNITY IN WHICH STUDENTS LIVE ARE
>`ÊÕÌÃ`iÊÃV
Êii`Ê ALSO IMPORTANT ALTHOUGH THEIR INFLUENCES ARE NOT ENTIRELY INDEPENDENT OF THOSE
ÌÊLiÊVÃ`iÀi`Ê OF THE SCHOOL ITSELF 4HESE INFLUENCES NEED TO BE EXAMINED JOINTLY IN ORDER TO
Ì}iÌ
iÀo UNDERSTAND THEIR SEPARATE AND COMBINED EFFECTS AND TO IDENTIFY THE POSSIBLE
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF HIGH AND LOW STUDENT PERFORMANCE
o>`ÊÌ
ÃÊV
>«ÌiÀÊ`iÃÊ #HAPTERS TO OF THIS REPORT CONSIDERED HOW WELL DIFFERENT COUNTRIES EDUCATE
Ão THEIR STUDENTS AND #HAPTERS AND HIGHLIGHTED ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN STUDENT
AND SCHOOL BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE 4HIS CHAPTER
NOW EXPANDS UPON THOSE FINDINGS AND ADDRESSES QUESTIONS ABOUT THE NATURE
OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PERFORMANCE FAMILY BACKGROUND AND SCHOOL "Y
EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN A RANGE OF VARIABLES INCLUDING BOTH FAMILY
AND SCHOOL FACTORS IN A WIDE RANGE OF SCHOOL SETTINGS IN MANY DIFFERENT COUN
TRIES THE CHAPTER SEEKS TO GAUGE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES AND
SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS 4HE AIM IS
TO PROVIDE INDICATIONS OF WHAT EDUCATION POLICY CAN DO TO IMPROVE BOTH MEAN
PERFORMANCE AND EQUITY IN EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND OUTCOMES
oLÞÊ}ÊvÀÃÌÊ>ÌÊ 4HE CHAPTER BEGINS WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL
`Û`Õ>ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND FAMILY BACKGROUND !N UNDERSTANDING OF THIS RELATION
SHIP IS FUNDAMENTAL FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT AS IT REVEALS HOW WELL STUDENTS OF
DIFFERING BACKGROUNDS FARE IN THEIR SCHOOL PERFORMANCE
oÌ
iÊ>ÌÊ
ÜÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ 4HE CHAPTER THEN EXAMINES THE EXTENT TO WHICH DIFFERENCES IN THE PERFORMANCE
L>V}ÀÕ`Ê>vviVÌÃÊ OF SCHOOLS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH SOCIO
ECONOMIC FACTORS 4HIS INFORMATION IS
Ü
iÊÃV
Ão IMPORTANT FOR GAUGING THE IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES AND FOR PLANNING EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
o>`Ê>ÃÌÞÊ>ÌÊ ÜÊ &INALLY THE CHAPTER SEEKS TO IDENTIFY POLICY LEVERS AND SCHOOL LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS THAT
ÃV ÃÊV>Ê>iÊ>Ê MAY HELP TO RAISE LEVELS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND ACHIEVE A MORE EQUITABLE
`vviÀiVi° DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND OUTCOMES
4HE ANALYSIS IN THIS CHAPTER FOCUSES ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE 2EFERENCE TO PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND
SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES IS MADE ONLY WHERE THE ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS DRAWN
IN THIS CHAPTER DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY BETWEEN THE THREE SUBJECT DOMAINS
4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND
STUDENT PERFORMANCE
! GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
/
ÃÊV
>«ÌiÀÊÕÃiÃÊ>Ê !S SHOWN IN #HAPTER THE PERFORMANCES OF STUDENTS ON THE 0)3! ASSESS
V«ÃÌiÊ`iÝÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃ½Ê MENTS OF READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO
iVV]ÊVÕÌÕÀ>Ê>`Ê THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS OF THEIR FAMILIES 3TUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS
ÃV>ÊL>V}ÀÕ`o ARE WORKING IN LESS PRESTIGIOUS JOBS AND HAVE LOWER LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
ATTAINMENT TEND TO PERFORM LESS WELL AT SCHOOL THAN STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS
HAVE HIGH LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS AND ARE WORKING IN PRESTIGIOUS
OCCUPATIONS 4O FACILITATE THE ANALYSIS THIS CHAPTER COMBINES INTO A SINGLE
INDEX THE DIFFERENT ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF FAMILY BACKGROUND
THAT WERE EXAMINED SEPARATELY IN #HAPTER )T IS REFERRED TO AS THE 0)3! INDEX
OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS OR AT TIMES MORE LOOSELY AS STUDENTS
SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
&IGURE DEPICTS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND THE INDEX o>`ÊÀi>ÌiÃÊÌ
ÃÊÌÊ
OF STUDENTS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS FOR THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE ÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi°
4HIS RELATIONSHIP IS CALLED THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENT 4HE FIGURE DESCRIBES
HOW WELL STUDENTS FROM DIFFERING SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS PERFORM ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HIS RELATIONSHIP IS AFFECTED BOTH BY HOW WELL
EDUCATION SYSTEMS ARE DOING AND BY WIDER ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS
SEE "OX
}ÕÀiÊn°£
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
FOR THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL
AND CULTURAL STATUS
AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENT FOR THE /%#$ AREA AS A WHOLE
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0)3! SCALE SCORE
3OCIO ECONOMIC
GRADIENT FOR THE /%#$
AREA AS A WHOLE
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
"ELOW ,EVEL
)NDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
%ACH DOT REPRESENTS STUDENTS FROM THE /%#$ AREA
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
"OX (OW TO READ &IGURE
%ACH DOT ON THIS GRAPH REPRESENTS YEAR OLD STUDENTS IN THE COMBINED /%#$ AREA 4HE GRAPH PLOTS
THEIR PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY AGAINST THEIR ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
4HE VERTICAL AXIS SHOWS STUDENT SCORES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR WHICH THE MEAN IS
.OTE THAT SINCE THE STANDARD DEVIATION WAS SET AT WHEN THE 0)3! SCALE WAS CONSTRUCTED TWO THIRDS OF
THE DOTS FALL BETWEEN AND 4HE DIFFERENT SHADED AREAS SHOW THE FIVE PROFICIENCY LEVELS IN READING
4HE HORIZONTAL AXIS SHOWS VALUES ON THE 0)3! INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 4HIS HAS BEEN
CONSTRUCTED TO HAVE A MEAN OF AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF SO THAT TWO THIRDS OF STUDENTS ARE BETWEEN
AND n
4HE DARK LINE REPRESENTS THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC GRADIENT WHICH IS THE BEST FITTING LINE SHOWING
THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN READING PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HIS
LINE EXTENDS FROM THE POINT BELOW WHICH ARE FOUND THE PER CENT OF MOST DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS TO
THE POINT ABOVE WHICH ARE THE PER CENT OF STUDENTS WITH THE HIGHEST VALUES ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 4HE THREE POINTS MARKED ALONG THE LINE SHOW THE LOCATIONS OF THE TH TH AND
TH PERCENTILES IE THE POINTS BELOW WHICH PER CENT PER CENT AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE
RANKED IN TERMS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS
3INCE THE FOCUS IN THE FIGURE IS NOT ON COMPARING EDUCATION SYSTEMS BUT ON HIGHLIGHTING A RELATIONSHIP
THROUGHOUT THE /%#$ AREA EACH STUDENT IN THE /%#$ AREA CONTRIBUTES EQUALLY TO THIS PICTURE IE LARGER
COUNTRIES WITH MORE STUDENTS IN THE 0)3! POPULATION SUCH AS *APAN -EXICO AND THE 5NITED 3TATES INFLU
ENCE THE INTERNATIONAL GRADIENT LINE MORE HEAVILY THAN SMALLER COUNTRIES SUCH AS )CELAND OR ,UXEMBOURG
1`iÀÃÌ>`}ÊÌ
ÃÊ !N UNDERSTANDING OF THIS RELATIONSHIP IS A USEFUL STARTING POINT FOR ANALYSING THE
Ài>ÌÃ
«ÊÃÊ>ÊÃÌ>ÀÌ}Ê DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 2AISING STUDENT PERFORMANCE LEVELS
«ÌÊvÀÊiÝ>}ÊÌ
iÊ AND SOFTENING THE IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON SUCCESS IN EDUCA
`ÃÌÀLÕÌÊvÊi`ÕV>Ì>Ê TION ARE CRITICAL OBJECTIVES FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES &ROM
««ÀÌÕÌið A SCHOOL POLICY PERSPECTIVE UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP IS ALSO IMPORTANT
BECAUSE IT INDICATES HOW EQUITABLY THE BENEFITS OF SCHOOLING ARE BEING SHARED
AMONG STUDENTS FROM DIFFERING SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
&IGURE POINTS TO SEVERAL FINDINGS
`Û>Ì>}i`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ n 3TUDENTS FROM MORE ADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS IN GENERAL
«iÀvÀÊLiÌÌiÀo PERFORM BETTER 4HIS IS SHOWN BY THE UPWARD SLOPE OF THE GRADIENT LINE
oLÞÊÃ>ÀÊ>ÕÌÃÊ n ! GIVEN DIFFERENCE IN SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS IS ASSOCIATED WITH A GAP IN STUDENT
>ÌÊ`vviÀiÌÊiÛiÃÊvÊ READING PERFORMANCE THAT IS ROUGHLY THE SAME THROUGHOUT THE DISTRIBUTION n
>`Û>Ì>}io IE THE MARGINAL BENEFIT OF EXTRA SOCIO
ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE NEITHER DIMINISHES
NOR RISES AS THIS ADVANTAGE GROWS 4HIS IS SHOWN BY THE FACT THAT THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENT IS NEARLY A STRAIGHT LINE
n $IFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE VARY SLIGHTLY MORE FOR STUDENTS WITH
LOWER LEVELS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS THAN FOR THOSE WITH HIGHER LEVELS 4HIS IS
SHOWN BY THE VERTICAL DISPERSION OF POINTS TO THE RIGHT OF THE GRAPH THE RANGE
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
OF READING PERFORMANCES OF THOSE WITH SOCIO ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE BEING LESS
THAN THE VERTICAL DISPERSION OF POINTS TO THE LEFT OF THE GRAPH THE RANGE OF
READING PERFORMANCES OF THOSE WITH SOCIO ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE
n 4HERE IS NO ONE TO ONE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND THE oLÕÌÊÃViVVÊ
INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS -ANY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS L>V}ÀÕ`Ê`iÃÊÌÊ
SHOWN ON THE LEFT OF THE FIGURE SCORE WELL ABOVE WHAT IS PREDICTED BY THE `iÌiÀiÊ«iÀvÀ>Vi°
INTERNATIONAL GRADIENT LINE
4HE STRENGTH OF THE SOCIO ECONOMIC EFFECT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
4O WHAT EXTENT DOES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS PERFORMANCE AND THEIR /
iÊiÞʵÕiÃÌÊÃÊ
SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND VARY BETWEEN COUNTRIES 3OCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS Ü
iÌ
iÀÊ
}
ÊÛiÀ>Ê
AT THE COUNTRY LEVEL PROVIDE A DEVICE TO EXAMINE THIS 4HEY ALSO PROVIDE A USEFUL «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`ÊÜÊ
STARTING POINT FOR UNDERSTANDING WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE SUCCESS OF AN `ë>ÀÌiÃÊV>ÊLiÊ
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN PROVIDING EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES TO ALL STUDENTS 5SUALLY THE >V
iÛi`ÊÌÞ°
AIM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY IS TO INCREASE OVERALL LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE
WHILE EVENING OUT VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN JURISDICTIONS BETWEEN
SOCIO
ECONOMIC GROUPS AND BETWEEN THE GENDERS 4HE KEY QUESTION IN THE
PRESENT DISCUSSION IS WHETHER HIGH AVERAGE PERFORMANCE AND LOW DISPARITIES IN
THE PERFORMANCE LEVELS OF STUDENTS FROM DIFFERENT SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
CAN BE ACHIEVED JOINTLY
&IGURE DISPLAYS THE RELATIONSHIP IN EACH COUNTRY BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 7Ì
Êi>V
ÊVÕÌÀÞ]ÊÌ
iÊ
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND «>VÌÊvÊÃV
iVVÊL>V}ÀÕ`Ê
}ÕÀiÊn°Ó Ê«iÀvÀ>ViÊV>ÊLiÊ
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND iÝ>i`o
FOR EACH COUNTRY
3OCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS FOR EACH COUNTRY
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0)3! SCALE SCORE
,EVEL
,EVEL
!VERAGE
SOCIO
ECONOMIC
GRADIENT ,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
"ELOW ,EVEL
)NDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
.OTE &OR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES SEE 4ABLE AND &IGURE A
C
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
CULTURAL STATUS 4HE GRADIENT FOR EACH COUNTRY IS SHOWN BY A LIGHT GREY LINE 4HE DARK
LINE IS THE GRADIENT FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED REPEATED FROM &IGURE
oÊÌiÀÃÊvÊvÕÀÊ 4HE GRADIENT LINES SUMMARISING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
«À«iÀÌiÃÊvʺ}À>`iÌÊ AND THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IN EACH COUNTRY ARE
iû\ CHARACTERISED BY THEIR LEVEL THEIR SLOPE THEIR LENGTH AND THE STRENGTH OF THE
RELATIONSHIP THAT THEY DESCRIBE 4HESE ARE SHOWN AS FOLLOWS IN &IGURE AND IN
THE CORRESPONDING 4ABLE
oÛiÀ>Ê«iÀvÀ>Vi\Ê n 4HE LEVEL OF THE GRADIENT LINES IN &IGURE n THEIR AVERAGE HEIGHT n IS GIVEN IN
Ì
iÊ>ÛiÀ>}iÊÃVÀi]Ê #OLUMN OF 4ABLE 4HIS SHOWS THE AVERAGE READING LITERACY SCORE REACHED
VÀÀiVÌi`ÊvÀÊÌ
iÊ BY THOSE STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRY WHOSE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACK
VÕÌÀÞ½ÃÊÃV GROUND IS EQUAL TO THE AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ACROSS /%#$
iVVÊ>iÕ«o COUNTRIES 4HE LEVEL OF A GRADIENT FOR A COUNTRY CAN BE CONSIDERED AN INDICATION
OF WHAT WOULD BE THE OVERALL LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
IF THE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDENT POPULATION
WERE IDENTICAL TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4HE AVERAGE GRADIENT LEVEL ACROSS /%#$
COUNTRIES IS POINTS
oÌ
iÊ`vviÀiViÊLiÌÜiiÊ n 4HE SLOPE OF THE GRADIENT LINE IS AN INDICATION OF THE EXTENT OF INEQUALITY IN READING
Ì
iÊÃVÀiÃÊvÊÀiÊ>`Ê LITERACY ATTRIBUTABLE TO SOCIO
ECONOMIC FACTORS #OLUMN IN 4ABLE 3TEEPER
iÃÃÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê}ÀÕ«ÃÊ GRADIENTS INDICATE A GREATER IMPACT OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ON
vÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo STUDENT PERFORMANCE IE MORE INEQUALITY WHEREAS GENTLER GRADIENTS INDICATE A
LOWER IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE IE LESS
INEQUALITY /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE SLOPE OF THE GRADIENT IS
WHICH MEANS THAT STUDENTS SCORES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ARE
ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES POINTS HIGHER FOR EACH EXTRA UNIT ON THE
INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 4HE UNIT ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS ONE STANDARD DEVIATION AND IN A NORMAL POPULATION
DISTRIBUTION TWO
THIRDS OF THE POPULATION ARE WITHIN THE RANGE OF PLUS AND MINUS
ONE STANDARD DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN )N THE CASE OF .ORWAY FOR EXAMPLE
WHICH HAS A GRADIENT AT THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF POINTS THE AVERAGE READING
LITERACY SCORE OF STUDENTS ONE UNIT BELOW THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS MEAN IS
POINTS BELOW THE OVERALL MEAN OF POINTS FOR .ORWAY AND THE AVERAGE
READING LITERACY SCORE OF STUDENTS ONE UNIT ABOVE THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS MEAN
IS POINTS ABOVE .ORWAYS OVERALL MEAN !NOTHER WAY OF EXPRESSING THIS
IS TO SAY THAT IN .ORWAY STUDENTS WHO ARE AMONG THE MOST DISADVANTAGED ONE
SIXTH OF THE /%#$ POPULATION HAVE MEAN READING LITERACY SCORES THAT DIFFER BY
MORE THAN POINTS n EQUIVALENT TO MORE THAN ONE PROFICIENCY LEVEL FROM THOSE
AMONG THE MOST ADVANTAGED ONE
SIXTH OF STUDENTS )N 'ERMANY THE COUNTRY WITH
THE STEEPEST GRADIENT POINTS THE TOP AND BOTTOM SIXTHS INTERNATIONALLY
IN SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS DIFFER IN AVERAGE READING LITERACY SCORES BY MORE THAN
POINTS n EQUIVALENT TO ALMOST TWO PROFICIENCY LEVELS
o
ÜÊÜ`iÞÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ n 4HE LENGTH OF THE GRADIENT LINES IS DETERMINED BY THE RANGE OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC
>ÀiÊ`ëiÀÃi`ÊLÞÊÃV SCORES FOR THE MIDDLE PER CENT OF STUDENTS BETWEEN THE TH AND TH
iVVÊL>V}ÀÕ`o PERCENTILES IN EACH COUNTRY AS WELL AS BY THE SLOPE #OLUMN OF 4ABLE
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
SHOWS THE RANGE OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS SPANNED
BY THE GRADIENT LINE 4HIS INDICATES HOW WIDELY THE STUDENT POPULATION IS
DISPERSED IN TERMS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ,ONGER GRADIENT LINES
REPRESENT A WIDER DISPERSION OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND IN THE STUDENT
POPULATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY IN QUESTION
n 4HE STRENGTH OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE o>`Ê
ÜÊVÃiÞÊ
AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND REFERS TO HOW MUCH INDIVIDUAL STUDENT L>V}ÀÕ`ÊÃÊÀi>Ìi`ÊÌÊ
PERFORMANCE VARIES ABOVE AND BELOW THE GRADIENT LINE 4HIS CAN BE SEEN FOR ALL «iÀvÀ>Vi°
COUNTRIES IN &IGURE BY THE DISPERSION OF DOTS ABOVE AND BELOW THE LINE BUT
IS NOT SHOWN IN &IGURE 2ATHER #OLUMN IN 4ABLE GIVES THE hEXPLAINED
VARIANCEv A STATISTICAL INDICATOR THAT SUMMARISES THE STRENGTH OF THE RELATION
SHIP BY SHOWING WHAT PROPORTION OF THE OBSERVED DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT SCORES
CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO THE RELATIONSHIP SHOWN BY THE GRADIENT LINE )F THIS NUMBER
IS LOW RELATIVELY LITTLE OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS ASSOCIATED
WITH STUDENTS SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND IF IT IS HIGH THE REVERSE IS THE
CASE )N THE /%#$ AREA PER CENT OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS ASSOCIATED WITH SCORES ON THE INDEX
OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS BUT THIS RANGES FROM A LOW OF PER
CENT IN )CELAND TO A HIGH OF PER CENT IN (UNGARY
&IGURE AND 4ABLE POINT TO SEVERAL FINDINGS
n &IRST COUNTRIES VARY IN THEIR SOCIO ECONOMIC GRADIENTS 4HE FIGURE NOT ONLY / iÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ}>«Ê
SHOWS COUNTRIES WITH RELATIVELY HIGH AND LOW LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE ON THE LiÌÜiiÊÀiÊ>`ÊiÃÃÊ
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BUT ALSO COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE GREATER OR >`Û>Ì>}i`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ
LESSER DEGREES OF INEQUALITY IN PERFORMANCE AMONG STUDENTS FROM DIFFERENT Û>ÀiÃÊLiÌÜiiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS )T IS WORTH EMPHASISING THE CONSIDERABLE EXTENT LÞÊ>Êv>VÌÀÊvÊÌ Àiio
OF THIS DIFFERENCE #ONSIDER TWO STUDENTS /NE IS FROM A LESS ADVANTAGED BACK
GROUND SO THAT FIVE SIXTHS OF STUDENTS INTERNATIONALLY HAVE A HIGHER SCORE ON
THE 0)3! INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 4HE OTHER IS FROM A
RELATIVELY PRIVILEGED BACKGROUND SO THAT ONLY ONE OUT OF EVERY SIX STUDENTS
HAS A HIGHER SCORE ON THE INDEX 4HE PERFORMANCE GAP BETWEEN THESE TWO
STUDENTS VARIES BETWEEN COUNTRIES BY A FACTOR OF NEARLY THREE )N *APAN AND
+OREA THIS GAP IS POINTS OR PROFICIENCY LEVELS BUT IN 'ERMANY IT IS
POINTS OR PROFICIENCY LEVELS IN EACH CASE DOUBLE THE GRADIENT SCORE WHICH
REPRESENTS ONE STANDARD DEVIATION 4HE FIGURE ALSO SHOWS CLEARLY THAT HIGH
PERFORMANCE DOES NOT HAVE TO COME AT THE EXPENSE OF INEQUALITIES AS SOME
OF THE COUNTRIES WITH THE BEST LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE HAVE RELATIVELY GENTLE
GRADIENTS
n 3ECOND THE RANGE OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS SPANNED oLÕÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ >ÛiÊ
BY THE GRADIENT LINES VARIES WIDELY BETWEEN COUNTRIES WITH LESS THAN INDEX `vviÀ}ÊÃV>Ê«Àvið
POINTS SEPARATING THE PER CENT OF STUDENTS FROM THE MOST ADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FROM THE PER CENT OF LEAST ADVANTAGED STUDENTS
IN !USTRIA THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC *APAN AND 3WEDEN BUT POINTS OR MORE
SEPARATING THEM IN "RAZIL AND -EXICO 4HE CHALLENGES THAT EDUCATION SYSTEMS
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
FACE AS A RESULT OF DIFFERENCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
BACKGROUND IN THE STUDENT POPULATION THEREFORE DIFFER WIDELY )T WILL BE MUCH
MORE DEMANDING FOR THE EDUCATION SYSTEMS OF "RAZIL AND -EXICO TO OVERCOME
INEQUITIES IN EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES THAN FOR THE EDUCATION SYSTEMS OF *APAN
AND 3WEDEN
ÝÌÀ>ÊÃViVVÊ n 4HIRD THE GRADIENTS FOR MOST COUNTRIES ARE ROUGHLY LINEAR 4HUS IN MOST
>`Û>Ì>}iÊÞi`ÃÊÃ>ÀÊ COUNTRIES EACH INCREMENT ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
ÀiÌÕÀÃÊ>ÊÌ
iÊÜ>ÞÊÕ«Ê IS ASSOCIATED WITH A CONSTANT INCREASE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
Ì
iÊÃV>io LITERACY SCALE /NE MIGHT HAVE EXPECTED THAT THE GRADIENTS WOULD BE STEEP
AT LOW LEVELS OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS AND THEN LEVEL OFF AT
HIGHER STATUS LEVELS 4HE GRADIENTS FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE FOLLOW THIS PATTERN IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES HOWEVER THE CHANGE IN
THE SLOPES AS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS INCREASES IS SLIGHT AND BARELY
DISCERNIBLE IN &IGURE -OREOVER IN THE TWO COUNTRIES WITH VERY LOW LEVELS
OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS n "RAZIL AND -EXICO n THE GRADIENTS
DISPLAY THE OPPOSITE PATTERN n THEY ARE RELATIVELY GENTLE AT VERY LOW LEVELS OF
SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS AND BECOME STEEPER AT HIGHER LEVELS 3INCE IN THESE
TWO COUNTRIES COMPARATIVELY LARGE PROPORTIONS OF THE POPULATION ARE WELL
BELOW THE BOTTOM PER CENT OF STUDENTS IN MOST /%#$ COUNTRIES IN BOTH
READING PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND THIS COULD INDICATE THAT
THERE IS A hTAKE
OFF POINTv AT A MINIMAL LEVEL OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS BELOW
WHICH SOCIO
ECONOMIC DIFFERENCES HAVE LITTLE IMPACT ON THE ABILITY OF STUDENTS
TO TACKLE THE KINDS OF TASK TESTED BY 0)3!
oÃÊÌ
iÀiÊÃÊÊÃ}iÊ 4HE FINDING THAT GRADIENTS TEND TO BE LINEAR ACROSS THE RANGE OF ECONOMIC
«ÌÊvÊÃV>Ê SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IN ALL COUNTRIES HAS AN IMPORTANT POLICY IMPLICATION
`Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÊ -ANY SOCIAL POLICIES ARE AIMED AT INCREASING RESOURCES FOR THE MOST DISADVAN
`iÌiÀ}ÊÜ
iÀiÊ TAGED EITHER THROUGH TAXATION OR BY TARGETING BENEFITS AND SOCIAL PROGRAMMES
ÌiÀÛiÌÊÃÊÃÌÊ TO CERTAIN GROUPS 4HE 0)3! RESULTS SUGGEST THAT IT IS NOT EASY TO ESTABLISH A
ivviVÌÛi° hLOW ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS BASELINEv BELOW WHICH PERFORMANCE
SHARPLY DECLINES -OREOVER IF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS TAKEN TO
BE A SURROGATE FOR THE DECISIONS AND ACTIONS OF PARENTS AIMED AT PROVIDING A
RICHER ENVIRONMENT FOR THEIR CHILDREN n SUCH AS READING TO THEM OR TAKING AN
INTEREST IN THEIR SCHOOL WORK n THEN THESE FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT THERE IS ROOM
FOR IMPROVEMENT AT ALL LEVELS ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC CONTINUUM 4HE FACT THAT
IT IS DIFFICULT TO DISCERN A BASELINE HOWEVER DOES NOT IMPLY THAT DIFFERENTIATED
STUDENT SUPPORT IS NOT WARRANTED 4HE SUCCESS IN MANY COUNTRIES IN CLOSING
GENDER GAPS IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE THROUGH DIFFERENTIAL PROVISION IS A GOOD
EXAMPLE OF TARGETED EFFORTS BEING VERY EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING DISPARITIES
vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ n &OURTH THE GRADIENTS TEND TO CONVERGE AT HIGHER LEVELS OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND
VÕÌÀiÃÊ>ÀiÊ}Ài>ÌiÀÊ CULTURAL STATUS THE LINES IN &IGURE ARE CLOSER TOGETHER ON THE RIGHT THAN ON
>}Ê`Ã>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê THE LEFT OF THE GRAPH 4HIS TENDENCY THOUGH MODERATE MEANS THAT COUNTRIES
Ì >Ê>}Ê>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê WITH HIGH LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
ÃÌÕ`iÌð TEND TO HAVE GENTLER GRADIENTS !NOTHER IMPLICATION IS THAT STUDENTS WITH HIGH
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
LEVELS OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS TEND TO VARY SOMEWHAT LESS
IN THEIR READING PERFORMANCE THAN DO STUDENTS WITH RELATIVELY LOW LEVELS
OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 4HE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT EDUCATIONAL
EXPERIENCES ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE MAY THEREFORE BE GREATEST FOR STUDENTS
FROM DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
&IGURE SHOWS VERY BROADLY THAT THERE IS WIDE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES
ÕÌÀiÃÊV>ÊLiÊ
IN BOTH THE NATURE AND THE STRENGTH OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIO
ECONOMIC }ÀÕ«i`Ê>VVÀ`}ÊÌÊ
BACKGROUND AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE ! CLOSER EXAMINATION REVEALS SEVERAL VL>ÌÃÊvÊÛiÀ>Ê
PATTERNS &IGURES A TO C GROUP COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO COMBINATIONS OF «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>`Ê
hAVERAGE QUALITYv IN TERMS OF THE OVERALL MEAN PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN THE iµÕ>ÌÞ\
COUNTRY AND hEQUALITYv AS MEASURED BY THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL STATUS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE n THE STEEPNESS OF THE GRADIENT
&IGURE A SHOWS THE COUNTRIES THAT SCORE ABOVE THE AVERAGE ON THE COMBINED oVÕÌÀiÃÊ`}ÊÜiÊ
READING LITERACY SCALE !MONG THESE COUNTRIES THERE ARE SIX n #ANADA &INLAND ÛiÀ>ÊÀiÛi>Ê`vviÀ}Ê
)CELAND *APAN +OREA AND 3WEDEN n IN WHICH RELATIVELY HIGH QUALITY OF STUDENT `i}ÀiiÃÊvÊiµÕ>ÌÞÊ
PERFORMANCE IS COMBINED WITH RELATIVELY HIGH EQUALITY BETWEEN DIFFERENT SOCIO
LiÌÜiiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
ECONOMIC GROUPS 4ABLE 4HE AVERAGE SCORE ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCALE FOR THE COUNTRIES IN THIS CATEGORY IS ABOUT n WELL ABOVE THE
/%#$ AVERAGE OF n YET THEIR AVERAGE SLOPE IS WELL BELOW THE AVERAGE
/%#$ COUNTRY SLOPE OF 4HIS SHOWS THAT IT IS POSSIBLE FOR A COUNTRY TO
ACHIEVE RELATIVELY HIGH PERFORMANCE WHILE MAINTAINING A RELATIVELY HIGH DEGREE
OF EQUALITY BETWEEN ADVANTAGED AND DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC GROUPS )N
THREE OTHER COUNTRIES n !USTRALIA "ELGIUM AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM n HIGH
QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE IS COMBINED WITH ABOVE
AVERAGE INEQUALITY IN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT SOCIO
ECONOMIC GROUPS )N THE REMAINING
COUNTRIES SHOWN IN THIS FIGURE n !USTRIA )RELAND AND .EW :EALAND n MEAN
PERFORMANCE IS ALSO ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE BUT THE GRADIENTS ARE NOT
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE GRADIENT
&IGURE B SHOWS THE FIVE COUNTRIES WHOSE SCORE IS NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT oVÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê>ÛiÀ>}iÊ
FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE !MONG THESE COUNTRIES &RANCE 3WITZERLAND AND THE «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>ÞÊ
>ÛiÊ
5NITED 3TATES SHOW ABOVE
AVERAGE INEQUALITY BETWEEN DIFFERENT SOCIO
ECONOMIC Ü`iÊ`vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
GROUPS WHILE IN $ENMARK AND .ORWAY THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS ARE NOT ÃV>Ê}ÀÕ«Ão
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE GRADIENT
&IGURE C SHOWS THE COUNTRIES WITH BELOW
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE ON THE o>`ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE &OUR OF THESE COUNTRIES n THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC ÜÌ
ÊLiÜ>ÛiÀ>}iÊ
'ERMANY (UNGARY AND ,UXEMBOURG n SHOW ABOVE
AVERAGE INEQUALITY COMBINED «iÀvÀ>ViÊ>ÃÊÃ
ÜÊ
WITH BELOW
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT THESE COUNTRIES COULD
}
ÊiÛiÃÊvÊiµÕ>ÌÞ°
LIFT THEIR AVERAGE PERFORMANCE SIGNIFICANTLY IF THEY WERE TO MITIGATE THE
IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE #ONVERSELY IN
)TALY -EXICO THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND 3PAIN BELOW
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE
COMBINES WITH ABOVE
AVERAGE EQUALITY IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT SOCIO
ECONOMIC GROUPS 4HE REMAINING COUNTRIES SHOWN IN THIS FIGURE n "RAZIL 'REECE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
}ÕÀiÊn°Î
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
FOR EACH COUNTRY
3OCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS FOR EACH COUNTRY
"ELOW
AVERAGE IMPACT OF
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND READING LITERACY SCALE 0)3! SCALE SCORE
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE .EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA ,EVEL
! #OUNTRIES WITH MEAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE #ANADA
"ELGIUM
3WEDEN
!USTRIA ,EVEL
)MPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC )CELAND
&INLAND
BACKGROUND NOT STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM +OREA
,EVEL
/%#$ AVERAGE IMPACT *APAN
)RELAND
5NITED +INGDOM ,EVEL
!BOVE
AVERAGE IMPACT OF
SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
,EVEL
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
"ELOW ,EVEL
)NDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE 0)3! SCALE SCORE
,EVEL
" #OUNTRIES WITH MEAN PERFORMANCE NOT STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE 5NITED 3TATES
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
.ORWAY ,EVEL
,EVEL
&RANCE
,EVEL
,EVEL
"ELOW ,EVEL
)NDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE 0)3! SCALE SCORE
,EVEL
# #OUNTRIES WITH MEAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
'ERMANY
0ORTUGAL ,EVEL
)TALY
2USSIAN &EDERATION
,EVEL
3PAIN
"RAZIL
0OLAND
,EVEL
'REECE
-EXICO (UNGARY
,UXEMBOURG ,EVEL
"ELOW ,EVEL
)NDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
,IECHTENSTEIN 0OLAND AND 0ORTUGAL n PERFORM BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE BUT
THEIR SOCIO ECONOMIC GRADIENTS ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$
AVERAGE GRADIENT
/BVIOUSLY THE OVERALL CONTEXT IN WHICH EDUCATION SYSTEMS OPERATE AND IN
PARTICULAR THE DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VARIABLES WITHIN EACH COUNTRY
NEED TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE RELATIONSHIPS
4HE COMPONENTS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
4HE ANALYSIS IN THIS CHAPTER SO FAR HAS USED A COMPOSITE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL ÌÊÃÊ>ÃÊ«ÃÃLiÊÌÊ
AND CULTURAL STATUS "UT IT IS ALSO USEFUL TO LOOK AT THE DIFFERENT IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC `ÃÌ}ÕÃ
ÊÌ
iÊ
FEATURES OF A STUDENTS BACKGROUND IN RELATION TO 0)3! PERFORMANCE SO AS TO `Û`Õ>Ê«>VÌÊvÊ
ASSESS MORE ACCURATELY WHY AND HOW THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIO
ECONOMIC i>V
Ê>ëiVÌÊvÊ>ÊÃÌÕ`i̽ÃÊ
BACKGROUND AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE DIFFERS BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HE FOLLOWING L>V}ÀÕ`o
ANALYSIS DOES SO LOOKING BOTH AT THE COMPONENTS OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS AND AT RELATED VARIABLES SUCH AS FAMILY STRUCTURE AND
WHETHER OR NOT THE STUDENT WAS BORN OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY
4HE EASIEST WAY TO CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF THESE ELEMENTS ON A CONSISTENT BASIS oLÞÊ>}}ÊvÀÃÌÊ>Ê
ACROSS COUNTRIES IS TO IMAGINE A GROUP OF STUDENTS IN EACH COUNTRY WITH }ÀÕ«ÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÜÌ
Ê>Ê
THE SAME PROFILE AS A GROUP SAMPLED RANDOMLY ACROSS THE /%#$ AREA DRAWING ºÌÞ«V>»ÊÃViVVÊ
THE SAME NUMBER OF STUDENTS FROM EACH PARTICIPATING COUNTRY «ÀviÊÊi>V
ÊVÕÌÀÞ°
4HIS GROUP OF WOULD ON AVERAGE CONTAIN
n MALES AND FEMALES FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
n STUDENTS FROM SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES 4ABLE
n STUDENTS BORN OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY OF TESTING 4ABLE
n STUDENTS WHOSE LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME IS DIFFERENT
FROM THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT FROM OTHER OFFICIAL LANGUAGES OR FROM OTHER
NATIONAL DIALECTS 4ABLE
n BETWEEN AND BROTHERS AND SISTERS PER STUDENT FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
n STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS HAD COMPLETED ON AVERAGE YEARS OF SCHOOLING SEE
!NNEX !
n AN AVERAGE SCORE OF ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
FOR THE PARENT WITH THE HIGHER SUCH SCORE SEE 4ABLE A AND AN AVERAGE
SCORE OF ZERO ON THE 0)3! INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME
SEE 4ABLE n BECAUSE OF THE WAY THESE INDICES WERE CONSTRUCTED SEE
!NNEX !
)N CONSIDERING THE PREDICTED PERFORMANCE OF SUCH A SAMPLE IN EACH COUNTRY
THE FOLLOWING ANALYSIS STARTS BY ADJUSTING 0)3! RESULTS FOR THE COMPOSITION OF
THE STUDENT POPULATION AS A FACTOR THAT EXPLAINS DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE )T
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
THEN LOOKS AT THE IMPACT OF SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS ON PREDICTED STUDENT RESULTS
4HIS DISCUSSION HELPS TO DISTINGUISH WHERE BETTER OR WORSE RESULTS ARE EXPLAINED
BY DIFFERENCES IN THE RELATIVE PERFORMANCE OF CERTAIN GROUPS RATHER THAN BY THE
DIFFERENCES IN THE NUMBERS OF STUDENTS WHO BELONG TO SUCH GROUPS IN EACH COUNTRY
/
iÊÃiV`ÊVÕÊvÊ 4ABLE SUMMARISES THE RESULTS 4HE FIRST COLUMN IN 4ABLE SHOWS THE ACTUAL
/>LiÊn°ÓÊ>`ÕÃÌÃÊi>Ê PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AS PRESENTED IN
ÃVÀiÃÊvÀÊ #HAPTER 4HE SECOND COLUMN OF 4ABLE PROVIDES AN ESTIMATE OF HOW WELL A
ÃViVVÊ REPRESENTATIVE GROUP AS DESCRIBED ABOVE WOULD PERFORM IN EACH COUNTRY
V
>À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃo /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES SHOWN IN THE BOTTOM ROW OF 4ABLE
THE ADJUSTED SCORE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS POINTS
(OWEVER THE ADJUSTED SCORES VARY SUBSTANTIALLY BETWEEN /%#$ COUNTRIES
FROM -EXICO TO &INLAND 4HAT IS EVEN AFTER ADJUSTING FOR A RANGE
OF BACKGROUND VARIABLES INCLUDING HOME POSSESSIONS IMMIGRATION ETC MEAN
PERFORMANCE STILL VARIES SUBSTANTIALLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES
o>`ÊÌ
iÊÀi>}Ê 4HE REMAINDER OF 4ABLE INDICATES THE DIFFERENCE MADE TO THE READING LITERACY
VÕÃÊÃ
ÜÊÌ
iÊ SCORE IN EACH COUNTRY BY THE INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
`i«i`iÌÊivviVÌÃÊvÊ
i>V
ÊV
>À>VÌiÀÃÌV° #OLUMN IN 4ABLE SHOWS THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS
>Û}Ê>ÊÃ}iÊ«>ÀiÌÊ FROM SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES AND THOSE FROM OTHER TYPES OF FAMILIES SEE ALSO
>ÃÊ>Ê`i«i`iÌÊ 4ABLE 6ALUES IN BOLD SHOW RELATIONSHIPS THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT /N
«>VÌÊÊÞÊ>Ê AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE PERFORMANCE GAP ON THE COMBINED READING
ÀÌÞÊvÊVÕÌÀiÃo LITERACY SCALE IS NEARLY POINTS STUDENTS FROM TWO
PARENT FAMILIES ALL OTHER
THINGS BEING EQUAL PERFORMING BETTER )N &INLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE
5NITED 3TATES THE GAP IS BETWEEN AND POINTS AND IN &RANCE )RELAND
+OREA AND 3WEDEN BETWEEN AND POINTS %XCEPT IN )TALY POINTS THE
DIFFERENCES IN ALL OTHER COUNTRIES ARE NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
oLi}ÊLÀÊÕÌÃ`iÊÌ iÊ 3TUDENTS WHO WERE BORN OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY SEE ALSO 4ABLE TEND TO HAVE
VÕÌÀÞÊ>iÃÊÀiÊvÊ LOWER SCORES THAN THEIR NATIVE PEERS IN MOST COUNTRIES EVEN AFTER ACCOUNTING FOR
>Ê`vviÀiVi]ÊLÕÌÊÌÊ ALL OTHER FACTORS 4HIS IS INDICATED IN #OLUMN OF 4ABLE /N AVERAGE ACROSS ALL
iÛiÀÞÜ iÀio /%#$ COUNTRIES THE GAP IS ABOUT POINTS (OWEVER THE SIZE OF THE GAP VARIES
SUBSTANTIALLY )N !USTRIA ,IECHTENSTEIN -EXICO AND 3WITZERLAND THE GAP IS MORE
THAN POINTS IE MORE THAN HALF THE STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE COMBINED READING
LITERACY SCORE WHEREAS IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 0ORTUGAL THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION AND
THE 5NITED 3TATES THE GAP IS LESS THAN POINTS AND NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
(OW WELL NON NATIVE CHILDREN PERFORM IS OF COURSE A FUNCTION OF MANY OTHER
FACTORS BESIDES THE BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS MEASURED IN 0)3! AND EXAMINED IN
THIS ANALYSIS 4HEIR PERFORMANCE IS CLEARLY ALSO AFFECTED BY THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THEIR
RELOCATION AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE BEFORE MOVING IN ADDITION TO THE EFFEC
TIVENESS OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM INTO WHICH THEY HAVE MOVED
o >Û}Ê>Ê«>ÀiÌÊvÊ } Ê #OLUMN IN 4ABLE INDICATES THAT ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES AN
VVÕ«>Ì>ÊÃÌ>ÌÕÃÊ>ÌÌiÀÃÊ INCREASE IN THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS BY ONE
Õ}iÞÊÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ STANDARD DEVIATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASE OF APPROXIMATELY POINTS
LÕÌÊÕV ÊiÃÃÊÃÊÊÌ iÀÃo IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BUT AGAIN THE IMPACT
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
VARIES WIDELY 4HE INCREASE RANGES FROM A HIGH OF IN 'ERMANY TO SMALL AND
STATISTICALLY NON
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN "RAZIL $ENMARK &INLAND 'REECE
)CELAND )RELAND +OREA .ORWAY AND 3WEDEN
%ACH ADDITIONAL YEAR OF PARENTAL EDUCATION SEE !NNEX ! IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN o >Û}ÊLiÌÌiÀ
INCREASE OF ABOUT POINTS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ON THE COMBINED i`ÕV>Ìi`Ê«>ÀiÌÃÊ>ÌÌiÀÃÊ
READING LITERACY SCALE 4HIS AVERAGE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AS ARE THE CORRE >ÃÌÊiÛiÀÞÜ iÀi°
SPONDING INCREASES IN ALMOST ALL COUNTRIES #OLUMN IN 4ABLE ! ONE POINT
IE ONE STANDARD DEVIATION INCREASE ON THE 0)3! INDICES OF HOME EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES AND CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME SEE 4ABLE IS ON AVER
AGE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASES IN READING LITERACY OF AND POINTS RESPEC
TIVELY #OLUMNS AND IN 4ABLE !S WITH THE OTHER VARIABLES THE EFFECTS OF
EACH OF THESE VARIABLES VARY WIDELY BETWEEN THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
)N SUM MANY OF THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FACTORS MEASURED IN 0)3! >V}ÀÕ`Ê>ÌÌiÀÃ]ÊLÕÌÊ
HAVE AN IMPORTANT IMPACT ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN /%#$ COUNTRIES BUT THE ÌÊ}Ài>ÌÞÊÛ>ÀÞ}Ê
NATURE AND STRENGTH OF THIS RELATIONSHIP VARIES BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HE ANALYSIS `i}ÀiiÃo
DEMONSTRATES THAT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PERFORMANCES OF STUDENTS IN THE
VARIOUS 0)3! COUNTRIES DO NOT DISAPPEAR WHEN DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS FAMILY
BACKGROUND ARE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT
7HILE APPROPRIATE POLICY RESPONSES TO SUCH DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE o>`Ê*-Ê«ÀÛ`iÃÊ
DEPEND OF COURSE ALSO ON ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS THAT ARE OUTSIDE THE ÌÃÊvÀÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌÊ
CONTROL OF EDUCATORS THE ANALYSIS OF GRADIENTS PROVIDES A MEANS OF CHARACTERISING iÝ«ÀiÊÌ
ÃÊ«
iiÊ
SCHOOL PERFORMANCE AND PROVIDING GUIDANCE FOR EDUCATION POLICY ! CENTRAL AIM vÕÀÌ
iÀ°
OF 0)3! IS TO ENABLE COUNTRIES TO MONITOR THEIR EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE *UST
AS COMPARISONS CAN BE MADE BETWEEN NATIONAL MEANS DISTRIBUTIONS AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS SO THEY CAN BE MADE WITHIN COUNTRIES BETWEEN STATES OR
PROVINCES OR OTHER GROUPS OF STUDENTS #OUNTRIES WILL ALSO BE ABLE TO COMPARE
CHANGES IN INDEX SCORES BETWEEN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT AND FUTURE 0)3!
SURVEY CYCLES
4HE ROLE THAT SCHOOLS CAN PLAY IN MODERATING THE IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE
-ANY OF THE FACTORS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE ARE NOT DIRECTLY AMENABLE -ÌÕ`iÌÊ`Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÊÃÊ
TO EDUCATION POLICY AT LEAST NOT IN THE SHORT TERM &OR EXAMPLE THE EDUCATIONAL ÌÊi>ÃÞÊÀiÛi`°Ê ÕÌÊ
ATTAINMENT OF PARENTS CAN ONLY GRADUALLY IMPROVE AND FAMILY WEALTH DEPENDS ON V>ÊÃV ÃÊ`iÀ>ÌiÊÌÃÊ
THE LONG TERM ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY AS WELL AS INDIVID ivviV̶
UAL SAVINGS 4HIS GIVES RISE TO A VITAL QUESTION FOR POLICY MAKERS TO WHAT EXTENT
CAN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL POLICIES MODERATE THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE ON
STUDENT PERFORMANCE
!N UNDERSTANDING OF WHICH POLICIES MIGHT INCREASE OVERALL STUDENT PERFORMANCE ÌÊÃÊiViÃÃ>ÀÞÊÌÊÜÊ
AND MODERATE THE IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORM
Ü
iÌ
iÀÊ`vviÀiViÃÊ>ÀiÊ
ANCE IE RAISE AND FLATTEN A COUNTRYS SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENT LINE REQUIRES AN LiÌÜiiÊÃV
ÃÊÀÊ
EXAMINATION OF HOW PERFORMANCE IS DISTRIBUTED WITHIN AND BETWEEN SCHOOLS ÜÌ
ÊÌ
i°
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
4O THIS END THE GRADIENT FOR A COUNTRY CAN BE DECOMPOSED INTO WITHIN SCHOOL
GRADIENTS WHICH DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PERFORM
ANCE AND FAMILY BACKGROUND FOR STUDENTS WHO SHARE A COMMON SCHOOL ENVIRON
MENT AND A BETWEEN SCHOOL GRADIENT WHICH DESCRIBES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SCHOOLS AVERAGE LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE AND THE AVERAGE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL STATUS OF THEIR INTAKES
ÕÌÀiÃÊÜÌ
Ê>Ê
}
Ê )N SOME COUNTRIES STUDENTS ARE HIGHLY SEGREGATED ALONG SOCIO
ECONOMIC
`i}ÀiiÊvÊÃV>Ê LINES IN PART BECAUSE OF RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION AND ECONOMIC FACTORS BUT
Ãi}Ài}>ÌÊLiÌÜiiÊ ALSO BECAUSE OF FEATURES OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 3UCH COUNTRIES TEND
ÃV
ÃÊ}
ÌÊVÃ`iÀÊ TO HAVE STEEP OVERALL GRADIENTS )N THESE COUNTRIES IT IS POSSIBLE THAT
ÀiÃÕÀViÊ>V>ÌÊ>`Ê PRIVATE SCHOOLS OR SELECTIVE SCHOOLS OR TRACKS WITHIN THE PUBLIC EDUCATION
ÃiiVÌÊ«À>VÌViÃÊÊ SYSTEM CONTRIBUTE TO SOCIO
ECONOMIC SEGREGATION 4O INCREASE QUALITY AND
À`iÀÊÌÊ«ÀÛiÊÃV>Ê EQUALITY IE TO RAISE AND FLATTEN THE GRADIENT IN SUCH COUNTRIES WOULD
}À>`iÌÃo REQUIRE SPECIFIC ATTENTION TO BETWEEN
SCHOOL DIFFERENCES 2EDUCING THE
SOCIO
ECONOMIC SEGREGATION OF SCHOOLS WOULD BE ONE STRATEGY BUT REGARD
LESS OF WHETHER IT IS EMPLOYED ALLOCATING RESOURCES DIFFERENTIALLY TO SCHOOLS
AND PROGRAMMES AND SEEKING TO PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENTIATED AND
APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES ARE OTHERS )N THESE COUNTRIES IT IS
IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND HOW THE ALLOCATION OF SCHOOL RESOURCES WITHIN A
COUNTRY IS RELATED TO THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE OF ITS SCHOOLS
oÜ
iÀi>ÃÊÀiÊÝi`Ê )N OTHER COUNTRIES THERE IS RELATIVELY LITTLE SOCIO
ECONOMIC SEGREGATION BETWEEN
ÃV
ÊÃÞÃÌiÃÊ}
ÌÊ SCHOOLS IE SCHOOLS TEND TO BE SIMILAR IN THEIR AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE
VÃ`iÀÊÜÌ
ÃV
Ê )N THESE COUNTRIES QUALITY THE LEVEL AND EQUALITY THE SLOPE OF THE GRADIENT ARE
«ÀÛiiÌð AFFECTED MAINLY BY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS WITHIN EACH SCHOOL 4O INCREASE
QUALITY AND EQUALITY IN THESE COUNTRIES WILL REQUIRE ACTION PREDOMINANTLY WITHIN
SCHOOLS 2EDUCING THE SEGREGATION OF STUDENTS OF DIFFERING ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOLS WOULD BE ONE STRATEGY AND MIGHT REQUIRE A REVIEW
OF CLASSROOM STREAMING PRACTICES -ORE DIRECT ASSISTANCE FOR POORLY PERFORMING
STUDENTS MAY ALSO BE NEEDED )N THESE COUNTRIES IT IS IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND
HOW THE ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES WITHIN SCHOOLS IS RELATED TO THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR STUDENTS
4HE FOLLOWING SECTION EXAMINES MORE CLOSELY THE ROLE THAT SCHOOL POLICY CAN
PLAY IN THIS EQUATION 4HE ANALYSIS BUILDS ON THE CONSIDERATION IN #HAPTER OF
THE EXTENT TO WHICH PERFORMANCES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE VARY
BETWEEN STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS OR BETWEEN SCHOOLS SEE 4ABLE &IRST
THERE IS AN EXAMINATION OF THE DEGREE TO WHICH THESE TWO FORMS OF VARIATION
n BETWEEN STUDENTS AND BETWEEN SCHOOLS n ARE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE INFLUENCE OF
GENDER OR OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS &INALLY THE SECTION EXAMINES
WHETHER VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS THAT IS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH STUDENTS CHARAC
TERISTICS AND FAMILY BACKGROUND IS RELATED TO THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF
THE SCHOOL TO FACTORS DESCRIBING FEATURES OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM AND TO SCHOOL
POLICY AND PRACTICE
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
3OCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN
SCHOOLS
#HAPTER SHOWS THAT THE PERFORMANCE OF
YEAR
OLDS VARIES CONSIDERABLY ÕÃÌÊÛiÀÊ>ÊÌ
À`ÊvÊ
BETWEEN SCHOOLS IN MOST COUNTRIES /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES PER Û>À>ÌÊÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
CENT OF THE TOTAL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING «iÀvÀ>ViÊVÃÃÌÃÊvÊ
LITERACY SCALE IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS 4ABLE 5NDER
`vviÀiViÃÊLiÌÜiiÊ
STANDING WHY SOME SCHOOLS OR SEPARATE EDUCATION SYSTEMS WITHIN A COUNTRY ÃV
ð
PERFORM BETTER THAN OTHERS IS ONE KEY TO SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT )T REQUIRES
AN ANALYSIS WHICH EXAMINES THE EFFECTS OF BOTH STUDENT AND SCHOOL FACTORS ON
STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHIN SCHOOLS AND ACROSS SCHOOLS IN EACH COUNTRY
)T IS POSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE THE PROPORTION OF THE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
WITHIN AND BETWEEN SCHOOLS THAT IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO STUDENTS FAMILY BACKGROUND
AS MEASURED BY THE BACKGROUND FACTORS USED IN THE ANALYSIS FOR 4ABLE 4HE
RESULTS ARE SHOWN IN 4ABLE &OR EXAMPLE PER CENT OF THE WITHIN
SCHOOL
VARIATION AND PER CENT OF THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN !USTRALIA IS ATTRIBUT
ABLE TO THE FAMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS SHOWN IN #OLUMNS TO IN 4ABLE
4HESE PERCENTAGES DIFFER MARKEDLY FROM SAY THOSE OF 0OLAND WHERE STUDENTS
FAMILY BACKGROUND ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF THE WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION AND
PER CENT OF THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION
)N COMPARING THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE BETWEEN SCHOOL DIFFERENCES ARE ATTRIBUT vviÀiViÃÊÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ
ABLE IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES TO STUDENTS FAMILY BACKGROUNDS IT IS IMPORTANT ALSO TO L>V}ÀÕ`ÊiÝ«>Ê
TAKE ACCOUNT OF THE SIZE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS SEE 4ABLE &OR Û>ÀÞ}Ê>ÕÌÃÊvÊ
EXAMPLE FAMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS ACCOUNT FOR MORE OF THE BETWEEN SCHOOL LiÌÜiiÃV Ê>`Ê
DIFFERENCES IN 3WEDEN PER CENT SEE 4ABLE THAN IN ANY OTHER COUNTRY ÜÌ ÃV Ê
BUT 3WEDEN HAS LESS VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS THAN ALL OTHER Û>À>Ìo
COUNTRIES BUT )CELAND PER CENT SEE 4ABLE &AMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS
ACCOUNT FOR LESS OF THE BETWEEN SCHOOL VARIATION IN 0OLAND PER CENT
SEE 4ABLE THAN IN ANY OTHER COUNTRY BUT 0OLAND HAS MORE VARIATION
IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS THAN ALL BUT FOUR OTHER COUNTRIES !USTRIA
'ERMANY (UNGARY AND 3WITZERLAND SEE 4ABLE )N GENERAL THE GREATER THE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS THE SMALLER THE PROPORTION THAT CAN BE ATTRIBUTED
TO STUDENTS FAMILY BACKGROUNDS
4HERE ARE ALSO MARKED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE PERCENTAGE OF oLÕÌÊÜ
iÀiÊÜÌ
WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION THAT CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY BACK
ÃV
Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ>ÀiÊ
GROUND THOUGH THESE PERCENTAGES ARE CONSIDERABLY SMALLER THAN THOSE FOR
}
]ÊÌ
ÃÊ>ÞÊLiÊ`ÕiÊ
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS (OWEVER IT IS GENERALLY THE CASE THAT THE GREATER ÌÊÃViVVÊ
THE WITHIN
SCHOOL DIFFERENCES 4ABLE THE GREATER THE PROPORTION THAT CAN BE `vviÀiVið
ATTRIBUTED TO FAMILY BACKGROUND 4ABLE &OR EXAMPLE FAMILY BACKGROUND
FACTORS ACCOUNT FOR AROUND PER CENT OF WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN .ORWAY AND
.EW :EALAND THE TWO COUNTRIES WITH THE GREATEST DIFFERENCES WITHIN SCHOOLS
/NLY IN &INLAND AND ,UXEMBOURG DOES FAMILY BACKGROUND ACCOUNT FOR MORE OF
THE WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION AROUND PER CENT &AMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS
ACCOUNT FOR LESS OF THE WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN 0OLAND PER CENT THAN IN
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
ANY OTHER COUNTRY BUT 0OLAND HAS LESS WITHIN SCHOOL VARIATION THAN ALL BUT THREE
OTHER COUNTRIES (UNGARY +OREA AND -EXICO
(OW THE SOCIAL MAKE
UP OF THE SCHOOL REINFORCES THE EFFECT OF STUDENTS
INDIVIDUAL BACKGROUNDS
/
iÊivviVÌÊvÊLiÌÜii 4HE PREVIOUS SECTION HAS SHOWN THAT A SUBSTANTIAL PORTION OF THE BETWEEN
ÃV
ÊÃV>Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ SCHOOL VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS
V>ÊLiÊV«Õ`i`ÊLÞÊ ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS 4HIS EFFECT
Ì
iÊViVÌÛiÊ>`Û>Ì>}iÃÊ CAN OPERATE IN TWO WAYS &IRST STUDENTS INDIVIDUAL BACKGROUNDS MAY INFLUENCE
vÊLiÌÌiÀvvÊÃV
ð THEIR PERFORMANCE "UT IN ADDITION THE AGGREGATE IMPACT OF THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC
BACKGROUNDS OF ALL THE STUDENTS ENROLLED IN A SCHOOL CAN ALSO INFLUENCE STUDENTS
5NDERSTANDING THIS COLLECTIVE IMPACT IS OF KEY IMPORTANCE FOR POLICY
MAKERS
WISHING TO PROVIDE ALL STUDENTS WITH EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES
4HE MANNER IN WHICH STUDENTS ARE ALLOCATED TO SCHOOLS WITHIN A DISTRICT OR
REGION OR TO CLASSES AND PROGRAMMES WITHIN SCHOOLS HAS SIGNIFICANT IMPLICA
TIONS FOR THE TEACHING AND LEARNING CONDITIONS IN SCHOOLS AND CONSEQUENTLY
FOR EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES ! NUMBER OF STUDIES HAVE FOUND THAT SCHOOLS WITH A
HIGHER AVERAGE LEVEL OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS AMONG THEIR INTAKE TEND TO HAVE
SEVERAL ADVANTAGES 4HEY ARE LIKELY TO HAVE GREATER SUPPORT FROM PARENTS FEWER
DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS BETTER TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS HIGHER TEACHER MORALE
AND GENERALLY A SCHOOL CLIMATE THAT IS ORIENTED TOWARDS HIGHER PERFORMANCE
4HERE IS OFTEN ALSO A FASTER
PACED CURRICULUM 4ALENTED AND MOTIVATED TEACHERS
ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE ATTRACTED TO SCHOOLS WITH HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS
AND LESS LIKELY TO TRANSFER TO ANOTHER SCHOOL OR TO LEAVE THE PROFESSION 3OME OF
THE hCONTEXTUAL EFFECTv ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS MAY ALSO STEM
FROM PEER INTERACTIONS AS TALENTED STUDENTS WORK WITH EACH OTHER 0EER PRESSURE
PEER COMPETITION AND THE FOCUS IN SOME SCHOOLS OR SCHOOL PROGRAMMES ON ENTRY
INTO TERTIARY EDUCATION MAY ALSO PLAY A ROLE
ÊÃÌÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÌ
iÀiÊ &IGURE PROVIDES ESTIMATES OF THE EFFECTS ON STUDENT READING LITERACY OF
ÃÊ>ÊVi>ÀÊ>`Û>Ì>}iÊ THE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS AND THE OTHER BACKGROUND VARIABLES
Ê>ÌÌi`}Ê>ÊÃV
Ê INCLUDED IN 4ABLE ON THE ONE HAND OF THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT AND ON THE OTHER
Ü
ÃiÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ>ÀiÊvÀÊ OF ALL THE STUDENTS AT A GIVEN SCHOOL 4HESE WERE ESTIMATED WITH A MULTILEVEL
ÀiÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Êv>ÞÊ MODEL THAT INCLUDED ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS GENDER ETHNICITY AND
L>V}ÀÕ`Ão FAMILY STRUCTURE AT THE STUDENT LEVEL AND MEAN ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
STATUS AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL 4HE BARS IN &IGURE INDICATE THE DIFFERENCES IN SCORES
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ASSOCIATED WITH A DIFFERENCE OF HALF A
STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT AND
FOR THE AVERAGE FOR THE STUDENTS SCHOOL FOR DATA SEE 4ABLE
)N ALMOST ALL COUNTRIES AND FOR ALL STUDENTS THERE APPEARS TO BE A CLEAR ADVANTAGE
IN ATTENDING A SCHOOL WHOSE STUDENTS ARE ON AVERAGE FROM MORE ADVANTAGED
FAMILY BACKGROUNDS /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE EFFECT ASSOCIATED
WITH AN INCREASE IN THE SCHOOLS SOCIO ECONOMIC COMPOSITION BY HALF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION IS ABOUT POINTS IE CLOSE TO HALF A PROFICIENCY LEVEL
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊn°{
%FFECTS OF STUDENTSg AND SCHOOLSg SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
$IFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE ASSOCIATED WITH A CHANGE
OF HALF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
%FFECT OF STUDENTS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
%FFECT OF SCHOOLS MEAN ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
0)3! SCALE SCORE
.ETHERLANDS
'ERMANY
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
0OLAND
)RELAND
#ANADA
(UNGARY
)TALY
+OREA
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
$ENMARK
!USTRALIA
3WEDEN
3PAIN
.ORWAY
&INLAND
)CELAND
2USSIAN &EDERATION
"RAZIL
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,UXEMBOURG
'REECE
3WITZERLAND
0ORTUGAL
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
,IECHTENSTEIN
)NTERQUARTILE RANGE OF SCHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE 4ABLE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE OF THE
SCHOOL THUS HAS A CONSIDERABLE IMPACT ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE OVER AND ABOVE THE STUDENTS INDIVIDUAL HOME BACK
GROUND )N FACT IN THE MAJORITY OF /%#$ COUNTRIES THE EFFECT OF THE AVERAGE
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS OF STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS FAR OUTWEIGHS THE
EFFECTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 3INCE NO DATA ON STUDENTS
EARLIER ACHIEVEMENT ARE AVAILABLE FROM 0)3! IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE
WHETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT THE SCHOOL BACKGROUND RELATES DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY
TO STUDENTS PERFORMANCE n BY WAY OF SELECTION OR SELF
SELECTION FOR EXAMPLE
)N THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE FINDINGS IT ALSO NEEDS TO BE BORNE IN MIND THAT
DIFFERENCES IN THE AVERAGES OF SCHOOLS SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS ARE NATURALLY
MUCH SMALLER THAN COMPARABLE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS GIVEN
THAT EVERY SCHOOLS INTAKE IS MIXED IN TERMS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC VARIABLES 4O AID
IN THE INTERPRETATION THE TYPICAL RANGE OF THE AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS OF
SCHOOLS HAS BEEN ADDED TO &IGURE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
o>`ÊÊ>ÞÊV>ÃiÃÊ !USTRIA AND 'ERMANY ARE COUNTRIES WHERE THE EFFECT ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE OF
Ì
iÊ«>VÌÊvÊÌ
iÊ A SCHOOLS AVERAGE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS APPRECIABLE #ONSIDER
ÃV
½ÃÊÃViVVÊ TWO HYPOTHETICAL STUDENTS IN !USTRIA OR 'ERMANY WHO HAVE SIMILAR ABILITY AND
L>V}ÀÕ`ÊÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ ARE LIVING IN FAMILIES WITH AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AS MEASURED BY
«iÀvÀ>ViÊÃÊv>ÀÊ THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS /NE STUDENT ATTENDS A SCHOOL
ÃÌÀ}iÀÊÌ
>ÊÌ
>ÌÊvÊ IN A RELATIVELY AFFLUENT AREA IN WHICH THE MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND
`Û`Õ>Ão CULTURAL STATUS OF THE SCHOOLS INTAKE IS A QUARTER OF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD
DEVIATION ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE -OST OF THIS STUDENTS PEERS WILL THEREFORE
COME FROM FAMILIES THAT ARE MORE AFFLUENT THAN HIS OR HER OWN 4HE OTHER STUDENT
ATTENDS A SCHOOL IN A MORE DISADVANTAGED AREA THE SCHOOLS MEAN ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND IS A QUARTER OF A STANDARD DEVIATION BELOW THE
/%#$ AVERAGE SO THAT THE STUDENT COMES FROM A MORE AFFLUENT FAMILY THAN HIS
OR HER PEERS 4HE DATA IN &IGURE INDICATE THAT THE FIRST STUDENT WOULD BE
LIKELY TO HAVE A MUCH HIGHER READING PERFORMANCE n POINTS ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE IN 'ERMANY AND POINTS IN !USTRIA n THAN THE SECOND
STUDENT /N THE OTHER HAND TWO STUDENTS LIVING IN FAMILIES WHOSE DIFFERENT
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS GIVE THEM SCORES ON THE INDEX A QUARTER
OF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION ABOVE AND A QUARTER BELOW THE MEAN AND
WHO ATTEND THE SAME SCHOOL WITH AN AVERAGE SOCIAL PROFILE WOULD HAVE A MUCH
SMALLER GAP IN THEIR PREDICTED PERFORMANCE POINTS IN 'ERMANY AND POINTS
IN !USTRIA
)N READING THE EFFECT ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASE IN A SCHOOLS SOCIO ECONOMIC
STATUS OF HALF A STUDENT LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION IS ON AVERAGE ABOUT POINTS
STRONGER FOR MALES THAN FOR FEMALES /N THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE THIS
DIFFERENCE IS ABOUT POINTS AND IN SCIENCE POINTS 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT MALES ARE
ESPECIALLY ADVANTAGED OR DISADVANTAGED BY THE SOCIO ECONOMIC SEGREGATION OF
SCHOOLS #ONVERSELY THE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS INTAKE OF THE SCHOOL
HAS A SLIGHTLY WEAKER EFFECT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF FEMALES
o>Ê«
iiÊÜ
V
Ê 3OME OF THIS OBSERVED hCONTEXTUAL EFFECTv MIGHT BE DUE TO ASPECTS OF SCHOOL
>ÃÊV«iÝÊV>ÕÃiÃ]Ê>`Ê QUALITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE FACTORS DISCUSSED ABOVE &OR EXAMPLE TO THE EXTENT
>ÞÊLiÊ«>ÀÌÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê THAT SCHOOLS DIFFERENTIATED BY ACADEMIC TRACKING ARE ALSO DIFFERENTIATED BY SOCIO
ÜÌ
ÊVViÌÀ>ÌÊvÊ ECONOMIC STATUS THE hCONTEXTUAL EFFECTv OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS WOULD BE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊLÞÊ>LÌÞo REINFORCED BY SYSTEMATIC CURRICULUM DIFFERENCES 3OME OF THE hCONTEXTUAL EFFECTv
MIGHT ALSO BE DUE TO PEER EFFECTS "UT SOME OF IT MIGHT BE DUE TO OTHER FACTORS
WHICH ARE NOT ACCOUNTED FOR &OR EXAMPLE THE PARENTS OF THE STUDENT ATTENDING
THE MORE SOCIO
ECONOMICALLY ADVANTAGED SCHOOL IN THE FIRST EXAMPLE ABOVE
MAY ON AVERAGE BE MORE ENGAGED IN THE STUDENTS LEARNING AT HOME EVEN
THOUGH THEIR SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND IS COMPARABLE TO THAT OF THE STUDENT
ATTENDING THE LESS
PRIVILEGED SCHOOL !LSO AND PERHAPS MORE IMPORTANTLY THE
EXAMPLE ASSUMES THAT THE TWO HYPOTHETICAL STUDENTS ARE OF COMPARABLE ABILITY
AND MOTIVATION (OWEVER IN MANY EDUCATION SYSTEMS STUDENTS ARE ALLOCATED
TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHOOL OR PROGRAMME ON THE BASIS OF FACTORS WHICH
INCLUDE THEIR ABILITY &OR EXAMPLE IN THE TWO COUNTRIES EXAMINED ABOVE !US
TRIA AND 'ERMANY DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS DERIVE MAINLY
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
FROM THE ALLOCATION OF STUDENTS TO GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL SCHOOL PROGRAMMES
!SSIGNMENT TO THESE TRACKS IS INFLUENCED BY STUDENT PERFORMANCE WHICH IN
TURN IS INTERTWINED WITH SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 4HUS IMPORTANT THOUGH
THE FINDINGS ARE FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT THEY SHOULD NOT LEAD TO THE CONCLUSION
THAT TRANSFERRING A GROUP OF STUDENTS FROM A SCHOOL WITH A LOW SOCIO
ECONOMIC
INTAKE TO A SCHOOL WITH A HIGH SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE WOULD RESULT AUTOMATICALLY
IN THE GAINS SUGGESTED BY &IGURE 4HAT IS THE ESTIMATED CONTEXTUAL EFFECTS IN
&IGURE ARE DESCRIPTIVE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL PERFORMANCE AND SHOULD
NOT BE INTERPRETED IN A CAUSAL SENSE
)N ANY ATTEMPT TO DEVELOP EDUCATION POLICY IN THE LIGHT OF THE ABOVE FINDINGS o>`ÊÃ
Õ`ÊLiÊ
THERE NEEDS TO BE SOME UNDERSTANDING OF THE NATURE OF THE FORMAL AND INFORMAL Õ`iÀÃÌ`ÊÊÌ
iÊVÌiÝÌÊ
SELECTION MECHANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO BETWEEN
SCHOOL SOCIO
ECONOMIC vÊÜ
>ÌÊiV
>ÃÃÊVÀi>ÌiÊ
SEGREGATION AND ITS EFFECT ON STUDENTS PERFORMANCE )N SOME COUNTRIES SOCIO
ÃViVVÊ
ECONOMIC SEGREGATION MAY BE FIRMLY ENTRENCHED THROUGH RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION Ãi}Ài}>Ì°
IN MAJOR CITIES OR BY A LARGE URBANRURAL ECONOMIC DIVIDE )N OTHER COUNTRIES
STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM STREAM OR TRACK STUDENTS INTO
PROGRAMMES WITH DIFFERENT CURRICULA AND TEACHING PRACTICES 4O THE EXTENT THAT
THE ALLOCATION OF STUDENTS TO PROGRAMMES IN SUCH SYSTEMS IS INTERLINKED WITH
STUDENTS SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND THOSE FROM DISADVANTAGED BACKGROUNDS
MAY NOT ACHIEVE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL
0)3! GIVES TWO DIFFERENT MESSAGES ABOUT THE WAYS TO INCREASE BOTH QUALITY ÕÌÊÌ
iÊiÞÊV
>i}iÊ
AND EQUALITY /N THE ONE HAND THERE IS THE MESSAGE THAT SOCIAL SEGREGATION ÃÊÌÊÀi`ÕViÊiµÕ>ÌiÃÊ
BRINGS BENEFITS FOR THE ADVANTAGED THAT WILL ENHANCE THE PERFORMANCE OF THE >ÃÃV>Ìi`ÊÜÌ
Ê
ELITE AND PERHAPS AS A CONSEQUENCE OVERALL AVERAGE PERFORMANCE /N THE OTHER Ãi}Ài}>ÌÊÜÌ
ÕÌÊ
HAND THERE IS ALSO THE MESSAGE THAT SEGREGATION OF SCHOOLS IS LIKELY TO DECREASE iÛi}Ê`Ü°
EQUALITY (OWEVER THERE IS STRONG EVIDENCE THAT THIS DILEMMA CAN BE RESOLVED
FROM COUNTRIES THAT HAVE ACHIEVED BOTH HIGH QUALITY AND HIGH EQUALITY *UST HOW
OTHERS MIGHT MATCH THIS IS THE KEY QUESTION -OVING ALL STUDENTS TO SCHOOLS WITH
HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS IS A LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY 3EEKING EITHER TO REMOVE
SOCIO
ECONOMIC SEGREGATION OR TO MITIGATE ITS EFFECTS ARE THE POLICY OPTIONS )N
EITHER CASE THE CENTRAL TASK WILL BE TO TRY TO REPLICATE THE BENEFITS FOR QUALITY THAT
SOCIAL SEGREGATION CAN PROVIDE WHILE GAINING THE BENEFITS FOR EQUALITY THAT SOCIAL
HETEROGENEITY CAN PROVIDE
3CHOOL FACTORS THAT CAN RAISE PERFORMANCE LEVELS AND MODERATE THE
IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
7HAT CAN SCHOOLS DO TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED EFFECT 3TUDIES SUCH AS 0)3! CAN *-ÊÀiÛi>ÃÊÌ
iÊ
ANSWER THIS QUESTION ONLY UP TO A POINT BECAUSE MANY IMPORTANT CONTEXTUAL iÃÌ>Ìi`ÊivviVÌÃÊvÊÃiÊ
FACTORS CANNOT BE CAPTURED BY INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE SURVEYS OF STUDENT ÃV
ÊV
>À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃÊÊ
PERFORMANCE AND BECAUSE SUCH SURVEYS DO NOT LOOK CLOSELY ENOUGH AT PROCESSES «iÀvÀ>Vi°
OVER TIME TO ALLOW CAUSE AND EFFECT TO BE FIRMLY ESTABLISHED (OWEVER 0)3!
DOES MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE THE EFFECTS OF SOME IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS
OF SCHOOLS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
4HE ANALYSIS BELOW PROVIDES ESTIMATES OF THE SEPARATE INFLUENCES OF SCHOOL
FACTORS AND FAMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS AND OF THEIR COMBINED INFLUENCE )N
EACH OF THE THREE SUBJECT DOMAINS THE IMPACT OF THREE GROUPS OF SCHOOL FACTORS
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS EXAMINED SCHOOL RESOURCES SCHOOL POLICIES AND
PRACTICE AND CLASSROOM PRACTICE 4HE ESTIMATES ARE BASED ON THE COMBINED
IMPACT OF THE VARIABLES AT THE STUDENT SCHOOL AND COUNTRY LEVEL 4HE RESULTS
OF THIS ANALYSIS UNDERTAKEN FOR THE COMBINED /%#$ STUDENT POPULATION WITH
COUNTRIES GIVEN APPROXIMATELY EQUAL WEIGHT ARE SHOWN IN 4ABLE
-iÛiÀ>ÊÃV
ÊÀiÃÕÀViÊ 3EVERAL OF THE SCHOOL RESOURCE FACTORS EXAMINED IN THIS COMPARISON EMERGE AS
v>VÌÀÃÊ>ÀiÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê HAVING A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE WHEN /%#$
ÜÌ
Ê«iÀvÀ>Vio COUNTRIES ARE EXAMINED JOINTLY THE EXTENT TO WHICH STUDENTS MAKE USE OF SCHOOL
RESOURCES THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO THE SIZE OF THE SCHOOL AND THE PROPORTION
OF TEACHERS WITH A UNIVERSITY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION IN THE RELEVANT SUBJECT DOMAIN
oÃÕV Ê>ÃÊ ÜÊÕV Ê !LTHOUGH 0)3! DOES NOT PERMIT STRONG CAUSAL INFERENCES STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÕÃiÊÃV Ê IN READING LITERACY IS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES HIGHER IN SCHOOLS
LÀ>ÀiÃ]ÊV«ÕÌiÀÃ]Ê WHERE STUDENTS USE SCHOOL RESOURCES MORE FREQUENTLY AS INDICATED BY THE FRE
V>VÕ>ÌÀÃÊ>`Ê QUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS REPORT USING THEIR SCHOOLS LIBRARY COMPUTERS
>LÀ>ÌÀið CALCULATORS LABORATORIES AND THE )NTERNET !N INCREASE ON THE 0)3! INDEX OF
STUDENTS USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES FOR A DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
OF ONE UNIT WHICH CORRESPONDS TO ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION ON THIS
INDEX IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN AVERAGE DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE OF POINTS 4HE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL
INFRASTRUCTURE SEE 4ABLE BASED ON SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE EXTENT
TO WHICH LEARNING AT AGE IS HAMPERED BY VARIOUS RESOURCE FACTORS DOES NOT
APPEAR TO HAVE A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON READING PERFORMANCE NOR DOES
THE PERCENTAGE OF COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOL AVAILABLE TO STUDENTS AFTER TAKING INTO
ACCOUNT OTHER VARIABLES SUCH AS THE REPORTED USE OF THOSE COMPUTERS
/
iÊÀ>ÌÊvÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ &IGURE DISPLAYS THE AVERAGE EFFECT OF THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON
ÌÊÌi>V
iÀÃÊ>ÌÌiÀÃÊ>ÃÊ STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE 4HE STUDENT
Üio TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS ESTIMATED FROM THE REPORTS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ON THE
NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENROLLED AND THE NUMBER OF FULL
TIME EQUIVALENT TEACHERS
EMPLOYED AT THE SCHOOL FOR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG !S CAN BE SEEN THE
EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO ARE NON
LINEAR THAT IS THE
IMPACT OF THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON PERFORMANCE CHANGES AS ONE MOVES
FROM SMALL TO LARGE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS
3CHOOLS WITH STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIOS BELOW ON AVERAGE SCORE ABOUT
TO POINTS BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE 4HIS MAY BE BECAUSE SUCH SCHOOLS SERVE
STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS OR ARE RELATIVELY SMALL RURAL SCHOOLS
oLÕÌÊÌÊÃÊÞÊ>ÌÊÀ>ÌÃÊ $IFFERENCES IN STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIOS RANGING FROM TO ARE ASSOCI
>LÛiÊÓxÊÌ >ÌÊ«iÀvÀ>ViÊ ATED WITH RELATIVELY SMALL EFFECTS (OWEVER AS THE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO
`À«ÃÊÃÌi>`ÞÊÜÌ Êi>V Ê RISES ABOVE THERE IS A CONTINUOUS DECLINE IN SCHOOL PERFORMANCE IN ALL 0)3!
iÝÌÀ>ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÊ«iÀÊÌi>V iÀ° SUBJECT DOMAINS WHEN /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE CONSIDERED JOINTLY .OTE THAT THESE
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
}ÕÀiÊn°x
!VERAGE EFFECT OF STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0)3! SCALE SCORE
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
,EVEL
"ELOW ,EVEL
3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO
3OURCE /%#$ 0)3! DATABASE &OR DATA SEE WWWPISAOECDORG
RESULTS AND OTHER RESULTS IN 4ABLE PERTAIN TO THE AVERAGE WITHIN
COUNTRY
EFFECT 4HEREFORE ALTHOUGH THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
AND THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO VARIES BETWEEN COUNTRIES THE RESULTS IN
&IGURE ARE NOT THE ARTEFACT OF SOME VERY POORLY PERFORMING SCHOOLS IN ONLY
A FEW COUNTRIES
.OTE ALSO THAT THE CONCEPT OF STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS DIFFERENT FROM THAT
OF CLASS SIZE !S INDICATED ABOVE THE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS BASED ON
THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN A SCHOOL AND THE NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT FULL
TIME
TEACHING STAFF IN THAT SCHOOL )N MANY COUNTRIES THE TEACHING STAFF INCLUDES THE
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR AS WELL AS OTHER STAFF SUCH AS LIBRARIANS AND SPECIAL EDUCA
TION TEACHERS 4HE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS IMPORTANT AS IT INDICATES THE
AMOUNT OF TEACHING RESOURCES USED DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY IN EDUCATING EACH
STUDENT )T IS ALSO CLOSELY RELATED TO THE OVERALL COSTS OF EDUCATING A STUDENT IN THE
SYSTEM #LASS SIZE REFERS TO THE ACTUAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS BEING TAUGHT IN A CLASS
4HIS IS DIFFICULT TO MEASURE AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL IN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
STUDIES BECAUSE STUDENTS ATTEND DIFFERENT CLASSES FOR DIFFERENT SUBJECTS AND THE
SIZE OF EACH CLASS VARIES WITH STUDENT ATTENDANCE ON A PARTICULAR DAY
4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING PERFORMANCE AND SCHOOL SIZE ACROSS /%#$ -ÌÕ`iÌÃÊ«iÀvÀÊLiÌÌiÀÊ
COUNTRIES IS ALSO NON
LINEAR !N INCREASE OF STUDENTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH GAINS Ê>À}iÀÊÃV
ÃÊÜÌ
ÊÕ«Ê
IN PERFORMANCE OF ABOUT TO POINTS FOR SCHOOLS OF UP TO STUDENTS 4HERE
ÌÊ£ÊäääÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃo
AFTER AT SCHOOL SIZES ABOVE STUDENTS THE RELATIONSHIP IS VERY WEAK
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
o>`ÊÜ
iÀiÊÀiÊ 3TUDENT PERFORMANCE IN ALL 0)3! DOMAINS IS HIGHER IN SCHOOLS WHERE A HIGHER
Ìi>V
iÀÃÊ
>ÛiÊLiÌÌiÀÊ>`Ê PROPORTION OF TEACHERS HAVE SPECIALISED TRAINING IN THE SUBJECTS THAT THEY TEACH
ëiV>Ãi`ÊÌ>Ê ON THE BASIS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS WITH A
ÌÀ>}° UNIVERSITY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION IN THE RELEVANT SUBJECT DOMAIN &OR EXAMPLE IN
READING A PERCENTAGE POINT INCREASE IN THE PROPORTION OF TEACHERS WITH A
UNIVERSITY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION IN THE RELEVANT SUBJECT DOMAIN IS ASSOCIATED WITH
ABOUT A POINT DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE "Y CONTRAST PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON TEACHERS PARTICIPATION IN FORMAL
PROGRAMMES DESIGNED TO ENHANCE TEACHING SKILLS OR PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES DURING
THE LAST THREE MONTHS DOES NOT SHOW A MAJOR IMPACT ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)T NEEDS TO BE RECOGNISED HOWEVER THAT THE RATE OF PARTICIPATION IN PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN A THREE
MONTH PERIOD IS A WEAKER INDICATOR OF IN
SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION THAN IS POSSESSION OF A FULL TERTIARY QUALIFICATION AS A
MEASURE OF SUBSTANTIVE PREPARATION
-V
Ê«ViÃÊ>`Ê 4HERE ARE THREE ASPECTS OF SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE WHICH HAVE ON AVERAGE
«À>VÌViÊ>ÃÊ
>ÛiÊ>Ê ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON STUDENT PERFORM
«>VÌ]ÊLÕÌÊ>ÀiÊÀiÊ ANCE IN THE THREE SUBJECT DOMAINS PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF I TEACHER
RELATED
`vvVÕÌÊÌÊ`ÃViÀ° FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE SEE ALSO 4ABLE II TEACHER MORALE AND
COMMITMENT SEE ALSO 4ABLE AND III SCHOOL AUTONOMY SEE ALSO 4ABLE
!N INCREASE OF ONE UNIT ON THESE INDICES CORRESPONDING TO ONE INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD DEVIATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH GAINS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE OF ABOUT AND POINTS RESPECTIVELY .OTE THAT THESE EFFECTS ARE SMALL
RELATIVE TO THE
POINT DIFFERENCE ASSOCIATED WITH A ONE
UNIT IMPROVEMENT IN
THE USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON TEACHER AUTONOMY
AND THE USE OF FORMAL ASSESSMENTS SEE !NNEX ! DO NOT SHOW STATISTICALLY
SIGNIFICANT EFFECTS WHEN /%#$ COUNTRIES ARE CONSIDERED TOGETHER
`ÊV>ÃÃÀÊ 3IMILARLY THERE ARE THREE ASPECTS OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE THAT HAVE STATISTICALLY
«À>VÌViÃ]ÊVÕ`}Ê SIGNIFICANT POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN THE 0)3! DOMAINS
«ÃÌÛiÊÀi>ÌÃÊ STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS OF I TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS II DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE OF
LiÌÜiiÊÌi>V
iÀÃÊ>`Ê THE CLASSROOM SEE ALSO 4ABLE AND III hACHIEVEMENT PRESSv 4EACHER
STUDENT
ÃÌÕ`iÌÃ]Ê>`Ê}`Ê RELATIONS AND CLASSROOM DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE HAVE THE STRONGEST RELATIONSHIPS n A
`ÃV«i]Ê>iÊ>ÊVi>ÀÊ ONE
POINT DIFFERENCE ON THESE INDICES EQUIVALENT TO ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
`vviÀiVi° DEVIATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH A DIFFERENCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE OF
ABOUT AND POINTS RESPECTIVELY h!CHIEVEMENT PRESSv WHICH WAS MEASURED
BY STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS EMPHASISE ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND PLACE HIGH DEMANDS ON STUDENTS IS ONLY MODERATELY RELATED TO
PERFORMANCE AND THE EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES IS NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
/
iÊ>LÛiÊv>VÌÀÃÊ
i«Ê /VERALL ACROSS THE THREE SUBJECT DOMAINS THE COMBINED INFLUENCE OF THIS SET OF
ÌÊiÝ«>Ê`vviÀiViÃÊ SCHOOL
LEVEL VARIABLES EXPLAINS ABOUT PER CENT OF THE VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS
LiÌÜiiÊÃV
Ão WITHIN COUNTRIES AND PER CENT OF THE VARIATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4ABLE
7HILE THIS IS A RESPECTABLE PERFORMANCE FOR SUCH A LARGE
SCALE INTERNATIONAL STUDY
IT MEANS THAT THERE IS A LARGE PROPORTION OF VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAT
REMAINS UNEXPLAINED BY THE SCHOOL
LEVEL FACTORS EXAMINED BY 0)3!
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
4HE PRECEDING ANALYSIS SUGGESTS THAT FAMILY BACKGROUND AND THE MEAN SOCIO ECONOMIC oLÕÌÊ>Ê}Ài>ÌiÀÊ«>ÀÌÊ
STATUS OF THE SCHOOL ALSO HELP TO EXPLAIN DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE /N ÃÊiÝ«>i`ÊLÞÊÃV
AVERAGE ACROSS COUNTRIES STUDENTS INDIVIDUAL FAMILY BACKGROUNDS TOGETHER WITH THE iVVÊL>V}ÀÕ`°
MEAN SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE SCHOOL EXPLAIN ABOUT TO PER CENT OF THE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS ACROSS THE THREE SUBJECT DOMAINS /N THE
OTHER HAND THEY ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF THE DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN
SCHOOLS IN READING LITERACY AND AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY OF THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SEE SECOND SET OF COLUMNS IN
4ABLE 4HEY ALSO ACCOUNT FOR ABOUT ONE THIRD OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES
IN READING AND MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE
"OX PROVIDES AN INDICATION OF THE COMPARATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE EFFECT OF SOME
OF THE KEY FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN 0)3! AS DESCRIBED ABOVE
"OX #OMPARING THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT FACTORS
)T IS NOT EASY TO COMPARE THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER STUDENT PERFORMANCE
SINCE FACTORS ARE MEASURED IN A VARIETY OF WAYS (OWEVER THE MODEL USED HERE DOES COMPARE SOME
OF THEM IN AN ESSENTIALLY hLIKE
WITH
LIKEv FASHION 4HIS BOX APPLIES TO THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE BUT RESULTS FOR THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES ARE VERY SIMILAR
)T IS POSSIBLE TO COMPARE THE EFFECTS OF THREE IMPORTANT VARIABLES WHICH CAN BE MEASURED CONSIST
ENTLY ACROSS COUNTRIES THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER MEMBER OF TEACHING STAFF THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS
PER SCHOOL AND THE PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN THE SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION IN THE
RELEVANT SUBJECT )T CAN BE PREDICTED FROM CALCULATIONS THAT A STUDENT SCORE WHICH IS POINTS HIGHER
IN ONE SCHOOL THAN ANOTHER IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN AVERAGE OF
n LESS STUDENTS PER TEACHER
n MORE STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOL
n PER CENT MORE OF THE TEACHING FORCE HAVING A UNIVERSITY TERTIARY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION WITH A MAJOR
IN THEIR SUBJECT
4HIS ALLOWS SOME COMPARISON OF HOW MUCH CHANGE IN EACH FACTOR IS ASSOCIATED WITH A GIVEN
DIFFERENCE IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
0)3! HAS ALSO LOOKED AT A RANGE OF FACTORS THAT ARE LESS EASY TO MEASURE ESPECIALLY AT AN INTERNATIONAL
LEVEL )TS APPROACH HERE HAS BEEN TO CONSTRUCT INDICES RELATED NOT TO THE INTRINSIC FEATURES OF WHAT IS
MEASURED BUT TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF EACH CHARACTERISTIC IN SCHOOLS ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES 3PECIFICALLY
IT HAS SET A MEAN OF AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF /N THIS BASIS A SINGLE UNIT OF DIFFERENCE ONE STANDARD
DEVIATION IS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ASSOCIATED WITH HIGHER STUDENT SCORES OF
n POINTS WHERE STUDENTS USE SCHOOL RESOURCES MORE FREQUENTLY
n POINTS WHERE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORT A BETTER SCHOOL CLIMATE WITH REGARD TO TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS
n POINTS WHERE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORT A GREATER LEVEL OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY
n POINTS WHERE STUDENTS REPORT BETTER TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS
n POINTS WHERE STUDENTS REPORT A BETTER DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AND
n POINTS WHERE THE AVERAGE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INDEX OF STUDENTS IS HIGHER
&OR DATA SEE 4ABLES AND A
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
"ACKGROUND AND SCHOOL FACTORS BETWEEN THEM EXPLAIN MOST DIFFERENCES
IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN SCHOOLS )N ADDITION SCHOOL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC
BACKGROUND FACTORS DO OF COURSE INTERACT $IFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN
SCHOOLS ARE THE COMBINED RESULT OF HOW THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL
PROCESSES DIFFER AND HOW THEIR INTAKES DIFFER IN HOME BACKGROUND )T CAN BE
ESTIMATED THAT AROUND PER CENT OF OBSERVED VARIATION BETWEEN SCHOOLS WITHIN
COUNTRIES IS ACCOUNTED FOR BY THE COMBINATION OF THE SCHOOL LEVEL AND STUDENT
BACKGROUND FACTORS IDENTIFIED SEE THIRD SET OF COLUMNS IN 4ABLE 4HIS IS
TRUE IN ALL THREE 0)3! DOMAINS 4HESE FACTORS CAN ALSO EXPLAIN SOME OF THE
DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COUNTRIES !T THE COUNTRY LEVEL THE
PERCENTAGES OF VARIATION IN READING LITERACY MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY JOINTLY EXPLAINED BY SCHOOL AND BACKGROUND FACTORS ARE PER CENT
PER CENT AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY
*>ÀÌÊvÊÌ
iÊ>`Û>Ì>}iÊ !S CAN BE SEEN THE COMBINED INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL AND BACKGROUND FACTORS
vÊÃViVVÊ ON DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOL PERFORMANCE IS NOT SIMPLY THE SUM OF THE INFLUENCE
L>V}ÀÕ`ÊÃÊ OF SCHOOL FACTORS AND THAT OF BACKGROUND FACTORS 4HIS IS BECAUSE MANY
>ÌÌÀLÕÌ>LiÊÌÊÀiÊ CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS ARE CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
«ÀÛi}i`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ FAMILIES OF THEIR STUDENTS 4HIS MEANS THAT SOME OF THE EFFECT OF FAMILY BACK
>ÌÌi`}ÊÃV
ÃÊÜÌ
Ê GROUND ON SCHOOL RESULTS IS MEDIATED BY THE SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS #ONSIDER FOR
ÃÕVViÃÃvÕÊ EXAMPLE THE PREDICTED DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 0)3! READING LITERACY SCORES IN TWO
V
>À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃo SCHOOLS WHOSE STUDENTS HAVE DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS n WITH A GAP OF ONE UNIT
IN THEIR AVERAGE SCORES ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS )N
TOTAL STUDENTS AT THE BETTER
OFF SCHOOL ARE EXPECTED TO SCORE POINTS MORE
ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES 3OME OF THIS DIFFERENCE ARISES BECAUSE ON
AVERAGE BETTER
OFF STUDENTS ATTEND SCHOOLS WITH FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER
PERFORMANCE n THIS IS THE MEDIATED PORTION )T ACCOUNTS FOR ABOUT OF THE
POINTS DIFFERENCE 4HE REMAINING EFFECT OF STUDENT BACKGROUND n THAT WHICH
IS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL VARIABLES n ACCOUNTS FOR POINTS 4HIS
POINT
DIFFERENCE CAN BE TAKEN AS A MEASURE OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH SCHOOL SYSTEMS TEND
ON AVERAGE TO REINFORCE THE ADVANTAGE OF THOSE STUDENTS WHO ALREADY COME FROM
ADVANTAGED BACKGROUNDS
oÜ iÊVÛiÀÃiÞ]Ê #ONVERSELY IT IS POSSIBLE TO EXAMINE THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN
ÃV ÃÊÜÌ ÊÌ iÃiÊ INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL FACTORS SUCH AS MORE RESOURCES AND HIGHER PERFORMANCE CAN
V >À>VÌiÀÃÌVÃÊ}iÌÊLiÌÌiÀÊ BE ACCOUNTED FOR BY THE MORE ADVANTAGED BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS WHO ATTEND
ÀiÃÕÌÃÊ«>ÀÌÞÊLiV>ÕÃiÊvÊ SCHOOLS WITH BETTER FEATURES )N MOST CASES THE SEPARATE IMPACT OF THE SCHOOL
Ì iÀÊÀiÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê FACTORS BECOMES SMALLER ONCE FAMILY BACKGROUND IS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT BECAUSE
Ì>i° MANY OF THE FACTORS RELATED TO SCHOOL QUALITY ARE CORRELATED WITH THE SCHOOLS
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS &OR EXAMPLE ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$
COUNTRIES HALF THE REPORTED EFFECT OF DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOL RESOURCES AND TWO
THIRDS OF THE EFFECT OF SCHOOL SIZE AND STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIOS ARE ASSOCIATED
WITH FAMILY BACKGROUND )N THE CASE OF VARIABLES DESCRIBING SCHOOL POLICY AND
PRACTICE THERE IS AN EVEN GREATER ASSOCIATION /N THE OTHER HAND MOST OF THE
IMPACT OF TEACHER STUDENT RELATIONS AND DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE IS INDEPENDENT OF
FAMILY BACKGROUND
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
)T SHOULD BE EMPHASISED THAT THESE FINDINGS DO NOT IMPLY THAT SCHOOL FACTORS ARE
LESS IMPORTANT n SIMPLY THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO DISENTANGLE THEM FULLY FROM BACK
GROUND FACTORS 4HIS CAN BE ILLUSTRATED BY IMAGINING A HYPOTHETICAL EXTREME CASE
IN WHICH ONLY STUDENTS FROM BETTER
OFF FAMILIES ATTEND SCHOOLS WITH DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS AND THESE SCHOOLS PERFORM BETTER THAN OTHERS 3OME OF THE BETTER
PERFORMANCE MAY OCCUR REGARDLESS OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOL n DIRECTLY AS A RESULT
OF STUDENTS HOME BACKGROUND "UT SOME COULD BE ATTRIBUTED TO THE BETTER QUALITY
OF THE SCHOOL 4HE GREATER THE OVERLAP BETWEEN THESE TWO TYPES OF ADVANTAGE THE
HARDER IT IS TO DETERMINE THE CONTRIBUTION OF EACH TO BETTER PERFORMANCE
4WO CONCLUSIONS FOLLOW FROM THE ABOVE ANALYSIS
n &IRST IMPORTANT SCHOOL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT SCHOOL AND COUNTRY PERFORMANCE -V>Ê`Ã>`Û>Ì>}iÊÃÊ
ARE INTERRELATED WITH THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE SCHOOL AS ESTIMATED ÀivÀVi`ÊLÞÊÕiµÕ>Ê
BY THE AVERAGE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS OF THE 0)3! i`ÕV>Ì>Ê
POPULATION ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL 4HIS MEANS THAT SOME OF THE INEQUALITY OF ««ÀÌÕÌiÃo
OUTCOMES OBSERVED IN THE ANALYSIS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS IS ASSOCIATED
WITH INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY
n 3ECOND AMONG THOSE FACTORS THAT WERE EXAMINED IN 0)3! THERE IS NO SINGLE oLÕÌÊÊ
iÌiÀ}iiÕÃÊ
FACTOR THAT EXPLAINS WHY SOME SCHOOLS OR SOME COUNTRIES HAVE BETTER RESULTS Ü>Þð
THAN OTHERS 2ATHER SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO A CONSTELLATION
OF FACTORS THAT INCLUDES SCHOOL RESOURCES SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICES AND
CLASSROOM PRACTICES
4HE ABOVE ANALYSIS HAS FOCUSED ON THE IMPACT OF CERTAIN FACTORS ON STUDENT Ê`Û`Õ>ÊVÕÌÀiÃ]Ê
PERFORMANCE OVERALL IE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HE FOLLOWING SECTION NOW Ì
iÊ«ÀiÃiViÊvÊÌ
iÊ
SEEKS TO DISCERN HOW THESE FACTORS ARE DISTRIBUTED BETWEEN COUNTRIES IE ONCE `iÌvi`ÊÃÕVViÃÃÊv>VÌÀÃÊ
IT IS KNOWN WHICH FACTORS MATTER ACROSS ALL COUNTRIES TOGETHER IT WILL BE V>ÊLiÊV>Ìi}ÀÃi`ÊÊ>Ê
HELPFUL TO KNOW WHAT FACTORS PREVAIL IN WHICH NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS )N £ä«ÌÊÃV>io
THIS CONTEXT IT IS NOT ONLY NECESSARY TO CONSIDER WHETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT
SCHOOLS IN A GIVEN COUNTRY HAVE CERTAIN POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS BUT ALSO THE
DEGREE TO WHICH THESE CHARACTERISTICS ARE CONCENTRATED IN SCHOOLS WITH MORE
PRIVILEGED INTAKES 4ABLE PROVIDES ESTIMATES OF BOTH &OR EACH OF SCHOOL
VARIABLES IT GIVES EACH COUNTRY A SCORE ON A SCALE OF TO AND ALSO QUANTIFIES
THE DEGREE TO WHICH EACH IS CORRELATED WITH THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC PROFILE OF
SCHOOLS SEE "OX
&OR EXAMPLE CONSIDER THE 5NITED 3TATES )T HAS A VALUE OF FOR THE IMPACT OF o£äÊ`V>Ì}Ê
THE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE INDICATING THAT v>ÛÕÀ>LiÊV`ÌÃÊ
ITS SCHOOLS HAVE ON AVERAGE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIOS BELOW )TS VALUE FOR >`ÊäÊ`V>Ì}Ê
SCHOOL SIZE IS WHICH INDICATES THAT THERE ARE SOME VERY SMALL SCHOOLS 'IVEN Õv>ÛÕÀ>LiÊ
THE FINDINGS FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED THESE SCHOOLS MAY BE LESS SUCCESSFUL V`ÌÃo
THAN OTHER SCHOOLS OF MODERATE SIZE )TS VALUE ON THE INDEX FOR TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS
IS /N AVERAGE SCHOOLS IN THE 5NITED 3TATES HAVE A HIGHER PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS
WITH THE RELEVANT SUBJECT QUALIFICATIONS THAN /%#$ COUNTRIES AS A WHOLE /N THE
REMAINING SEVEN INDICATORS WITH THE EXCEPTION OF TEACHER MORALE THE VALUES FOR THE
5NITED 3TATES ARE ALL ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
"OX (OW TO READ 4ABLE
&OR EACH SCHOOL VARIABLE THE TABLE SHOWS AN INDEX VALUE ON A SCALE OF TO (IGHER SCORES
ARE POSITIVE IE AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL ASSOCIATED WITH HIGHER STUDENT PERFORMANCE IN 0)3! 4HE
FOLLOWING VALUES HAVE BEEN ASSIGNED
6ARIABLE 6ALUE )NDEX VALUE
3TUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO "ELOW
TO
TO
'REATER THAN
3CHOOL SIZE TO
TO
TO
BELOW
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS WITH A TO
UNIVERSITY TERTIARY LEVEL QUALIlCATION TO
WITH A MAJOR IN THE SUBJECT ASSESSED
TO
/THER VARIABLES WITH SCALES BASED 2E SCALED SO THAT MEAN EQUALS STANDARD DEVIATION EQUALS
ON INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND OUTLIERS ARE GIVEN VALUES OF ZERO AND
4HE INDEX SCORE FOR EACH COUNTRY REPRESENTS THE AVERAGE FOR SCHOOLS IN THAT COUNTRY 4HE VALUES FOR
THE CORRELATIONS FOR EACH COUNTRY IN 4ABLE INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH VARIATIONS IN EACH FACTOR
WITHIN THE COUNTRY ARE ASSOCIATED POSITIVELY WITH DIFFERENCES IN STUDENT INTAKE n EG THE DEGREE TO
WHICH MORE FAVOURABLE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS ARE FOUND IN SCHOOLS WITH STUDENTS FROM MORE
ADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS ! NEGATIVE CORRELATION MEANS THAT THE RELATIONSHIP IS IN THE
OTHER DIRECTION ! CORRELATION OF ZERO WOULD INDICATE THAT STUDENTS FROM DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS HAVE
EQUAL CHANCES OF GOING TO SCHOOLS WITH FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS 4HE SIZE OF THIS EFFECT CAN BE COMPARED
WITH THE /%#$ AVERAGE TO GIVE SOME INDICATION OF ITS RELATIVE IMPORTANCE
oLÕÌÊÌiÊÌ
>ÌÊÌ
iÊ )T SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THE ANALYSIS ABOVE DOES NOT EXAMINE THE EFFECTS OF THESE
>ÛiÀ>}iÃÊ>ÞÊ>ÃÊ VARIABLES ON PERFORMANCE WITHIN EACH COUNTRY (OWEVER 4ABLE A PROVIDES
VÃ`iÀ>LiÊÛ>À>ÌÊ RESULTS FOR A SIMILAR MODEL FITTED SEPARATELY TO THE DATA FOR EACH COUNTRY AND A
LiÌÜiiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊÊÌ
iÊ STATISTICAL SUMMARY META
EFFECTS OF THE RESULTS ACROSS THE /%#$ COUNTRIES
Ã}vV>ViÊvÊÌ
iÊ 4HE SUMMARY OF THESE COUNTRY
BY
COUNTRY ANALYSES YIELDS FINDINGS BROADLY
Û>ÀÕÃÊv>VÌÀð SIMILAR TO THOSE REPORTED IN 4ABLE HOWEVER IT ALSO SHOWS THAT THE EFFECTS
OF MANY VARIABLES VARY CONSIDERABLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES AND IN MANY CASES DIFFER
FROM THE GLOBAL RELATIONSHIPS &OR EXAMPLE 'REECE )TALY AND THE .ETHERLANDS
HAVE RELATIVELY LOW VALUES ON THE
POINT INDEX FOR DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE YET THE
EFFECT OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE APPEARS TO BE SUBSTANTIAL
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
IN )TALY BUT NEGLIGIBLE IN 'REECE AND THE .ETHERLANDS )T IS POSSIBLE THAT OTHER
FACTORS ARE AT WORK IN THESE COUNTRIES SO THAT SCHOOLS WITH RELATIVELY POOR CLASS
ROOM DISCIPLINE FARE RELATIVELY WELL AND DO NOT FOLLOW THE GENERAL PATTERN 4HESE
FINDINGS EMPHASISE THE NEED FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS WITHIN EACH COUNTRY
.EXT TO THE INDEX VALUES 4ABLE SHOWS THE SCHOOL LEVEL CORRELATION OF EACH
VARIABLE WITH THE MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ! POSITIVE
CORRELATION INDICATES THAT SCHOOLS ENROLLING STUDENTS WITH ADVANTAGED BACK
GROUNDS TEND TO DO BETTER IN TERMS OF THE POLICY VARIABLES CONSIDERED THAN
SCHOOLS ENROLLING STUDENTS FROM LESS ADVANTAGED BACKGROUNDS SEE "OX FOR
DETAILS
3EVERAL RESULTS STAND OUT FROM THIS TABLE
n &OR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES TAKEN TOGETHER THE RESULTS SHOW THAT THE MAJORITY -ÌÕ`iÌÌi>V
iÀÊÀ>ÌÃÊ
OF SCHOOLS HAVE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS AT OR BELOW 4HE 0)3! RESULTS >ÀiÊ>ÞÊLiÜÊÌ
iÊ
DO NOT PREDICT SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENTS IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AT RATIOS iÛiÊ>ÌÊÜ
V
ÊÌ
iÞÊ>iÊ
BELOW THIS LEVEL /N THE OTHER HAND THE MEAN VALUE ON THE
POINT INDEX >Ê`vviÀiVi°
FOR SCHOOL SIZE IS WELL BELOW THE LEVEL THAT WOULD PREDICT MAXIMUM
STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND THE RESULTS INDICATE THAT AVERAGE SCHOOL SIZE TENDS
TO VARY SUBSTANTIALLY IN ALL PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES $IFFERENCES IN STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS ARE NOT USUALLY CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC
BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS WITHIN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
n 4HE MEAN VALUE ON THE POINT INDEX FOR TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS IS WHICH ÊÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃ]ÊÜi
INDICATES THAT ABOUT TWO THIRDS OF TEACHERS HAVE A UNIVERSITY LEVEL QUALIFI µÕ>vi`ÊÌi>V iÀÃÊ>ÀiÊ
CATION IN THE RELEVANT SUBJECT 4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE PROPORTION OF VViÌÀ>Ìi`ÊÊÃV ÃÊ
TEACHERS WHO HAVE A UNIVERSITY TERTIARY LEVEL QUALIFICATION WITH A MAJOR IN THE ÜÌ Ê«ÀÛi}i`ÊÌ>ið
RELEVANT SUBJECT DOMAIN AND THE SCHOOL MEAN SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS IS HIGHEST
BETWEEN AND IN "ELGIUM 'ERMANY AND ,UXEMBOURG SUGGESTING
THAT SPECIALIST TEACHERS IN THESE COUNTRIES TEND TO BE EMPLOYED IN SCHOOLS OR
SCHOOL TYPES WITH A MORE ADVANTAGED SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
n 4HE LEVEL OF RESOURCES PROVIDED TO SCHOOLS IS NOT IN MOST CASES CLOSELY -V>ÞÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê
ASSOCIATED WITH STUDENTS BACKGROUNDS (OWEVER THE REVERSE IS TRUE WHEN IT ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊ`ÊÌÊ}iÌÊÀiÊ
COMES TO STUDENTS USE OF THEM 4HE 0)3! INDEX OF STUDENTS USE OF SCHOOL ÀiÃÕÀViÃ]ÊLÕÌÊÕÃiÊÌ
iÊ
RESOURCES IS MORE STRONGLY ASSOCIATED WITH STUDENTS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND Ài°
CULTURAL STATUS THAN ANY OTHER SCHOOL VARIABLE 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT LESS ADVANTAGED
STUDENTS DO NOT TEND TO USE SCHOOL RESOURCES AS REGULARLY AS STUDENTS OF HIGHER
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
n )N SOME COUNTRIES PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING /i>V iÀÊÀ>iÊÃÊÊ
SCHOOL CLIMATE ARE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH THE SCHOOLS SOCIO ECONOMIC ÃiÊV>ÃiÃÊÜiÀÊÊ
STATUS PARTICULARLY IN +OREA 3PAIN AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM CORRELATIONS ÃV ÃÊÜÌ ÊiÃÃÊ
BETWEEN AND 4HERE ARE A FEW COUNTRIES IN WHICH PERCEIVED TEACHER >`Û>Ì>}i`ÊÃÌÕ`iÌð
MORALE AND COMMITMENT ARE POSITIVELY RELATED TO THE SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS
OF THE SCHOOL BUT 0OLAND STANDS OUT IN THAT MORALE AND COMMITMENT ARE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
GENERALLY RATED BY PRINCIPALS AS LOW BUT PARTICULARLY IN SCHOOLS WITH LOW
SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS CORRELATION
ÃV«>ÀÞÊV>ÌiÊV>Ê n 3CHOOLS WITH A HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE ALSO TEND TO HAVE A BETTER
LiÊÃÌÀ}ÞÊ>ÃÃV>Ìi`Ê DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AS REPORTED BY STUDENTS ESPECIALLY IN )TALY *APAN 3PAIN
ÜÌ
ÊÃViVVÊ THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES !MONG THESE COUNTRIES )TALY
L>V}ÀÕ`° STANDS OUT IN THAT STUDENTS GENERALLY RATE THE DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE POORLY
PARTICULARLY IN SCHOOLS WITH A LOW SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE 4HERE ARE SOME
COUNTER
EXAMPLES HOWEVER WHERE THE DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE IS RATED MORE
POSITIVELY BY STUDENTS IN LESS WELL
OFF SCHOOLS n IN THE CASE OF -EXICO AND .EW
:EALAND THE CORRELATIONS ARE
AND
RESPECTIVELY
#ONCLUSIONS
*-ÊÃ
ÜÃÊÌ
iÊ«ÜiÀvÕÊ (OME BACKGROUND INFLUENCES EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS
vÕiViÊvÊ
iÊ MAY REINFORCE ITS EFFECTS !LTHOUGH 0)3! SHOWS THAT POOR PERFORMANCE IN SCHOOL
L>V}ÀÕ`o DOES NOT AUTOMATICALLY FOLLOW FROM A DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACK
GROUND IT APPEARS TO BE ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL FACTORS INFLUENCING PERFORM
ANCE ON THE 0)3! READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
oLÕÌÊÜ
iÊÌ
iÀiÊ>ÀiÊ 4HIS REPRESENTS A SIGNIFICANT CHALLENGE FOR PUBLIC POLICY WHICH STRIVES TO
ÌÃÊÌÊ
ÜÊv>ÀÊÃV
ÃÊ PROVIDE LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL STUDENTS IRRESPECTIVE OF THEIR HOME
V>ÊV«iÃ>Ìio BACKGROUNDS .ATIONAL RESEARCH EVIDENCE FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES HAS GENERALLY
BEEN DISCOURAGING 3CHOOLS HAVE APPEARED TO MAKE LITTLE DIFFERENCE %ITHER
BECAUSE PRIVILEGED FAMILIES ARE BETTER ABLE TO REINFORCE AND ENHANCE THE EFFECT OF
SCHOOLS OR BECAUSE SCHOOLS ARE BETTER ABLE TO NURTURE AND DEVELOP YOUNG PEOPLE
FROM PRIVILEGED BACKGROUNDS IT HAS OFTEN BEEN APPARENT THAT SCHOOLS REPRODUCE
EXISTING PATTERNS OF PRIVILEGE RATHER THAN DELIVERING EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN A WAY
THAT CAN DISTRIBUTE OUTCOMES MORE EQUITABLY
oÃiÊVÕÌÀiÃÊ 4HE INTERNATIONAL EVIDENCE OF 0)3! IS MORE ENCOURAGING 7HILE ALL COUNTRIES
VLiÊÀiÊiµÕ>Ê SHOW A CLEAR POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOME BACKGROUND AND EDUCATIONAL
ÕÌViÃÊÜÌ
Ê
}
Ê OUTCOMES SOME COUNTRIES DEMONSTRATE THAT HIGH AVERAGE QUALITY AND EQUALITY OF
µÕ>ÌÞ° EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES CAN GO TOGETHER #ANADA &INLAND )CELAND *APAN +OREA
AND 3WEDEN ALL DISPLAY ABOVE
AVERAGE LEVELS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE AND AT THE SAME TIME A BELOW
AVERAGE IMPACT
OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE #ONVERSELY
AVERAGE PERFORMANCE IN READING LITERACY IN THE #ZECH 2EPUBLIC 'ERMANY
(UNGARY AND ,UXEMBOURG IS SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE WHILE
AT THE SAME TIME THERE ARE ABOVE
AVERAGE DISPARITIES BETWEEN STUDENTS FROM
ADVANTAGED AND DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS
/
iÊV
>i}iÊÃÊ>`iÊ /NE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FINDINGS OF 0)3! IS THAT THE STUDENTS OWN HOME BACK
}Ài>ÌiÀÊLÞÊÌ
iÊVLi`Ê GROUND IS ONLY PART OF THE STORY OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC DISPARITIES IN EDUCATION n AND
«>VÌÊvÊ>ÊÃV
½ÃÊ IN MOST COUNTRIES THE SMALLER PART 4HE COMBINED IMPACT OF THE SCHOOLS SOCIO
Ì>io ECONOMIC INTAKE CAN HAVE AN APPRECIABLE EFFECT ON THE STUDENTS PERFORMANCE
AND GENERALLY HAS A GREATER EFFECT ON PREDICTED STUDENT SCORES THAN THE STUDENTS
OWN FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
! SECOND KEY FINDING FROM THE ANALYSIS OF 0)3! RESULTS IS THAT BENEFICIAL SCHOOL o>`ÊLÞÊÌ
iÊv>VÌÊÌ
>ÌÊ
EFFECTS ARE REINFORCED BY SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 3CHOOLS WITH MORE ÀiÊ>`Û>Ì>}i`Ê
RESOURCES AND POLICIES AND PRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER STUDENT PERFORMANCE ÃÌÕ`iÌÃÊÌi`ÊÌÊ}ÊÌÊ
TEND TO VARYING DEGREES TO HAVE MORE ADVANTAGED STUDENTS )N "ELGIUM ÃV
ÃÊÜÌ
ÊÌ
iÀÊ
'ERMANY AND ,UXEMBOURG LARGER NUMBERS OF SPECIALIST TEACHERS TEND TO BE >`Û>Ì>}iÃo
EMPLOYED IN SCHOOLS WITH A MORE ADVANTAGED SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
3TUDENTS REPORT THAT SCHOOLS WITH A HIGHER SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTAKE ALSO HAVE A
BETTER DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE PARTICULARLY IN )TALY *APAN 3PAIN THE 5NITED +INGDOM
AND THE 5NITED 3TATES !ND FINALLY STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS WITH LOW SOCIO
ECONOMIC
STATUS ALSO TEND NOT TO USE SCHOOL RESOURCES AS REGULARLY AS STUDENTS IN BETTER
OFF
SCHOOLS
4HE NET RESULT OF THIS EFFECT IS THAT IN COUNTRIES WHERE THERE IS A HIGH DEGREE oÀiÃÕÌ}ÊÊÀiÊ
OF SEGREGATION ALONG SOCIO
ECONOMIC LINES STUDENTS FROM DISADVANTAGED SOCIO
ÕiµÕ>Ê««ÀÌÕÌið
ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS DO WORSE 4HIS IN TURN MEANS THAT SOME OF THE INEQUAL
ITY OF OUTCOMES OBSERVED IN THE ANALYSIS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENTS IS ASSOCIATED
WITH INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY )N SUCH CIRCUMSTANCES TALENT REMAINS UNUSED AND
HUMAN RESOURCES ARE WASTED
)N SOME COUNTRIES STUDENTS ARE HIGHLY SEGREGATED ALONG SOCIO ECONOMIC LINES IN *VÞÊÀiëÃiÃÊ`i«i`Ê
PART BECAUSE OF RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION AND ECONOMIC FACTORS BUT ALSO BECAUSE «>ÀÌÞÊÊÜ iÌ iÀÊ>`Ê
OF FEATURES OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM %DUCATION POLICY IN SUCH COUNTRIES MIGHT ÜÊÃV ÃÊ>ÀiÊ
ATTEMPT TO MODERATE THE IMPACT OF SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT Ãi}Ài}>Ìi`ÊLÞÊÃV
PERFORMANCE BY REDUCING THE EXTENT OF SEGREGATION ALONG SOCIO ECONOMIC LINES iVVÊL>V}ÀÕ`o
OR BY ALLOCATING RESOURCES TO SCHOOLS DIFFERENTIALLY )N THESE COUNTRIES IT MAY BE
NECESSARY TO EXAMINE HOW THE ALLOCATION OF SCHOOL RESOURCES WITHIN A COUNTRY
RELATES TO THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INTAKE OF ITS SCHOOLS )N OTHER COUNTRIES THERE
IS RELATIVELY LITTLE SOCIO ECONOMIC SEGREGATION IE SCHOOLS TEND TO BE SIMILAR
IN THEIR SOCIO ECONOMIC INTAKE %DUCATION POLICY IN THESE COUNTRIES MIGHT AIM
AT MODERATING THE IMPACT OF SOCIO ECONOMIC BACKGROUND THROUGH MEASURES
AIMED AT IMPROVING SCHOOL RESOURCES AND REDUCING WITHIN SCHOOL SEGREGATION
ACCORDING TO STUDENTS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS )N THE END OF
COURSE WHAT MATTERS MOST IS HOW EFFECTIVELY RESOURCES ARE USED !PPROACHES
MIGHT INCLUDE FOR EXAMPLE ELIMINATING CLASSROOM STREAMING OR PROVIDING MORE
ASSISTANCE FOR STUDENTS WITH A POOR LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE
)N COUNTRIES WHERE THE IMPACT OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON STUDENT o>`ÊÊVÕÌÀiýÊ
PERFORMANCE IS MODERATE NOT ALL SUCCESSES CAN BE CREDITED TO THE EDUCATION ÛiÀ>ÊÃViVVÊ
SYSTEM AND IN COUNTRIES WHERE GRADIENTS ARE STEEP NOT ALL OF THE PROBLEMS «Àvið
SHOULD BE ATTRIBUTED TO SCHOOLS EITHER 4HE ANALYSIS HAS SHOWN THAT THE CHALLENGES
WHICH EDUCATION SYSTEMS FACE AS A RESULT OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF
HOME BACKGROUND FACTORS IN THE STUDENT POPULATION DIFFER WIDELY &OR EXAMPLE
THE UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY WEALTH AS MEASURED BY 0)3! IN "RAZIL
-EXICO 0OLAND 0ORTUGAL AND THE 5NITED 3TATES SEE #HAPTER MAKES IT FAR
MORE DIFFICULT TO PROVIDE EQUITABLE LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES IN THOSE COUNTRIES
THAN IN &INLAND *APAN OR +OREA WHERE WEALTH IS DISTRIBUTED MORE EQUALLY -ANY
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
OF THE FACTORS OF SOCIO
ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE ARE ALSO NOT DIRECTLY AMENABLE TO
EDUCATION POLICY AT LEAST NOT IN THE SHORT TERM &OR EXAMPLE THE EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT OF PARENTS CAN ONLY GRADUALLY IMPROVE AND FAMILY WEALTH WILL DEPEND
ON LONG
TERM NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
*-Ê
>ÃÊ`iÌvi`ÊÃiÊ "UT 0)3! RESULTS SUGGEST THAT SCHOOL POLICY AND SCHOOLS THEMSELVES CAN PLAY
v>VÌÀÃÊÜÌ
ÊÃV
ÃÊ A CRUCIAL ROLE IN MODERATING THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE ON STUDENT
Ì
>ÌÊV>Ê>iÊ>Ê PERFORMANCE 4HE RESULTS REVEAL SOME SCHOOL RESOURCE FACTORS SCHOOL POLICIES
`vviÀiVi° AND CLASSROOM PRACTICES THAT APPEAR TO MAKE A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE TO STUDENT
PERFORMANCE 4HE EXTENT TO WHICH STUDENTS MAKE USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES AND
THE EXTENT TO WHICH SPECIALIST TEACHERS ARE AVAILABLE CAN BOTH HAVE AN IMPACT
ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE !CCORDING TO PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE TEACHER MORALE AND COMMITMENT AND
SCHOOL AUTONOMY ALSO APPEAR TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE &INALLY THERE ARE ASPECTS OF
CLASSROOM PRACTICE THAT SHOW A POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH STUDENT PERFORMANCE
SUCH AS TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS AND THE DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE IN THE CLASSROOM
7
iÊÊÃ}iÊv>VÌÀÊ 0)3! RESULTS SUGGEST THAT THERE IS NO SINGLE FACTOR THAT EXPLAINS WHY SOME
«ÀÛ`iÃÊÌ
iÊiÞo SCHOOLS OR SOME COUNTRIES HAVE BETTER RESULTS THAN OTHERS 3UCCESSFUL PERFORM
ANCE IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO A CONSTELLATION OF FACTORS INCLUDING SCHOOL RESOURCES
SCHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE AND CLASSROOM PRACTICE )T WILL REQUIRE MUCH FURTHER
RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY HOW THESE FACTORS OPERATE INTERACT WITH HOME
BACKGROUND AND INFLUENCE STUDENT PERFORMANCE
oÊ`ii«iÀÊ>>ÞÃÃ]ÊÌÊ )N PURSUIT OF THIS DEEPER UNDERSTANDING THE INTENTION IS TO PUBLISH A SERIES OF
vÜ]ÊÜÊ>ÊÌÊ THEMATIC 0)3! REPORTS IN AND THAT WILL ANALYSE THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL
«À`ÕViÊLiÌÌiÀÊ AND SYSTEM LEVEL FACTORS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE MORE EXTENSIVELY AND WILL
Õ`iÀÃÌ>`}ÊvÊV>ÕÃið SEEK TO UNDERSTAND IN MORE DETAIL WHY SOME COUNTRIES ACHIEVE BETTER AND MORE
EQUITABLE LEARNING OUTCOMES THAN OTHERS )N THE MEANTIME THE MERE FACT THAT
HIGH QUALITY LEARNING OUTCOMES ARE ALREADY A REALITY FOR MOST STUDENTS IN SOME
COUNTRIES IS IN ITSELF AN ENCOURAGING RESULT THAT SHOWS THAT THE CHALLENGES AHEAD
CAN BE TACKLED SUCCESSFULLY
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
.OTES
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
4HIS INCLUDES ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! EXCEPT THE .ETHERLANDS SEE !NNEX !
4HERE IS A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT CURVILINEAR EFFECT BUT IT IS RELATIVELY SMALL AND NOT DISCERNIBLE TO THE EYE IN &IGURE
)N STATISTICAL TERMS THE VARIATION EXPLAINED BY THE 0)3! INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS FOR THE COMBINED
/%#$ AREA PER CENT IS MUCH LOWER THAN IF THERE WERE A PERFECT RELATIONSHIP PER CENT
4HE OVERALL /%#$ GRADIENT SHOWN IN &IGURE IS VERY SIMILAR TO THE AVERAGE hWITHIN COUNTRYv GRADIENT
&OR THE TREATMENT OF MISSING DATA SEE !NNEX ! 4HE PERCENTAGE OF CASES WITH MISSING DATA ON THE RESULTING INDEX OF
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS SHOWN IN 4ABLE
4HE MAIN REASON WHY THE VALUE IS GREATER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE OF PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE IS THAT THE LARGER COUNTRIES WHICH INFLUENCE THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE MORE HEAVILY TEND TO PERFORM ABOVE THE /%#$
AVERAGE -ISSING VALUES ON THE SOCIO ECONOMIC DATA ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO THIS DIFFERENCE
4HE ANALYSIS ALSO INCLUDED THE SQUARED INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS 8 TO TEST FOR ANY NON LINEAR EFFECTS
IN THE RELATIONSHIP 4HE RESULTING COEFFICIENT IS RELATIVELY SMALL 4HE SOCIO ECONOMIC GRADIENTS FOR MATHEMATICS AND
SCIENCE DIFFER SLIGHTLY FROM THAT SHOWN FOR READING LITERACY 9 8 8 FOR MATHEMATICS AND 9
8 8 FOR SCIENCE
4HIS IS THE CASE FOR INCOME GRADIENTS ASSOCIATED WITH MANY HEALTH OUTCOMES INCLUDING LONGEVITY (OUSE ET AL
-IROWSKY AND (U 7OLFSON ET AL ONCE PEOPLE HAVE THEIR BASIC NEEDS MET FURTHER INCREASES IN INCOME
CONTRIBUTE ONLY MARGINALLY TO THEIR HEALTH
)N STATISTICAL TERMS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVELS AND SLOPES AT AN AVERAGE LEVEL OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
IS
-ORE THAN PER CENT OF THE DATA ON PARENTAL OCCUPATION AND PARENTAL YEARS OF SCHOOLING WERE MISSING IN THE CASE OF *APAN
&OR STUDENTS WITH MISSING DATA VALUES THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS WAS IMPUTED FROM DATA AVAILABLE ON
THE 0)3! INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH THE 0)3! INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME AND THE 0)3! INDEX OF HOME
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 4HE SLOPE OF THE GRADIENT FOR THOSE STUDENTS WITH IMPUTED INDICES IS NEARLY IDENTICAL TO THE SLOPE FOR
THOSE WITH INDICES BASED ON ALL FIVE VARIABLES SUGGESTING THAT THE IMPUTATION PROCEDURE DID NOT INTRODUCE A SUBSTANTIAL BIAS
IN THE ESTIMATES
)N THESE COUNTRIES STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND THE SOCIO ECONOMIC
GRADIENT IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY GENTLER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE GRADIENT
)N THESE COUNTRIES STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE AND THE SOCIO ECONOMIC
GRADIENT IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANTLY STEEPER THAN THE /%#$ AVERAGE GRADIENT
4HESE ANALYSES WERE BASED ON AN ORDINARY LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION OF PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
ON I THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS 4ABLE AND THE SQUARE OF THIS INDEX II PARENTAL
YEARS OF SCHOOLING SEE !NNEX ! III THE 0)3! INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES SEE WWWPISAOECDORG IV THE 0)3!
INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME 4ABLE V A DUMMY VARIABLE DENOTING THE STUDENTS GENDER VI TWO
DUMMY VARIABLES DENOTING WHETHER THE STUDENT LIVED IN A SINGLE OR TWO
PARENT FAMILY OR WAS LIVING IN OTHER TYPES OF
FAMILIES SEE 4ABLE VII THE NUMBER OF SIBLINGS SEE WWWPISAOECDORG VIII A DUMMY VARIABLE DENOTING WHETHER THE
STUDENT WAS BORN IN THE COUNTRY 4ABLE AND IX THREE DUMMY VARIABLES DENOTING THE PRESENCE OF MISSING DATA FOR
THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS PARENTAL YEARS OF SCHOOLING AND THE NUMBER OF SIBLINGS )N
PRELIMINARY ANALYSES THE 0)3! INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH 4ABLE WAS ALSO INCLUDED BUT IN MOST COUNTRIES THIS VARIABLE
TURNED OUT TO BE COLLINEAR WITH THE OTHER FACTORS COMPRISING THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS AND WAS
THEREFORE DROPPED FROM THE ANALYSIS 4HE RESULTS PERTAINING TO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES WERE SIMILAR TO
THOSE REPORTED IN #HAPTER AND ARE THEREFORE NOT REPORTED IN 4ABLE 4HE COEFFICIENTS FOR hOTHER TYPES OF FAMILIESv WERE
IN MOST CASES STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT BUT AS THIS IS A RELATIVELY SMALL CATEGORY THESE FINDINGS ARE NOT SHOWN IN 4ABLE
#(!04%2 7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ
4HIS INCLUDES ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! EXCEPT THE .ETHERLANDS
4HE SMALL SIZE OF THE NON
NATIVE STUDENT POPULATIONS MAKES IT VERY DIFFICULT TO DETECT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN
SOME COUNTRIES GIVEN THE SAMPLE SIZES EMPLOYED IN 0)3!
/NE STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE 0)3! SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS IS ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
EQUAL TO INDEX POINTS
.OTE THAT THIS VALUE DIFFERS FROM THE FIGURES SHOWN IN 4ABLE A 4HE REASON FOR THIS DIFFERENCE IS THAT 4ABLE PRESENTS THE
UNIQUE CONTRIBUTION OF THE IMPACT OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ASSUMING ALL
OTHER FACTORS SHOWN IN THE TABLE TO BE EQUALLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES "Y CONTRAST 4ABLE A SHOWS THE IMPACT
OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE WITHOUT ACCOUNTING FOR DIFFERENCES IN OTHER
FACTORS
/THER COUNTRIES WHERE THE EFFECTS ARE NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT ARE (UNGARY 0OLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES
3EE "ROOKOVER ET AL (ENDERSON ET AL 2UMBERGER ET AL 3HAVIT ET AL 3UMMERS ET AL AND
7ILLMS
(ALF OF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION WAS CHOSEN FOR THE FOLLOWING COMPARISONS BECAUSE THIS VALUE DESCRIBES REALISTIC
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF THEIR SOCIO
ECONOMIC COMPOSITION /N AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH QUARTILES OF THE SCHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS OF
A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION AND IN ALL BUT ONE /%#$ COUNTRY THIS DIFFERENCE IS GREATER THAN HALF A STUDENT
LEVEL
STANDARD DEVIATION ON THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX
4HE TYPICAL RANGE IS REPRESENTED BY THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TH AND TH PERCENTILES OF THE SCHOOL MEAN VALUES FOR THE
0)3! INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
4HE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASE IN THE SCHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS BY HALF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION ARE READING LITERACY FOR MALES AND FOR FEMALES MATHEMATICAL LITERACY FOR MALES AND
FOR FEMALES SCIENTIFIC LITERACY FOR MALES AND FOR FEMALES
4HIS COVERS ALL QUALIFICATIONS AT ,EVEL ! OF THE )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF %DUCATION )3#%$
)N ORDER TO ALLOW FOR A POSSIBLE NON
LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS AND PERFORMANCE LINEAR AND
QUADRATIC TERMS WERE USED IN THE MODEL !LSO THERE WERE A NUMBER OF SCHOOLS WITH VERY LARGE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS
WHICH UNDULY AFFECTED THE RELATIONSHIPS 4O CAPTURE THE EFFECT OF STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS IN THESE SCHOOLS A SEPARATE
TERM WAS INTRODUCED IN THE MODEL
)N SOME COUNTRIES THERE WERE SCHOOLS WITH STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS ABOVE 4HESE SCHOOLS WERE TREATED SEPARATELY IN
THE ANALYSIS BY MODELLING THEM WITH A SEPARATE DUMMY VARIABLE 4HE RESULTS INDICATE THAT THE AVERAGE SCORES ON THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCALE IN THESE SCHOOLS WERE ALSO SUBSTANTIALLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
)T NEEDS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT THAT IN MANY COUNTRIES THERE IS LITTLE VARIATION IN TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS SO THAT THE
RELATIONSHIP WOULD BE EXPECTED TO BE WEAK
4HE VARIABLES FOR ACHIEVEMENT PRESS AND TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS HAD NON
LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENT PERFORMANCE
4O OVERCOME THIS THE MEASURES OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS USED IN THIS ANALYSIS INDICATE EXTREME CASES WHERE STUDENTS REPORTED
hNEVERv TO ITEMS SUCH AS h4HE TEACHER TELLS STUDENTS THAT THEY CAN DO BETTERv 3IMILARLY THE MEASURE OF TEACHER
STUDENT
RELATIONS USED IN THIS CHAPTER INDICATES THE PROPORTION OF RESPONSES WHERE STUDENTS INDICATED hSTRONGLY DIAGREEv TO STATEMENTS
INDICATING A POSITIVE STUDENT
TEACHER RELATIONSHIP
4HE BETWEEN
COUNTRY VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE THAT IS EXPLAINED JOINTLY BY SCHOOL
FACTORS AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC FACTORS IS LESS THAN THAT EXPLAINED BY SCHOOL FACTORS ALONE )N THESE MODELS THE EFFECTS OF
THE SCHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS WERE ALLOWED TO VARY BETWEEN COUNTRIES 4HE VARIANCE
COMPONENTS WERE CALCULATED FOR A STUDENT WITH AVERAGE VALUES ON THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IN A
SCHOOL WITH A SCHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS OF ZERO IE THE AVERAGE FOR ALL /%#$ STUDENTS
4HE REDUCTION IN VARIANCE WHEN THE MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS IS ADDED TO THE MODEL SUGGESTS
THAT THERE MAY BE SIGNIFICANT INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SCHOOL RESOURCES AND SCHOOL MEAN ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
STATUS
7
>ÌÊ>iÃÊ>Ê`vviÀiViÊÌÊ*-ÊÀiÃÕÌÃ\ÊÃiÊ`V>ÌÃÊvÀÊ«VÞ #(!04%2
!T THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL THE IMPACT OF THE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE LEVELS OFF AFTER 4HIS
VALUE WAS THEREFORE CHOSEN AS THE HIGHEST CATEGORY ON THIS INDEX
4HE ANALYSIS FITTED A TWO LEVEL HIERARCHICAL MODEL WITHIN EACH COUNTRY 4HE MODEL IS THE SAME AS THE THREE LEVEL MODEL
USED FOR 4ABLE EXCEPT THAT THE TWO MEASURES FOR THE STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIO WERE REPLACED BY SEPARATE DUMMY
VARIABLES INDICATING THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT TEACHING STAFF RATIOS OF TO TO AND ABOVE COMPARED WITH STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIOS BELOW 4HIS ALLOWED FOR A MORE DIRECT COMPARISON OF THE NON LINEAR EFFECT WITHIN EACH COUNTRY !LSO
THE MODEL DID NOT INCLUDE SCHOOL SIZE AS THE EFFECTS VARIED SUBSTANTIALLY BETWEEN COUNTRIES AND IN MOST CASES WERE NOT
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT 4HE RESULTS OF THE META ANALYSIS YIELDED FINDINGS SIMILAR TO THOSE DERIVED FROM THE THREE LEVEL MODEL
EXCEPT THAT THE EFFECT OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS WAS SMALLER AND NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
4HE COEFFICIENTS FOR THE WITHIN COUNTRY ANALYSES VARY CONSIDERABLE AS INDICATED BY THE SIZE OF THEIR STANDARD ERRORS
#OEFFICIENTS CAN VARY FROM COUNTRY TO COUNTRY BECAUSE OF hTRUEv VARIATION IN THEIR EFFECTS FOR EACH COUNTRY BUT ALSO BECAUSE
OF MEASUREMENT ERROR AND SAMPLING ERROR )N THESE ANALYSES SAMPLING ERROR PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE BECAUSE THE ACCURACY
OF THE COEFFICIENTS FOR SCHOOL LEVEL VARIABLES DEPENDS MAINLY ON THE NUMBER OF SCHOOLS SAMPLED WITHIN EACH COUNTRY RATHER
THAN THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS 4HE NUMBER OF SCHOOLS IN THIS ANALYSIS VARIED FROM SCHOOLS IN ,UXEMBOURG TO SCHOOLS
IN #ANADA WITH AN AVERAGE OF ABOUT SCHOOLS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES 4HIS PROBLEM ESPECIALLY AFFECTS THE COEFFICIENTS FOR
STUDENT STAFF RATIOS AS IN SOME CASES THESE ARE BASED ON THE RESULTS FOR A VERY SMALL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS
2%&%2%.#%3
!UDAS 2 AND 7ILLMS * $ %NGAGEMENT AND $ROPPING OUT OF 3CHOOL ! LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE 2EPORT PREPARED FOR (UMAN
2ESOURCES $EVELOPMENT #ANADA
"AUMERT * (EYN 3 AND +ÚLLER / $AS +IELER ,ERNSTRATEGIEN )NVENTAR +3) )NSTITUT FàR DIE 0ËDAGOGIK DER
.ATURWISSENSCHAFTEN AN DER 5NIVERSITËT +IEL +IEL
"AUMERT * 'RUEHN 3 (EYN 3 +ÚLLER / AND 3CHNABEL +5 "ILDUNGSVERLËUFE UND 0SYCHOSOZIALE %NTWICKLUNG IM
*UGENDALTER ")*5 $OKUMENTATION "AND -AX 0LANCK )NSTITUT FàR "ILDUNGSFORSCHUNG "ERLIN
"EATON !% -ULLIS )6 -ARTIN -/ 'ONZALEZ %* +ELLY $, AND 3MITH 4! -ATHEMATICS !CHIEVEMENT IN
THE -IDDLE 3CHOOL 9EARS #ENTER FOR THE 3TUDY OF 4ESTING %VALUATION AND %DUCATIONAL 0OLICY "OSTON #OLLEGE
"ROOKOVER 7" 3CHWEITZER *( 3CHNEIDER *- "EADY #( &LOOD 0+ AND 7ISENBAKER *-
h%LEMENTARY SCHOOL SOCIAL CLIMATE AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENTv !MERICAN %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH *OURNAL 6OL PP
%IGNOR $ 4AYLOR # +IRSCH ) AND *AMIESON * $EVELOPMENT OF A 3CALE FOR !SSESSING THE ,EVEL OF #OMPUTER &AMILIARITY
OF 4/%&, 3TUDENTS 4/%&, 2ESEARCH 2EPORT .O %DUCATIONAL 4ESTING 3ERVICE 0RINCETON .*
'ANZEBOOM ("' $E 'RAAF 0 AND 4REIMAN $* WITH $E ,EEUW * h! STANDARD INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUSv 3OCIAL 3CIENCE 2ESEARCH 6OL PP
'ANZEBOOM ("' 4REIMAN $* AND $ONALD * h)NTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE MEASURES OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
FOR THE )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF /CCUPATIONSv 3OCIAL 3CIENCE 2ESEARCH 6OL PP
(ENDERSON 6 -IESZKOWSKI 0 AND 3AUVAGEAU 9 h0EER GROUP EFFECTS AND EDUCATIONAL PRODUCTION FUNCTIONSv
*OURNAL OF 0UBLIC %CONOMICS 6OL PP
(OUSE * +ESSLER 2 (ERZOG 2 -ERO 20 +INNEY !- AND "RESLOW -* h!GE SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
AND HEALTHv 4HE -ILLBANK 1UARTERLY 6OL PP
).3%% $0$ %TUDE DE LA FIABILITÏ DES DÏCLARATIONS DES ÏLÒVES DE ANS DANS LE CADRE DE LOPÏRATION 0)3! DOCUMENT INTERNE
$0$ ).3%% &RANCE
-ARSH ( 7 3HAVELSON 2* AND "YRNE "- h! MULTIDIMENSIONAL HIERARCHICAL SELF CONCEPTv IN 2 0 ,IPKA AND
4 - "RINTHAUPT %DS 3TUDYING THE 3ELF 3ELF PERSPECTIVES ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 3TATE 5NIVERSITY OF .EW 9ORK 0RESS !LBANY
-IROWSKY * AND (U 0 h0HYSICAL IMPAIRMENT AND THE DIMINISHING EFFECTS OF INCOMEv 3OCIAL &ORCES 6OL
PP
-ULLIS )6 -ARTIN -/ "EATON !% 'ONZALEZ %* +ELLY $, AND 3MITH 4! -ATHEMATICS AND 3CIENCE
!CHIEVEMENT IN THE &INAL 9EAR OF 3ECONDARY 3CHOOL #ENTER FOR THE 3TUDY OF 4ESTING %VALUATION AND %DUCATIONAL 0OLICY "OSTON #OLLEGE
/%#$ %DUCATION AT A 'LANCE /%#$ )NDICATORS 0ARIS
/%#$ %DUCATION AT A 'LANCE /%#$ )NDICATORS 0ARIS
/%#$ A -EASURING 3TUDENT +NOWLEDGE AND 3KILLS n ! .EW &RAMEWORK FOR !SSESSMENT 0ARIS
/%#$ B #LASSIFYING %DUCATIONAL 0ROGRAMMES -ANUAL FOR )3#%$ )MPLEMENTATION IN /%#$ #OUNTRIES 0ARIS
/%#$ %DUCATION AT A 'LANCE /%#$ )NDICATORS 0ARIS
/%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA ,ITERACY %CONOMY AND 3OCIETY 2ESULTS OF THE &IRST )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY 0ARIS AND
/TTAWA
/%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA ,ITERACY IN THE )NFORMATION !GE 0ARIS AND /TTAWA
/WENS , AND "ARNES * ,EARNING 0REFERENCES 3CALES !#%2 6ICTORIA !USTRALIA
0ELGRUM 7* AND !NDERSON 2% )#4 AND THE %MERGING 0ARADIGM FOR ,IFELONG ,EARNING A WORLDWIDE EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
OF INFRASTRUCTURE GOALS AND PRACTICES )NTERNATIONAL !SSOCIATION FOR THE %VALUATION OF %DUCATIONAL !CHIEVEMENT )%! !MSTERDAM
0INTRICH 02 3MITH $!& 'ARCIA 4 AND -C+EACHIE 7* h2ELIABILITY AND PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF THE MOTIVATED
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING QUESTIONNAIRE -,31 v %DUCATIONAL AND 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EASUREMENT 6OL PP
2EFERENCES
2UMBERGER 2 AND 7ILLMS *$ h4HE IMPACT OF RACIAL AND ETHNIC SEGREGATION ON THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN #ALIFORNIA
HIGH SCHOOLSv %DUCATIONAL %VALUATION AND 0OLICY !NALYSIS 6OL PP
3HAVIT 9 AND 7ILLIAMS 2! h!BILITY GROUPING AND CONTEXTUAL DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL EXPECTATIONS IN )SRAELv
!MERICAN 3OCIOLOGICAL 2EVIEW 6OL PP
3UMMERS !! AND 7OLFE ", h$O SCHOOLS MAKE A DIFFERENCE v !MERICAN %CONOMIC 2EVIEW 6OL PP
7ARM 4! h7EIGHTED MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION OF ABILITY IN )TEM 2ESPONSE 4HEORY WITH TESTS OF FINITE LENGTHv
4ECHNICAL 2EPORT #') 42 53 #OAST 'UARD )NSTITUTE /KLAHOMA #ITY
7ILLMS *$ h3OCIAL CLASS SEGREGATION AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO PUPILS EXAMINATION RESULTS IN 3COTLANDv !MERICAN
3OCIOLOGICAL 2EVIEW 6OL PP
7ILLMS *$ AND #HEN - h4HE EFFECTS OF ABILITY GROUPING ON THE ETHNIC ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN )SRAELI ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLSv !MERICAN *OURNAL OF %DUCATION 6OL PP
7OLFSON - 2OWE ' 'ENTLEMAN *& AND 4OMIAK - h#AREER EARNINGS AND DEATH ! LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF
OLDER #ANADIAN MENv *OURNAL OF 'ERONTOLOGY 6OL PP 3 3
ANNEX
A
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Annex A1: Construction of indices and other derived
measures from the student and school con-
text questionnaires
Annex A2: Explained variation in student performance
Annex A3: The PISA target population
and the PISA samples
Annex A4: Standard errors, significance tests and mul-
tiple comparisons
Annex A5: Quality assurance
Annex A6: Development of the
PISA assessment instruments
Annex A7: Reliability of the marking of open-ended
items
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! #ONSTRUCTION OF INDICES AND OTHER DERIVED MEASURES FROM THE STUDENT AND
SCHOOL CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES
3EVERAL OF 0)3!S MEASURES REFLECT INDICES THAT SUMMARISE RESPONSES FROM STUDENTS OR SCHOOL REPRESENTATIVES TYPICALLY PRINCIPALS
TO A SERIES OF RELATED QUESTIONS 4HE QUESTIONS WERE SELECTED FROM LARGER CONSTRUCTS ON THE BASIS OF THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH 3TRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING WAS USED TO CONFIRM THE THEORETICALLY EXPECTED BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDICES
AND TO VALIDATE THEIR COMPARABILITY ACROSS COUNTRIES &OR THIS PURPOSE A MODEL WAS ESTIMATED SEPARATELY FOR EACH COUNTRY AND
COLLECTIVELY FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES
4HIS SECTION EXPLAINS THE INDICES DERIVED FROM THE STUDENT AND SCHOOL CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES THAT ARE USED IN THIS REPORT &OR A
DESCRIPTION OF OTHER 0)3! INDICES AND DETAILS ON THE METHODS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT WHICH WILL BE AVAILABLE ON THE
)NTERNET AT THE END OF
5NLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED WHERE AN INDEX INVOLVES MULTIPLE QUESTIONS AND STUDENT RESPONSES THE INDEX WAS SCALED USING A
WEIGHTED MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATE USING A ONE PARAMETER ITEM RESPONSE MODEL REFERRED TO AS A 7!2- ESTIMATOR SEE
7ARM WITH THREE STAGES
n 4HE QUESTION PARAMETERS WERE ESTIMATED FROM EQUAL SIZED SUB SAMPLES OF STUDENTS FROM EACH /%#$ COUNTRY
n 4HE ESTIMATES WERE COMPUTED FOR ALL STUDENTS AND ALL SCHOOLS BY ANCHORING THE QUESTION PARAMETERS OBTAINED IN THE
PRECEDING STEP
n 4HE INDICES WERE THEN STANDARDISED SO THAT THE MEAN OF THE INDEX VALUE FOR THE /%#$ STUDENT POPULATION WAS ZERO AND
THE STANDARD DEVIATION WAS ONE COUNTRIES BEING GIVEN EQUAL WEIGHT IN THE STANDARDISATION PROCESS
)T IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT NEGATIVE VALUES IN AN INDEX DO NOT NECESSARILY IMPLY THAT STUDENTS RESPONDED NEGATIVELY TO THE
UNDERLYING QUESTIONS ! NEGATIVE VALUE MERELY INDICATES THAT A GROUP OF STUDENTS OR ALL STUDENTS COLLECTIVELY IN A SINGLE COUNTRY
OR PRINCIPALS RESPONDED LESS POSITIVELY THAN ALL STUDENTS OR PRINCIPALS DID ON AVERAGE ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES ,IKEWISE A POSITIVE
VALUE ON AN INDEX INDICATES THAT A GROUP OF STUDENTS OR PRINCIPALS RESPONDED MORE FAVOURABLY OR MORE POSITIVELY THAN STUDENTS
OR PRINCIPALS DID ON AVERAGE IN /%#$ COUNTRIES
4ERMS ENCLOSED IN BRACKETS IN THE FOLLOWING DESCRIPTIONS WERE REPLACED IN THE NATIONAL VERSIONS OF THE STUDENT AND SCHOOL
QUESTIONNAIRES BY THE APPROPRIATE NATIONAL EQUIVALENT &OR EXAMPLE THE TERM QUALIFICATION AT )3#%$ LEVEL ! WAS TRANSLATED IN
THE 5NITED 3TATES INTO h"ACHELORS $EGREE POST
GRADUATE CERTIFICATE PROGRAM -ASTERS DEGREE PROGRAM OR FIRST PROFESSIONAL DEGREE
PROGRAMv 3IMILARLY THE TERM CLASSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT IN ,UXEMBOURG WAS TRANSLATED INTO h'ERMAN CLASSESv OR
h&RENCH CLASSESv DEPENDING ON WHETHER STUDENTS RECEIVED THE 'ERMAN OR &RENCH VERSION OF THE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
&OR THE RELIABILITIES OF THE INDICES SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
3TUDENT CHARACTERISTICS AND FAMILY BACKGROUND
&AMILY STRUCTURE
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO REPORT WHO USUALLY LIVED AT HOME WITH THEM 4HE RESPONSE CATEGORIES WERE THEN GROUPED INTO FOUR
CATEGORIES I SINGLE
PARENT FAMILY STUDENTS WHO REPORTED LIVING WITH ONE OF THE FOLLOWING MOTHER FATHER FEMALE GUARDIAN OR
MALE GUARDIAN II NUCLEAR FAMILY STUDENTS WHO REPORTED LIVING WITH A MOTHER AND A FATHER III MIXED FAMILY STUDENTS WHO
REPORTED LIVING WITH A MOTHER AND A MALE GUARDIAN A FATHER AND A FEMALE GUARDIAN OR TWO GUARDIANS AND IV OTHER RESPONSE
COMBINATIONS
.UMBER OF SIBLINGS
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO INDICATE THE NUMBER OF SIBLINGS OLDER THAN THEMSELVES YOUNGER THAN THEMSELVES OR OF THE SAME AGE &OR
THE ANALYSES IN #HAPTER THE NUMBERS IN EACH CATEGORY WERE ADDED TOGETHER
#OUNTRY OF BIRTH
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED IF THEY THEIR MOTHER AND THEIR FATHER WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF ASSESSMENT OR IN ANOTHER COUNTRY
4HE RESPONSE CATEGORIES WERE THEN GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES I hNATIVEv STUDENTS THOSE STUDENTS BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF
ASSESSMENT AND WHO HAD AT LEAST ONE PARENT BORN IN THAT COUNTRY II hFIRST
GENERATIONv STUDENTS THOSE BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF
!..%8 !
ASSESSMENT BUT WHOSE PARENTS WERE BORN IN ANOTHER COUNTRY AND III hNON NATIVEv STUDENTS THOSE BORN OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY
OF ASSESSMENT AND WHOSE PARENTS WERE ALSO BORN IN ANOTHER COUNTRY
,ANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED IF THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME IS THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT ANOTHER OFFICIAL NATIONAL
LANGUAGE ANOTHER NATIONAL DIALECT OR LANGUAGE OR ANOTHER LANGUAGE 4HE RESPONSES WERE THEN GROUPED INTO TWO CATEGORIES
I THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME IS DIFFERENT FROM THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT FROM OTHER OFFICIAL NATIONAL
LANGUAGES AND FROM OTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS OR LANGUAGES AND II THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME IS THE LANGUAGE
OF ASSESSMENT OTHER OFFICIAL NATIONAL LANGUAGES OR OTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS OR LANGUAGES
%CONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO REPORT THEIR MOTHERS AND FATHERS OCCUPATIONS AND TO STATE WHETHER EACH PARENT WAS IN FULL TIME PAID
WORK PART TIME PAID WORK NOT WORKING BUT LOOKING FOR A PAID JOB OR hOTHERv 4HE OPEN ENDED RESPONSES WERE THEN CODED IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF /CCUPATIONS )3#/
4HE 0)3! )NTERNATIONAL 3OCIO
%CONOMIC )NDEX OF /CCUPATIONAL 3TATUS )3%) WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS RESPONSES ON
PARENTAL OCCUPATION 4HE INDEX CAPTURES THE ATTRIBUTES OF OCCUPATIONS THAT CONVERT PARENTS EDUCATION INTO INCOME 4HE INDEX
WAS DERIVED BY THE OPTIMAL SCALING OF OCCUPATION GROUPS TO MAXIMISE THE INDIRECT EFFECT OF EDUCATION ON INCOME THROUGH
OCCUPATION AND TO MINIMISE THE DIRECT EFFECT OF EDUCATION ON INCOME NET OF OCCUPATION BOTH EFFECTS BEING NET OF AGE &OR MORE
INFORMATION ON THE METHODOLOGY SEE 'ANZEBOOM ET AL 4HE 0)3! )NTERNATIONAL 3OCIO
%CONOMIC )NDEX OF /CCUPATIONAL
3TATUS IS BASED ON EITHER THE FATHERS OR MOTHERS OCCUPATIONS WHICHEVER IS THE HIGHER
6ALUES ON THE INDEX RANGE FROM TO LOW VALUES REPRESENT LOW SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS AND HIGH VALUES REPRESENT HIGH SOCIO
ECONOMIC STATUS
4O CAPTURE WIDER ASPECTS OF A STUDENTS FAMILY AND HOME BACKGROUND IN ADDITION TO OCCUPATIONAL STATUS THE 0)3! INDEX OF
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS WAS CREATED ON THE BASIS OF THE FOLLOWING VARIABLES THE )NTERNATIONAL 3OCIO
%CONOMIC
)NDEX OF /CCUPATIONAL 3TATUS )3%) SEE 4ABLE THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF THE STUDENTS PARENTS CONVERTED INTO
YEARS OF SCHOOLING FOR DATA ON PARENTAL LEVELS OF EDUCATION SEE 4ABLE FOR THE CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS SEE 4ABLE ! THE
0)3! INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH SEE 4ABLE THE 0)3! INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND THE 0)3! INDEX OF POSSESSIONS
RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE IN THE FAMILY HOME SEE 4ABLE 4HE )3%) REPRESENTS THE FIRST PRINCIPLE COMPONENT OF THE FACTORS
DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HE INDEX HAS BEEN CONSTRUCTED SUCH THAT ITS MEAN IS AND ITS STANDARD DEVIATION IS
!MONG THESE COMPONENTS THE DATA MOST COMMONLY MISSING RELATE TO THE )NTERNATIONAL 3OCIO %CONOMIC )NDEX OF /CCUPATIONAL
3TATUS )3%) PARENTAL EDUCATION OR BOTH 3EPARATE FACTOR ANALYSES WERE THEREFORE UNDERTAKEN FOR ALL STUDENTS WITH VALID DATA
FOR I THE SOCIO ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS THE INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH THE INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
AND THE INDEX OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE IN THE FAMILY HOME II YEARS OF PARENTAL EDUCATION THE INDEX OF FAMILY
WEALTH THE INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND THE INDEX OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE IN THE FAMILY HOME
AND III THE INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH THE INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND THE INDEX OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv
CULTURE IN THE FAMILY HOME 3TUDENTS WERE THEN ASSIGNED A FACTOR SCORE BASED ON THE AMOUNT OF DATA AVAILABLE &OR THIS TO BE DONE
STUDENTS HAD TO HAVE DATA ON AT LEAST THREE VARIABLES )N THE CASE OF &RANCE QUESTIONS REMAIN ABOUT THE RELIABILITY OF STUDENTS
RESPONSES REGARDING PARENTAL OCCUPATION AND EDUCATION SEE ).3%%
0ARENTAL EDUCATION
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED TO CLASSIFY THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF THEIR MOTHER AND FATHER ON THE BASIS OF NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
WHICH WERE THEN CODED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE )NTERNATIONAL 3TANDARD #LASSIFICATION OF %DUCATION )3#%$ IN ORDER TO
OBTAIN INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 4HE RESULTING CATEGORIES WERE DID NOT GO TO SCHOOL
COMPLETED )3#%$ ,EVEL PRIMARY EDUCATION COMPLETED )3#%$ ,EVEL LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION COMPLETED
)3#%$ ,EVEL " OR # UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION AIMED IN MOST COUNTRIES AT PROVIDING DIRECT ENTRY INTO THE LABOUR
MARKET COMPLETED )3#%$ ,EVEL ! UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION AIMED IN MOST COUNTRIES AT GAINING ENTRY INTO TERTIARY
EDUCATION AND COMPLETED )3#%$ ,EVEL ! " OR TERTIARY EDUCATION
!..%8 !
&OR A LIST OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL CATEGORIES USED IN THE BRACKETS ABOVE SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
&OR THE ANALYSES IN #HAPTER THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF THE PARENTS WAS CONVERTED INTO AN ESTIMATE OF YEARS
OF SCHOOLING BASED ON THE COEFFICIENTS SHOWN IN 4ABLE !
0ARENTAL INTEREST
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THEIR PARENTS OR
GUARDIANS ENGAGED WITH THEM IN THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES DISCUSSING POLITICAL OR SOCIAL ISSUES DISCUSSING BOOKS FILMS OR TELEVISION
PROGRAMMES AND LISTENING TO CLASSICAL MUSIC
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THEIR PARENTS OR
GUARDIANS ENGAGED WITH THEM IN THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES DISCUSSING HOW WELL THEY ARE DOING AT SCHOOL EATING THE MAIN MEAL
WITH THEM AROUND A TABLE AND SPENDING TIME SIMPLY TALKING WITH THEM
3TUDENTS RESPONDED TO EACH STATEMENT ON A FIVE POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NEVER OR HARDLY EVER @A FEW TIMES
A YEAR @ABOUT ONCE A MONTH @SEVERAL TIMES A MONTH AND @SEVERAL TIMES A WEEK "OTH INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2-
ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
4ABLE !
,EVELS OF PARENTAL EDUCATION CONVERTED INTO YEARS OF SCHOOLING
#OMPLETED #OMPLETED
)3#%$ ,EVELS " OR )3#%$ ,EVEL !
# UPPER SECONDARY UPPER SECONDARY #OMPLETED
#OMPLETED #OMPLETED EDUCATION AIMED AT EDUCATION AIMED )3#%$ ,EVEL !
)3#%$ ,EVEL )3#%$ ,EVEL DIRECT ENTRY INTO AT ENTRY INTO " OR
$ID NOT GO TO SCHOOL PRIMARY EDUCATION SECONDARY EDUCATION THE LABOUR MARKET TERTIARY EDUCATION TERTIARY EDUCATION
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
"ELGIUM &R
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 !
0ARTICIPATION IN ADDITIONAL COURSES
3TUDENTS WERE ASKED IF THEY HAD SOMETIMES OR REGULARLY ATTENDED ANY SPECIAL COURSES OUTSIDE SCHOOL DURING THE PREVIOUS THREE
YEARS IN ORDER TO IMPROVE RESULTS 4HE RESPONSE CATEGORIES WERE THEN GROUPED INTO TWO CATEGORIES I STUDENTS WHO ATTENDED
ADDITIONAL COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT COURSES IN OTHER SUBJECTS OR EXTENSION OR OTHER ADDITIONAL COURSES OUTSIDE
SCHOOL AND II STUDENTS WHO ATTENDED REMEDIAL COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT REMEDIAL COURSES IN OTHER SUBJECTS
OUTSIDE SCHOOL OR OTHER TRAINING TO IMPROVE STUDY SKILLS OR PRIVATE TUTORING
#ULTURAL ACTIVITIES
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON HOW OFTEN THEY HAD
PARTICIPATED IN THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES DURING THE PRECEDING YEAR VISITED A MUSEUM OR ART GALLERY ATTENDED AN OPERA BALLET
OR CLASSICAL SYMPHONY CONCERT AND WATCHED LIVE THEATRE 3TUDENTS RESPONDED TO EACH STATEMENT ON A FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE
FOLLOWING CATEGORIES @NEVER OR HARDLY EVER @ONCE OR TWICE A YEAR @ OR TIMES A YEAR AND @MORE THAN TIMES A YEAR 4HE
INDEX WAS DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
&AMILY POSSESSIONS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON I THE AVAILABILITY IN THEIR HOME OF A DISHWASHER
A ROOM OF THEIR OWN EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE AND A LINK TO THE )NTERNET AND II THE NUMBER OF CELLULAR PHONES TELEVISION SETS
COMPUTERS MOTOR CARS AND BATHROOMS AT HOME
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF HOME EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE AVAILABILITY AND NUMBER OF THE
FOLLOWING ITEMS IN THEIR HOME A DICTIONARY A QUIET PLACE TO STUDY A DESK FOR STUDY TEXTBOOKS AND CALCULATORS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF POSSESSIONS RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE IN THE FAMILY HOME WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE
AVAILABILITY OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS IN THEIR HOME CLASSICAL LITERATURE EXAMPLES WERE GIVEN BOOKS OF POETRY AND WORKS OF ART
EXAMPLES WERE GIVEN
4HESE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR 7ARM DESCRIBED ABOVE
,EARNING STRATEGIES AND ATTITUDES
%NGAGEMENT IN READING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS )
READ ONLY IF ) HAVE TO READING IS ONE OF MY FAVOURITE HOBBIES ) LIKE TALKING ABOUT BOOKS WITH OTHER PEOPLE ) FIND IT HARD TO FINISH
BOOKS ) FEEL HAPPY IF ) RECEIVE A BOOK AS A PRESENT FOR ME READING IS A WASTE OF TIME ) ENJOY GOING TO A BOOKSTORE OR A LIBRARY
) READ ONLY TO GET INFORMATION THAT ) NEED AND ) CANNOT SIT STILL AND READ FOR MORE THAN A FEW MINUTES ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH
THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @STRONGLY DISAGREE @DISAGREE @AGREE AND @STRONGLY AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE
7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
3TUDENT INTEREST IN READING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF INTEREST IN READING WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BECAUSE
READING IS FUN ) WOULDNT WANT TO GIVE IT UP ) READ IN MY SPARE TIME AND WHEN ) READ ) SOMETIMES GET TOTALLY ABSORBED ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @DISAGREE @DISAGREE SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES
WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE
"AUMERT ET AL
3TUDENT INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS
WHEN ) DO MATHEMATICS ) SOMETIMES GET TOTALLY ABSORBED MATHEMATICS IS IMPORTANT TO ME PERSONALLY AND BECAUSE DOING
MATHEMATICS IS FUN ) WOULDNT WANT TO GIVE IT UP ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @DISAGREE @DISAGREE
SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR
INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE "AUMERT ET AL
!..%8 !
#ONTROL STRATEGIES
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES WAS DERIVED FROM THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS USED THE FOLLOWING STRATEGIES WHEN
STUDYING ) START BY FIGURING OUT WHAT EXACTLY ) NEED TO LEARN ) FORCE MYSELF TO CHECK TO SEE IF ) REMEMBER WHAT ) HAVE LEARNED
) TRY TO FIGURE OUT WHICH CONCEPTS ) STILL HAVENT REALLY UNDERSTOOD ) MAKE SURE THAT ) REMEMBER THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS
AND WHEN ) STUDY AND ) DONT UNDERSTAND SOMETHING ) LOOK FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION TO CLARIFY THIS ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH
THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @ALMOST NEVER @SOMETIMES @OFTEN AND @ALMOST ALWAYS WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE
7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE "AUMERT ET AL
-EMORISING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES WAS DERIVED FROM THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS USED THE FOLLOWING STRATEGIES
WHEN STUDYING ) TRY TO MEMORISE EVERYTHING THAT MIGHT BE COVERED ) MEMORISE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE ) MEMORISE ALL NEW
MATERIAL SO THAT ) CAN RECITE IT AND ) PRACTICE BY SAYING THE MATERIAL TO MYSELF OVER AND OVER ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE
RESPONSE CATEGORIES @ALMOST NEVER @SOMETIMES @OFTEN AND @ALMOST ALWAYS WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE
7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE "AUMERT AND
0INTRICH ET AL
%LABORATION
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES WAS DERIVED FROM THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS USED THE FOLLOWING STRATEGIES
WHEN STUDYING ) TRY TO RELATE NEW MATERIAL TO THINGS ) HAVE LEARNED IN OTHER SUBJECTS ) FIGURE OUT HOW THE INFORMATION MIGHT BE
USEFUL IN THE REAL WORLD ) TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE MATERIAL BETTER BY RELATING IT TO THINGS ) ALREADY KNOW AND ) FIGURE OUT HOW THE
MATERIAL FITS IN WITH WHAT ) HAVE ALREADY LEARNED ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @ALMOST NEVER @SOMETIMES
@OFTEN AND @ALMOST ALWAYS WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON
THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE "AUMERT ET AL
#O OPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE LEARNING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ) LIKE
TO WORK WITH OTHER STUDENTS ) LEARN THE MOST WHEN ) WORK WITH OTHER STUDENTS ) DO MY BEST WORK WHEN ) WORK WITH OTHER
STUDENTS ) LIKE TO HELP OTHER PEOPLE DO WELL IN A GROUP AND IT IS HELPFUL TO PUT TOGETHER EVERYONES IDEAS WHEN WORKING ON A
PROJECT ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @DISAGREE @DISAGREE SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED
4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE
INDEX SEE /WENS AND "ARNES
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING WAS DERIVED FROM THE STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS )
LIKE TO TRY TO BE BETTER THAN OTHER STUDENTS TRYING TO BE BETTER THAN OTHERS MAKES ME WORK WELL ) WOULD LIKE TO BE THE BEST AT
SOMETHING AND ) LEARN THINGS FASTER IF )M TRYING TO DO BETTER THAN THE OTHERS ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES
@DISAGREE @DISAGREE SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR
DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE /WENS AND "ARNES
3TUDENT SELF CONCEPT IN READING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN READING WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS )M
HOPELESS IN CLASSES OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT ) LEARN THINGS QUICKLY IN THE CLASSES OF THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT
AND ) GET GOOD MARKS IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @DISAGREE @DISAGREE
SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR
INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE -ARSH ET AL
3TUDENT SELF CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS
) GET GOOD MARKS IN MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS IS ONE OF MY BEST SUBJECTS AND ) HAVE ALWAYS DONE WELL IN MATHEMATICS ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @DISAGREE @DISAGREE SOMEWHAT @AGREE SOMEWHAT AND @AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES
WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE
-ARSH ET AL
!..%8 !
)NTEREST IN COMPUTERS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS WAS DERIVED FROM THE STUDENTS RESPONSES TO THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS IT IS VERY
IMPORTANT TO ME TO WORK WITH A COMPUTER TO PLAY OR WORK WITH A COMPUTER IS REALLY FUN ) USE A COMPUTER BECAUSE ) AM
VERY INTERESTED IN THIS AND ) FORGET THE TIME WHEN ) AM WORKING WITH THE COMPUTER ! TWO
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE
CATEGORIES @YES AND @NO WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON
THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE %IGNOR ET AL
#OMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS RESPONSES TO THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS (OW COMFORTABLE ARE YOU WITH USING A COMPUTER (OW COMFORTABLE ARE YOU WITH USING A COMPUTER TO WRITE A PAPER
(OW COMFORTABLE ARE YOU WITH TAKING A TEST ON A COMPUTER AND )F YOU COMPARE YOURSELF WITH OTHER
YEAR
OLDS HOW WOULD
YOU RATE YOUR ABILITY TO USE A COMPUTER &OR THE FIRST THREE QUESTIONS A FOUR
POINT SCALE WAS USED WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES
@VERY COMFORTABLE @COMFORTABLE @SOMEWHAT COMFORTABLE AND @NOT AT ALL COMFORTABLE &OR THE LAST QUESTIONS A FOUR
POINT SCALE
WAS USED WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @EXCELLENT @GOOD @FAIR AND @POOR 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR
DESCRIBED ABOVE &OR INFORMATION ON THE CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNING OF THE INDEX SEE %IGNOR ET AL
4IME SPENT ON HOMEWORK
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE AMOUNT OF TIME THEY DEVOTE TO
HOMEWORK PER WEEK IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE 3TUDENTS RATED THE AMOUNT ON A FOUR
POINT
SCALE WITH RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NO TIME @LESS THAN HOUR PER WEEK @BETWEEN AND HOURS PER WEEK @ HOURS OR MORE PER
WEEK 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
3CHOOL POLICIES AND PRACTICES
5SE OF STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTED ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH
YEAR
OLDS IN THEIR SCHOOL ARE ASSESSED USING STANDARDISED TESTS TESTS
DEVELOPED BY TEACHERS TEACHERS JUDGMENTAL RATINGS STUDENT PORTFOLIOS AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTSPROJECTSHOMEWORK
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS RATED EACH FORM OF ASSESSMENT ON A FIVE
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NEVER @YEARLY @ TIMES A
YEAR @ TIMES A YEAR AND @ OR MORE TIMES A YEAR 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS ALSO PROVIDED INFORMATION ON WHETHER THE ASSESSMENT
OF
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS WAS USED TO COMPARE A SCHOOLS PERFORMANCE WITH DISTRICT OR NATIONAL PERFORMANCE MONITOR THE
SCHOOLS PROGRESS FROM YEAR TO YEAR AND MAKE JUDGEMENTS ABOUT TEACHERS EFFECTIVENESS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE USE OF FORMAL ASSESSMENTS WAS DERIVED FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH
STANDARDISED TESTS WERE USED AND ON THEIR REPORTS ON HOW THOSE ASSESSMENTS WERE USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING
THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE (IGH VALUES ON THE INDEX IDENTIFY SCHOOLS WHERE STANDARDISED ASSESSMENT PLAYED AN
IMPORTANT ROLE AS A MONITORING TOOL
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE USE OF INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS WAS DERIVED FROM PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH
TESTS DEVELOPED BY TEACHERS TEACHERS JUDGMENTAL RATINGS STUDENT PORTFOLIOS AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTSPROJECTSHOMEWORK
WERE USED AND ON THEIR REPORTS ON THE USES MADE OF THOSE ASSESSMENTS 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR
DESCRIBED ABOVE (IGH POSITIVE VALUES ON THE INDEX IDENTIFY SCHOOLS WHERE INFORMAL ASSESSMENT PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE AS A
MONITORING TOOL
3CHOOL AND TEACHER AUTONOMY
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS WERE ASKED TO REPORT WHETHER TEACHERS DEPARTMENT HEADS THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AN APPOINTED OR ELECTED BOARD
OR AN EDUCATION AUTHORITIES AT A HIGHER LEVEL HAD THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY FOR APPOINTING TEACHERS DISMISSING TEACHERS ESTABLISHING
TEACHERS STARTING SALARIES DETERMINING TEACHERS SALARY INCREASES FORMULATING SCHOOL BUDGETS ALLOCATING BUDGETS WITHIN THE SCHOOL
ESTABLISHING STUDENT DISCIPLINARY POLICIES ESTABLISHING STUDENT ASSESSMENT POLICIES APPROVING STUDENTS FOR ADMITTANCE TO SCHOOL
CHOOSING WHICH TEXTBOOKS TO USE DETERMINING COURSE CONTENT AND DECIDING WHICH COURSES WERE OFFERED
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY USED IN #HAPTER WAS DERIVED FROM THE NUMBER OF CATEGORIES THAT PRINCIPALS CLASSIFIED AS
NOT BEING A SCHOOL RESPONSIBILITY 4HE SCALE WAS THEN INVERTED SO THAT HIGH VALUES INDICATE A HIGH DEGREE OF AUTONOMY
!..%8 !
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF TEACHER AUTONOMY USED IN #HAPTER WAS DERIVED FROM THE NUMBER OF CATEGORIES THAT PRINCIPALS IDENTIFIED
AS BEING MAINLY THE RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHERS
4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
3TAFF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTED THE PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS INVOLVED IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 0ROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT INCLUDED FORMAL PROGRAMMES DESIGNED TO ENHANCE TEACHING SKILLS OR PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES 3UCH PROGRAMMES
MIGHT OR MIGHT NOT LEAD TO A RECOGNISED QUALIFICATION &OR THE PURPOSE OF THIS QUESTION A PROGRAMME HAD TO BE AT LEAST ONE FULL
DAY IN LENGTH AND TO FOCUS ON TEACHING AND EDUCATION
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE WAS DERIVED FROM
PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS WAS HINDERED BY LOW EXPECTATIONS OF TEACHERS POOR
STUDENT
TEACHER RELATIONS TEACHERS NOT MEETING INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS NEEDS TEACHER ABSENTEEISM STAFF RESISTING CHANGE TEACHERS
BEING TOO STRICT WITH STUDENTS AND STUDENTS NOT BEING ENCOURAGED TO ACHIEVE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE
RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NOT AT ALL @VERY LITTLE @TO SOME EXTENT AND @A LOT WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2-
ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOWER VALUES INDICATE A POORER DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT WAS DERIVED FROM THE EXTENT TO WHICH
SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AGREED WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS THE MORALE OF THE TEACHERS IN THIS SCHOOL IS HIGH TEACHERS WORK WITH
ENTHUSIASM TEACHERS TAKE PRIDE IN THIS SCHOOL AND TEACHERS VALUE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE
CATEGORIES @STRONGLY DISAGREE @DISAGREE @AGREE AND @STRONGLY AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2-
ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
3HORTAGE OF TEACHERS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE TEACHER SHORTAGE WAS DERIVED FROM THE PRINCIPALS VIEW ON HOW MUCH LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS
WAS HINDERED BY THE SHORTAGE OR INADEQUACY OF TEACHERS IN GENERAL TEACHERS IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS OR
SCIENCE 4HE INDEX WAS DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOW VALUES INDICATE
PROBLEMS WITH TEACHER SHORTAGE
#LASSROOM PRACTICES
4EACHER SUPPORT
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THE TEACHER SHOWS AN
INTEREST IN EVERY STUDENTS LEARNING THE TEACHER GIVES STUDENTS AN OPPORTUNITY TO EXPRESS OPINIONS THE TEACHER HELPS STUDENTS
WITH THEIR WORK THE TEACHER CONTINUES TEACHING UNTIL THE STUDENTS UNDERSTAND THE TEACHER DOES A LOT TO HELP STUDENTS AND THE
TEACHER HELPS STUDENTS WITH THEIR LEARNING ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NEVER @SOME LESSONS @MOST LESSONS
AND @EVERY LESSON WAS USED 4HE INDEX WAS DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR 7ARM DESCRIBED ABOVE
$ISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE SUMMARISES STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH IN THEIR CLASS OF THE
LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT THE TEACHER HAS TO WAIT A LONG TIME FOR STUDENTS TO QUIETEN DOWN STUDENTS CANNOT WORK WELL
STUDENTS DONT LISTEN TO WHAT THE TEACHER SAYS STUDENTS DONT START WORKING FOR A LONG TIME AFTER THE LESSON BEGINS THERE IS NOISE
AND DISORDER AND AT THE START OF CLASS MORE THAN FIVE MINUTES ARE SPENT DOING NOTHING ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE
CATEGORIES @NEVER @SOME LESSONS @MOST LESSONS AND @EVERY LESSON WAS USED 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOW VALUES INDICATE
A POOR DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE WAS DERIVED FROM
PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE EXTENT TO WHICH LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS IN THEIR SCHOOL WAS HINDERED BY STUDENT ABSENTEEISM
DISRUPTION OF CLASSES BY STUDENTS STUDENTS SKIPPING CLASSES STUDENTS LACKING RESPECT FOR TEACHERS THE USE OF ALCOHOL OR ILLEGAL
!..%8 !
DRUGS AND STUDENTS INTIMIDATING OR BULLYING OTHER STUDENTS ! FOUR POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NOT AT ALL @VERY
LITTLE @TO SOME EXTENT AND @A LOT WAS USED 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOW VALUES INDICATE A POOR DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE 4HE
INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
0RESSURE TO ACHIEVE
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH IN THEIR CLASS OF
THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT THE TEACHER WANTS STUDENTS TO WORK HARD THE TEACHER TELLS STUDENTS THAT THEY CAN DO BETTER THE
TEACHER DOES NOT LIKE IT WHEN STUDENTS DELIVER CARELESS WORK AND STUDENTS HAVE TO LEARN A LOT ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH
THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NEVER @SOME LESSONS @MOST LESSONS AND @EVERY LESSON WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE
7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE WITH @NEVER CODED AS AND ALL OTHER RESPONSE CATEGORIES CODED AS
4EACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS WAS DERIVED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THEIR LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH THE
FOLLOWING STATEMENTS STUDENTS GET ALONG WELL WITH MOST TEACHERS MOST TEACHERS ARE INTERESTED IN STUDENTS WELL
BEING MOST
OF MY TEACHERS REALLY LISTEN TO WHAT ) HAVE TO SAY IF ) NEED EXTRA HELP ) WILL RECEIVE IT FROM MY TEACHERS AND MOST OF MY
TEACHERS TREAT ME FAIRLY ! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @STRONGLY DISAGREE @DISAGREE @AGREE AND @STRONGLY
AGREE WAS USED 4HE INDICES WERE DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE WITH @STRONGLY AGREE CODED AS AND ALL
OTHER RESPONSE CATEGORIES CODED AS
3CHOOL RESOURCES AND TYPE OF SCHOOL
1UALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE WAS DERIVED FROM PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE EXTENT TO
WHICH LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS IN THEIR SCHOOL WAS HINDERED BY POOR CONDITION OF BUILDINGS POOR HEATING AND COOLING ANDOR
LIGHTING SYSTEMS AND LACK OF INSTRUCTIONAL SPACE EG IN CLASSROOMS
! FOUR POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NOT AT ALL @VERY LITTLE @TO SOME EXTENT AND @A LOT WAS USED 4HE INDEX WAS
DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOW VALUES INDICATE A LOW QUALITY OF PHYSICAL
INFRASTRUCTURE
1UALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES WAS DERIVED BASED ON THE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS REPORTS ON THE
EXTENT TO WHICH LEARNING BY
YEAR
OLDS WAS HINDERED BY NOT ENOUGH COMPUTERS FOR INSTRUCTION LACK OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
IN THE LIBRARY LACK OF MULTI
MEDIA RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTION INADEQUATE SCIENCE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND INADEQUATE FACILITIES
FOR THE FINE ARTS
! FOUR
POINT SCALE WITH THE RESPONSE CATEGORIES @NOT AT ALL @VERY LITTLE @TO SOME EXTENT AND @A LOT WAS USED 4HE INDEX
WAS DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HIS INDEX WAS INVERTED SO THAT LOW VALUES INDICATE A LOW QUALITY OF
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
!VAILABILITY OF COMPUTERS
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS PROVIDED INFORMATION ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF COMPUTERS AVAILABLE IN THEIR SCHOOLS AND MORE SPECIFICALLY ON
THE NUMBER OF COMPUTERS AVAILABLE TO
YEAR
OLDS AVAILABLE ONLY TO TEACHERS AVAILABLE ONLY TO ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF CONNECTED
TO THE )NTERNET AND CONNECTED TO A LOCAL AREA NETWORK 4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE AVAILABILITY OF COMPUTERS WAS DERIVED BY DIVIDING
THE TOTAL NUMBER OF COMPUTERS AVAILABLE TO
YEAR
OLDS BY THE TOTAL NUMBER OF COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOL
3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO AND CLASS SIZE
3CHOOL PRINCIPALS INDICATED THE NUMBER OF FULL
TIME AND PART
TIME TEACHERS EMPLOYED IN THEIR SCHOOLS 0RINCIPALS ALSO SPECIFIED
THE NUMBERS OF TEACHERS THAT WERE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT TEACHERS MATHEMATICS TEACHERS AND SCIENCE TEACHERS THE NUMBER
OF TEACHERS FULLY CERTIFIED AS TEACHERS BY THE APPROPRIATE NATIONAL AUTHORITY AND THE NUMBERS OF TEACHERS WITH A QUALIFICATION
AT )3#%$ LEVEL ! IN PEDAGOGY AT )3#%$ LEVEL ! IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT AT )3#%$ LEVEL ! IN
!..%8 !
MATHEMATICS AND AT )3#%$ LEVEL ! IN SCIENCE 4HE PROPORTIONS OF TEACHERS IN THE RESPECTIVE CATEGORIES ARE USED IN
#HAPTER
4HE STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO WAS DEFINED AS THE NUMBER OF FULL
TIME EQUIVALENT TEACHERS DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF
STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOL )N ORDER TO CONVERT HEAD
COUNTS INTO FULL
TIME EQUIVALENTS A FULL
TIME TEACHER DEFINED AS A TEACHER
EMPLOYED FOR AT LEAST PER CENT OF THE STATUTORY TIME AS A CLASSROOM TEACHER RECEIVED A WEIGHT OF AND A PART
TIME TEACHER
DEFINED AS A TEACHER EMPLOYED FOR LESS THAN PER CENT OF THE TIME AS A CLASSROOM TEACHER RECEIVED A WEIGHT OF
!N ESTIMATE OF CLASS SIZE WAS OBTAINED FROM STUDENTS REPORTS ON THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN THEIR RESPECTIVE LANGUAGE OF
ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE CLASSES
5SE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF THE USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES WAS DERIVED FROM THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH STUDENTS REPORTED USING THE FOLLOWING
RESOURCES IN THEIR SCHOOL THE SCHOOL LIBRARY CALCULATORS THE )NTERNET AND SCIENCE LABORATORIES 3TUDENTS RESPONDED ON A
FIVE
POINT SCALE WITH THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES @NEVER OR HARDLY EVER @A FEW TIMES A YEAR @ABOUT ONCE A MONTH @SEVERAL TIMES A
MONTH AND @SEVERAL TIMES A WEEK 4HE INDEX WAS DERIVED USING THE 7!2- ESTIMATOR DESCRIBED ABOVE
(OURS OF SCHOOLING
4HE 0)3! INDEX OF HOURS OF SCHOOLING PER YEAR WAS DERIVED FROM THE INFORMATION WHICH PRINCIPALS PROVIDED ON THE NUMBER OF
WEEKS IN THE SCHOOL YEAR FOR WHICH THE SCHOOL OPERATES THE NUMBER OF CLASS PERIODS IN THE SCHOOL WEEK AND THE NUMBER OF
TEACHING MINUTES IN A SINGLE CLASS PERIOD 4HE INDEX WAS DERIVED FROM THE PRODUCT OF THESE THREE FACTORS DIVIDED BY
3CHOOL TYPE
! SCHOOL WAS CLASSIFIED AS EITHER PUBLIC OR PRIVATE ACCORDING TO WHETHER A PUBLIC AGENCY OR A PRIVATE ENTITY HAD THE ULTIMATE
POWER TO MAKE DECISIONS CONCERNING ITS AFFAIRS ! SCHOOL WAS CLASSIFIED AS PUBLIC IF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL REPORTED THAT IT WAS
CONTROLLED AND MANAGED DIRECTLY BY A PUBLIC EDUCATION AUTHORITY OR AGENCY OR CONTROLLED AND MANAGED EITHER BY A GOVERNMENT
AGENCY DIRECTLY OR BY A GOVERNING BODY COUNCIL COMMITTEE ETC MOST OF WHOSE MEMBERS WERE EITHER APPOINTED BY A PUBLIC
AUTHORITY OR ELECTED BY PUBLIC FRANCHISE ! SCHOOL WAS CLASSIFIED AS PRIVATE IF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL REPORTED THAT IT WAS CONTROLLED
AND MANAGED BY A NON
GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION EG A CHURCH A TRADE UNION OR A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE OR IF ITS GOVERNING
BOARD CONSISTED MOSTLY OF MEMBERS NOT SELECTED BY A PUBLIC AGENCY
! DISTINCTION WAS MADE BETWEEN hGOVERNMENT
DEPENDENTv AND hINDEPENDENTv PRIVATE SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF A
PRIVATE SCHOOLS DEPENDENCE ON FUNDING FROM GOVERNMENT SOURCES 3CHOOL PRINCIPALS WERE ASKED TO SPECIFY THE PERCENTAGE OF
THE SCHOOLS TOTAL FUNDING RECEIVED IN A TYPICAL SCHOOL YEAR FROM GOVERNMENT SOURCES STUDENT FEES OR SCHOOL CHARGES PAID BY
PARENTS DONATIONS SPONSORSHIPS OR PARENTAL FUND
RAISING AND OTHER SOURCES 3CHOOLS WERE CLASSIFIED AS GOVERNMENT
DEPENDENT
PRIVATE IF THEY RECEIVED PER CENT OR MORE OF THEIR CORE FUNDING FROM GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 3CHOOLS WERE CLASSIFIED AS
GOVERNMENT
INDEPENDENT PRIVATE IF THEY RECEIVED LESS THAN PER CENT OF THEIR CORE FUNDING FROM GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! %XPLAINED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
)N SEVERAL TABLES OF #HAPTERS AND THE CHANGE IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ASSOCIATED WITH ONE UNIT CHANGE ON A GIVEN MEASURE
HAS BEEN ESTIMATED BY MEANS OF REGRESSION METHODS 4HE VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE THAT IS EXPLAINED BY THIS REGRESSION IS
SHOWN IN 4ABLE ! AND CONVENTIONALLY REFERRED TO AS 2 &OR THE DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
4ABLE !
%XPLAINED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 2
2ESULTS ARE EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES
)NDEX OF )NDEX )NDEX OF POSSES
COMFORT WITH AND OF ACTIVITIES SIONS RELATED TO
AND PERCEIVED )NDEX OF )NDEX )NDEX OF RELATED TO )NDEX hCLASSICALv )NDEX OF
ABILITY TO USE COMPETITIVE OF CONTROL CO
OPERATIVE hCLASSICALv OF CULTURAL CULTURE IN THE DISCIPLINARY
COMPUTERS LEARNING STRATEGIES LEARNING CULTURE COMMUNICATION FAMILY HOME CLIMATE
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA A
"ELGIUM
#ANADA A A A
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE A A A A
'ERMANY
'REECE A A A A
(UNGARY
)CELAND A
)RELAND
)TALY A
*APAN A A A A
+OREA A
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND A A A A
0ORTUGAL A
3PAIN A A A A
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM A A A A
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS A
)NDEX OF )NDEX OF )NDEX )NDEX OF HOME )NDEX )NDEX )NDEX )NDEX OF
ELABORATION ENGAGEMENT OF FAMILY EDUCATIONAL OF INTEREST OF INTEREST IN OF INTEREST MEMORISATION
STRATEGIES IN READING WEALTH RESOURCES IN COMPUTERS MATHEMATICS IN READING STRATEGIES
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA A
"ELGIUM
#ANADA A A A A A
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE A A A A A
'ERMANY
'REECE A A A A A
(UNGARY
)CELAND A
)RELAND
)TALY A
*APAN A A A A A
+OREA A
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY A
0OLAND A A A A A
0ORTUGAL A
3PAIN A A A A A
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM A A A A A
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN A
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS A
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 !
4ABLE ! CONTINUED
%XPLAINED VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 2
2ESULTS ARE EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES
)NDEX OF THE )NDEX OF THE
PRINCIPALS PERCEP
)NDEX PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS
TIONS OF TEACHERS )NDEX OF SELF
)NDEX OF )NDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED )NDEX
MORALE AND )NDEX OF SCHOOL OF SCHOOL CONCEPT IN SELF
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING OF TEACHER
COMMITMENT AUTONOMY SELECTIVITY MATHEMATICS IN READING COMMUNICATION SCHOOL CLIMATE AUTONOMY
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA A A
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M A A M M
'ERMANY
'REECE A A
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY A
*APAN A A
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG A A
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY A A
0OLAND A A A A
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN A A
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM A A
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
)NDEX OF THE )NDEX OF THE )NDEX )NTERNATIONAL
PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS QUALITY OF OF THE QUALITY SOCIO ECONOMIC
)NDEX )NDEX OF TEACHER RELATED )NDEX OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE SCHOOLS )NDEX OF INDEX OF
OF TEACHER OF TEACHER FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHER STUDENT EDUCATIONAL PHYSICAL TIME SPENT ON OCCUPATIONAL
SHORTAGE SUPPORT SCHOOL CLIMATE RELATIONS RESOURCES INFRASTRUCTURE HOMEWORK STATUS )3%)
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! 4HE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION AND THE 0)3! SAMPLES
4HE 0)3! CONCEPT OF hYIELDv AND THE DEFINITION OF THE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION
0)3! PROVIDES AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CUMULATIVE YIELD OF EDUCATION AND LEARNING AT A POINT AT WHICH MOST YOUNG ADULTS ARE
STILL ENROLLED IN INITIAL EDUCATION
! MAJOR CHALLENGE FOR AN INTERNATIONAL SURVEY IS TO OPERATIONALISE SUCH A CONCEPT IN WAYS THAT GUARANTEE THE INTERNATIONAL
COMPARABILITY OF NATIONAL TARGET POPULATIONS
$IFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF PRE PRIMARY EDUCATION AND CARE THE AGE OF ENTRY TO FORMAL SCHOOLING
AND THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS DO NOT ALLOW THE DEFINITION OF INTERNATIONALLY COMPARABLE GRADE LEVELS
OF SCHOOLING #ONSEQUENTLY INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE TYPICALLY DEFINE THEIR POPULATIONS WITH
REFERENCE TO A TARGET AGE 3OME PREVIOUS INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS HAVE DEFINED THEIR TARGET POPULATION ON THE BASIS OF THE GRADE
LEVEL THAT PROVIDE MAXIMUM COVERAGE OF A PARTICULAR AGE COHORT ! DISADVANTAGE OF THIS APPROACH IS THAT SLIGHT VARIATIONS IN THE
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS ACROSS GRADE LEVELS OFTEN LEAD TO THE SELECTION OF DIFFERENT TARGET GRADES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OR
BETWEEN EDUCATION SYSTEMS WITHIN COUNTRIES RAISING SERIOUS QUESTIONS ABOUT THE COMPARABILITY OF RESULTS ACROSS AND AT TIMES
WITHIN COUNTRIES )N ADDITION BECAUSE NOT ALL STUDENTS OF THE DESIRED AGE ARE USUALLY REPRESENTED IN GRADE BASED SAMPLES THERE
MAY BE A MORE SERIOUS POTENTIAL BIAS IN THE RESULTS IF THE UNREPRESENTED STUDENTS ARE TYPICALLY ENROLLED IN THE NEXT HIGHER GRADE
IN SOME COUNTRIES AND THE NEXT LOWER GRADE IN OTHERS 4HIS WOULD EXCLUDE STUDENTS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGHER LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE
IN THE FORMER COUNTRIES AND STUDENTS WITH POTENTIALLY LOWER LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE IN THE LATTER
)N ORDER TO ADDRESS THIS PROBLEM 0)3! USES AN AGE BASED DEFINITION FOR ITS TARGET POPULATION IE A DEFINITION THAT IS NOT TIED
TO THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES OF NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS 0)3! ASSESSED STUDENTS WHO WERE AGED BETWEEN YEARS AND
COMPLETE MONTHS AND YEARS AND COMPLETE MONTHS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE ASSESSMENT PERIOD AND WHO WERE ENROLLED
IN AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION REGARDLESS OF THE GRADE LEVELS OR TYPE OF INSTITUTION IN WHICH THEY WERE ENROLLED AND REGARDLESS OF
WHETHER THEY WERE IN FULL TIME OR PART TIME EDUCATION YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN 'RADE OR LOWER WERE EXCLUDED FROM 0)3!
BUT AMONG THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! SUCH STUDENTS ONLY EXIST IN SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS IN "RAZIL %DUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS ARE GENERALLY REFERRED TO AS SCHOOLS IN THIS PUBLICATION ALTHOUGH SOME EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN PARTICULAR SOME
TYPES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ESTABLISHMENTS MAY NOT BE TERMED SCHOOLS IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES !S EXPECTED FROM THIS DEFINITION
THE AVERAGE AGE OF STUDENTS ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES WAS YEARS AND MONTHS A VALUE WHICH VARIED BY LESS THAN YEARS
BETWEEN PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
!S A RESULT OF THIS POPULATION DEFINITION 0)3! MAKES STATEMENTS ABOUT THE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF A GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS
WHO WERE BORN WITHIN A COMPARABLE REFERENCE PERIOD BUT WHO MAY HAVE UNDERGONE DIFFERENT EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES BOTH
WITHIN AND OUTSIDE SCHOOLS )N 0)3! THESE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ARE REFERRED TO AS THE YIELD OF EDUCATION AT AN AGE THAT IS COMMON
ACROSS COUNTRIES $EPENDING ON COUNTRIES POLICIES ON SCHOOL ENTRY AND PROMOTION THESE STUDENTS MAY BE DISTRIBUTED OVER A
NARROWER OR A WIDER RANGE OF GRADES &URTHERMORE IN SOME COUNTRIES STUDENTS IN 0)3!S TARGET POPULATION ARE SPLIT BETWEEN
DIFFERENT EDUCATION SYSTEMS TRACKS OR STREAMS
)F A COUNTRYS SCALE SCORES IN READING SCIENTIFIC OR MATHEMATICAL LITERACY ARE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THOSE IN ANOTHER COUNTRY
IT CANNOT AUTOMATICALLY BE INFERRED THAT THE SCHOOLS OR PARTICULAR PARTS OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE FIRST COUNTRY ARE MORE
EFFECTIVE THAN THOSE IN THE SECOND (OWEVER ONE CAN LEGITIMATELY CONCLUDE THAT THE CUMULATIVE IMPACT OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
IN THE FIRST COUNTRY STARTING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD AND UP TO THE AGE OF AND EMBRACING EXPERIENCES BOTH IN SCHOOL AND AT HOME
HAVE RESULTED IN HIGHER OUTCOMES IN THE LITERACY DOMAINS THAT 0)3! MEASURES
4HE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION DID NOT INCLUDE RESIDENTS ATTENDING SCHOOLS IN A FOREIGN COUNTRY
4O ACCOMMODATE COUNTRIES THAT DESIRED GRADE
BASED RESULTS FOR THE PURPOSE OF NATIONAL ANALYSES 0)3! PROVIDED AN
INTERNATIONAL OPTION TO SUPPLEMENT AGE
BASED SAMPLING WITH GRADE
BASED SAMPLING
0OPULATION COVERAGE
!LL COUNTRIES ATTEMPTED TO MAXIMISE THE COVERAGE OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN EDUCATION IN THEIR NATIONAL SAMPLES INCLUDING
STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS !S A RESULT 0)3! REACHED STANDARDS OF POPULATION COVERAGE THAT ARE
UNPRECEDENTED IN INTERNATIONAL SURVEYS OF THIS KIND
!..%8 !
4HE SAMPLING STANDARDS USED IN 0)3! PERMITTED COUNTRIES TO EXCLUDE UP TO A TOTAL OF PER CENT OF THE RELEVANT POPULATION EITHER
BY EXCLUDING SCHOOLS OR BY EXCLUDING STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS !LL BUT THREE COUNTRIES ACHIEVED THE REQUIRED COVERAGE OF AT LEAST
PER CENT OF THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION AND HALF OF THE COUNTRIES ACHIEVED PER CENT OR MORE 4HE CEILING FOR
POPULATION EXCLUSIONS OF PER CENT ENSURES THAT POTENTIAL BIAS RESULTING FROM EXCLUSIONS IS LIKELY TO REMAIN WITHIN ONE STANDARD
ERROR OF SAMPLING
%XCLUSIONS WITHIN THE ABOVE LIMITS INCLUDE
n !T THE SCHOOL LEVEL I SCHOOLS WHICH WERE GEOGRAPHICALLY INACCESSIBLE OR WHERE THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT WAS
NOT CONSIDERED FEASIBLE AND II SCHOOLS THAT PROVIDED TEACHING ONLY FOR STUDENTS IN THE CATEGORIES DEFINED UNDER hWITHIN
SCHOOL
EXCLUSIONSv SUCH AS SCHOOLS FOR THE BLIND 4HE PERCENTAGE OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN SUCH SCHOOLS HAD TO BE LESS THAN
PER CENT OF THE NATIONALLY DESIRED TARGET POPULATION 4HE MAGNITUDE NATURE AND JUSTIFICATION OF SCHOOL
LEVEL EXCLUSIONS IS
DOCUMENTED IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
4ABLE !
0)3! TARGET POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
0OPULATION AND SAMPLE INFORMATION #OVERAGE INDICES
4OTAL IN NATIONAL
DESIRED TARGET POPU
#OVERAGE #OVERAGE
4OTAL 4OTAL LATION AFTER SCHOOL INDEX INDEX
4OTAL ENROLLED IN NATIONAL EXCLUSIONS 0ERCENTAGE 7EIGHTED 7EIGHTED 7ITHIN
#OVERAGE #OVERAGE
POPULATION POPULATION DESIRED 3CHOOL
AND BEFORE OF SCHOOL
.UMBER OF NUMBER OF .UMBER OF NUMBER OF SCHOOL /VERALL OF NATIONAL OF NATIONAL
OF
YEARS OF
YEARS TARGET LEVEL WITHIN
SCHOOL LEVEL PARTICIPATING PARTICIPATING EXCLUDED EXCLUDED EXCLUSION EXCLUSION DESIRED ENROLLED
OLD OLD POPULATION EXCLUSIONS EXCLUSIONS EXCLUSIONS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS RATE RATE POPULATION POPULATION
00 %
00 %
3& A 3& B 3& A 3& B 3& C B A 0 % %0 % ;C=;A= ;C=;B=
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR DETAILS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 !
n !T THE STUDENT LEVEL I STUDENTS WHO WERE CONSIDERED IN THE PROFESSIONAL OPINION OF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL OR OF OTHER QUALIFIED
STAFF MEMBERS TO BE EDUCABLE MENTALLY RETARDED OR WHO HAD BEEN DEFINED AS SUCH THROUGH PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS INCLUDING
STUDENTS WHO WERE EMOTIONALLY OR MENTALLY UNABLE TO FOLLOW THE GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN 0)3! II STUDENTS WHO WERE
PERMANENTLY AND PHYSICALLY DISABLED IN SUCH A WAY THAT THEY COULD NOT PERFORM IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT SITUATION FUNCTIONALLY
DISABLED STUDENTS WHO COULD RESPOND WERE TO BE INCLUDED IN THE ASSESSMENT AND III NON
NATIVE LANGUAGE SPEAKERS WITH
LESS THAN ONE YEAR OF INSTRUCTION IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE ASSESSMENT 3TUDENTS COULD NOT BE EXCLUDED SOLELY BECAUSE OF
NORMAL DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS 4HE PERCENTAGE OF
YEAR
OLDS EXCLUDED WITHIN SCHOOLS HAD TO BE LESS THAN PER CENT OF THE
NATIONALLY DESIRED TARGET POPULATION
4ABLE ! DESCRIBES THE TARGET POPULATION OF THE COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! &URTHER INFORMATION ON THE TARGET
POPULATION AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 0)3! SAMPLING STANDARDS CAN BE FOUND IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF YEAR OLDS ACCORDING TO NATIONAL POPULATION REGISTERS
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE NUMBER OF YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS AS DEFINED ABOVE WHICH IS REFERRED TO AS THE ELIGIBLE
POPULATION
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION !S PART OF THE SCHOOL LEVEL EXCLUSIONS COUNTRIES WERE ALLOWED TO
EXCLUDE UP TO PER CENT OF STUDENTS A PRIORI FROM THE ELIGIBLE POPULATION ESSENTIALLY FOR PRACTICAL REASONS 4HE FOLLOWING
A PRIORY EXCLUSIONS EXCEED THIS LIMIT BUT WERE AGREED WITH THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM #ANADA EXCLUDED PER CENT OF THE
ELIGIBLE POPULATION OF WHICH PER CENT ACCOUNTED FOR SCHOOLS ON &EDERAL )NDIAN RESERVATIONS AND PER CENT WERE
IN THE 9UKON .ORTHWEST AND .UNUVUK TERRITORIES )N THE CASE OF &RANCE THE ELIGIBLE POPULATION INCLUDED STUDENTS IN THE
4ERRITOIRES D/UTRE -ER BUT BECAUSE COUNTRIES WERE NOT REQUIRED TO ASSESS STUDENTS IN OUTLYING TERRITORIES NOT SUBJECT
TO THE NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS IT WAS PERMISSIBLE TO EXCLUDE THESE STUDENTS &RENCH STUDENTS IN OUTLYING DÏPARTEMENTS
WERE AS REQUIRED INCLUDED IN 0)3! )RELAND EXCLUDED PER CENT OF THE ELIGIBLE POPULATION 4HIS COVERED
PER CENT OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS NOT AIDED BY THE $EPARTMENT OF %DUCATION AND 3CIENCE PER CENT IN VERY SMALL
SCHOOLS AND PER CENT IN hDESIGNATED DISADVANTAGED SCHOOLSv *APAN EXCLUDED PER CENT OF THE ELIGIBLE POPULATION
OF WHICH PER CENT WERE STUDENTS EDUCATED BY MAIL AND STUDENTS IN hOTHER SMALL STREAMS "EKKA +OTO SENMON GAKKO v
AND PER CENT WERE IN PART TIME EDUCATION @4EIJI SEIv -EXICO EXCLUDED PER CENT OF ITS ELIGIBLE POPULATION IN
GEOGRAPHICALLY REMOTE SCHOOLS !MONG THE NON /%#$ COUNTRIES "RAZIL EXCLUDED YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN GRADES TO
WHICH ACCOUNTED FOR PER CENT OF YEAR OLDS ENROLLED IN "RAZIL 4HIS EXCLUSION WAS LEGITIMATE BECAUSE SUCH STUDENTS
ARE NOT PART OF THE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION 3UBTRACTING THE STUDENTS EXCLUDED A PRIORI FROM THE ELIGIBLE POPULATION RESULTS
IN THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION IN #OLUMN
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS THAT WERE EXCLUDED FROM THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE SIZE OF THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION AFTER SUBTRACTING THE STUDENTS ENROLLED IN EXCLUDED
SCHOOLS 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY SUBTRACTING #OLUMN FROM #OLUMN
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN EXCLUDED SCHOOLS 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING #OLUMN BY
#OLUMN
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN 0)3! .OTE THAT THIS NUMBER DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR
YEAR OLDS ASSESSED AS PART OF ADDITIONAL NATIONAL OPTIONS 4HESE NATIONAL OPTIONS ACCOUNT FOR AN ADDITIONAL
YEAR OLD STUDENTS ACROSS ALL COUNTRIES
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF PARTICIPATING STUDENTS IE THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN THE NATIONALLY DEFINED
TARGET POPULATION THAT THE 0)3! SAMPLE REPRESENTS
n %ACH COUNTRY ATTEMPTED TO MAXIMISE THE COVERAGE OF 0)3!S TARGET POPULATION WITHIN THE SAMPLED SCHOOLS )N THE CASE OF
EACH SAMPLED SCHOOL ALL ELIGIBLE STUDENTS NAMELY THOSE YEARS OF AGE REGARDLESS OF GRADE WERE FIRST LISTED 3AMPLED
STUDENTS WHO WERE TO BE EXCLUDED HAD STILL TO BE INCLUDED IN THE SAMPLING DOCUMENTATION AND A LIST DRAWN UP STATING THE
REASON FOR THEIR EXCLUSION #OLUMN INDICATES THE NUMBER OF EXCLUDED STUDENTS IE STUDENTS WHO FELL INTO ONE OF THE
CATEGORIES SPECIFIED ABOVE #OLUMN INDICATES THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF EXCLUDED STUDENTS IE THE OVERALL NUMBER OF
STUDENTS IN THE NATIONALLY DEFINED TARGET POPULATION REPRESENTED BY THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS EXCLUDED FROM THE SAMPLE
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS EXCLUDED WITHIN SCHOOLS 4HIS IS CALCULATED AS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF
EXCLUDED STUDENTS #OLUMN DIVIDED BY THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF EXCLUDED AND PARTICIPATING STUDENTS #OLUMN PLUS
#OLUMN
!..%8 !
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE OVERALL EXCLUSION RATE WHICH REPRESENTS THE WEIGHTED PERCENTAGE OF THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET
POPULATION EXCLUDED FROM 0)3! EITHER THROUGH SCHOOL
LEVEL EXCLUSIONS OR THROUGH THE EXCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS )T IS
OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL
LEVEL EXCLUSIONS #OLUMN BY MINUS THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS EXCLUDED
WITHIN SCHOOLS #OLUMN AND ADDING THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS EXCLUDED WITHIN SCHOOLS #OLUMN TO THE RESULT
n #OLUMN PRESENTS AN INDEX OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION IS COVERED BY THE 0)3!
SAMPLE 4HE INDEX IS EXPRESSED IN PER CENT OF THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION COVERED ,UXEMBOURG 0OLAND AND
"RAZIL ARE THE ONLY COUNTRIES IN WHICH LESS THAN PER CENT OF THE POPULATION THAT 0)3! SEEKS TO COVER IS REPRESENTED
BY THE 0)3! SAMPLES )N THE CASE OF 0OLAND THE EXCLUSION RATE IS PER CENT 4HIS INCLUDES THE PER CENT OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS 4HE PERFORMANCE OF THESE STUDENTS IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENTS CAN BE EXPECTED TO BE
LOWER THAN THE PERFORMANCE OF
YEAR
OLDS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND THIS EXCLUSION MAY IMPLY THAT THE PERFORMANCE OF
0OLISH STUDENTS ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE IS OVERESTIMATED BY TWO RANK
ORDER POSITIONS AND ON THE SCIENTIFIC
LITERACY SCALE BY ABOUT THREE RANK
ORDER POSITIONS .O RANK
ORDER SHIFTS ARE EXPECTED ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
,UXEMBOURG HAS AN EXCLUSION RATE OF PER CENT DUE LARGELY TO STUDENTS INSTRUCTED IN LANGUAGES OTHER THAN THE
LANGUAGES OF ASSESSMENT IN ,UXEMBOURG 0ERMISSIBLE EXCLUSIONS INCLUDED STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS STUDENTS
ATTENDING THE %UROPEAN 3CHOOL STUDENTS ATTENDING THE !MERICAN )NTERNATIONAL 3CHOOL STUDENTS ATTENDING OTHER
SCHOOLS NOT UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE -INISTRY OF %DUCATION AND STUDENTS ATTENDING SMALL SCHOOLS )T IS NOT EXPECTED
THAT THE EXCLUSIONS IN ,UXEMBOURG OVERESTIMATE ITS RANK
ORDER POSITION ON THE 0)3! SCALES !MONG NON
/%#$ COUNTRIES
IN "RAZIL THE SCHOOL
LEVEL EXCLUSION RATE IS PER CENT BUT MUCH OF THIS IS EXPLAINED BY
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN 'RADE
AND WHO DO NOT BELONG TO THE 0)3! TARGET POPULATION .O RANK ORDER SHIFTS ARE EXPECTED OF THE EXCLUSIONS IN "RAZIL &OR
FURTHER INFORMATION SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
n #OLUMN PRESENTS AN INDEX OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS ARE COVERED BY THE 0)3!
SAMPLE 4HE INDEX MEASURES THE OVERALL PROPORTION OF THE NATIONAL ENROLLED POPULATION THAT IS COVERED BY THE NON
EXCLUDED PORTION OF THE STUDENT SAMPLE 4HE INDEX TAKES INTO ACCOUNT BOTH SCHOOL
LEVEL AND STUDENT
LEVEL EXCLUSIONS
6ALUES CLOSE TO INDICATE THAT THE 0)3! SAMPLE REPRESENTS THE ENTIRE EDUCATION SYSTEM AS DEFINED FOR 0)3! 4HE
INDEX IS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF PARTICIPATING STUDENTS #OLUMN DIVIDED BY THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF PARTICIPATING AND
EXCLUDED STUDENTS #OLUMNS PLUS #OLUMN TIMES THE NATIONALLY DEFINED TARGET POPULATION #OLUMN DIVIDED BY
THE NATIONAL DESIRED TARGET POPULATION TIMES
3AMPLING PROCEDURES AND RESPONSE RATES
4HE ACCURACY OF ANY SURVEY RESULTS DEPENDS ON THE QUALITY OF THE INFORMATION ON WHICH NATIONAL SAMPLES ARE BASED AS WELL AS
ON THE SAMPLING PROCEDURES 1UALITY STANDARDS PROCEDURES INSTRUMENTS AND VERIFICATION MECHANISMS WERE DEVELOPED FOR 0)3!
THAT ENSURED THAT NATIONAL SAMPLES YIELDED COMPARABLE DATA AND THAT THE RESULTS COULD BE COMPARED WITH CONFIDENCE
-OST 0)3! SAMPLES WERE DESIGNED AS TWO STAGE STRATIFIED SAMPLES WHERE COUNTRIES APPLIED DIFFERENT SAMPLING DESIGNS THESE
ARE DOCUMENTED IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4HE FIRST STAGE CONSISTED OF SAMPLING INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS IN WHICH YEAR OLD
STUDENTS WERE ENROLLED 3CHOOLS WERE SAMPLED SYSTEMATICALLY WITH PROBABILITIES PROPORTIONAL TO SIZE THE MEASURE OF SIZE BEING
A FUNCTION OF THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF ELIGIBLE YEAR OLD STUDENTS ENROLLED ! MINIMUM OF SCHOOLS WERE SELECTED IN
EACH COUNTRY WHERE THIS NUMBER EXISTED ALTHOUGH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR NATIONAL ANALYSES OFTEN REQUIRED A SOMEWHAT LARGER
SAMPLE !S THE SCHOOLS WERE SAMPLED REPLACEMENT SCHOOLS WERE SIMULTANEOUSLY IDENTIFIED IN CASE A SAMPLED SCHOOL CHOSE NOT
TO PARTICIPATE IN 0)3!
)N THE CASE OF )CELAND ,IECHTENSTEIN AND ,UXEMBOURG ALL SCHOOLS AND ALL ELIGIBLE STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS WERE INCLUDED
IN THE SAMPLE (OWEVER SINCE NOT ALL STUDENTS IN THE 0)3! SAMPLES WERE ASSESSED IN MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY THESE
NATIONAL SAMPLES REPRESENT A COMPLETE CENSUS ONLY IN RESPECT OF THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY AND A PARTIAL CENSUS OF THE
ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
%XPERTS FROM THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM MONITORED THE SAMPLE SELECTION PROCESS IN EACH PARTICIPATING COUNTRY
4HE SECOND STAGE OF THE SELECTION PROCESS SAMPLED STUDENTS WITHIN SAMPLED SCHOOLS /NCE SCHOOLS WERE SELECTED A LIST OF EACH
SAMPLED SCHOOLS
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS WAS PREPARED &ROM THIS LIST STUDENTS WERE THEN SELECTED WITH EQUAL PROBABILITY ALL
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS WERE SELECTED IF FEWER THAN WERE ENROLLED
!..%8 !
$ATA QUALITY STANDARDS IN 0)3! REQUIRED MINIMUM PARTICIPATION RATES FOR SCHOOLS AS WELL AS FOR STUDENTS 4HESE STANDARDS WERE
ESTABLISHED TO MINIMISE THE POTENTIAL FOR RESPONSE BIASES )N THE CASE OF COUNTRIES MEETING THESE STANDARDS IT IS LIKELY THAT ANY
BIAS RESULTING FROM NON
RESPONSE WILL BE NEGLIGIBLE IE TYPICALLY SMALLER THAN THE SAMPLING ERROR
! MINIMUM RESPONSE RATE OF PER CENT WAS REQUIRED FOR THE SCHOOLS INITIALLY SELECTED 7HERE THE INITIAL RESPONSE RATE OF
SCHOOLS WAS BETWEEN AND PER CENT HOWEVER AN ACCEPTABLE SCHOOL RESPONSE RATE COULD STILL BE ACHIEVED THROUGH THE
USE OF REPLACEMENT SCHOOLS 4HIS PROCEDURE BROUGHT WITH IT A RISK OF INCREASED RESPONSE BIAS 0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE
THEREFORE ENCOURAGED TO PERSUADE AS MANY OF THE SCHOOLS IN THE ORIGINAL SAMPLE AS POSSIBLE TO PARTICIPATE 3CHOOLS WITH A STUDENT
PARTICIPATION RATE BETWEEN AND PER CENT WERE NOT REGARDED AS PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS BUT DATA FROM THESE SCHOOLS WERE
INCLUDED IN THE DATABASE AND CONTRIBUTED TO THE VARIOUS ESTIMATIONS $ATA FROM SCHOOLS WITH A STUDENT PARTICIPATION RATE OF LESS
THAN PER CENT WERE EXCLUDED FROM THE DATABASE
0)3! ALSO REQUIRED A MINIMUM PARTICIPATION RATE OF PER CENT OF STUDENTS WITHIN PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS ORIGINAL SAMPLE
AND REPLACEMENT 4HIS MINIMUM PARTICIPATION RATE HAD TO BE MET AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL NOT NECESSARILY BY EACH PARTICIPATING
SCHOOL -AKE
UP SESSIONS WERE REQUIRED IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH TOO FEW STUDENTS HAD PARTICIPATED IN THE ORIGINAL ASSESSMENT
4ABLE !
2ESPONSE RATES
)NITIAL SAMPLE n &INAL SAMPLE n &INAL SAMPLE n
BEFORE SCHOOL REPLACEMENT AFTER SCHOOL REPLACEMENT STUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS AFTER SCHOOL REPLACEMENT
.UMBER OF .UMBER OF
7EIGHTED SCHOOLS SAMPLED 7EIGHTED SCHOOLS SAMPLED 7EIGHTED .UMBER .UMBER
SCHOOL .UMBER RESPONDING SCHOOL .UMBER RESPONDING STUDENT OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS
PARTICIPATION OF RESPOND
AND NON
PARTICIPATION OF RESPOND
AND NON
PARTICIPATION .UMBER SAMPLED .UMBER SAMPLED
RATE BEFORE ING SCHOOLS RESPONDING RATE AFTER ING SCHOOLS RESPONDING RATE AFTER OF STUDENTS ASSESSED OF STUDENTS ASSESSED
REPLACEMENT WEIGHTED WEIGHTED REPLACEMENT WEIGHTED WEIGHTED REPLACEMENT ASSESSED AND ABSENT ASSESSED AND ABSENT
BY ENROLMENT BY ENROLMENT BY ENROLMENT BY ENROLMENT WEIGHTED WEIGHTED UNWEIGHTED UNWEIGHTED
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
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(UNGARY
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-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE ABOVE
!..%8 !
SESSIONS 3TUDENT PARTICIPATION RATES WERE CALCULATED OVER ALL PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS WHETHER ORIGINAL SAMPLE OR REPLACEMENT
SCHOOLS AND FROM THE PARTICIPATION OF STUDENTS IN BOTH THE ORIGINAL ASSESSMENT AND ANY MAKE
UP SESSIONS ! STUDENT WHO DID NOT
PARTICIPATE IN THE FIRST ASSESSMENT SESSION WAS NOT REGARDED AS A PARTICIPANT BUT WAS INCLUDED IN THE INTERNATIONAL DATABASE AND
CONTRIBUTED TO THE STATISTICS PRESENTED IN THIS PUBLICATION IF HE OR SHE PARTICIPATED IN THE SECOND ASSESSMENT SESSION AND PROVIDED
AT LEAST A DESCRIPTION OF HIS OR HER FATHERS OR MOTHERS OCCUPATION
4ABLE ! SHOWS THE RESPONSE RATES FOR STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS BEFORE AND AFTER REPLACEMENT
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED PARTICIPATION RATE OF SCHOOLS BEFORE REPLACEMENT 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING #OLUMN
BY #OLUMN 4HE .ETHERLANDS THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES DID NOT MEET 0)3!S REQUIREMENTS FOR RESPONSE
RATES BEFORE REPLACEMENT )N THE 5NITED +INGDOM THE INITIAL RESPONSE RATE FELL SHORT OF THE REQUIREMENTS BY PER
CENT AND IN THE 5NITED 3TATES BY PER CENT "OTH COUNTRIES PROVIDED EXTENSIVE EVIDENCE TO THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM THAT
PERMITTED AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EXPECTED PERFORMANCE OF NON
PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS /N THE BASIS OF THIS EVIDENCE 0)3!S
4ECHNICAL !DVISORY 'ROUP DETERMINED THAT THE IMPACT OF THESE DEVIATIONS ON THE ASSESSMENT RESULTS WAS NEGLIGIBLE 4HE RESULTS
FROM THESE COUNTRIES WERE INCLUDED IN ALL ANALYSES 4HE INITIAL RESPONSE RATE FOR THE .ETHERLANDS WAS ONLY PER CENT !S
A RESULT THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM INITIATED SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSES THAT CONFIRMED THAT THE DATA FROM THE .ETHERLANDS MIGHT
BE SUFFICIENTLY RELIABLE AND COULD BE USED IN SOME RELATIONAL ANALYSES $ESPITE THIS CONCLUSION THE RESPONSE RATE WAS TOO
LOW TO GIVE CONFIDENCE THAT THE SAMPLE RESULTS REFLECT THOSE FOR THE NATIONAL POPULATION RELIABLY WITH THE LEVEL OF ACCURACY
AND PRECISION REQUIRED IN 0)3! !SSUMING NEGLIGIBLE TO MODERATE LEVELS OF BIAS DUE TO NON
RESPONSE THE RANK
ORDER
POSITION OF THE .ETHERLANDS MAY BE EXPECTED WITH PER CENT CONFIDENCE TO LIE BETWEEN ND AND TH AMONG COUNTRIES ON
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BETWEEN ST AND TH ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE AND BETWEEN RD AND TH ON THE
SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE FOR FURTHER DETAILS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT -EAN PERFORMANCE SCORES FOR THE .ETHERLANDS
CAN THEREFORE NOT BE COMPARED WITH THOSE FROM OTHER COUNTRIES )N TABLES WHERE THE FOCUS IS ON THE COMPARISON OF MEAN
SCORES THE .ETHERLANDS HAS BEEN EXCLUDED 7HERE THE PERFORMANCE OF SUB
GROUPS IS SHOWN ONLY THE RELATIVE DIFFERENCES IN
PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THE RELEVANT SUB
GROUPS WITHIN THE .ETHERLANDS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AND THE SUB
GROUP MEANS SHOULD
NOT BE COMPARED WITH THOSE FROM OTHER COUNTRIES
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF RESPONDING SCHOOLS BEFORE SCHOOL REPLACEMENT WEIGHTED BY STUDENT
ENROLMENT
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF SAMPLED SCHOOLS BEFORE SCHOOL REPLACEMENT INCLUDING BOTH RESPONDING AND
NONRESPONDING SCHOOLS
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED PARTICIPATION RATE OF SCHOOLS AFTER REPLACEMENT 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING #OLUMN
BY #OLUMN
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF RESPONDING SCHOOLS AFTER SCHOOL REPLACEMENT WEIGHTED BY STUDENT
ENROLMENT
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF SCHOOLS SAMPLED AFTER SCHOOL REPLACEMENT INCLUDING BOTH RESPONDING AND
NONRESPONDING SCHOOLS
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED STUDENT PARTICIPATION RATE AFTER REPLACEMENT 4HIS IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING #OLUMN BY
#OLUMN
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF STUDENTS ASSESSED
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE WEIGHTED NUMBER OF STUDENTS SAMPLED INCLUDING BOTH STUDENTS THAT WERE ASSESSED AND STUDENTS WHO
WERE ABSENT ON THE DAY OF THE ASSESSMENT
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE UNWEIGHTED NUMBER OF STUDENTS ASSESSED
n #OLUMN SHOWS THE UNWEIGHTED NUMBER OF STUDENTS SAMPLED INCLUDING BOTH STUDENTS THAT WERE ASSESSED AND STUDENTS
WHO WERE ABSENT ON THE DAY OF THE ASSESSMENT
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! 3TANDARD ERRORS SIGNIFICANCE TESTS AND MULTIPLE COMPARISONS
4HE STATISTICS IN THIS REPORT REPRESENT ESTIMATES OF NATIONAL PERFORMANCE BASED ON SAMPLES OF STUDENTS RATHER THAN VALUES THAT
COULD BE CALCULATED IF EVERY STUDENT IN EVERY COUNTRY HAD ANSWERED EVERY QUESTION #ONSEQUENTLY IT IS IMPORTANT TO HAVE
MEASURES OF THE DEGREE OF UNCERTAINTY OF THE ESTIMATES )N 0)3! EACH ESTIMATE HAS AN ASSOCIATED DEGREE OF UNCERTAINTY
WHICH IS EXPRESSED THROUGH A STANDARD ERROR 4HE USE OF CONFIDENCE INTERVALS PROVIDES A WAY TO MAKE INFERENCES ABOUT THE
POPULATION MEANS AND PROPORTIONS IN A MANNER THAT REFLECTS THE UNCERTAINTY ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAMPLE ESTIMATES &ROM AN
OBSERVED SAMPLE STATISTIC IT CAN UNDER THE ASSUMPTION OF A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION BE INFERRED THAT THE CORRESPONDING POPULATION
RESULT WOULD LIE WITHIN THE CONFIDENCE INTERVAL IN OUT OF REPLICATIONS OF THE MEASUREMENT ON DIFFERENT SAMPLES DRAWN
FROM THE SAME POPULATION
)N MANY CASES READERS ARE PRIMARILY INTERESTED IN WHETHER A GIVEN VALUE IN A PARTICULAR COUNTRY IS DIFFERENT FROM A SECOND VALUE
IN THE SAME OR ANOTHER COUNTRY EG WHETHER FEMALES IN A COUNTRY PERFORM BETTER THAN MALES IN THE SAME COUNTRY )N THE TABLES
AND CHARTS USED IN THIS REPORT DIFFERENCES ARE LABELLED AS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT WHEN A DIFFERENCE OF THAT SIZE OR LARGER
WOULD BE OBSERVED LESS THAN PER CENT OF THE TIME IF THERE WAS ACTUALLY NO DIFFERENCE IN CORRESPONDING POPULATION VALUES
3IMILARLY THE RISK OF REPORTING AS SIGNIFICANT IF THERE IS IN FACT NO CORRELATION BETWEEN TO MEASURES IS CONTAINED AT PER CENT
!LTHOUGH THE PROBABILITY THAT A PARTICULAR DIFFERENCE WILL FALSELY BE DECLARED TO BE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT IS LOW PER CENT IN
EACH SINGLE COMPARISON THE PROBABILITY OF MAKING SUCH AN ERROR INCREASES WHEN SEVERAL COMPARISONS ARE MADE SIMULTANEOUSLY
)T IS POSSIBLE TO MAKE AN ADJUSTMENT FOR THIS WHICH REDUCES TO PER CENT THE MAXIMUM PROBABILITY THAT DIFFERENCES WILL BE FALSELY
DECLARED AS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AT LEAST ONCE AMONG ALL THE COMPARISONS THAT ARE MADE 3UCH AN ADJUSTMENT BASED ON THE
"ONFERRONI METHOD HAS BEEN INCORPORATED INTO THE MULTIPLE COMPARISON CHARTS IN #HAPTERS AND SINCE THE LIKELY INTEREST OF
READERS IN THOSE CONTEXTS IS TO COMPARE A COUNTRYS PERFORMANCE WITH THAT OF ALL OTHER COUNTRIES
&OR ALL OTHER TABLES AND CHARTS READERS SHOULD NOTE THAT IF THERE WERE NO REAL DIFFERENCES ON A GIVEN MEASURE THEN THE MULTIPLE
COMPARISON IN CONJUNCTION WITH A PER CENT SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL WOULD ERRONEOUSLY IDENTIFY DIFFERENCES ON TIMES THE
NUMBER OF COMPARISONS MADE OCCASIONS &OR EXAMPLE EVEN THOUGH THE SIGNIFICANCE TESTS APPLIED IN 0)3! FOR IDENTIFYING GENDER
DIFFERENCES ENSURE THAT FOR EACH COUNTRY THE LIKELIHOOD OF IDENTIFYING A GENDER DIFFERENCE ERRONEOUSLY IS LESS THAN PER CENT A
COMPARISON SHOWING DIFFERENCES FOR COUNTRIES WOULD ON AVERAGE IDENTIFY CASES TIMES WITH SIGNIFICANT GENDER
DIFFERENCES EVEN IF THERE WERE NO REAL GENDER DIFFERENCE IN ANY OF THE COUNTRIES 4HE SAME APPLIES FOR OTHER STATISTICS FOR WHICH
SIGNIFICANCE TESTS HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN IN THIS PUBLICATION SUCH AS CORRELATIONS AND REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! 1UALITY ASSURANCE
1UALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES WERE IMPLEMENTED IN ALL PARTS OF 0)3!
4HE CONSISTENT QUALITY AND LINGUISTIC EQUIVALENCE OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS WERE FACILITATED BY PROVIDING COUNTRIES
WITH EQUIVALENT SOURCE VERSIONS OF THE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS IN %NGLISH AND &RENCH AND REQUIRING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THOSE
ASSESSING STUDENTS IN %NGLISH AND &RENCH TO PREPARE AND CONSOLIDATE TWO INDEPENDENT TRANSLATIONS USING BOTH SOURCE VERSIONS
0RECISE TRANSLATION GUIDELINES WERE ALSO SUPPLIED INCLUDING A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT EACH ITEM WAS INTENDED TO MEASURE AS WELL
AS INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SELECTION AND TRAINING OF THE TRANSLATORS &OR EACH COUNTRY THE TRANSLATION AND FORMAT OF THE ASSESSMENT
INSTRUMENTS WERE VERIFIED BY EXPERTS FROM THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM WHOSE MOTHER TONGUE WAS THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE
COUNTRY CONCERNED AND KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT EDUCATION SYSTEMS BEFORE THEY WERE USED IN THE 0)3! &IELD 4RIAL AND -AIN 3TUDY
%XPERTS FROM PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE REQUIRED TO TRANSLATE AND SUBMIT THE MARKING GUIDELINES FOR VERIFICATION &OR FURTHER
INFORMATION ON THE 0)3! TRANSLATION PROCEDURES SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
4HE SURVEY WAS IMPLEMENTED THROUGH STANDARDISED PROCEDURES 4HE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM PROVIDED COMPREHENSIVE MANUALS THAT
EXPLAINED THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SURVEY INCLUDING PRECISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE WORK OF 3CHOOL #O
ORDINATORS AND SCRIPTS FOR
4EST !DMINISTRATORS FOR USE DURING THE ASSESSMENT SESSIONS 4HE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM VERIFIED THE NATIONAL TRANSLATION AND ADAPTATION
OF THESE MANUALS
4O ESTABLISH THE CREDIBILITY OF 0)3! AS VALID AND AS UNBIASED AND TO ENCOURAGE UNIFORMITY IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE ASSESSMENT
SESSIONS 4EST !DMINISTRATORS IN PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE SELECTED USING THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA )T WAS REQUIRED THAT THE 4EST
!DMINISTRATOR NOT BE THE READING MATHEMATICS OR SCIENCE INSTRUCTOR OF ANY STUDENTS IN THE SESSIONS HE OR SHE WOULD ADMINISTER
FOR 0)3! IT WAS RECOMMENDED THAT THE 4EST !DMINISTRATOR NOT BE A MEMBER OF THE STAFF OF ANY SCHOOL WHERE HE OR SHE WOULD
ADMINISTER 0)3! AND IT WAS CONSIDERED PREFERABLE THAT THE 4EST !DMINISTRATOR NOT BE A MEMBER OF THE STAFF OF ANY SCHOOL IN THE
0)3! SAMPLE 0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES ORGANISED AN IN
PERSON TRAINING SESSION FOR 4EST !DMINISTRATORS
0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE NOT ALLOWED TO INTRODUCE MODIFICATIONS IN THE ASSESSMENT SESSION SCRIPT AND INSTRUCTIONS DESCRIBED
IN THE 4EST !DMINISTRATOR -ANUAL WITHOUT PRIOR APPROVAL BY THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM 0ARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WERE REQUIRED TO
ENSURE THAT 4EST !DMINISTRATORS WORKED WITH THE 3CHOOL #O
ORDINATOR TO PREPARE THE ASSESSMENT SESSION INCLUDING UPDATING
STUDENT TRACKING FORMS AND IDENTIFYING EXCLUDED STUDENTS NO EXTRA TIME WAS GIVEN FOR THE COGNITIVE ITEMS WHILE IT WAS
PERMISSIBLE TO GIVE EXTRA TIME FOR THE STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE NO INSTRUMENT WAS ADMINISTERED BEFORE THE TWO
HOUR PARTS OF
THE COGNITIVE SESSION 4EST !DMINISTRATORS RECORDED THE STUDENT PARTICIPATION STATUS ON THE STUDENT TRACKING FORMS AND FILLED IN
A 3ESSION 2EPORT &ORM NO COGNITIVE INSTRUMENT WAS PHOTOCOPIED OR LENT BY THE 4EST !DMINISTRATOR TO ANY PERSON BEFORE THE
ASSESSMENT SESSION AND THAT 4EST !DMINISTRATORS RETURNED THE MATERIAL TO THE NATIONAL CENTRE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE ASSESSMENT
SESSIONS
.ATIONAL 0ROJECT -ANAGERS WERE ENCOURAGED TO ORGANISE A FOLLOW
UP SESSION WHEN MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE 0)3! SAMPLE
WAS NOT ABLE TO ATTEND THE ORIGINAL ASSESSMENT SESSION
.ATIONAL 1UALITY -ONITORS FROM THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM VISITED ALL NATIONAL CENTRES TO REVIEW DATA
COLLECTION PROCEDURES &INALLY
3CHOOL 1UALITY -ONITORS FROM THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM VISITED A SAMPLE OF PER CENT OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE ASSESSMENT &OR
FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE FIELD OPERATIONS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
3OFTWARE SPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR 0)3! FACILITATED DATA ENTRY DETECTED COMMON ERRORS DURING DATA ENTRY AND FACILITATED THE
PROCESS OF DATA CLEANING 4RAINING SESSIONS FAMILIARISED .ATIONAL 0ROJECT -ANAGERS WITH THESE PROCEDURES
&OR A DESCRIPTION OF THE QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES APPLIED IN 0)3! AND THE RESULTS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! $EVELOPMENT OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS WAS AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS BETWEEN THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM THE VARIOUS EXPERT
COMMITTEES /%#$ GOVERNMENTS AND NATIONAL EXPERTS ! PANEL OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERTS LED IN CLOSE CONSULTATION WITH PARTICIPATING
COUNTRIES THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE RANGE OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES THAT WERE IN THE RESPECTIVE ASSESSMENT DOMAINS CONSIDERED TO BE
CRUCIAL FOR AN INDIVIDUALS CAPACITY TO FULLY PARTICIPATE IN AND CONTRIBUTE TO A SUCCESSFUL MODERN SOCIETY ! DESCRIPTION OF THE ASSESSMENT
DOMAINS n THE ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK n WAS THEN USED BY PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES AND OTHER TEST DEVELOPMENT PROFESSIONALS AS THEY
CONTRIBUTED ASSESSMENT MATERIALS 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK INVOLVED THE FOLLOWING STEPS
n DEVELOPMENT OF A WORKING DEFINITION FOR THE DOMAIN AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLAY THAT DEFINITION
n EVALUATION OF HOW TO ORGANISE THE SET OF TASKS CONSTRUCTED IN ORDER TO REPORT TO POLICY
MAKERS AND RESEARCHERS ON
PERFORMANCE IN EACH ASSESSMENT DOMAIN AMONG
YEAR
OLD STUDENTS IN PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
n IDENTIFICATION OF A SET OF KEY CHARACTERISTICS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN ASSESSMENT TASKS WERE CONSTRUCTED FOR INTERNATIONAL USE
n OPERATIONALISATION OF THE SET OF KEY CHARACTERISTICS TO BE USED IN TEST CONSTRUCTION WITH DEFINITIONS BASED ON EXISTING
LITERATURE AND THE EXPERIENCE OF OTHER LARGE
SCALE ASSESSMENTS
n VALIDATION OF THE VARIABLES AND ASSESSMENT OF THE CONTRIBUTION WHICH EACH MADE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF TASK DIFFICULTY IN
PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES AND
n PREPARATION OF AN INTERPRETATIVE SCHEME FOR THE RESULTS
4HE FRAMEWORKS WERE AGREED AT BOTH SCIENTIFIC AND POLICY LEVELS AND SUBSEQUENTLY PROVIDED THE BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS /%#$ A 4HEY PROVIDED A COMMON LANGUAGE AND A VEHICLE FOR PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES TO DEVELOP
A CONSENSUS AS TO THE MEASUREMENT GOALS OF 0)3!
!SSESSMENT ITEMS WERE THEN DEVELOPED TO REFLECT THE INTENTIONS OF THE FRAMEWORKS AND WERE PILOTED IN A &IELD 4RIAL IN ALL
PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES BEFORE A FINAL SET OF ITEMS WAS SELECTED FOR THE 0)3! -AIN 3TUDY 4ABLES !
!
SHOW THE
DISTRIBUTION OF 0)3! ASSESSMENT ITEMS BY THE VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORKS
4ABLE !
$ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY
.UMBER OF
.UMBER OF COMPLEX .UMBER .UMBER
MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE
OF CLOSED OF OPEN .UMBER
.UMBER CHOICE CHOICE CONSTRUCTED
CONSTRUCTED
OF SHORT
OF ITEMS ITEMS ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS
$ISTRIBUTION OF READING ITEMS BY TEXT STRUCTURE
#ONTINUOUS
.ON
CONTINUOUS
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF READING ITEMS BY TYPE OF TASK PROCESS
)NTERPRETING TEXTS
2EFLECTION AND EVALUATION n
2ETRIEVING INFORMATION
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF READING ITEMS BY TEXT TYPE
!DVERTISEMENTS n n n
!RGUMENTATIVE AND PERSUASIVE n
#HARTS AND GRAPHS n
$ESCRIPTIVE n
%XPOSITORY n
&ORMS
)NJUNCTIVE n n
-APS n n
.ARRATIVE n n
3CHEMATICS n n
4ABLES
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF READING ITEMS BY CONTEXT
%DUCATIONAL
/CCUPATIONAL
0ERSONAL n
0UBLIC
4OTAL
.INE ITEMS WERE ELIMINATED FROM SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS
!..%8 !
4ABLE !
$ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
.UMBER OF .UMBER .UMBER
MULTIPLE
OF CLOSED OF OPEN
.UMBER CHOICE CONSTRUCTED
CONSTRUCTED
OF ITEMS ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS
$ISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICS ITEMS BY @MAIN MATHEMATICAL THEME
'ROWTH AND CHANGE
3PACE AND SHAPE n
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICS ITEMS BY MATHEMATICAL STRANDS
!LGEBRA n
&UNCTIONS n
'EOMETRY n
-EASUREMENT n
.UMBER n n
3TATISTICS
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICS ITEMS BY COMPETENCY CLASS
#LASS n
#LASS
#LASS n
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICS ITEMS BY CONTEXT
#OMMUNITY n
%DUCATIONAL
/CCUPATIONAL n
0ERSONAL n
3CIENTIFIC n
4OTAL
/NE ITEM WAS ELIMINATED FROM SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS
$UE ATTENTION WAS PAID TO REFLECTING THE NATIONAL CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC VARIETY AMONG /%#$ COUNTRIES !S PART OF THIS EFFORT
THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM INCLUDED IN ADDITION TO THE ITEMS THAT WERE DEVELOPED BY THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM ASSESSMENT MATERIAL
CONTRIBUTED BY PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES THAT THE #ONSORTIUMS MULTI
NATIONAL TEAM OF TEST DEVELOPERS DEEMED APPROPRIATE GIVEN
THE REQUIREMENTS LAID OUT BY THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORKS !S A RESULT THE ITEM POOL INCLUDED ASSESSMENT ITEMS FROM
!USTRALIA !USTRIA "ELGIUM #ZECH 2EPUBLIC $ENMARK &INLAND &RANCE 'ERMANY 'REECE )RELAND )TALY *APAN +OREA .EW
:EALAND .ORWAY THE 2USSIAN &EDERATION 3WEDEN 3WITZERLAND THE 5NITED +INGDOM AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 4HE SHARE OF ITEMS
SUBMITTED BY PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WAS SLIGHTLY MORE THAN PER CENT IN BOTH THE &IELD 4RIAL AND THE -AIN 3TUDY
!PPROXIMATELY UNITS AND ITEMS WERE CONTRIBUTED OR DEVELOPED FOR THE &IELD 4RIAL INCLUDING ABOUT 2EADING 5NITS
COMPRISING SOME 2EADING )TEMS !FTER THE FIRST CONSULTATION PROCESS THE &IELD 4RIAL INCLUDED 2EADING 5NITS WITH
2EADING )TEMS /F THESE 2EADING 5NITS THE STIMULUS MATERIAL FOR CAME FROM NATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS ORIGINATED WITH
THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM AND UNITS CAME FROM THE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY )!,3 -ATERIAL WAS DRAWN FROM )!,3
BECAUSE COUNTRIES WANTED TO HAVE THE POSSIBILITY OF COMPARING RESULTS FROM IT WITH 0)3! RESULTS
%ACH ITEM INCLUDED IN THE ASSESSMENT POOL WAS THEN RATED BY EACH COUNTRY FOR POTENTIAL CULTURAL GENDER OR OTHER BIAS FOR
RELEVANCE TO
YEAR
OLDS IN SCHOOL AND NON
SCHOOL CONTEXTS AND FOR FAMILIARITY AND LEVEL OF INTEREST ! FIRST CONSULTATION OF
COUNTRIES ON THE ITEM POOL WAS UNDERTAKEN AS PART OF THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING THE &IELD 4RIAL ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS ! SECOND
CONSULTATION WAS UNDERTAKEN AFTER THE &IELD 4RIAL TO ASSIST IN THE FINAL SELECTION OF ITEMS FOR THE -AIN 3TUDY AND COMPLETED BY A
REVIEW OF THE ASSESSMENT MATERIAL BY AN INTERNATIONAL CULTURAL FAIRNESS PANEL
&OLLOWING THE &IELD 4RIAL IN WHICH ALL ITEMS WERE TESTED IN ALL PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES TEST DEVELOPERS AND EXPERT GROUPS
CONSIDERED A VARIETY OF ASPECTS IN SELECTING THE ITEMS FOR THE -AIN 3TUDY I THE RESULTS FROM THE &IELD 4RIAL II THE OUTCOME OF
THE ITEM REVIEW FROM COUNTRIES AND III QUERIES RECEIVED DURING THE &IELD 4RIAL MARKING PROCESS 4HE TEST DEVELOPERS AND EXPERT
GROUPS SELECTED A FINAL SET OF ITEMS IN /CTOBER WHICH FOLLOWING A PERIOD OF NEGOTIATION WAS ADOPTED BY PARTICIPATING
COUNTRIES AT BOTH SCIENTIFIC AND POLICY LEVELS
!..%8 !
4ABLE !
$ISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS BY THE DIMENSIONS OF THE 0)3! FRAMEWORK FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
.UMBER OF
.UMBER OF COMPLEX .UMBER .UMBER
MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE
OF CLOSED OF OPEN .UMBER
.UMBER CHOICE CHOICE CONSTRUCTED
CONSTRUCTED
OF SHORT
OF ITEMS ITEMS ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS RESPONSE ITEMS
$ISTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE ITEMS BY SCIENCE PROCESSES
#OMMUNICATING TO OTHER VALID CONCLUSIONS FROM EVIDENCE AND DATA n n n n
$EMONSTRATING UNDERSTANDING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE n
$RAWING AND EVALUATING CONCLUSIONS n
)DENTIFYING EVIDENCE AND DATA n n
2ECOGNISING QUESTIONS n n
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE ITEMS BY SCIENCE AREA
%ARTH AND ENVIRONMENT
,IFE AND HEALTH n
4ECHNOLOGY n n
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE ITEMS BY SCIENCE APPLICATION
!TMOSPHERIC CHANGE n n
"IODIVERSITY n n n n
#HEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGE n n n n
%ARTH AND UNIVERSE n n
%COSYSTEMS n n n
%NERGY TRANSFER n n
&ORM AND FUNCTION n n n
'ENETIC CONTROL n n n
'EOLOGICAL CHANGE n n n n
(UMAN BIOLOGY n n n
0HYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE n n n n
3TRUCTURE OF MATTER n n n
4OTAL
$ISTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE ITEMS BY CONTEXT
'LOBAL
(ISTORICAL n n n
0ERSONAL n n
0UBLIC n
4OTAL
/NE ITEM WAS ELIMINATED FROM SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS
4HE -AIN 3TUDY INCLUDED 2EADING 5NITS WITH ITEMS COUNTING DIFFERENT PARTS OF QUESTIONS AS SEPARATE ITEMS 4HE
STIMULUS FOR OF THESE UNITS CAME FROM NATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM WAS THE SOURCE OF THE STIMULUS MATERIAL
FOR UNITS AND UNITS CAME FROM THE )NTERNATIONAL !DULT ,ITERACY 3URVEY 4HE -AIN 3TUDY INSTRUMENTS ALSO INCLUDED
-ATHEMATICS 5NITS )TEMS AND 3CIENCE 5NITS )TEMS
&IVE ITEM TYPES WERE USED IN THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
n -ULTIPLE
CHOICE ITEMS THESE ITEMS REQUIRED STUDENTS TO CIRCLE A LETTER TO INDICATE ONE CHOICE AMONG FOUR OR FIVE ALTERNA
TIVES EACH OF WHICH MIGHT BE A NUMBER A WORD A PHRASE OR A SENTENCE 4HEY WERE SCORED DICHOTOMOUSLY
n #OMPLEX MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS IN THESE ITEMS THE STUDENT MADE A SERIES OF CHOICES USUALLY BINARY 3TUDENTS INDICATED
THEIR ANSWER BY CIRCLING A WORD OR SHORT PHRASE FOR EXAMPLE YES OR NO FOR EACH POINT 4HESE ITEMS WERE SCORED DICHOTO
MOUSLY FOR EACH CHOICE YIELDING THE POSSIBILITY OF FULL OR PARTIAL CREDIT FOR THE WHOLE ITEM
n #LOSED CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE ITEMS THESE ITEMS REQUIRED STUDENTS TO CONSTRUCT THEIR OWN RESPONSES THERE BEING A LIMITED RANGE
OF ACCEPTABLE ANSWERS -OST OF THESE ITEMS WERE SCORED DICHOTOMOUSLY WITH A FEW ITEMS INCLUDED IN THE MARKING PROCESS
n 3HORT RESPONSE ITEMS AS IN THE CLOSED CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE ITEMS STUDENTS WERE TO PROVIDE A BRIEF ANSWER BUT THERE WAS
A WIDE RANGE OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS 4HESE ITEMS WERE HAND MARKED THUS ALLOWING FOR DICHOTOMOUS AS WELL AS PARTIAL CREDIT
!..%8 !
n /PEN CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE ITEMS IN THESE ITEMS STUDENTS CONSTRUCTED A LONGER RESPONSE ALLOWING FOR THE POSSIBILITY
OF A BROAD RANGE OF DIVERGENT INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES AND DIFFERING VIEWPOINTS 4HESE ITEMS USUALLY ASKED STUDENTS TO RELATE
INFORMATION OR IDEAS IN THE STIMULUS TEXT TO THEIR OWN EXPERIENCE OR OPINIONS WITH THE ACCEPTABILITY DEPENDING LESS ON
THE POSITION TAKEN BY THE STUDENT THAN ON THE ABILITY TO USE WHAT THEY HAD READ WHEN JUSTIFYING OR EXPLAINING THAT POSITION
0ARTIAL CREDIT WAS OFTEN PERMITTED FOR PARTIALLY CORRECT OR LESS SOPHISTICATED ANSWERS AND ALL OF THESE ITEMS WERE MARKED
BY HAND
0)3! WAS DESIGNED TO YIELD GROUP
LEVEL INFORMATION IN A BROAD RANGE OF CONTENT 4HE 0)3! ASSESSMENT OF READING INCLUDED
MATERIAL ALLOWING FOR A TOTAL OF MINUTES OF ASSESSMENT TIME OF WHICH PER CENT WAS DEVOTED TO ITEMS REQUIRING OPEN
ENDED RESPONSES 4HE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE ASSESSMENTS INCLUDED MINUTES OF ASSESSMENT TIME OF WHICH PER CENT WAS
ASSESSED THROUGH OPEN
ENDED ITEMS %ACH STUDENT HOWEVER SAT ASSESSMENTS LASTING A TOTAL OF MINUTES
)N ORDER TO COVER THE INTENDED BROAD RANGE OF CONTENT WHILE MEETING THE LIMIT OF MINUTES OF INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT TIME THE
ASSESSMENT IN EACH DOMAIN WAS DIVIDED INTO CLUSTERS ORGANISED INTO NINE BOOKLETS 4HERE WERE NINE
MINUTE READING CLUSTERS
FOUR
MINUTE MATHEMATICS CLUSTERS AND FOUR
MINUTE SCIENCE CLUSTERS )N 0)3! EVERY STUDENT ANSWERED READING ITEMS
AND OVER HALF THE STUDENTS ANSWERED ITEMS ON SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
4HIS ASSESSMENT DESIGN HAD A NUMBER OF PARTICULAR FEATURES &IRST THE MAJORITY OF THE READING MATERIAL WAS PRESENTED IN A
BALANCED WAY IN ORDER TO AVOID POSITION EFFECTS AND TO ENSURE THAT EACH ITEM HAD EQUAL WEIGHT IN THE ASSESSMENT 3ECOND SEVEN
OF THE NINE BOOKLETS BEGAN WITH READING AND ALL BOOKLETS CONTAINED AT LEAST MINUTES OF READING &IVE BOOKLETS ALSO CONTAINED
SCIENCE ITEMS AND FIVE CONTAINED MATHEMATICS ITEMS 4HIRD 0)3! INCLUDED A LINK BETWEEN 0)3! AND )!,3 THROUGH TWO
READING BLOCKS CONTAINING ONLY )!,3 ITEMS WHICH WERE PRESENTED IN SIX OF THE NINE BOOKLETS &INALLY THE DESIGN ENSURED THAT A
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF STUDENTS RESPONDED TO EACH BLOCK OF ITEMS
&OR FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND THE 0)3! ASSESSMENT DESIGN SEE THE 0)3!
4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
!..%8 !
!NNEX ! 2ELIABILITY OF THE MARKING OF OPEN ENDED ITEMS
4HE PROCESS OF MARKING OPEN
ENDED ITEMS WAS AN IMPORTANT STEP IN ENSURING THE QUALITY AND COMPARABILITY OF RESULTS FROM
0)3!
$ETAILED GUIDELINES CONTRIBUTED TO A MARKING PROCESS THAT WAS ACCURATE AND CONSISTENT ACROSS COUNTRIES 4HE MARKING GUIDELINES
CONSISTED OF MARKING MANUALS TRAINING MATERIALS FOR RECRUITING MARKERS AND WORKSHOP MATERIALS USED FOR THE TRAINING OF
NATIONAL MARKERS "EFORE NATIONAL TRAINING THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM ORGANISED TRAINING SESSIONS TO PRESENT THE MATERIAL AND TRAIN
THE MARKING CO
ORDINATORS FROM THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES WHO WERE LATER RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAINING THEIR NATIONAL MARKERS
&OR EACH ASSESSMENT ITEM THE RELEVANT MARKING MANUAL DESCRIBED THE AIM OF THE QUESTION AND HOW TO CODE STUDENTS RESPONSES
TO EACH ITEM 4HIS DESCRIPTION INCLUDED THE CREDIT LABELS n FULL CREDIT PARTIAL CREDIT OR NO CREDIT n ATTACHED TO THE POSSIBLE
CATEGORIES OF RESPONSES 0)3! ALSO INCLUDED A SYSTEM OF DOUBLE
DIGIT CODING FOR THE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE ITEMS IN WHICH
THE lRST DIGIT REPRESENTED THE SCORE AND THE SECOND DIGIT REPRESENTED DIFFERENT STRATEGIES OR APPROACHES THAT STUDENTS USED TO
SOLVE THE PROBLEM 4HE SECOND DIGIT GENERATED NATIONAL PROlLES OF STUDENT STRATEGIES AND MISCONCEPTIONS "Y WAY OF ILLUSTRATION
THE MARKING MANUALS ALSO INCLUDED REAL EXAMPLES OF STUDENTS RESPONSES DRAWN FROM THE &IELD 4RIAL ACCOMPANIED BY A RATIONALE
FOR THEIR CLASSIlCATION
)N EACH COUNTRY A SUB SAMPLE OF ASSESSMENT BOOKLETS WAS MARKED INDEPENDENTLY BY FOUR MARKERS AND EXAMINED BY THE 0)3!
#ONSORTIUM )N ORDER TO EXAMINE THE CONSISTENCY OF THIS MARKING PROCESS IN MORE DETAIL WITHIN EACH COUNTRY AND TO ESTIMATE
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VARIANCE COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF MARKERS THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM CONDUCTED AN INTER MARKER
RELIABILITY STUDY ON A SUB SAMPLE OF ASSESSMENT BOOKLETS (OMOGENEITY ANALYSIS WAS APPLIED TO THE NATIONAL SETS OF MULTIPLE
MARKING AND COMPARED WITH THE RESULTS OF THE &IELD 4RIAL &OR DETAILS SEE THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
!T THE BETWEEN COUNTRY LEVEL AN INTER COUNTRY RELIABILITY STUDY WAS CARRIED OUT ON A SUB SET OF ITEMS 4HE AIM WAS TO CHECK
WHETHER THE MARKING GIVEN BY NATIONAL MARKERS WAS OF EQUAL SEVERITY IN EACH COUNTRY BOTH OVERALL AND FOR PARTICULAR ITEMS )N
THIS PROCESS INDEPENDENT MARKING OF THE ORIGINAL BOOKLETS WAS UNDERTAKEN BY TRAINED MULTILINGUAL STAFF AND COMPARED TO THE
RATINGS BY THE NATIONAL MARKERS IN THE VARIOUS COUNTRIES 4HE RESULTS SHOWED THAT VERY CONSISTENT MARKS WERE ACHIEVED ACROSS
COUNTRIES 4HE AVERAGE INDEX OF hAGREEMENTv IN THE INTER COUNTRY RELIABILITY STUDY WAS PER CENT OUT OF STUDENT
RESPONSES THAT WERE INDEPENDENTLY SCORED BY THE INTERNATIONAL VERIlERS h!GREEMENTv MEANT BOTH CASES WHERE THE INTERNATIONAL
VERIlER AGREED WITH AT LEAST THREE OF THE NATIONAL MARKERS AND CASES WHERE THE VERIlER DISAGREED WITH THE NATIONAL MARKERS
BUT THE ADJUDICATION UNDERTAKEN BY THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUMS TEST DEVELOPERS CONCLUDED THAT THE NATIONAL MARKERS HAD GIVEN THE
CORRECT MARK /NLY COUNTRIES HAD RATES OF AGREEMENT LOWER THAN PER CENT /N AVERAGE MARKING WAS TOO HARSH IN PER CENT
OF CASES WITH A MAXIMUM OF PER CENT IN ,ATVIA AND TOO LENIENT IN PER CENT OF CASES WITH A MAXIMUM OF PER CENT
IN ,ATVIA ! FULL DESCRIPTION OF THIS PROCESS AND THE RESULTS CAN BE FOUND IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT
!..%8
"
/Ê/ -
!NNEX " $ATA TABLES FOR THE CHAPTERS
!NNEX " 0ERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
&LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES OF
"ELGIUM AND THE DIFFERENT LINGUISTIC
COMMUNITIES IN 3WITZERLAND
!..%8 "
!NNEX " $ATA TABLES FOR THE CHAPTERS
4ABLE A
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0ROFICIENCY LEVELS
"ELOW ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL
LESS THAN FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO ABOVE
SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS
3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY ON THE READING RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
0ROFICIENCY LEVELS
"ELOW ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL
LESS THAN FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO ABOVE
SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS
3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE C
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY ON THE READING INTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
0ROFICIENCY LEVELS
"ELOW ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL
LESS THAN FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO ABOVE
SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS
3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE D
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY ON THE READING REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
0ROFICIENCY LEVELS
"ELOW ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL
LESS THAN FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO ABOVE
SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS
3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READING RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &ED
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
"ELGIUM
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
-EXICO
&INLAND
#ANADA
'REECE
!USTRIA
)CELAND
)RELAND
0OLAND
&RANCE
,ATVIA
+OREA
"RAZIL
*APAN
3PAIN
)TALY
-EAN
3%
&INLAND
!USTRALIA
.EW :EALAND
#ANADA
+OREA
*APAN
)RELAND
5NITED +INGDOM
3WEDEN
&RANCE
"ELGIUM
.ORWAY
!USTRIA
)CELAND
5NITED 3TATES
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
,IECHTENSTEIN
)TALY
3PAIN
'ERMANY
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
(UNGARY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
2USSIAN &ED
,ATVIA
'REECE
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
"RAZIL
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY OR IF
THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
.O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READING INTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &ED
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
"ELGIUM
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
-EXICO
&INLAND
#ANADA
'REECE
!USTRIA
)CELAND
)RELAND
0OLAND
&RANCE
,ATVIA
+OREA
"RAZIL
*APAN
3PAIN
)TALY
-EAN
3%
&INLAND
#ANADA
!USTRALIA
)RELAND
.EW :EALAND
+OREA
3WEDEN
*APAN
)CELAND
5NITED +INGDOM
"ELGIUM
!USTRIA
&RANCE
.ORWAY
5NITED 3TATES
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
3PAIN
)TALY
'ERMANY
,IECHTENSTEIN
0OLAND
(UNGARY
'REECE
0ORTUGAL
2USSIAN &ED
,ATVIA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
"RAZIL
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY OR IF
THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
.O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
!..%8 "
4ABLE C
-ULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN PERFORMANCE ON THE READING REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
5NITED +INGDOM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
,IECHTENSTEIN
5NITED 3TATES
.EW :EALAND
,UXEMBOURG
2USSIAN &ED
3WITZERLAND
$ENMARK
'ERMANY
!USTRALIA
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
"ELGIUM
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
-EXICO
&INLAND
#ANADA
'REECE
!USTRIA
)CELAND
)RELAND
0OLAND
&RANCE
,ATVIA
+OREA
"RAZIL
*APAN
3PAIN
)TALY
-EAN
3%
#ANADA
5NITED +INGDOM
)RELAND
&INLAND
*APAN
.EW :EALAND
!USTRALIA
+OREA
!USTRIA
3WEDEN
5NITED 3TATES
.ORWAY
3PAIN
)CELAND
$ENMARK
"ELGIUM
&RANCE
'REECE
3WITZERLAND
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
)TALY
(UNGARY
0ORTUGAL
'ERMANY
0OLAND
,IECHTENSTEIN
,ATVIA
2USSIAN &ED
-EXICO
,UXEMBOURG
"RAZIL
)NSTRUCTIONS
2EAD ACROSS THE ROW FOR A COUNTRY TO COMPARE PERFORMANCE WITH THE COUNTRIES LISTED ALONG THE TOP OF THE CHART 4HE SYMBOLS INDICATE WHETHER THE MEAN
PERFORMANCE OF THE COUNTRY IN THE ROW IS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT OF THE COMPARISON COUNTRY OR IF
THERE IS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEAN PERFORMANCE OF THE TWO COUNTRIES
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
.O STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCE FROM COMPARISON COUNTRY
-EAN PERFORMANCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY LOWER THAN IN COMPARISON COUNTRY
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY ABOVE THE /%#$ AVERAGE
.OT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE
3TATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY BELOW THE /%#$ AVERAGE
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
0ERCENTILES
3TANDARD
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READING RETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
0ERCENTILES
3TANDARD
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE C
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READING INTERPRETING TEXTS SCALE
0ERCENTILES
3TANDARD
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE D
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE READING REFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
0ERCENTILES
3TANDARD
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE
"ETWEEN
SCHOOL AND WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
6ARIATION EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION
IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 30 ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
4OTAL VARIATION IN 30 6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY THE 6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY THE
EXPRESSED AS A INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC
INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
PERCENTAGE OF
THE AVERAGE STATUS OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS
VARIATION IN 30 4OTAL VARIATION 4OTAL VARIATION
4OTAL VARIATION ACROSS /%#$ IN 30 BETWEEN IN 30 WITHIN "ETWEEN
SCHOOL 7ITHIN
SCHOOL "ETWEEN
SCHOOL 7ITHIN
SCHOOL
IN 30 COUNTRIES SCHOOLS SCHOOLS VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRALIA
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
6ARIATION EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION IN STUDENT
PERFORMANCE 30 ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY GEOGRAPHICALSYSTEMIC 4OTAL VARIATION 4HE TOTAL VARIATION IN
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AND THE INTERNATIONAL BETWEEN SCHOOLS
6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPRESSED AS STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS
SYSTEMICINSTITUTIONAL FACTORS STATUS OF STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS A PERCENTAGE OF OBTAINED AS THE SQUARE OF
"ETWEEN
SCHOOL 7ITHIN
SCHOOL "ETWEEN
SCHOOL 7ITHIN
SCHOOL THE TOTAL VARIATION THE STANDARD DEVIATION
VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY SHOWN IN 4ABLE A 4HE
!USTRALIA
STATISTICAL VARIANCE IN
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA 30 AND NOT THE STANDARD
"ELGIUM DEVIATION IS USED FOR THIS
#ANADA COMPARISON TO ALLOW FOR
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK M M M M THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE
&INLAND M M M M COMPONENTS OF VARIATION
&RANCE M M M M M IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE &OR REASONS EXPLAINED
(UNGARY IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNI
)CELAND CAL 2EPORT THE SUM OF
)RELAND
)TALY THE BETWEEN AND WITHIN
*APAN M M M M SCHOOL VA RIANCE COMPO
+OREA NENTS MAY FOR SOME
,UXEMBOURG M M M M
-EXICO COUNTRIES DIFFER SLIGHTLY
.EW :EALAND FROM THE SQUARE OF
.ORWAY THE STANDARD DEVIATION
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL M M M M SHOWN IN 4ABLE A
3PAIN $UE TO THE SAMPLING
3WEDEN METHODS USED IN *APAN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM THE BETWEEN SCHOOL VARI
5NITED 3TATES M M M M ANCE IN *APAN INCLUDES
/%#$ AVERAGE VARIATION BETWEEN CLASSES
#/5.42)%3
WITHIN SCHOOLS
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA M M M M 4HIS INDEX IS OFTEN
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M REFERRED TO AS THE INTRA
2USSIAN &EDERATION CLASS CORRELATION RHO
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
!T OR ABOVE SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS
"ELOW SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD PASSFAIL THRESHOLD
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COM
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COM
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS BINED READING LITERACY SCALE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS BINED READING LITERACY SCALE
3% -EAN SCORE 3% 3% -EAN SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK C C
&INLAND C C
&RANCE
'ERMANY M M M M M M M M
'REECE
(UNGARY A A
)CELAND
)RELAND M M M M M M M M
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M
+OREA M M M M M M M M
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY C C
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL M M M M M M M M
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES M M M M M M M M
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL M M M M M M M M
,ATVIA C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION M M M M M M M M
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
3TANDARD 0ERCENTILES
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
"ELOW SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS !T OR ABOVE SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS
PASSFAIL THRESHOLD PASSFAIL THRESHOLD
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHE
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS MATICAL LITERACY SCALE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS MATICAL LITERACY SCALE
-EAN -EAN
3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK C C
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY M M M M M M M M
'REECE
(UNGARY A A A A
)CELAND
)RELAND M M M M M M M M
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M
+OREA M M M M M M M M
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL M M M M M M M M
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES M M M M M M M M
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL M M M M M M M M
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
,ATVIA M M M M M M M M
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION M M M M M M M M
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
6ARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
3TANDARD 0ERCENTILES
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3CHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS PASSFAIL THRESHOLD AND PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
"ELOW SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS !T OR ABOVE SCHOOLS OR CLASSROOM TEACHERS
PASSFAIL THRESHOLD PASSFAIL THRESHOLD
0ERFORMANCE ON THE 0ERFORMANCE ON THE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
-EAN -EAN
3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM M M M M M M M M
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C
$ENMARK
&INLAND C C
&RANCE
'ERMANY M M M M M M M M
'REECE
(UNGARY A A A A
)CELAND
)RELAND M M M M M M M M
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M
+OREA M M M M M M M M
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL M M M M M M M M
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES M M M M M M M M
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL M M M M M M M M
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
,ATVIA M M M M M M M M
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION M M M M M M M M
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
"ETWEEN
SCHOOL AND WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES
6ARIATION EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE AVERAGE VARIATION
IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE 30 ACROSS /%#$ COUNTRIES
6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY THE 6ARIATION EXPLAINED BY THE 4OTAL VARIA
4OTAL VARIATION INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECO
INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECO
TION BETWEEN
IN 30 EXPRESSED NOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPA
NOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL SCHOOLS EX
AS A PERCENTAGE TIONAL STATUS OF STUDENTS STATUS OF STUDENTS !.$ SCHOOLS PRESSSED AS A
OF THE AVERAGE 4OTAL 4OTAL PERCENTAGE OF
4OTAL VARIATION IN 30 VARIATION VARIATION "ETWEEN
7ITHIN
"ETWEEN
7ITHIN
THE TOTAL VARI
VARIATION ACROSS /%#$ IN 30 BETWEEN IN 30 WITHIN SCHOOL SCHOOL SCHOOL SCHOOL ATION WITHIN
IN 30 COUNTRIES SCHOOLS SCHOOLS VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION VARIATION THE COUNTRY
-!4(%-!4)#!,
,)4%2!#9
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
3#)%.4)&)#
,)4%2!#9
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
4HE TOTAL VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE IS OBTAINED AS THE SQUARE OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION SHOWN IN 4ABLE FOR MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND 4ABLE
FOR SCIENTIlC LITERACY 4HE STATISTICAL VARIANCE AND NOT THE STANDARD DEVIATION IS USED FOR THIS COMPARISON TO ALLOW FOR THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE COMPONENTS
OF VARIATION IN STUDENT PERFORMANCE &OR REASONS EXPLAINED IN THE 0)3! 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT THE SUM OF THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL AND WITHIN
SCHOOL VARIANCE
COMPONENTS MAY FOR SOME COUNTRIES DIFFER SLIGHTLY FROM THE SQUARE OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION SHOWN IN 4ABLES AND
4HIS INDEX IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE INTRA
CLASS CORRELATION RHO
$UE TO THE SAMPLING METHODS USED IN *APAN THE BETWEEN
SCHOOL VARIANCE IN *APAN INCLUDES VARIATION BETWEEN CLASSES WITHIN SCHOOLS
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING SCIENTIlC AND MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALES AND NATIONAL INCOME
#UMULATIVE
EXPENDITURE ON
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED 0ERFORMANCE ON THE 0ERFORMANCE ON THE '$0 PER CAPITA EDUCATIONAL INSTI
READING LITERACY SCALE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE 53 DOLLARS TUTIONS PER STUDENT
-EAN SCORE 3% -EAN SCORE 3% -EAN SCORE 3% 53 DOLLARS
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
-EXICO
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
,ATVIA M
,IECHTENSTEIN M
2USSIAN &EDERATION M
53 DOLLARS CONVERTED USING 000S
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN READING
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
'ERMANY n n n n
(UNGARY n n n n
)CELAND n n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n n n n
+OREA n n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL n
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN READING #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN READING
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n n
'ERMANY n n n n
(UNGARY n n n n n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND n n n n
)TALY n n n
+OREA n n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n n n
0ORTUGAL n
3WEDEN n n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL n
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS #HANGE IN THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM n n n n n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE n n n n
'ERMANY n n n n
'REECE n n n n
(UNGARY n n n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n n
0OLAND n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN n n n n
3WEDEN n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF ENGAGEMENT IN READING
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRALIA
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
4IME STUDENTS USUALLY SPEND EACH DAY READING FOR ENJOYMENT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
3TUDENTS REPORT 3TUDENTS REPORT 3TUDENTS REPORT 3TUDENTS REPORT 3TUDENTS REPORT
NOT READING READING MIN OR LESS READING BETWEEEN READING BETWEEN READING MORE THAN
FOR ENJOYMENT EACH DAY AND MIN EACH DAY AND HOURS EACH DAY HOURS EACH DAY
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3% 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
n n n
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM &L n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n
$ENMARK n n n n n
&INLAND n n n n n n
'ERMANY n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n n n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n n
+OREA n n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
"RAZIL n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF CONTROL STRATEGIES
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
n n
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n n n n
'ERMANY n n n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n n n n
)RELAND n
)TALY n n n n n n
+OREA n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF MEMORISATION STRATEGIES
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM &L n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY n
(UNGARY
)CELAND n
)RELAND
)TALY n
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY n
0ORTUGAL n
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n
$ENMARK n n n n n
&INLAND n n n n n
'ERMANY n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n n n n
)RELAND n n n n n
)TALY n n n n n
+OREA n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF ELABORATION STRATEGIES
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
n n n
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n
'ERMANY n n n n n n
(UNGARY n n n n n n
)CELAND n n n n n n
)RELAND n n
)TALY n n n
+OREA n n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n
0ORTUGAL n
3WEDEN n n n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF CO
OPERATIVE LEARNING
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n n
"ELGIUM &L n n n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n n n n n
'ERMANY n n n n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n n n n
+OREA n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n n n
3WEDEN n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
n n n n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF COMPETITIVE LEARNING
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM &L n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL n
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n n n -AX
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
"ELGIUM n n n -AX
#ANADA n n n n -AX
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n -AX
$ENMARK n n n n -AX
&INLAND n n n n -AX
'ERMANY n -AX
(UNGARY n n n n -AX
)RELAND n n n -AX
,UXEMBOURG n -AX
-EXICO n -AX
.EW :EALAND n n n n n -AX
.ORWAY A A A A A A A A A A A A A
3WEDEN n n n -AX
3WITZERLAND n n n -AX
5NITED 3TATES n -AX
/%#$ TOTAL n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
"RAZIL n -AX
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n -AX
,IECHTENSTEIN n n -AX
2USSIAN &EDERATION n -AX
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF INTEREST IN COMPUTERS
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n
'ERMANY n
(UNGARY n
)RELAND
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND n
.ORWAY A A A A A A A A A A
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE n
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! h-AXv IS USED TO REPRESENT COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS AT THE HIGHEST
VALUE OF THIS INDEX WHICH IS
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n n n
$ENMARK n n n n
&INLAND n n n n
'ERMANY n n n n n n
(UNGARY n n n n n n
)RELAND n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n n n n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n n
3WEDEN n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n n n n
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
"RAZIL n n n n n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n n n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
OF THE INDEX OF COMFORT WITH AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF COMFORT WITH
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER AND PERCEIVED ABILITY TO USE COMPUTERS
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)RELAND
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES BY GENDER
3333333333333333333333#OMBINED READING LITERACY -ATHEMATICAL LITERACY 3CIENTIlC LITERACY
-ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE -ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE -ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE
-EAN -EAN 33 3CORE -EAN -EAN 3CORE -EAN -EAN 3CORE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3 3% DIF 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DIF 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DIF 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n
&RANCE n
'ERMANY n
'REECE n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n
)TALY n n
*APAN n n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN n
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n
/%#$ AVERAGE n
"RAZIL n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT MALES PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT FEMALES PERFORM BETTER THAN MALES $IFFERENCES
THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
3TUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE RETRIEVING INFORMATION INTERPRETING TEXTS AND REmECTION AND EVALUATION SCALES BY GENDER
33333333333333333333333 2ETRIEVING INFORMATION )NTERPRETING TEXTS 2EmECTION AND EVALUATION
-ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE -ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE -ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE
-EAN -EAN 33 3CORE -EAN -EAN 3CORE -EAN -EAN 3CORE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3 3% DIF 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DIF 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DIF 3%
!USTRALIA n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n n n
(UNGARY n n n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
"RAZIL n n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT MALES PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT FEMALES PERFORM BETTER THAN MALES $IFFERENCES
THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL OF PROlCIENCY ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY GENDER
)NCREASED LIKELI
"ELOW ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL ,EVEL HOOD OF MALES PER
LESS THAN FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO FROM TO ABOVE FORMING AT ,EVEL
SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS SCORE POINTS OR BELOW
-ALES 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&EMALES
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
6ALUES THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCORING BELOW POINTS AND ABOVE POINTS ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
2ELATIVE LIKELIHOOD OF MALES
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCORING BELOW POINTS SCORING BELOW POINTS
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE ON THE MATHEMATICAL
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES LITERACY SCALE
3% 3% 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ELATIVE LIKELIHOOD OF MALES
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS SCORING ABOVE POINTS SCORING ABOVE POINTS
ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE ON THE MATHEMATICAL
!LL STUDENTS -ALES &EMALES LITERACY SCALE
3% 3% 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
6ALUES THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
4IME STUDENTS USUALLY SPEND EACH DAY READING FOR ENJOYMENT
3TUDENTS REPORT NOT READING 3TUDENTS REPORT READING 3TUDENTS REPORT READING BETWEEN
FOR ENJOYMENT MINUTES OR LESS EACH DAY AND MINUTES EACH DAY
&EMALES -ALES &EMALES -ALES &EMALES -ALES
3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
3TUDENTS REPORT READING BETWEEN 3TUDENTS REPORT READING
AND HOURS EACH DAY MORE THAN HOURS EACH DAY
&EMALES -ALES &EMALES -ALES
3% 3% 3% 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN READING BY GENDER AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN READING
-ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN )NDEX -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% DIF 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN READING
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR A DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT MALES PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT
FEMALES PERFORM BETTER THAN MALES $IFFERENCES THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS BY GENDER AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS
-ALES &EMALES $IFFERENCE "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN )NDEX -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% DIF 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n
'ERMANY n n n
(UNGARY n n n n n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n n
)TALY n n n
+OREA n n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
#/5.42)%3
"RAZIL n n
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF SELF
CONCEPT IN MATHEMATICS
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
'ERMANY
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0ORTUGAL
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR A DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT MALES PERFORM BETTER THAN FEMALES NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES INDICATE THAT
FEMALES PERFORM BETTER THAN MALES $IFFERENCES THAT ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT ARE INDICATED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STU
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS #HANGE IN THE COMBINED DENTS IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER
OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS READING LITERACY SCORE OF THE )3%) DISTRIBUTION SCO
PER UNITS OF THE INTER
RING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER NATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC THE NATIONAL READING LITERACY
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
*APAN WAS EXCLUDED FROM THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE OF A HIGH PROPORTION OF MISSING DATA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD THIS
INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT UNITS ON THE INDEX CORRESPONDS TO ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE B
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STU
0ERFORMANCE ON THE MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS #HANGE IN THE MATHE
DENTS IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER
OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS MATICAL LITERACY SCORE OF THE )3%) DISTRIBUTION SCO
PER UNITS OF THE INTER
RING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER NATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC THE NATIONAL MATH LITERACY
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
*APAN WAS EXCLUDED FROM THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE OF A HIGH PROPORTION OF MISSING DATA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD THIS
INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT UNITS ON THE INDEX CORRESPONDS TO ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE C
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) AND PERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STU
0ERFORMANCE ON THE SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS #HANGE IN THE COMBINED DENTS IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER
OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCORE OF THE )3%) DISTRIBUTION SCO
PER UNITS OF THE INTER
RING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER NATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC THE NATIONAL SCIENTIlC LITERACY
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
*APAN WAS EXCLUDED FROM THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE OF A HIGH PROPORTION OF MISSING DATA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD THIS
INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT UNITS ON THE INDEX CORRESPONDS TO ONE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n n
'REECE n n n n
(UNGARY n n n n
)CELAND n
)RELAND n n
)TALY n n
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n n n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n
0OLAND n n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n n
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n n n
,ATVIA n n n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
STUDENTS IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER
OF THE INDEX OF FAMILY WEALTH
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED OF THE WEALTH DISTRIBUTION
READING LITERACY SCORE SCORING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX THE NATIONAL READING LITERACY
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN OF FAMILY WEALTH PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND n
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n -AX
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n -AX
"ELGIUM n n n n
#ANADA n n n -AX
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n -AX
$ENMARK n n n -AX
&INLAND n n -AX
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n n n -AX
'REECE n n -AX
(UNGARY n -AX
)CELAND n -AX
)RELAND n n n -AX
)TALY n -AX
*APAN n n n
+OREA n -AX
,UXEMBOURG n n n -AX
-EXICO n n n n
.EW :EALAND n n n -AX
.ORWAY n n -AX
0OLAND n -AX
0ORTUGAL n n n -AX
3PAIN n n -AX
3WEDEN n n -AX
3WITZERLAND n n n -AX
5NITED +INGDOM n n n -AX
5NITED 3TATES n n n -AX
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n n n
,ATVIA n -AX
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n -AX
2USSIAN &EDERATION n -AX
.ETHERLANDS n n n n
0 ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME #HANGE IN THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN OF CULTURAL POSSESSIONS
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DEFINITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! h-AXv IS USED FOR COUNTRIES WITH MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS
AT THE HIGHEST VALUE OF THIS INDEX WHICH IS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP
QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO hCLASSICALv CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n -IN n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n
"ELGIUM n -IN n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n -IN n
&RANCE n -IN n n
'ERMANY -IN n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND n -IN n
)TALY n -IN n
*APAN n -IN n n
+OREA n -IN n n
,UXEMBOURG n -IN n
-EXICO n -IN n
.EW :EALAND n -IN n
.ORWAY n -IN n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN -IN n
3WEDEN n -IN n
3WITZERLAND -IN n
5NITED +INGDOM n -IN n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n -IN n
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION -IN n
.ETHERLANDS n -IN n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES #HANGE IN THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! h-INv IS USED FOR COUNTRIES WITH MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS AT THE
LOWEST VALUE OF THIS INDEX WHICH IS n
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS
ARE MARKED IN BOLD THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM n n n -AX
#ANADA n n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n -AX
$ENMARK n n -AX
&INLAND n n n n
&RANCE n n -AX
'ERMANY n n n n
'REECE n n -AX
(UNGARY n -AX
)CELAND n n n -AX
)RELAND n n n -AX
)TALY n -AX
*APAN n n n -AX
+OREA n n n -AX
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n n n -AX
.EW :EALAND n n n n
.ORWAY n n n -AX
0OLAND n n -AX
0ORTUGAL n -AX
3PAIN n n -AX
3WEDEN n n n -AX
3WITZERLAND n n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n -AX
5NITED 3TATES n n -AX
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n -AX
,ATVIA n n -AX
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n -AX
.ETHERLANDS n n -AX
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION #HANGE IN THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN SOCIAL COMMUNICATION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! h-AXv IS USED TO REPRESENT COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS AT THE HIGHEST
VALUE OF THIS INDEX WHICH IS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF COMMUNICATION WITH PARENTS RELATED TO ASPECTS OF CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE n
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n
*APAN n n
+OREA n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n
5NITED 3TATES n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF CULTURAL COMMUNICATION #HANGE IN THE COMBINED
READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER 3ECOND QUARTER 4HIRD QUARTER 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES
BY LEVEL OF MOTHERS EDUCATION
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
-OTHERS WITH COMPLETED PRIMARY OR LOWER SECONDARY -OTHERS WITH COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
EDUCATION )3#%$ ,EVELS OR )3#%$ ,EVEL
0ERFORMANCE 0ERFORMANCE
#OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC #OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC
READING LITERACY LITERACY READING LITERACY LITERACY
LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE
OF -EAN -EAN -EAN OF -EAN -EAN -EAN
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
OTHERS WITH TERTIARY EDUCATION )3#%$ ,EVELS OR
-
0ERFORMANCE
#OMBINED READING -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC )NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS
LITERACY SCALE LITERACY SCALE LITERACY SCALE HAVE NOT COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
SCORING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE NATIONAL
OF -EAN -EAN -EAN READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M M M M M M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C C C C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
-EAN SCORES MARKED IN BOLD INDICATE THAT THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN STUDENTS WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE COMPLETED UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
AND THOSE WHOSE MOTHERS HAVE NOT IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY WITH THE RESPECTIVE LEVEL OF MOTHERS EDUCATION
*APAN WAS EXCLUDED FROM THIS COMPARISON BECAUSE OF A HIGH PROPORTION OF MISSING DATA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF THE ADULT POPULATION WHO HAVE COMPLETED TERTIARY EDUCATION AND THE PROBABILITY OF OBTAINING A TERTIARY
QUALIlCATION BY PARENTS LEVEL OF EDUCATION
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF OBTAINING A TERTIARY QUALIlCATION FOR
0ERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION TO YEARS OF AGE WHO HAVE INDIVIDUALS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE ALSO COMPLETED TERTIARY EDUCATION
COMPLETED TERTIARY EDUCATION BY LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAL COMPARED WITH INDIVIDUALS WHOSE PARENTS HAVE NOT COMPLETED
ATTAINMENT OF THEIR PARENTS SECONDARY EDUCATION
"ELOW UPPER SECON
5PPER SECONDARY 4ERTIARY 4OTAL
DARY EDUCATION EDUCATION EDUCATION
YEARS
YEARS
OLD
YEARS
OLD
!USTRALIA
"ELGIUM &L
#ANADA
'ERMANY
)RELAND M M
.ETHERLANDS
.EW :EALAND
0OLAND M
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
3OURCE /%#$ AND 3TATISTICS #ANADA
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY TYPE OF FAMILY STRUCTURE
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
3TUDENTS FROM SINGLE
PARENT 3TUDENTS FROM OTHER TYPES )NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STUDENTS FROM SINGLE
FAMILIES OF FAMILIES PARENT FAMILIES SCORING IN THE BOTTOM QUARTER OF THE
OF -EAN OF -EAN NATIONAL READING LITERACY PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% 2ATIO 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF FAMILY TYPE SEE !NNEX ! 3CORES MARKED IN BOLD REPRESENT STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCES ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BETWEEN STUDENTS FROM SINGLE
PARENT FAMILIES AND THOSE FROM OTHER TYPES OF FAMILIES
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES
BY STUDENTS NATIONALITY AND THE NATIONALITY OF THEIR PARENTS
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
.ATIVE STUDENTS STUDENTS WHO WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF ASSESSMENT &IRST
GENERATION STUDENTS STUDENTS WHO WERE BORN IN THE COUNTRY OF ASSESSMENT
WITH AT LEAST ONE OF THEIR PARENTS BORN IN THE SAME COUNTRY BUT WHOSE PARENTS WERE FOREIGN
BORN
0ERFORMANCE 0ERFORMANCE
#OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC #OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC
READING LITERACY LITERACY READING LITERACY LITERACY
LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE
OF -EAN -EAN -EAN OF -EAN -EAN -EAN
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C C C C C
$ENMARK
&INLAND C C C C C C
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE C C C C C C
(UNGARY C C C C A A
)CELAND C C C C C C
)RELAND C C C C
)TALY C C C C C C
*APAN C C C C C C
+OREA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO C C
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND C C C C C C
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN C C C C
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL C C C C C C
,ATVIA C C
,IECHTENSTEIN C C C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
.ON
NATIVE STUDENTS STUDENTS WHO WERE FOREIGN
BORN AND WHOSE PARENTS
WERE ALSO FOREIGN
BORN
0ERFORMANCE
#OMBINED READING -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC
LITERACY SCALE LITERACY SCALE LITERACY SCALE
OF -EAN -EAN -EAN
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C C C C C
$ENMARK
&INLAND C C
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND C C C C C C
)RELAND C C
)TALY C C C C
*APAN C C C C C C
+OREA A A A A A A A A
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND C C C C C C
0ORTUGAL C C
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL C C C C C C
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN C C C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
-EAN SCORES MARKED IN BOLD INDICATE THAT THE DIFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE BETWEEN NATIVE AND
lRST GENERATION STUDENTS IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY IN THEIR RESPECTIVE CATEGORY
4HIS QUESTION WAS NOT ASKED IN +OREA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3TUDENTS PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENTIlC LITERACY SCALES BY LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
,ANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME )3 $)&&%2%.4 FROM ,ANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME MOST OF THE TIME )3 4(% 3!-%
THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT FROM OTHER OFlCIAL LANGUAGES AS THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT OTHER OFlCIAL LANGUAGES
OR FROM OTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS OR ANOTHER NATIONAL DIALECTS
0ERFORMANCE 0ERFORMANCE
#OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC #OMBINED -ATHEMATICAL 3CIENTIlC
READING LITERACY LITERACY READING LITERACY LITERACY
LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE LITERACY SCALE SCALE SCALE
OF -EAN -EAN -EAN OF -EAN -EAN -EAN
STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% STUDENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C C C C C
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
)CELAND C C
)RELAND C C C C C C
)TALY C C C C C C
*APAN C C C C C C
+OREA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO C C C C C C
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND C C C C C C
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL C C C C C C
,ATVIA A A A A A A
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
)NCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF STUDENTS WHO DO NOT SPEAK
THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT AT HOME SCORING IN THE BOTTOM
QUARTER OF THE NATIONAL READING LITERACY
PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION
2ATIO 3%
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRALIA
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C
$ENMARK
&INLAND C C
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY M M
)CELAND C C
)RELAND C C
)TALY C C
*APAN C C
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO C C
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND C C
0ORTUGAL C C
3PAIN C C
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL C C
,ATVIA A A
,IECHTENSTEIN C C
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
-EAN SCORES MARKED IN BOLD INDICATE THAT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STUDENTS
WHO DO NOT SPEAK THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT AT HOME AND THOSE WHO DO IS
STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE ASSESSMENT OF READING LITERACY
IN THEIR RESPECTIVE CATEGORY
4HIS QUESTION WAS NOT ASKED IN +OREA
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
2ATIOS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY GREATER THAN ARE MARKED IN BOLD
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n
)RELAND n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n n
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN n
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n
/%#$ AVERAGE n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
-EAN -EAN -EAN PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER SUPPORT
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE n
'ERMANY n
'REECE
(UNGARY n
)CELAND
)RELAND n
)TALY n
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n n n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n
*APAN n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS
-EAN -EAN -EAN AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES REPRESENT A POSITIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE
WITH REGARD TO STUDENT
RELATED FACTORS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n
'REECE n n n n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
-EAN -EAN -EAN PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES REPRESENT A POSITIVE STUDENT PERCEPTION
OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n n n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n
*APAN n n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS
-EAN -EAN -EAN AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE n
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES REPRESENT A POSITIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE
WITH REGARD TO TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF PRINCIPALS PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n
)RELAND n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL n n n
3PAIN n n n
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE
INDEX OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERCEPTION
-EAN -EAN -EAN OF TEACHERS MORALE AND COMMITMENT
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK PER WEEK IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES AND PERFORMANCE
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON
STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOME
)NDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK IN THE LANGUAGE WORK IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS
OF ASSESSMENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES AND SCIENCE COURSES
!LL "OTTOM 3ECOND 4HIRD 4OP "OTTOM 3ECOND 4HIRD 4OP
STUDENTS QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n n n
&RANCE n n
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND n n
)TALY n n
*APAN n n n n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN n n
3WEDEN n n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ TOTAL n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING %STIMATED MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS SPENT #ORRELATION BETWEEN THE INDEX
LITERACY SCORE PER UNIT OF THE ON HOMEWORK IN THE LANGUAGE ASSESS
OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK AND
INDEX OF TIME SPENT ON HOMEWORK MENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE COURSES THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC
#HANGE 3% -EAN 3% INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA M M M
,IECHTENSTEIN n M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION M M M
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
3TUDENT PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL COURSES OUTSIDE SCHOOL
2ESULTS BASED ON
STUDENTS SELF
REPORTS
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO HAVE SOMETIMES OR REGULARLY 0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS WHO HAVE SOMETIMES OR REGULARLY
ATTENDED COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT ATTENDED REMEDIAL COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE OF ASSESSMENT
COURSES IN OTHER SUBJECTS OR EXTENSION REMEDIAL COURSES IN OTHER SUBJECTS TRAINING TO IMPROVE
OR ADDITIONAL COURSES IN THE LAST THREE YEARS STUDY SKILLS OR PRIVATE TUTORING IN THE LAST THREE YEARS
0ERCENTAGE 3% 0ERCENTAGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE M M
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS M M
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n n n -AX
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n -AX
"ELGIUM n -AX
#ANADA n n -AX
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n -AX
$ENMARK n -AX
&INLAND n -AX
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n -AX
'REECE n n n -AX
(UNGARY n -AX
)CELAND n n n -AX
)RELAND n n -AX
)TALY n n n -AX
*APAN n n n -AX
+OREA n -AX
,UXEMBOURG n n n C C
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND n n n -AX
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n -AX
0ORTUGAL n -AX
3PAIN n -AX
3WEDEN n n n -AX
3WITZERLAND n -AX
5NITED +INGDOM n n n -AX
5NITED 3TATES n -AX
/%#$ TOTAL n n -AX
/%#$ AVERAGE n -AX
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n -AX
,ATVIA n n -AX
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER #HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
-EAN -EAN -EAN PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF TEACHER SHORTAGE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES INDICATE THAT TEACHER SHORTAGE IS PERCEIVED AS
LESS OF A PROBLEM COMPARED TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE h-AXv IS USED IN CASES WHERE MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE
RESPONSES FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CORRESPOND TO THE HIGHEST VALUE ON THE INDEX WHICH IS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n -AX
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n -AX
"ELGIUM n -AX
#ANADA n -AX
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n -AX
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n -AX
'REECE n n n
(UNGARY n -AX
)CELAND n -AX
)RELAND n -AX
)TALY n n n -AX
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND n -AX
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL n -AX
3PAIN n -AX
3WEDEN n -AX
3WITZERLAND n -AX
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n -AX
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n -AX
,ATVIA n n n -AX
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n -AX
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS
-EAN -EAN -EAN PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND n
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES INDICATE THAT THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
IS PERCEIVED AS LESS OF A PROBLEM COMPARED TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE h-AXv IS USED IN CASES WHERE MORE THAN PER CENT OF STUDENTS ARE ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS
IN WHICH THE RESPONSES FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CORRESPOND TO THE HIGHEST VALUE ON THE INDEX WHICH IS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
BY NATIONAL QUARTERS OF THE INDEX
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
!LL STUDENTS "OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER
-EAN -EAN -EAN -EAN
INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3% INDEX 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n
'REECE n n n
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n
*APAN n n
+OREA n n
,UXEMBOURG n
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN n
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n
/%#$ TOTAL n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,ATVIA n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n
0ERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY NATIONAL QUARTERS
OF THE INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
#HANGE IN THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCORE
"OTTOM QUARTER -IDDLE HALF 4OP QUARTER PER UNIT OF THE INDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS
-EAN -EAN -EAN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
SCORE 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% #HANGE 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ TOTAL
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX ! 4HE SCALE WAS INVERTED SO THAT POSITIVE AND HIGH VALUES INDICATE THAT THE SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES ARE NOT PERCEIVED AS AN IMPORTANT PROBLEM
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
&OR EXPLAINED VARIATION SEE !NNEX ! 5NIT CHANGES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT 7HERE BOTTOM AND TOP QUARTERS ARE MARKED IN BOLD
THIS INDICATES THAT THEIR DIFFERENCE IS STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS WHICH HAVE AT LEAST SOME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS
OF SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
$ECIDING
%STABLISHING $ETERMINING ON BUDGET
TEACHERS TEACHERS &ORMULATING ALLOCATIONS
!PPOINTING $ISMISSING STARTING SALARY THE SCHOOL WITHIN THE
TEACHERS 3% TEACHERS 3% SALARIES 3% INCREASES 3% BUDGET 3% SCHOOL 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY M M M M M M M M M M M M
0OLAND M M M M M M M M M M M M
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#ROSS
COUNTRY CORRELATION
BETWEEN COUNTRYS AVERAGE
ACHIEVEMENT ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY n n
SCALE AND THE PERCENTAGE
INDICATED BY THE RESPECTIVE
COLUMN HEADER
.ETHERLANDS
%STABLISHING %STABLISHING !PPROVING #HOOSING
STUDENT STUDENT STUDENTS FOR WHICH $ETERMINING $ECIDING
DISCIPLINARY ASSESSMENT ADMITTANCE TEXTBOOKS COURSE WHICH COURSES
POLICIES 3% POLICIES 3% TO SCHOOL 3% ARE USED 3% CONTENT 3% ARE OFFERED 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY M M M M M M M M M M M M
0OLAND M M M M M M M M M M M M
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#ROSS
COUNTRY CORRELATION
BETWEEN COUNTRYS AVERAGE
ACHIEVEMENT ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY n
SCALE AND THE PERCENTAGE
INDICATED BY THE RESPECTIVE
COLUMN HEADER
.ETHERLANDS
#ORRELATION VALUES INDICATED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS IN WHICH TEACHERS HAVE THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS
OF SCHOOL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
$ECIDING
%STABLISHING $ETERMINING ON BUDGET
TEACHERS TEACHERS &ORMULATING ALLOCATIONS
!PPOINTING $ISMISSING STARTING SALARY THE SCHOOL WITHIN THE
TEACHERS 3% TEACHERS 3% SALARIES 3% INCREASES 3% BUDGET 3% SCHOOL 3%
!USTRALIA M M
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA M M M M
"ELGIUM M M M M
#ANADA M M
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC M M M M M M
$ENMARK M M
&INLAND M M
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE M M M M M M
(UNGARY M M M M
)CELAND M M M M M M M M
)RELAND M M M M M M
)TALY M M M M M M M M M M M M
*APAN M M M M M M M M
+OREA M M
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M M M M M
-EXICO M M M M
.EW :EALAND M M M M M M M M
.ORWAY M M M M M M M M M M M M
0OLAND M M M M M M M M M M M M
0ORTUGAL M M M M M M M M
3PAIN
3WEDEN M M
3WITZERLAND M M M M
5NITED +INGDOM M M M M M M
5NITED 3TATES M M
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL M M M M M M
,ATVIA M M M M M M M M
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION M M M M M M M M
#ROSS
COUNTRY CORRELATION
BETWEEN COUNTRYS AVERAGE
ACHIEVEMENT ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY n n
SCALE AND THE PERCENTAGE
INDICATED BY THE RESPECTIVE
COLUMN HEADER
.ETHERLANDS M M M M
%STABLISHING %STABLISHING !PPROVING #HOOSING
STUDENT STUDENT STUDENTS FOR WHICH $ETERMINING $ECIDING
DISCIPLINARY ASSESSMENT ADMITTANCE TEXTBOOKS COURSE WHICH COURSES
POLICIES 3% POLICIES 3% TO SCHOOL 3% ARE USED 3% CONTENT 3% ARE OFFERED 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG M M M M M M M M M M M M
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY M M M M M M M M M M M M
0OLAND M M M M M M M M M M M M
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,ATVIA
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION
#ROSS
COUNTRY CORRELATION
BETWEEN COUNTRYS AVERAGE
ACHIEVEMENT ON THE
COMBINED READING LITERACY
SCALE AND THE PERCENTAGE
INDICATED BY THE RESPECTIVE
COLUMN HEADER
.ETHERLANDS
#ORRELATION VALUES INDICATED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
0ERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS AND PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE BY TYPE OF SCHOOL
2ESULTS BASED ON REPORTS FROM SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND REPORTED PROPORTIONATE TO THE NUMBER OF
YEAR
OLDS ENROLLED IN THE SCHOOL
'OVERNMENT OR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 'OVERNMENT
DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS 'OVERNMENT
INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS
)NTERNATIONAL )NTERNATIONAL )NTERNATIONAL
0ERFORMANCE SOCIO
0ERFORMANCE SOCIO
0ERFORMANCE SOCIO
ON THE ECONOMIC ON THE ECONOMIC ON THE ECONOMIC
COMBINED INDEX OF COMBINED INDEX OF COMBINED INDEX OF
READING LITE
OCCUPATIONAL READING LITE
OCCUPATIONAL READING LITE
OCCUPATIONAL
RACY SCALE STATUS )3%) RACY SCALE STATUS )3%) RACY SCALE STATUS )3%)
OF STU
-EAN -EAN OF STU
-EAN -EAN OF STU
-EAN -EAN
DENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3% DENTS 3% SCORE 3% SCORE 3%
!USTRALIA M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C C C
$ENMARK A A A A A A
&INLAND A A A A A A
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY A A A A A A
'REECE A A A A A A
(UNGARY
)CELAND A A A A A A C C C C
)RELAND
)TALY C C C C
*APAN C C C C
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG A A A A A A
-EXICO A A A A A A
.EW :EALAND C C C C
.ORWAY A A A A A A
0OLAND A A A A A A
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN A A A A A A
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM A A A A A A
5NITED 3TATES
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL A A A A A A
,ATVIA C C C C A A A A A A
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION A A A A A A A A A A A A
.ETHERLANDS A A A A A A
$IFFERENCE IN PERFORMANCE $IFFERENCE ON THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIO
ECONOMIC
ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
'OVERNMENT
'OVERNMENT
'OVERNMENT
'OVERNMENT
DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS
AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS
$IFFERENCE 3% $IFFERENCE 3% $IFFERENCE 3% $IFFERENCE 3%
!USTRALIA M M M M M M M M
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM M M M M M M M M
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC C C n C C
$ENMARK n A A A A
&INLAND A A A A
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY A A A A
'REECE A A A A
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND A A C C A A C C
)RELAND
)TALY C C C C
*APAN C C n C C
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n A A n A A
-EXICO A A A A
.EW :EALAND C C C C
.ORWAY A A A A
0OLAND A A A A
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN
3WEDEN A A A A
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM A A A A
5NITED 3TATES n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL A A A A
,ATVIA C C A A C C A A
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION A A A A A A A A
.ETHERLANDS A A A A
'OVERNMENT OR PUBLIC 3CHOOLS WHICH ARE DIRECTLY CONTROLLED OR MANAGED BY I A PUBLIC EDUCATION AUTHORITY OR AGENCY OR II BY A GOVERNMENT AGENCY DIRECTLY OR BY A GOVERNING BODY MOST OF WHOSE MEMBERS
ARE EITHER APPOINTED BY A PUBLIC AUTHORITY OR ELECTED BY PUBLIC FRANCHISE
0RIVATE GOVERNMENT DEPENDENT 3CHOOLS WHICH RECEIVE MORE THAN PER CENT OF THEIR CORE FUNDING FUNDING THAT SUPPORT THE BASIC EDUCATIONAL SERVICES OF THE INSTITUTION FROM GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
0RIVATE GOVERNMENT INDEPENDENT 3CHOOLS WHICH RECEIVE LESS THAN PER CENT OF THEIR CORE FUNDING FUNDING THAT SUPPORT THE BASIC EDUCATIONAL SERVICES OF THE INSTITUTION FROM GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES FAVOUR GOVERNMENT DEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS WHILE NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES FAVOUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS "OLD VALUES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
0OSITIVE DIFFERENCES FAVOUR GOVERNMENT INDEPENDENT PRIVATE SCHOOLS WHILE NEGATIVE DIFFERENCES FAVOUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS "OLD VALUES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
!..%8 "
4ABLE
2ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
%STIMATED LEVEL SLOPE AND STRENGTH OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
AND THE 0)3! INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS %3#3
5NADJUSTED -EAN SCORE IF %3#3 WAS EQUAL 3LOPE OF 3TRENGTH OF ,ENGTH OF PROJECTION -ISSING DATA
MEAN SCORE TO THE /%#$ AVERAGE SOCIO
ECONOMIC GRADIENT RELATIONSHIP OF GRADIENT LINE FOR THE %3#3
3CORE POINT $IFFERENCE
DIFFERENCE ASSOCIATED 0ERCENTAGE BETWEEN TH AND
TH
WITH ONE UNIT OF EXPLAINED PERCENTILE 0ERCENTAGE
-EAN SCORE -EAN SCORE 3% ON THE %3#3 3% VARIANCE OF THE %3#3 OF STUDENTS
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS M M
3LOPES MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE /%#$ AVERAGE SLOPE
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
%FFECTS OF SELECTED FAMILY BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
-EAN SCORE ADJUSTED
5NADJUSTED BY THE BACKGROUND FACTORS 3TUDENT FROM .UMBER OF SIBLINGS 3TUDENT
MEAN SCORE SHOWN IN THIS TABLE SINGLE
PARENT FAMILY SIBLING INCREASE IS FOREIGN
BORN
-EAN SCORE -EAN SCORE 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n
"ELGIUM n n n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n
$ENMARK n n n
&INLAND n n n
&RANCE n n n
'ERMANY n n
'REECE n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND n n
)TALY n n n
*APAN n n n
+OREA n n
,UXEMBOURG n n n
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n n n
.ORWAY n n n
0OLAND n n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN n n n
3WEDEN n n n
3WITZERLAND n n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n n
/%#$ AVERAGE n n n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n n
,IECHTENSTEIN n n n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS M M n n n
)NTERNATIONAL SOCIO ECONOMIC )NDEX OF HOME )NDEX OF CULTURAL
INDEX OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS )3%) 0ARENTAL YEARS OF SCHOOLING EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES POSSESSIONS IN THE FAMILY HOME
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD DEVIATION INCREASE YEAR INCREASE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE
%FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND n
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN n
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
#/5.42)%3
/%#$ AVERAGE
./. /%#$
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
%FFECTS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE MEASURES SEE !NNEX !
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
6ARIATION IN PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE EXPLAINED BY SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
0ERCENTAGE OF "%47%%.
SCHOOL VARIANCE THAT IS EXPLAINED 0ERCENTAGE OF 7)4().
SCHOOL VARIANCE THAT IS EXPLAINED
BY THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FACTORS SHOWN IN 4ABLE BY THE SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND FACTORS SHOWN IN 4ABLE
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
%FFECTS OF THE STUDENTS AND SCHOOLS SOCIO
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON PERFORMANCE ON
THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
%FFECT OF AN INCREASE OF HALF A STUDENT
LEVEL STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS
)NTERQUARTILE RANGE OF SCHOOL %FFECT OF THE STUDENTS ECONOMIC %FFECT OF THE SCHOOLS MEAN
MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
AND CULTURAL STATUS ON PERFORMANCE STATUS ON PERFORMANCE
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA
"ELGIUM
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK
&INLAND
&RANCE M M M
'ERMANY
'REECE
(UNGARY
)CELAND
)RELAND
)TALY
*APAN M M M
+OREA
,UXEMBOURG
-EXICO
.EW :EALAND
.ORWAY
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES
/%#$ AVERAGE
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL
,IECHTENSTEIN
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS
&OR THE DElNITION OF THE INDEX SEE !NNEX !
$ATA FOR *APAN ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THIS TABLE DUE TO A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF MISSING DATA ON PARENTAL EDUCATION AND PARENTAL OCCUPATION
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
%FFECTS OF STUDENT
LEVEL AND SCHOOL
LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL
AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED
-ODEL *OINT IMPACT
-ODEL )MPACT -ODEL )MPACT OF OF SCHOOL FACTORS AND
OF SCHOOL FACTORS FAMILY BACKGROUND FAMILY BACKGROUND
2%!$).' ,)4%2!#9 3#!,% )NCREASE %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
&AMILY BACKGROUND AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS
3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS UNIT
n 3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
STATUS SQUARED n n
3CHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS STUDENT
LEVEL UNIT
3TUDENT IS FEMALE
3TUDENT IS FOREIGN
BORN n n
3CHOOL RESOURCES
3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO STUDENT LESS FOR EACH &4% TEACHER n STUDENT
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO SQUARED n
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS GREATER THAN n n
3CHOOL SIZE STUDENTS
3CHOOL SIZE SQUARED n
0ERCENTAGE OF COMPUTERS AT SCHOOL AVAILABLE TO
YEAR
OLDS PERCENTAGE POINT n
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY TERTIARY
LEVEL
QUALIFICATION WITH A MAJOR IN THE RESPECTIVE SUBJECT DOMAIN PERCENTAGE POINT
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL PARTICIPATING IN PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES PERCENTAGE POINT n n
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
UNIT
)NDEX OF STUDENTS USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES
UNIT
3CHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF FORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
UNIT n
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE
AND COMMITMENT
UNIT n
)NDEX OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
UNIT n n
)NDEX OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY
UNIT n
#LASSROOM PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF INFORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
UNIT n n
)NDEX OF TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS
UNIT
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS
UNIT
0ERCENTAGE OF VARIANCE EXPLAINED
3TUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
3CHOOLS WITHIN COUNTRIES
"ETWEEN COUNTRIES
-ODEL *OINT IMPACT
-ODEL )MPACT -ODEL )MPACT OF OF SCHOOL FACTORS AND
OF SCHOOL FACTORS FAMILY BACKGROUND FAMILY BACKGROUND
-!4(%-!4)#!, ,)4%2!#9 3#!,% )NCREASE %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
&AMILY BACKGROUND AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS
3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS UNIT
n 3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
STATUS SQUARED n n
3CHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS STUDENT
LEVEL UNIT
3TUDENT IS FEMALE n n
3TUDENT IS FOREIGN
BORN n n
3CHOOL RESOURCES
3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO STUDENT LESS FOR EACH &4% TEACHER n STUDENT
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO SQUARED n
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS GREATER THAN n n
3CHOOL SIZE STUDENTS
3CHOOL SIZE SQUARED n
0ERCENTAGE OF COMPUTERS AT SCHOOL AVAILABLE TO
YEAR
OLDS PERCENTAGE POINT n n
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY TERTIARY
LEVEL
QUALIFICATION WITH A MAJOR IN THE RESPECTIVE SUBJECT DOMAIN PERCENTAGE POINT
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL PARTICIPATING IN PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES PERCENTAGE POINT n n
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
UNIT
)NDEX OF STUDENTS USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES
UNIT
3CHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF FORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
UNIT
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE
AND COMMITMENT
UNIT n
)NDEX OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
UNIT n n
)NDEX OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY
UNIT n
#LASSROOM PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF INFORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
UNIT n n
)NDEX OF TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS
UNIT
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS
UNIT
0ERCENTAGE OF VARIANCE EXPLAINED
3TUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
3CHOOLS WITHIN COUNTRIES
"ETWEEN COUNTRIES
4HESE INDICES WERE STANDARDISED TO HAVE A MEAN OF AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF FOR SCHOOLS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES
%FFECTS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE MEASURES SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE CONTINUED
%FFECTS OF STUDENT
LEVEL AND SCHOOL
LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING MATHEMATICAL
AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALES FOR ALL /%#$ COUNTRIES COMBINED
-ODEL *OINT IMPACT
-ODEL )MPACT -ODEL )MPACT OF OF SCHOOL FACTORS AND
OF SCHOOL FACTORS FAMILY BACKGROUND FAMILY BACKGROUND
3#)%.4)&)# ,)4%2!#9 3#!,% )NCREASE %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
&AMILY BACKGROUND AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS
3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS UNIT
n 3TUDENT
LEVEL INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
STATUS SQUARED n n
3CHOOL MEAN INDEX OF ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS STUDENT
LEVEL UNIT
3TUDENT IS FEMALE n n
3TUDENT IS FOREIGN
BORN n n
3CHOOL RESOURCES
3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO STUDENT LESS FOR EACH &4% TEACHER n STUDENT
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO SQUARED n
n 3TUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO IS GREATER THAN n n
3CHOOL SIZE STUDENTS
3CHOOL SIZE SQUARED n
0ERCENTAGE OF COMPUTERS AT SCHOOL AVAILABLE TO
YEAR
OLDS PERCENTAGE POINT n n
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY TERTIARY
LEVEL
QUALIFICATION WITH A MAJOR IN THE RESPECTIVE SUBJECT DOMAIN PERCENTAGE POINT
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL PARTICIPATING IN PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES PERCENTAGE POINT n n
)NDEX OF THE QUALITY OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
UNIT
)NDEX OF STUDENTS USE OF SCHOOL RESOURCES
UNIT
3CHOOL POLICY AND PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF FORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENT
UNIT
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF THE PRINCIPALS PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE
AND COMMITMENT
UNIT
)NDEX OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
UNIT n
)NDEX OF SCHOOL AUTONOMY
UNIT
#LASSROOM PRACTICE
)NDEX OF THE USE OF INFORMAL STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
UNIT n n
)NDEX OF TEACHER
STUDENT RELATIONS
UNIT
)NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE
UNIT
)NDEX OF ACHIEVEMENT PRESS
UNIT
0ERCENTAGE OF VARIANCE EXPLAINED
3TUDENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
3CHOOLS WITHIN COUNTRIES
"ETWEEN COUNTRIES
4HESE INDICES WERE STANDARDISED TO HAVE A MEAN OF AND A STANDARD DEVIATION OF FOR SCHOOLS IN /%#$ COUNTRIES
%FFECTS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE MEASURES SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE A
%FFECTS OF STUDENT
LEVEL AND SCHOOL
LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
$IFFERENCE IN AVERAGE $IFFERENCE IN AVERAGE $IFFERENCE IN AVERAGE 0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN
SCHOOL PERFORMANCE SCHOOL PERFORMANCE SCHOOL PERFORMANCE SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY
FOR SCHOOLS WITH A FOR SCHOOLS WITH A FOR SCHOOLS WITH A 0ERCENTAGE OF TERTIARY
LEVEL
STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO STUDENT
TEACHING STAFF RATIO COMPUTERS AT SCHOOL QUALIFICATION WITH A
BETWEEN AND BETWEEN AND GREATER THAN AVAILABLE TO MAJOR IN THE RESPEC
AND THOSE WITH A AND THOSE WITH A AND THOSE WITH A
YEARS OLDS TIVE SUBJECT DOMAIN
RATIO BELOW RATIO BELOW RATIO BELOW PERCENTAGE POINT INCREASE PERCENTAGE POINT INCREASE
%FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA n A A n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM A A n n
#ANADA n n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK A A A A A A n
&INLAND A A A A A A n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n n n
'REECE A A A A n A A
(UNGARY A A A A n
)CELAND A A n A A n
)RELAND A A A A A A n
)TALY A A A A A A n
*APAN A A A A n n
+OREA n n
,UXEMBOURG A A A A A A
-EXICO n n n
.EW :EALAND A A A A A A n
.ORWAY A A A A A A n
0OLAND n n n
0ORTUGAL A A A A n n
3PAIN n A A n
3WEDEN A A A A n n
3WITZERLAND n A A n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n A A n
#/5.42)%3
-ETA EFFECT n n n n
./.
/%#$
"RAZIL n n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n n
.ETHERLANDS A A n
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN
SCHOOL PARTICIPATING IN PROFESSIONAL )NDEX OF THE QUALITY )NDEX OF STUDENTS USE )NDEX OF THE USE OF FORMAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES OF THE SCHOOLS PHYSICAL OF SCHOOL RESOURCES STUDENT ASSESSMENTS
PERCENTAGE POINT INCREASE INFRASTRUCTURE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE
%FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n
"ELGIUM n n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n
$ENMARK
&INLAND n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n
'REECE n n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n
)RELAND n n n
)TALY n
*APAN n n
+OREA n n
,UXEMBOURG n n A A
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n
.ORWAY n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN n
3WEDEN n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED +INGDOM n n n
5NITED 3TATES n n
#/5.42)%3
-ETA EFFECT n n
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
%FFECTS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE MEASURES SEE !NNEX !
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
#ALCULATIONS FOR ,IECHTENSTEIN WAS NOT POSSIBLE DUE TO THE SMALL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE A CONTINUED
%FFECTS OF STUDENT
LEVEL AND SCHOOL
LEVEL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE ON THE COMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
)NDEX OF TEACHER
RELATED )NDEX OF PRINCIPALS PERCEP
)NDEX OF TEACHER )NDEX OF SCHOOL
FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL TIONS OF TEACHERS MORALE AND AUTONOMY AUTONOMY
CLIMATE UNIT INCREASE COMMITMENT UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE
%FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n n n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n n
)CELAND n n
)RELAND
)TALY n n
*APAN n n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n n A A A A
-EXICO n n
.EW :EALAND n
.ORWAY A A A A
0OLAND A A A A
0ORTUGAL n n
3PAIN
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n
-ETA EFFECT n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION n
.ETHERLANDS n n n
)NDEX OF THE USE )NDEX OF )NDEX OF )NDEX OF
OF INFORMAL STUDENT TEACHER STUDENT RELATIONS DISCIPLINARY CLIMATE ACHIEVEMENT PRESS
ASSESSMENTS UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE UNIT INCREASE
%FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3% %FFECT 3%
!USTRALIA n n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA n n
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n
$ENMARK n
&INLAND n n
&RANCE M M n n
'ERMANY n n
'REECE
(UNGARY n
)CELAND n
)RELAND
)TALY n
*APAN n
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG A A n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n
.ORWAY A A n
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN
3WEDEN n n
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED +INGDOM n
5NITED 3TATES n
-ETA EFFECT n
#/5.42)%3
./. /%#$
"RAZIL n
,IECHTENSTEIN M M M M M M M M
2USSIAN &EDERATION A A n
.ETHERLANDS n n
%FFECTS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX !
#ALCULATIONS FOR ,IECHTENSTEIN WAS NOT POSSIBLE DUE TO THE SMALL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
4ABLE
#OUNTRY MEANS OF SELECTED SCHOOL
LEVEL INDICES AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH THE SCHOOL MEAN ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL STATUS %3#3
0ERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS IN
SCHOOL WITH A UNIVERSITY )NDEX OF )NDEX OF TEACHER
)NDEX OF TERTIARY
LEVEL QUALIFICATION STUDENTS USE OF RELATED FACTORS
STUDENT
TEACHING )NDEX OF WITH A MAJOR IN THE SCHOOL RESOURCES AFFECTING SCHOOL
STAFF RATIO SCHOOL SIZE RESPECTIVE SUBJECT DOMAIN RESCALED CLIMATE RESCALED
#ORRELA
#ORRELA
#ORRELA
#ORRELA
#ORRELA
-EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH
INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3
!USTRALIA n
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC
$ENMARK M
&INLAND M n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n
'REECE M n n
(UNGARY M
)CELAND n n n
)RELAND n
)TALY M
*APAN M n
+OREA n n n
,UXEMBOURG M n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND M n
.ORWAY M n
0OLAND n
0ORTUGAL M n n
3PAIN n
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND n
5NITED +INGDOM n n
5NITED 3TATES n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL n
,IECHTENSTEIN M n
2USSIAN &EDERATION
.ETHERLANDS n
)NDEX OF PRINCIPALS
PERCEPTIONS OF )NDEX OF
TEACHERS MORALE AND )NDEX OF SCHOOL TEACHER
STUDENT )NDEX OF DISCIPLINARY )NDEX OF ACHIEVEMENT
COMMITMENT RESCALED AUTONOMY RESCALED RELATIONS RESCALED CLIMATE RESCALED PRESS RESCALED
#ORRELA #ORRELA #ORRELA #ORRELA #ORRELA
-EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH -EAN TION WITH
INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3 INDEX 3% %3#3
!USTRALIA
/%#$ #/5.42)%3
!USTRIA n
"ELGIUM n n
#ANADA
#ZECH 2EPUBLIC n n n
$ENMARK n n
&INLAND n n n n
&RANCE M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
'ERMANY n
'REECE n
(UNGARY n n n n n
)CELAND n n n n
)RELAND n
)TALY
*APAN
+OREA n
,UXEMBOURG n n n n
-EXICO n
.EW :EALAND n n
.ORWAY n n
0OLAND
0ORTUGAL n
3PAIN
3WEDEN
3WITZERLAND n n
5NITED +INGDOM
5NITED 3TATES n
#/5.42)%3
./.
/%#$
/%#$ AVERAGE
"RAZIL n
,IECHTENSTEIN n
2USSIAN &EDERATION n n n
.ETHERLANDS n n
5NITS MARKED IN BOLD ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIlCANT
&OR THE DElNITIONS OF THE INDICES SEE !NNEX ! &OR THE METHODS USED TO RESCALE THESE INDICES FOR THE PURPOSE OF THIS TABLE SEE "OX
2ESPONSE RATE IS TOO LOW TO ENSURE COMPARABILITY SEE !NNEX !
!..%8 "
!NNEX " 0ERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE &LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES OF
"ELGIUM AND THE LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES IN 3WITZERLAND
)N THE CASE OF "ELGIUM AND 3WITZERLAND THE SAMPLE DESIGN ALLOWS THE RESULTS OF 0)3! TO BE SHOWN SEPARATELY FOR SUB NATIONAL
ENTITIES 4HESE ARE SHOWN IN 4ABLE "
4ABLE "
0ERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE &LEMISH AND &RENCH #OMMUNITIES OF "ELGIUM AND
THE LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES IN 3WITZERLAND
3TANDARD 0ERCENTILES
-EAN DEVIATION TH TH TH TH TH TH
-EAN
SCORE 3% 3$ 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3% 3CORE 3%
#OMBINED READING LITERACY SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
#OMBINED READINGRETRIEVING INFORMATION SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
#OMBINED READINGINTERPRETING SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
#OMBINED READINGREFLECTION AND EVALUATION SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
#OMBINED MATHEMATICAL LITERACY SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
#OMBINED SCIENTIFIC LITERACY SCALE
"ELGIUM &R
"ELGIUM &L
3WITZERLAND 'ERMAN
3WITZERLAND &RENCH
3WITZERLAND )TALIAN
!..%8
#
/
Ê
6
"*
/Ê Ê
*
//" Ê"Ê*-\Ê
Ê
" ",/6
Ê
",/
!..%8 #
!NNEX # 4HE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 0)3! n ! COLLABORATIVE EFFORT
)NTRODUCTION
0)3! IS A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT BRINGING TOGETHER SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE FROM THE PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES STEERED JOINTLY BY THEIR
GOVERNMENTS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED POLICY
DRIVEN INTERESTS
! "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES ON WHICH EACH COUNTRY IS REPRESENTED DETERMINES IN THE CONTEXT OF /%#$ OBJECTIVES THE
POLICY PRIORITIES FOR 0)3! AND OVERSEES ADHERENCE TO THESE PRIORITIES DURING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROGRAMME 4HIS INCLUDES
THE SETTING OF PRIORITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDICATORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND FOR THE
REPORTING OF THE RESULTS
%XPERTS FROM PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES ALSO SERVE ON WORKING GROUPS THAT ARE CHARGED WITH LINKING POLICY OBJECTIVES WITH THE BEST
INTERNATIONALLY AVAILABLE TECHNICAL EXPERTISE "Y PARTICIPATING IN THESE EXPERT GROUPS COUNTRIES ENSURE THAT THE INSTRUMENTS ARE
INTERNATIONALLY VALID AND TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS IN /%#$ -EMBER COUNTRIES THE ASSESSMENT
MATERIALS HAVE STRONG MEASUREMENT PROPERTIES AND THE INSTRUMENTS PLACE AN EMPHASIS ON AUTHENTICITY AND EDUCATIONAL VALIDITY
4HROUGH .ATIONAL 0ROJECT -ANAGERS PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES IMPLEMENT 0)3! AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL SUBJECT TO THE AGREED
ADMINISTRATION PROCEDURES .ATIONAL 0ROJECT -ANAGERS PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN ENSURING THAT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SURVEY IS OF
HIGH QUALITY AND VERIFY AND EVALUATE THE SURVEY RESULTS ANALYSES REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS
4HE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SURVEYS WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK ESTABLISHED BY THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES IS
THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE 0)3! CONSORTIUM REFERRED TO AS THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM LED BY THE !USTRALIAN #OUNCIL FOR %DUCATIONAL
2ESEARCH !#%2 /THER PARTNERS IN THIS CONSORTIUM INCLUDE THE .ETHERLANDS .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE FOR %DUCATIONAL -EASUREMENT
#ITOGROEP 4HE .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE FOR %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH IN *APAN .)%2 THE %DUCATIONAL 4ESTING 3ERVICE IN THE 5NITED
3TATES %43 AND 7%34!4 IN THE 5NITED 3TATES
4HE /%#$ 3ECRETARIAT HAS OVERALL MANAGERIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PROGRAMME MONITORS ITS IMPLEMENTATION ON A DAY TO DAY
BASIS ACTS AS THE SECRETARIAT FOR THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES BUILDS CONSENSUS AMONG COUNTRIES AND SERVES AS THE
INTERLOCUTOR BETWEEN THE "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES AND THE INTERNATIONAL CONSORTIUM CHARGED WITH THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE ACTIVITIES 4HE /%#$ 3ECRETARIAT ALSO PRODUCES THE INDICATORS AND ANALYSES AND PREPARES THE INTERNATIONAL REPORTS AND
PUBLICATIONS IN CO OPERATION WITH THE 0)3! CONSORTIUM AND IN CLOSE CONSULTATION WITH -EMBER COUNTRIES BOTH AT THE POLICY LEVEL
"OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES AND AT THE LEVEL OF IMPLEMENTATION .ATIONAL 0ROJECT -ANAGERS
4HE FOLLOWING LISTS THE MEMBERS OF THE VARIOUS 0)3! BODIES AND THE INDIVIDUAL EXPERTS AND CONSULTANTS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO 0)3!
-EMBERS OF THE 0)3! "OARD OF 0ARTICIPATING #OUNTRIES
#HAIR %UGENE /WEN )RELAND 'ERRY 3HIEL
)TALY #HIARA #ROCE %LISABETTA -IDENA "ENEDETTO 6ERTECCHI
!USTRALIA 7ENDY 7HITHAM
*APAN 2YO 7ATANABE
!USTRIA &RIEDRICH 0LANK
+OREA +OOGHYANG 2O
"ELGIUM $OMINIQUE "ARTHÏLÏMY #HRISTIANE "LONDIN
,UXEMBOURG *EAN
0AUL 2EEFF
$OMINIQUE ,AFONTAINE ,ISELOTTE VAN DE 0ERRE
-EXICO &ERNANDO #ØRDOVA #ALDERØN
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.IKOLAI 6OLODIN DATA PROCESSING -ARIE
!NDRÏE 3OMERS DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING
#RAIG 7ILLIAMS DATA PROCESSING DATA ANALYSIS 0ETER 3UTTON EDITORIAL REVIEW
-ARGARET 7U $EPUTY 0ROJECT $IRECTOR OF THE 0)3! 2ICH 4OBIN QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT AND REPORTING
#ONSORTIUM
* $OUGLAS 7ILLMS QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT DATA ANALYSIS
AND REPORTING
7ESTAT
.ANCY #ALDWELL $IRECTOR OF THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM FOR FIELD
OPERATIONS AND QUALITY MONITORING
-ING #HEN SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
&RAN #OHEN SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
3USAN &USS SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
"RICE (ART SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
3HARON (IRABAYASHI SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
3HEILA +RAWCHUK SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
$WARD -OORE FIELD OPERATIONS AND QUALITY MONITORING
0HU .GUYEN SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
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-ERL 2OBINSON FIELD OPERATIONS AND QUALITY MONITORING
+EITH 2UST $IRECTOR OF THE 0)3! #ONSORTIUM FOR SAMPLING
AND WEIGHTING
,ESLIE 7ALLACE SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING
$IANNE 7ALSH FIELD OPERATIONS AND QUALITY MONITORING
4REVOR 7ILLIAMS QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
OECD PUBLICATIONS, 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
PRINTED IN FRANCE
(96 2001 14 1 P) ISBN 92-64-19671-4 – No. 52233 2001
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