ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE
Module 6: Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects

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MODULE 6: DIRECT, INDIRECT AND PREPOSITIONAL
OBJECTS
THE DIRECT OBJECT (Od)
It is the most central of all constituents after the subject and predicator. d

SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

• It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs (hit, buy, send).
• It goes right after the predicator, but it follows the Oi if there is one.
Eg. I have sent the letters.
I have sent you all (Oi) a letter (Od).
• It is typically realised by a NG, as in I know the truth, but it may also be realised by
embedded clauses, as in I know what you mean.
• It can be ‘promoted’ to become subject in a passive clause.
Eg. The letters (S) have been sent. (corresponding to the Od in I have sent the
letters).
• They can be tested for, by Wh- questions (Who(m)? What? Which? How
much/many?) and by clefts.
Eg. What did you send?
What I sent were the letters (wh-cleft).

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THE DIRECT OBJECT

SEMANTIC FEATURES

• It is associated with several semantic roles in which ‘affectedness’ is not a feature

and with many types of verbs (see Chapter 4).
Eg. He headed the ball into the goal. (Affected)
The burglars used a crowbar to break into the house. (Instrument)
I felt chills all over my body. (Phenomenon)
The government wants to give a push to the economy and employment. (Range; see 20.2)
He swam the Mediterranean sea. (Affected Locative)
• The highly non-prototypical Range Ods (20.2) include have a rest/smoke/drink;
take a sip/nap, give a kick/nudge, do a dance, and many others. The NG in this
cases is a deverbal noun (i.e. derived from the verb) which follows a verb that is
‘light’ in semantic content such as have.
• Speech act deverbal nouns such as promise and warning are commonly used as
Ods.
Eg. She made him a promise.
They issued a warning letter

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REALISATIONS OF THE DIRECT OBJECT

The Od can be realised by groups and clauses.
• A. Nominal Group. This is the Od typical realisation, ranging from a pronoun 1 or proper name to
full NGs 2. A longer and more complex NGs may also be possible in certain registers 3.

1. I don’t understand that.

2. Have you read the newspaper article I sent you?
3. Poaching is threatening the world’s remaining population of whales.

* A few verbs take untypical Ods such as have (They have two dogs), cost (It costs twenty euros), lack
(He lacks ideas), resemble (He resembles his grandfather), fit (Do these pants fit me?), suit (That
colour suits you well), weigh (She weighs sixty kilos), contain (That box contains your gift) and
measure (It measures one metre by two). These verbs don’t passivise, but their Ods pass the wh-cleft
test: What he lacks is ideas.
• B. Anticipatory it. It is necessary as an ‘anticipatory Od’ in SPOdCo structures in which the Od is
realised by a finite or non-finite clause:
S P (Od) Co Od
I find it akward that she didn’t like the party.
She might consider it outrageous that he didn’t even leave her a goodbye note.
You must find it overwhelming having so much work.
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REALISATIONS OF THE DIRECT OBJECT (2)

• C. Prepositional Phrase of time or place.
Eg. I would prefer before midday for the doctor’s appointment.
Don’t choose by the river for camping.
• D. Finite clause. Two types: nominal that-clauses (that often omitted in informal English) and
wh-clauses (see Chapter 3).
Eg. They fear that there may be many casualties. (nominal that-clause)
No-one knows what his job is. (wh-clause)
You can do whatever you want. (wh-nominal clause)
- Both that-clauses and wh-clauses at Od can sometimes become subject in a passive clause
and then extraposed:
Eg. It is feared that there may be many casualties (extraposed cl.)
It is not known what his job is.
- A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase.
Eg. I wonder whether they know the result.
*Whether they know the result is wondered.
What I wonder is whether they know the result.

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REALISATIONS OF THE DIRECT OBJECT (3)

• E. Non-finite clause. Two types: infinitive clauses (with or wihout to) and –ing clauses.
Eg. Many people prefer to travel by plane.
Many people prefer travelling by plane.
• Such clauses can be an embedded Od based on the following criteria:
- The non-finite clause can be replaced by a NG (prefer the plane) or by it/that (prefer it).
- The non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence (What many people prefer is to
travel/travelling by plane).
• Many embedded clauses at Od occur with an explicit subject of their own (when the implicit subject is not
the same of the main clause):
(i) to-infinitive clause
The population wants to have clean streets. (implicit subject [they])
The population wants the government to solve the rubbish problem. (explicit subject the
government)
(ii) –ing clause
Do you mind waiting outside? (with implicit subject)
Do you mind me/my waiting outside? (with explicit subject in objective or possessive case)
(iii) to-infinitive or –ing clause
She loves telling the truth. (implicit subject)
She loves people telling the truth. (explicit subject)
She loves for people to tell the truth. (for + explicit subject + to-inf) (AmE)

* Non-finite clauses are very non-prototypical Ods as they represent situations, not entities an do
not easily passivise, but many can become the focus of a wh-cleft: What she loves is people telling
the truth/for people to tell the truth.
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THE INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi)

SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES

• It occurs only with verbs that take 2 objects (give, send). Its position it’s between the verb
and the Od: I sent him an e-mail.
• It is typically realised by a NG, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause.
• It is associated with 2 semantic roles (recipient and beneficiary or ‘intended recipient’).

Recipient Oi Beneficiary Oi
She has lent me a few magazines. I’ll buy you the ticket.
The doctor gave me some prescriptions. He got us a drink.
Stephen Hawking is teaching the students physics. She left him a thank you message.

- In passives, the Recipient Oi corresponds to the subject.

Recipient as Subject Beneficiary as Subject
I have been lent a few magazines. *You’ll be bought the ticket.
I was given some prescriptions. *We were got a drink.
The students are being taught physics by Stephen Hawking. He was left a thank you message.

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THE INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi)

SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES (2)

• Both Recipient and Beneficiary Oi have an optional prepositional
paraphrase (Op). For the Recipient, the preposition is to, for the
Beneficiary it is for.
Eg. The doctor some prescriptions to me. I’ll buy tickets for you all.
She lent a few magazines to her best friend. He got a drink for us all.
He is teaching physics to graduate students. She left a thank you message
for her flatmate.
• The Oi can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the
grammaticality of the clause.
Eg. The doctor gave some prescriptions. I’ll buy the tickets.
She doesn’t like lending her magazines. He got a drink.
Stephen Hawking is teaching physics. She left a thank you message.

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REALISATIONS OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT

- Both Recipient and Beneficiary Ois are typically realised by NGs
and less typically by wh-nominal relative clauses.
Eg. The postman handed her the letter. (Recip./NG)
You can lend the book to whoever needs it. (Recip./nom. Relative cl.)
Tom has booked all his friends rooms for the weekend in Paris. (Ben./NG)

-More marginally, a recipient Oi can be realised by a non-finite –

ing clause or a PP, but not in the case of a Beneficiary Oi, which
always refers to an entity:
Eg. I’m giving using social networks less interest lately. (-ing cl)
Let’s give after the break more preference. (PP)

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PREPOSITIONAL VERBS AND THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (Op)

• It is mediated by a preposition.
Eg. My neighbour looked after my dog.
You can rely on Tom in case of an incident.
The other partners laughed at John when he stained his shirt with coffee.
• All these examples have in common:
- The NG following the preposition encodes a participant in the clause
structure.
- The preposition is associated with a particular verb (prepositional verb).
- Without the preposition, the clause would either be ungrammatical
(*look my dog, *rely Tom, *laughed John) or have a different meaning as
in see to the kids (attend to them), as opposed to see the kids.
- The preposition can’t be replaced by another one without changing the
meaning (look after the dog, look for the dog, look at the dog).

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TYPES OF VERB + PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

• Type A (take after)
This combination functions as a lexical unit in which the verb + the preposition have a
different meaning from their separate words. ‘Take after’ has nothing to do with take, nor
with the usual meaning of ‘after’.
Eg. I came accross some old toys (find) He takes after his father (resemble)
How did you come by that position? (obtain) We took to each other at first sight (like)
Paul has come into a fortune (inherit) I’ve gone off milk (lose the liking of)
• Type B (rely + on)
This is a less idiomatic combination. Verbs in this group – account for (explain), refer to,
tamper with (interfere with) – are not used without their specific preposition.
Eg. How do you account for their lack of interest in the country’s politics?
Someone has been tampering with the printer.
• Type C (laugh + at)
It represents a special use (usually with a distinctive meaning) of a verb that can function
without the preposition such as laugh (at), look (at), believe (in), count (on), hear (of), wait
(for), hope (for).
Eg. Look at me hear of a good piece of news
wait for his answer hope for a pay rise

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SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOUR OF PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Applying some of the constituency test (see 2.2.) we find the following:
• Type A: the verb + prep. behave syntactically as one unit, whereas the PP ‘after the dog’ does
not in fronting, focus of a cleft, wh- question and adverb insertion.
Acceptable Unacceptable

Fronting: My dog Luke looked after. *After my dog Luke looked.

Focus of a cleft: It’s my dog (that) my neighbour looked after. *It’s after my dog (that) my neighbour
looked.
Wh-question: Whose dog did my neigbour look after? * After whose dog did my neighbour look?

Adverb insertion: My neighbour looked after my dog carefully. ?My neighbour looked carefully after my dog.

• Type B: the PP can function as an independent unit, but the effect is marked and very formal.
Formal Informal

Fronting: On Tom you can rely. Tom you can rely on.
Main classes of Adjuncts: Circumstantial Adjuncts, which provide the setting for the situation expressed in the clause, as regards place, time and manner,
among others:
Focus of a cleft: She will dance tomorrow It’s on in the city theatre.
Tom (that) you can rely. It’s Tom you can rely on.
– Stance Adjuncts, which express the speakers attitude or evaluation of the content of the clause:
Wh-question: On whom can you rely?the team didn’t win.
According to her, he is cheating; Unfortunately Who can you rely on?
– Connective Adjuncts, which link two clauses, or parts of clauses, signaling the semantic relation holding between them:
First, I’ll give you a present. Moreover, I’ll give you two presents.
Adverb insertion: You can totally rely on Tom. Who can you totally rely on?
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SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOUR OF PREPOSITIONAL VERBS (2)
Type C: syntactically, the PP functions in the same way as type B. However, the formal
variant is at odds with the type of verb that usually falls into this group.

Formal Informal
Fronting: At John the partners laughed. John the partners laughed at.
Focus of a cleft: It was at John that they laughed. It was John they laughed at.
Wh-question: At whom did the partners laugh? Who did the partners laugh at?

Main classes of Adjuncts:

– Circumstantial Adjuncts, which provide the setting for the situation expressed in the clause, as regards place, time and manner, among others:
She will dance tomorrow in the city theatre.
– Stance Adjuncts, which express the speakers attitude or evaluation of the content of the clause:
According to her, he is cheating; Unfortunately the team didn’t win.
– Connective Adjuncts, which link two clauses, or parts of clauses, signaling the semantic relation holding between them:
First, I’ll give you a present. Moreover, I’ll give you two presents.

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STRANDING THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is stranded when it stays close to its verb, that is, it is displaced from
its position in a PP. This can also occur in passive clauses and in relative clauses.

Non-stranded preposition Stranded preposition

*The dog after which my neigbour looked… The dog that my neighbour looked after…
THE PREPOSITIONAL PASSIVE
The person on whom you can rely… The person you can rely on…
The man at whom the partners laughed… The man the partners laughed at…

THE PREPOSITIONAL PASSIVE

In many combinations, the NG complement of a PP can become subject in a passive
clause. The preposition is obligatory stranded.
Eg. My dog was looked after. *After my dog was looked
Tom can be relied on *On Tom can be relied
John was laughed at *At John was laughed

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REALISATIONS OF THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT
NGs are typical realisations of the Op, but nominal clauses and non-finite –ing clauses
also occur:
Eg. He almost ran over an old lady in the city centre this morning. (NG)
I strongly object to what they proposed. (nominal clause)
She believes in getting things done well. (-ing clause)

-There are various degrees of integration, from relatively integrated such as smile (at)
and wait (for), where the verb can function without a preposition, to those that form a
new lexical unit with the preposition (look after, take to).

- The PP following type 3 verbs such as smile and wait is often classified as Adjunt or
as prepositional complement (PPC).

- In this grammar, it is used the term prepositional Object for the NG complement of a
preposition which can refer to a participant, different from the circumstancial PP
functioning as Cloc or as Adjunct.

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Main classes of Adjuncts:
PHRASAL VERBS: THE VERB + PARTICLE COMBINATION

SYNTACTIC FEATURES
• Phrasal verbs are combinations of a lexical verb and an adverbial ‘particle’ (p) (get up, switch
on/off, take back, sit down). They may be intransitive, with no object, as in 1 or transitive as
in 2 and 3:
1. What time do you normally get up at the weekend?
2a. She switched off the computer. 2b. She switch the computer off.
3. She switched it off.
• With a noun as Object, the particle may precede or follow the object as in 2. But if the Object
is a pronoun, the particle is placed after it, as in 3. It should be remarked that this choice has
to do with emphasis purposes.
Eg. They cancelled the party. (focus on party)
They called off the party. (focus on party)
They called the party off. (focus on off)
• Some verb + particle combinations can be used both transitively and intransitively, e.g. blow
up (= explode), break down (= reduce to pieces).
Eg. Terrorists blew up terminal 4. (transitive)
The petrol station has blown up. (intransitive)

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHRASAL VERBS AND PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

- A pronoun follows a preposition but precedes the particle of a phrasal verb.
Eg. She broke with him. She broke it up.
*She broke him with. *She broke up it.

- The particle in phrasal verbs is stressed, whereas a preposition is normally

unstressed. In prepositional verbs the stress normally falls on the verb (capitals
indicate the stressed syllable; see also 29.2):
Eg. She broke it UP. She has BROken with him.
Which party did she break UP? Which boy has she BROken with?

- Phrasal verbs do not normally admit an adverb between the verb and the particle:
Eg. *She broke completely up the party. She broke completely with her boyfriend.

- In idiomatic phrasal verbs the particle is usually analysed as part of the verb (peter
out. There is no separate verb ‘peter’).

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PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
- They consist of a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particle and a preposition (run
up against, do away with). They are characteristic of informal English and function like
prepositional verbs, taking a prepositional object in the clause.
Eg. We ran up against a lot of problems.
They have done away with free medicines.
- Many verbs can be followed by a PP functioning as a circumstancial Complement, as
in They went to the park. They express meanings of place, direction, times or means.
They are generally questioned by Where, when or how as opposed to What? Who? As
is usual with Objects.
Multi-word verb Prepositional Object PP as Adjunct or Comp.

She’ll call on Dr. Parker She’ll call on Tuesday

They looked into the problem They looked into the box
I came by a solution I came by train
He´ll stand by his word I’ll stand by the door
They put up with the noise They put up at a restaurant
We played on your empathy We played on the fied

- There is a paralell between intransitive phrasals like walk down and single verbs of
movement followed by a directional Complement (walk down the stairs).

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SUMMARY
In module 6 we have seen…

1.Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects.

2.Realisations of the Direct Object.
3.Realisations of the Indirect Object.
4.Prepositional verbs and the Prepositional
Object.
5.Phrasal Verbs, prepositional verbs and
phrasal-prepositional verbs.

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