DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN

AS we journey through life --- from womb to tomb --- when, how, and why do we develop? Virtually, all
of us began walking around age 1 and talking by age 2. As children, we engaged in social play in
preparation for life’s work. As adults, we all smile and cry, love and loathe, and occasionally ponder the
fact that someday we will die. Developmental psychology examines how people are continually
developing, physically, cognitively, and socially, from infancy through old age. Much of its research
centers on three major issues:

1. Nature/nurture: How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we
receive) influence our development?

2. Continuity/stages: Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or

does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?

3. Stability/change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different
persons as we age?

“Nature is all that a man brings with him into the world;
Nurture is every influence that affects him after his birth.”

Francis Galton, English Men of Science, 1874

MODULE 3

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND THE NEWBORN

FROM the union of sperm and egg to the birth of the newborn, development proceeds in an orderly,
though fragile, sequence. By birth, infants are equipped with perceptual and behavioral abilities that
facilitate their survival.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the reader is expected to:

1. Learn about life before birth;

2. Focus and make conclusion on the issues of continuity versus stages and stability versus change;
3. Identify and characterize newborn’s abilities.

This module covers the following topics:

A. Two major developmental issues

B. Conception and prenatal development
C. The competent newborn
 A. Two Major Developmental Issues

3.A.1 Continuity and Stages

Generally speaking, researchers who emphasize experience and learning see development as a slow,
continuous shaping process. Those who emphasize biological maturation tend to see development as a
sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps: although progress through the various stages may
be quick or slow, everyone passes through the stages in the same order.

Are there clear-cut stages of psychological development, as there are physical stages such as walking
before running? Several stage theories of development have been proposed and tested over the years.
For example, developmental psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that all children pass through four
discrete, age-linked stages of cognitive development, each stage with its own specific conceptual
(thinking) abilities. However, subsequent research has suggested that cognitive development, though
occurring basically in the sequence Piaget proposed, is more continuous, with some conceptual abilities
occurring at earlier stages than Piaget supposed.

Although research casts doubt on the idea that life proceeds through neatly defined, age-linked stages,
the concept of stage remains useful. Stage theories contribute a developmental perspective on the
whole life span, by suggesting how people of one age think and act differently when they arrive at a
later age.

3.A.2 Stability and Change

Over time, are people’s personalities consistent, or do they change? If reunited with a long-lost grade
school friend, would you instantly recognize that “it is the same old Andy”?

Researchers who have followed lives through time have found evidence for both stability and change.
There is continuity to personality and yet, happily for troubled children and adolescents, life is a process
of becoming: The struggles of the present may be laying a foundation for a happier tomorrow. More
specifically, researchers generally agree on the following points:

1. The first two years of life provide a poor basis for predicting a person’s eventual traits (Kagan et
al., 1998 cited in Myers, 2008). Older children and adolescents also change. As people grow
older, personality gradually stabilizes (Johnson et al., 2005).

2. Some characteristics, such as temperament, are more stable than others, such as social attitudes
(Moss & Susman, 1980 cited in Myers, 2008). When a research team led by Avshalom Caspi
(2003) studied 1000 New Zealanders from age 3 to 26, they were struck by the consistency of
temperament and emotionality across time.

3. In some ways, we all change with age. Most shy, fearful toddlers begin opening up by age 4, and
most people become calmer and more self-disciplined, agreeable, and self-confident in the
years after adolescence (Roberts et al., 2006). Many a 20-year-old goof-off has matured into a
40-year-old business or cultural leader. Such changes can occur without changing a person’s
position relative to others of the same age. The hard-driving young adult may mellow by later
life yet still be a relatively hard-driving senior citizen.
Finally, we should remember that life requires both stability and change. Stability enables us to depend
on others, provides our identity, and motivates our concern for the healthy development of children.
Change motivates our concerns about present influences, sustains our hope for a brighter future, and
lets us adapt and grow with experience.

B. Conception and Prenatal Development

3.B.1 Conception

Nothing is more natural than a species reproducing itself. Yet nothing is more wondrous. Consider
human reproduction.

The process starts when a woman’s ovary releases a mature egg --- a cell roughly the size of the period
at the end of this sentence --- and the 200 million or more sperm deposited during intercourse begin
their race upstream. The relatively few reaching the egg release digestive enzymes that eat away its
protective coating. As soon as one sperm begins to penetrate and is welcomed in, the egg’s surface
blocks out the others. Before half a day elapses, the egg nucleus and the sperm nucleus fuse. The two
have become one. Among the 200 million sperm, the one needed to make you, in combination with that
one particular egg, won the race. If all goes well, that cell will subdivide again and again to emerge 9
months later as a 100-trillion-cell human being.

3.B.2 Prenatal Development

Fewer than half of all fertilized eggs, called zygotes, survive beyond the first 2 weeks (Hall, 2004). One
cell became 2, then 4 --- each just like the first --- until this cell division had produced a zygote of some
100 cells within the first week. Then the cells began to differentiate --- to specialize in structure and
function. How identical cells do this --- as if one decides “I’ll become a brain, you become intestines!” ---
is a scientific puzzle that developmental biologists are just beginning to solve.

About ten days after conception, the increasingly diverse cells attach to the mother’s uterine wall,
beginning approximately 37 weeks of the closest human relationship. The zygote’s inner cells become
the embryo. Over the next 6 weeks, organs begin to form and function. The heart begins to beat.
The embryo grows and develops rapidly. At 40 days, the spine is visible and the arms and legs are
beginning to grow. Five days later, the inch-long embryo’s proportions have begun to change. The rest
of the body is now bigger than the head, and the arms and legs have grown noticeably. By the end of the
second month, when the fetal period begins, facial features, hands, and feet have formed. As the fetus
enters the fourth month, its 3 ounces could fit in the palm of your hand.

By 9 weeks after conception, the embryo looks unmistakably human. It is now a fetus. During the 6th
month, organs such as the stomach are sufficiently developed to allow a prematurely born fetus a
chance of survival.

At each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors affect development. The placenta, which
formed as the zygote’s outer cells attached to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients and oxygen from
mother to fetus. The placenta also screens out many potentially harmful substances. But some
substances slip by, among them teratogens, harmful agents such as viruses and drugs. If the mother is a
heroin addict, her baby will be born a heroin addict. If she carries the AIDS virus, her baby may also. A
pregnant woman never smokes alone; she and her fetus both experienced reduced blood oxygen and a
shot of nicotine. If she is a heavy smoker, the fetus may receive fewer nutrients and be born
underweight and at risk for various problems (Pringle et al., 2005).

There is no known safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy. Alcohol enters the woman’s bloodstream
--- and her fetus’ --- and depresses activity in both their central nervous systems. Even light drinking can
affect the fetal brain (Ikonomidou et al., 2000), and persistent heavy drinking will put the fetus at risk for
birth defects and mental retardation. For 1 in 750 infants, the effects are visible as fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS), marked by a small, disproportioned head and life-long brain abnormalities.

Insert --- terms to understand:

 Developmental psychology --- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social
 Zygote --- the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an
embryo.
 Embryo --- the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization/conception
through the second month.
 Fetus --- the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
 Teratogens --- agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during
prenatal development and cause harm.
 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) --- physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a
pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial
disproportions.

C. The Competent Newborn

Having survived prenatal hazards, newborns came equipped with automatic responses ideally suited for
survival. We withdrew our limbs to escape pain. If a cloth over our face interfered with our breathing,
we turned our head from side to side and swiped at it.

New parents are often in awe of the coordinated sequence of reflexes by which their baby gets food.
When something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously
root for a nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking --- which itself requires a
coordinated sequence of reflexive tonguing, swallowing, and breathing. Failing to find satisfaction, the
hungry baby may cry --- a behavior parents are predisposed to find highly unpleasant and very
rewarding to relieve.

We are born preferring sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness, and our sensory and
perceptual abilities will develop continuously over the next months. As newborns, we turn our heads in
the direction of human voices. We gaze longer at a drawing of a facelike image than at a bull’s-eye
pattern; yet we gaze more at a bull’s-eye pattern --- which has contrasts much like those of the human
eye --- than at a solid disk. We prefer to look at objects 8 – 12 inches away, which just happens to be the
approximate distance between a nursing infant’s eyes and its mother’s (Maurer & Maurer, 1988 cited in
Myers, 2008).

Within days after birth, the brain’s neural networks were stamped with the smell of the mother’s body.
Thus, a week-old nursing baby, placed between a gauze pad from its mother’s bra and one from another
nursing mother, will usually turn toward the smell of its own mother’s pad. At 3 weeks, if given a pacifier
that sometimes turns on recordings of its mother’s voice and sometimes that of a female stranger’s, an
infant will suck more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar mother’s voice (Mills & Melhuish, 1974
cited in Myers, 2008). So not only can we as young infants see what we need to see, and smell and hear
well, but we are already using our sensory equipment to learn.

Summary/Module Review

Later studies have modified some of the stage theories, but stage theories usefully alert us to
differences among people of different ages. The discovery that people’s traits continue to change in
later life has intensified interest in lifelong development. Nevertheless, there is also an underlying
consistency to most people’s temperament and personality traits.

Developmental psychologists study physical, mental, and social changes throughout the life span. The
life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg cell. The nuclei of the egg and
sperm then fuse to form a zygote. Attached to the uterine wall, the developing embryo’s organs begin to
form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful
agents that can pass through the placenta screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus.

Newborns are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social
interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother’s smell and sound.

Rehearse It/Test Yourself

A. Multiple Choice

1. Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience tend to believe in ____;
those who emphasize biological maturation tend to believe in_____.
a. Nature; nurture
b. Continuity; stages
c. Stability; change
d. Randomness; predictability

2. Although development is lifelong, there is stability of personality over time. for example,
a. Most personality trait emerge in infancy and persist throughout life.
b. Temperament tends to remain stable throughout life.
c. Few people change significantly after adolescence.
d. People tend to undergo greater personality changes as they age.

3. Developmental psychologists tend to focus on three major issues. Which of the following is not
one of those issues?
a. Nature/nurture
b. Reflexes/unlearned behaviors
c. Stability/change
d. Continuity/stages
4. The 9 months of prenatal development prepare the individual for survival outside the womb.
The body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the ____; within 6 months,
during the period of the ____, the organs are sufficiently functional to allow a chance of survival.
a. Zygote; embryo
b. Zygote; fetus
c. Embryo; fetus
d. Placenta; fetus

5. Teratogens are chemicals that pass through the placenta’s screen and may harm an embryo or
fetus. Which of the following is not a teratogen?
a. Oxygen
b. Heroin
c. Alcohol
d. Nicotine

6. Stroke a newborn’s cheek and the infant will root for a nipple. This illustrates
a. A reflex.
b. Sensorimotor learning.
c. Differentiation.
d. A gender difference.

B. Short-answer Questions

1. Your friend --- a heavy smoker --- hopes to become pregnant soon and has stopped smoking.
Why is this a good idea?
 MODULE 4

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

DURING infancy, a baby grows from newborn to toddler; and during childhood from toddler to
teenager. We all traveled this path, developing physically, cognitively, and socially. From infancy on,
brain and mind, neural hardware and cognitive software, develop together.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the reader is expected to:

1. Identify and discuss the aspects of physical development, cognitive development, and social
development;
2. Determine and describe the stages of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development;
3. Explain how the bonds of attachment form between caregivers and infants.

This module discusses the following topics:

A. Physical development
B. Cognitive development
C. Social development

A. Physical Development

How do the brain and motor skills develop during infancy and childhood?

4.A.1: Brain Development

In your mother’s womb, your developing body formed nerve cells at the explosive rate of nearly one-
quarter million per minute. On the day you were born, you had most of the brain cells you would ever
have. However, your nervous system was immature. After birth, the neural networks that eventually
enabled you to walk, talk, and remember had a wild growth spurt. From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid
growth is in the brain’s frontal lobes, which enable rational planning (and which continue developing
into adolescence and beyond). The association areas --- those linked with thinking, memory, and
language --- are the last cortical areas to develop. As they do, mental abilities surge ahead (Thatcher et
al., 1987 cited in Myers, 2008). Fiber pathways supporting language and agility proliferate into puberty,
after which a pruning process shuts down excess connections and strengthens others (
Thompson et al., 2000).

As a flower unfolds in accord with its genetic instructions, so do we, in the orderly sequence of biological
growth processes called maturation. Maturation decrees many of our commonalities --- from standing
before walking, to using nouns before adjectives. Severe deprivation or abuse can retard development,
and ample parental experiences of talking and reading will help sculpt neural connections. Yet the
genetic growth tendencies are inborn. Maturation sets the basic course of development; experience
adjusts it.

4.A.2 Motor Development

The developing brain enables physical coordination. As an infant’s muscles and nervous system mature,
more complicated skills emerge. With minor exceptions, the sequence of physical (motor) development
is universal. Babies roll over before they sit unsupported, and they usually creep on all fours before they
walk. These behaviors reflect not limitation but a maturing nervous system; blind children, too, crawl
before they walk.

There are, however, individual differences in timing. The recommended infant “back-to-sleep” position
(putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of a smothering crib death) has been associated
with somewhat later crawling but not with later walking (Lipsitt, 2003).

Genes play a major role in motor development. Identical twins typically begin sitting up and walking on
nearly the same day (Wilson, 1979 cited in Myers, 2008). Maturation --- including the rapid development
of the cerebellum at the back of the brain --- creates our readiness to learn walking at about age 1.
Experience before that time has a limited effect. This is true for other physical skills, including bowel and
bladder control. Before necessary muscular and neural maturation, no pleading, harassment, or
punishment will produce successful toilet training.

4.A.3 Maturation and Infant Memory

Our earliest memories seldom predate our third birthdays. We see this infantile amnesia in the
memories of some preschoolers who experienced an emergency fire evacuation caused by a burning
popcorn maker. Seven years later, they were able to recall the alarm and what caused it --- if they were
4 to 5 years old at the time. Those experiencing the event as 3-year-olds could not remember the cause
and usually misrecalled being already outside when the alarm sounded (Pillemer, 1995 cited in Myers,
2008). Other studies confirm that the average age of earliest conscious memory is 3.5 years (Bauer,
2002). By 4 to 5 years, childhood amnesia is giving way to remembered experiences (Bruce et al., 2000).

Although we consciously recall little from before age 4, our memory is processing information during
and beyond those early years. And when 10-year-olds are shown photos of preschoolers and asked to
spot their former classmates, whether or not they consciously recognize them (Newcomb et al., 2000).
What the conscious mind does not know, the nervous system somehow remembers.

Insert --- term to understand:

 Maturation --- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively
uninfluenced by experience.
 B. Cognitive Development

How did Piaget view the development of a child’s mind, and what are current researchers’ views?

4.B.1 Cognition

Who knows the thoughts of a child? As much as anyone of his generation, developmental psychologist
Jean Piaget knew. His interest began in 1920, when he was in Paris developing questions for children’s
intelligence tests. While administering tests, Piaget became intrigued by children’s wrong answers to
some questions. Where others saw childlike mistakes, Piaget saw intelligence at work. The errors made
by children at a given age, he noted, were often strikingly similar.

A half-century spent with children convinced Piaget that a child’s mind is not a miniature model of an
adult’s. We now understand that children reason differently in “wildly illogical ways about problems
whose solutions are self-evident to adults (Brainerd, 1996 cited in Myers, 2008).

Cognition refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating. Piaget proposed that a child’s mind develops through a series of stages, in an upward
march from the newborn’s simple reflexes to the adult’s abstract reasoning power. Thus, an 8-year-old
can comprehend things a 2- or 3-year-old cannot. But our adult minds likewise engage in reasoning that
8-year-olds cannot comprehend.

Piaget believed the driving force behind this intellectual progression is our unceasing struggle to make
sense of our experiences. His core idea is that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to
construct more advanced understandings of the world” (Siegler & Ellis, 1996 cited in Myers, 2008). To
this end, the maturing brain builds schemas, concepts or mental molds into which we pour our
experiences.

To explain how we use and adjust our schemas, Piaget proposed two concepts --- we assimilate new
experiences – we interpret them in terms of our current understandings (schemas). Having a simple
schema for dog, for example, a toddler may call all four-legged animals doggies. We also adjust, or
accommodate, our schemas to fit the particulars of new experiences. The child soon learns that the
original doggie schema is too broad and accommodates by refining the category. As children interact
with the world, they construct and modify their schemas.

Insert --- terms to understand:

 Cognition --- all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating.
 Schema --- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
 Assimilation --- interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.
 Accommodation --- adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new
information.

4.B.2 Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Piaget believed that children construct their understandings from interactions with the world and
experience spurts of change followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive
developmental plateau to the next. These plateaus form four stages, each with distinctive characteristics
that permit specific kinds of thinking.

Table 3

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor  Object permanence

Experiencing the world through  Stranger anxiety
senses and actions (looking, hearing,
touching, mouthing, and grasping)

2 to about 6/7 years Preoperational  Pretend play

Representing things with words and  Egocentrism
images; using intuitive rather than
logical reasoning

About 7 to 11 years Concrete operational  Conservation

Thinking logically about concrete  Mathematical
events; grasping concrete analogies transformations
and performing arithmetical
operations

About 12 through adulthood Formal operational  Abstract logic

Abstract reasoning  Potential for mature
moral reasoning

4.B.2.1 Sensorimotor Stage

In the sensorimotor stage, from birth to nearly age 2, babies take in the world through their sensory and
motor interactions with objects --- through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Young
infants lack object permanence --- the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived. By
8 months, infants begin exhibiting memory for things no longer seen. But does object permanence in
fact blossom at 8 months?

Today’s researchers see development as more continuous than Piaget did, and they believe object
permanence unfolds gradually. Even young infants will at least momentarily look for a toy where they
saw it hidden a second before.

4.B.2.2 Preoperational Stage

Piaget believed that until about age 6 or 7, children are in a preoperational stage --- too young to
perform mental operations. For a 5-year-old, the milk that seems “too much” in a tall, narrow glass may
become an acceptable amount if poured into a short, wide glass. Focusing only on the height dimension,
this child cannot perform the operation of mentally pouring the milk back, because he lacks the concept
of conservation --- the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Piaget contended that preschoolers are egocentric: they have difficulty perceiving things from another’s
point of view. TV-watching preschoolers who block your view of the TV assume that you see what they
see. They simply have not yet developed the ability to take another’s viewpoint. Even as adults, we
often underestimate the extent to which others share our opinions and perspective, as when we assume
that something will be clear to others if it is clear to us.

4.B.2.3 Concrete Operational Stage

By about 6 or 7 years of age, children enter the concrete operational stage. Given concrete materials,
they begin to grasp conservation. Understanding that change in form does not mean change in quantity,
they can mentally pour milk back and forth between glasses of different shapes. They also enjoy jokes
that allow them to use this new understanding.

Piaget believed that during the concrete operational stage, children fully gain the mental ability to
comprehend mathematical transformations and conservation. Piaget was hardly the only psychologist to
describe children’s cognitive development.

By age 7, noted the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, children become increasingly capable of thinking
in words and of using words to work out solutions to problems (cited in Myers, 2008). They do this by no
longer thinking out loud; rather by internalizing their culture’s language and rely on inner speech.
Whether out loud or inaudible, talking to themselves helps children control their behavior and emotions
and master new skills.

4.B.2.4 Formal Operational Stage

By age 12, reasoning expands from the purely concrete (involving actual experience) to encompass
abstract thinking (involving imagined realities and symbols). As children approach adolescence, many
become capable of solving hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences: If this, then that.
Systematic reasoning, what Piaget called formal operational thinking, is now within their grasp.

Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory

Piaget identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulated worldwide interest in how the mind
develops. His emphasis was less on the ages at which children typically reach specific milestones than on
their sequence. Studies around the globe have supported the idea that human cognition unfolds
basically in that sequence (Lourenco & Machado, 1996; Segall et al., 1990 cited in Myers, 2008).

However, today’s researchers see development as more continuous than did Piaget. By detecting the
beginnings of each type of thinking at earlier ages, they have revealed conceptual abilities Piaget missed.
Moreover, they see formal logic as a smaller part of cognition than he did. Piaget would not be surprised
that today, as part of our own cognitive development, we are adapting his ideas to accommodate new
findings.
Implications for Parents and Teachers

Future parents and teachers remember: Young children are incapable of adult logic. Preschoolers who
stand in the way or ignore negatively phrased instructions simply have not learned to take another’s
viewpoint. What is simple and obvious to you may be incomprehensible to a 3-year-old. Also remember
that children are not passive receptacles waiting to be filled with knowledge. Better to build on what
they already know, engaging them in concrete demonstrations and stimulating them to think for
themselves. And finally, accept children’s cognitive immaturity as adaptive. It is nature’s strategy for
keeping children close to protective adults and providing time for learning and socialization (Bjorklund &
Green, 992 cited in Myers, 2008).

Insert --- terms to understand:

 Sensorimotor stage --- in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during
which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
 Object permanence --- the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
 Preoperational stage --- in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during
which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of
concrete logic.
 Conservation --- the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational
reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes
in the forms of objects.
 Egocentrism --- in Piaget’s theory, the operational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of
view.
 Concrete operational stage --- in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from
about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable
them to think logically about concrete events that happen in the here and now, the present, the
reality.
 Formal operational stage --- in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally
beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts,
the future, the ideal.

C. Social Development

How do the bonds of attachment form between caregivers and infants?

From birth, babies in all cultures are social creatures, developing an intense bond with their caregivers.
Beginning with a newborn’s attraction to humans in general, infants soon come to prefer familiar faces
and voices, then to coo and gurgle when given their mother’s or father’s attention. Soon after object
permanence emerges and children become mobile, a curious thing happens: In most cultures, at about 8
months, they develop stranger anxiety. They may greet strangers by crying and reaching for familiar
caregivers. At about this age, children have schemas for familiar faces; when they cannot assimilate the
new face into these remembered schemas, they become distressed (Kagan, 1984 cited in Myers, 2008).
Once again, we see an important principle: The brain, the mind, and social-emotional behavior develop
together.
At 12 months, many infants cling tightly to a parent when they are frightened or expect separation.
Reunited after being separated, they shower the parent with smiles and hugs. No social behavior is
more striking than this intense and mutual infant-parent bond.

4.C.1 Origins of Attachment

The attachment bond is a powerful survival impulse that keep infants close to their caregivers. Infants
become attached to those --- typically their parents --- who are comfortable and familiar. For many
years, developmental psychologists reasoned that infants became attached to those who satisfied their
need for nourishment. It made sense.

Body Contact

But, human infants, too, become attached to parents who are soft and warm and who rock, feed, and
pat. Much parent-infant emotional communication occurs via touch (Hertenstein, 2002), which can
either be soothing (snuggles) or arousing (tickles). Human attachment also consists of one person
providing another with a safe haven when distressed and a secure base from which to explore. As we
mature, our secure base and safe haven shift --- from parents to peers and partners (Cassidy & Shaver,
1999 cited in Myers, 2008). But at all ages we are social creatures. We gain strength when someone
offers, by words and actions, a safe haven: “I will be here. I am interested in you. Come what may, I will
actively support you” (Crowell & Waters, 1994 cited in Myers, 2008).

Familiarity

Contact is one key to attachment. Another is familiarity. In many animals, attachments based on
familiarity likewise form during a critical period --- an optimal period when certain events must take
place to facilitate proper development (Bornstein, 1989 cited in Myers, 2008).

You might wonder: What would ducklings or chicks do if you were the first moving creature they
observed? You might notice that everywhere you go, they follow. They have developed an attachment
process, called imprinting, explored by Konrad Lorenz (1937 cited in Myers, 2008). And once formed,
this attachment process is difficult to reverse.

Children, unlike ducklings or chicks, do not imprint. However, they do become attached to what they
have known. Mere exposure to people and things fosters fondness --- children like to reread the same
books, rewatch the same movies, reenact family traditions. They prefer to eat familiar foods, live in the
same familiar neighborhood, attend school with the same old friends. Familiarity is a safety signal.
Familiarity breeds content.

Insert --- terms to understand:

 Stranger anxiety --- the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8
months of age.
 Attachment --- an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking
closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
 Critical period --- an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain
stimuli or experiences produces proper development.
  Imprinting --- the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period
very early in life.

Attachment Differences

What accounts for children’s attachment differences? Placed in a strange situation (usually a laboratory
playroom), about 60% of infants display secure attachment. In their mother’s presence, they play
comfortably, happily exploring their new environment. When the mother leaves, they are distressed;
when she returns, they seek contact with her. Other infants show insecure attachment. They are less
likely to explore their surroundings; they may even cling to their mother. When she leaves, they either
cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent to her departure and return (Ainsworth, 1989; Kagan,
1995 cited in Myers, 2008).

Ainsworth (1989 cited in Myers, 2008) observed that sensitive, responsive mothers --- those who
noticed what their babies were doing and respond appropriately --- had infants who exhibited secure
attachment. Insensitive, unresponsive mothers --- mothers who attended to their babies when they felt
like doing so but ignored them at other times --- had infants who often became insecurely attached.

But is attachment style the result of parenting, as children’s early experiences form their thinking about
relationships? Or is attachment style the result of genetically influenced temperament --- one’s
characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity? Shortly after birth, some babies are noticeably difficult
--- irritable, intense, and unpredictable. Others are easy --- cheerful, relaxed, and feeding and sleeping
on predictable schedules.

Whether children live with one parent or two, are cared for at home or in a day-care center, their
anxiety over separation from parents peaks at around 13 months, then gradually declines. Does this
mean our need for and love of others also fades away? Hardly. Our capacity for love grows, and our
pleasure in touching and holding those we love never ceases. The power of early attachment does
nonetheless gradually relax, allowing us to move out into a wider range of situations, communicate with
strangers more freely, and stay attached emotionally to loved ones despite distance.

Erik Erikson, in collaboration with his wife, Joan Erikson, indicated that securely attached children
approach life with a sense of basic trust --- a sense that the world is predictable and reliable. He
attributed basic trust not to environment or inborn temperament, but to early parenting. He theorized
that infants blessed with sensitive, loving caregivers form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear.
Many researchers now believe that our early attachments form the foundation for our adult
relationships (Fraley, 2002).

Insert --- term to understand:

 Basic trust --- according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy;
said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experience with responsive caregivers.

Deprivation of Attachment

If secure attachment nurtures social competence, what happens when circumstances prevent a child
from forming attachments? Babies reared in institutions without the stimulation and attention of a
regular caregiver, or locked away at home under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect, are often
withdrawn, frightened, even speechless. If institutionalized more than 8 months, they often bore lasting
emotional scars (Rutter et al., 1998 cited in Myers, 2008).

In humans, the unloved sometimes become the unloving. Most abusive parents report having been
neglected or battered as children (Lewis et al., 1988 cited in Myers, 2008). But does this mean that
today’s victim is predictably tomorrow’s victimizer? The answer is no. Though most abusers were indeed
abused, most abused children do not later become violent criminals or abusive parents. Most children
growing up under adversity (as did the surviving children of the Holocaust) are resilient; they become
normal adults (Masten, 2001 cited in Myers, 2008).

Although children are resilient, extreme childhood trauma can leave footprints on the brain. “Stress can
set off a ripple of hormonal changes that permanently wire a child’s brain to cope with a malevolent
world” (Teicher, 2002). Children terrorized through physical abuse or wartime atrocities (being beaten,
witnessing torture, and living in constant fear) suffer other lasting wounds --- often nightmares,
depression, and adolescence troubled by substance abuse, binge eating, or aggression (Polusny &
Follette, 1995 cited in Myers, 2008). Child sexual abuse, especially if severe and prolonged, places
children at increased risk for health problems, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminality
(Freyd et al., 2005).

Child-rearing Practices

Parenting styles vary. Some parents spank, some reason. Some are strict, some are lax. Some show little
affection, some liberally hug and kiss. Do these differences affect children?

The most heavily researched aspect of parenting has been how, and to what extent, parents seek to
control their children. Investigators have identified three parenting styles:

1. Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience: “Don’t interrupt.” “Do keep your
room clean.” Don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded.” Why? Because I said so.”
2. Permissive parents submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use little
punishment.
3. Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control not only by setting
rules and enforcing them but by also explaining the reasons and, especially with older children,
encouraging open discussion and allowing exceptions when making the rules.

Too hard, too soft, and just right, these styles have been called. Studies (Coopersmith, 1967; Baumrind,
1996; Buri et.al., 1988 cited in Myers, 2008) reveal that children with the highest self-esteem, self-
reliance, and social competence usually have warm, concerned, authoritative parents. Those with
authoritarian parents tend to have less social skill and self-esteem, and those with permissive parents
tend to be more aggressive and immature.

Parents struggling with conflicting advice and with the stresses of child-rearing should remember that
all advice reflect the advice-giver’s values. For those who prize unquestioning obedience from a child, an
authoritarian style may have the desired effect. For those who value children’s sociability and self-
reliance, authoritative firm-but-open parenting is advisable.

The investment in raising a child buys many years not only of joy and love but of worry and irritation. Yet
for most people who become parents, a child is one’s biological and social legacy --- one’s personal
investment in the human future. To paraphrase psychiatrist Carl Jung: “We reach backward into our
parents and forward into our children, and through their children into a future we will never see, but
about which we must therefore care.”

Summary/Review

Within the brain, nerve cells form before birth. Sculpted by maturation and experience, their
interconnections multiply rapidly after birth. We lose conscious memories of experiences from before
age 3, in part because major areas of the brain have not yet matured. Our complex motor skills ---
sitting, standing, walking --- develop in a predictable sequence whose timing is a function of individual
maturation and culture.

Piaget proposed that children’s reasoning develops in stages, and that children actively construct and
modify their understanding of the world as they interact with it. They form schemas that help them
organize their experiences. In this way, children progress from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage
to the egocentrism of the preoperational stage to the performance of concrete operations of the
concrete operational stage and, finally to the systematic reasoning during the formal operational stage.
The cognitive abilities that emerge at each stage apparently begin developing in a rudimentary form in
the previous stage.

Infants form attachments not simply because caregivers gratify biological needs but, more important,
because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Ducks and other animals have a more rigid
attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period. Neglect or abuse can disrupt
the attachment process and put children at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems. Once
attachment forms, infants separated from their caregivers will, for a time, display stranger anxiety.
Infants’ differing attachment styles reflect both their individual temperament and the responsiveness of
their parents and child-care providers. Parenting styles --- permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian ---
reflect varying degrees of control. Children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social
competence tend to have authoritative parents.

Rehearse It/Test Yourself

A. Multiple Choice

1. The orderly sequence of biological growth is called maturation. Maturation explains why
a. Children with autism have difficulty inferring others’ thoughts and feelings.
b. Most children have begun walking by about 12 months.
c. Enriching experiences may affect brain tissue.
d. Differences between the sexes are minimal.

2. Although we are born with most of the brain cells we will ever have, at birth our nervous system
is still immature. Between ages 3 and 6, we experience the greatest growth in our ___ lobes,
which we use for rational planning, and which continue developing at least into adolescence.
a. Parietal
b. Temporal
c. Frontal
 d. Occipital

3. As the infant’s muscle and nervous system mature, more complicated skills emerge. Which of
the following is true of motor-skill development?
a. It is determined solely by genetic factors.
b. The sequence, but not the timing, is universal.
c. The timing, but not the sequence, is universal.
d. Environment creates a readiness to learn.

4. Piaget’s preoperational stage extends from about age 2 to 6. During this period, the young
child’s thinking is
a. Abstract
b. Negative
c. Conservative
d. Egocentric

5. The principle of conservation explains why a pint of milk remains a pint, whether poured into a
tall thin pitcher or a round one. Children acquire the mental operations necessary to understand
conservation during the
a. Sensorimotor stage
b. Preoperational stage
c. Concrete operational stage
d. Formal operational stage

6. Piaget’s stage theory continues to inform our understanding of cognitive development in

childhood. However, many researchers believe that
a. Piaget’s “stages” begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized.
b. Children do not progress as rapidly as Piaget predicted.
c. Few children really progress to the concrete operational stage.
d. There is no way of testing much of Piaget’s theoretical work.

7. After about 8 months of age, infants develop schemas for familiar objects. Faced with a new
babysitter, they will show distress, a behavior referred to as
a. Conservation
b. Stranger anxiety
c. Imprinting
d. Maturation

8. Body contact facilitates attachment between infant and parent. In a series of experiments, Harry
and Margaret Harlow found that monkeys raised with artificial mothers tended, when afraid, to
cling to
a. The wire mother.
b. The cloth mother.
c. Whichever mother held the feeding bottle.
d. Other infant monkeys.
9. From the very first weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with
some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These
differences are usually explained as differences in
a. Attachment.
b. Imprinting.
c. Temperament
d. Parental responsiveness

B. Test Yourself

1. Use Piaget’s first three stages of cognitive development to explain why young children are NOT
just miniature adults in the way they think.