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ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR DIESEL ENGINES AND THEIR IMPACT ON ENGINE

EMISSIONS. A LITERATURE REVIEW

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 ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR DIESEL ENGINES AND THEIR IMPACT ON
ENGINE EMISSIONS. A LITERATURE REVIEW

Zbarcea O. PhD student, Prof. Scarpete D.

“Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Romania
dan.scarpete@ugal.ro
Abstract: Today, there is a significant interest in alternative energy sources for vehicles, as a result of continuous concern for the
environmental impact and for consumption of the primary energy sources, which are limited. Diesel engines present particularly significant
emission like nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, hydrocarbons and black smoke. This paper present a literature review on some alternative
fuels for diesel engines, as pure plant oil, biodiesel and compressed natural gas, and their impact on diesel engine emissions.
Keywords: DIESEL ENGINE, PURE PLANT OIL, BIODIESEL, CNG, EMISSIONS

of the same power, and this results in lower fuel consumption and
1. Introduction thus in lower carbon dioxide emissions [7], the problem associated
Compression ignition (CI) engines are the most popular prime- with the emissions of smoke, PM, sulfur oxide (SOx), PAHs, and
movers for transportation sector as well as for stationary odor from the exhaust of diesel engines has been widely been a
applications [1]. Global increasing demands for energy, declining concern in many countries [8].
fossil fuel reserves, environmental concerns, and rising prices have
Diesel engine exhaust is a complex mixture of carbon dioxide,
resulted in a growing interest in the development of alternative
oxygen, nitrogen, nitrogen compounds, carbon monoxide, water
renewable energy source [2].
vapor, sulfur compounds and numerous low and high molecular
Petroleum reserves are rapidly and continuously depleting at an weight hydrocarbons, and particulate matter [9].
alarming pace and there is an urgent need to find alternative energy
Exhaust gas emissions of IC engines have been considered a
resources to control both, the global warming and the air pollution,
very serious issue regarding air quality and the environment [10]
which is primarily attributed to combustion of fossil fuels [1].
and, therefore, developing and seeking alternative diesel fuels,
In order to meet the energy requirements, there has been without modifying engines, has become an important issue [8].
growing interest in alternative fuels like vegetable oils, biodiesels,
To this context, this paper presents a review of some alternative
biogas, LPG, CNG to provide a suitable diesel oil substitute for
fuel, like pure plant oil, biodiesel and compressed natural gas, and
internal combustion engine [3].
their impact on diesel engine emissions.
Biodiesel production is not something new, because the concept
of using vegetable oil as fuel dates back to 1895. Rudolf Diesel 2. Pure plant oil as fuel for diesel engine
developed the first diesel engine which has run with vegetable oil
in1900. The first engine has run using groundnut oil as fuel [4]. As an alternative fuel for compression ignition engines, plant
oils are in principle renewable and carbon neutral. However, their
The promotion of biofuels as energy for transportation in the use raises technical, economic and environmental issues. A
industrialized countries is mainly driven by the perspective of oil comprehensive and up-to-date technical review of using both edible
depletion, the concerns about energy security and global warming. and non-edible plant oils (either pure or as blends with fossil diesel)
However due to sustainability constraints, biofuels will replace only in CI engines, based on comparisons with standard diesel fuel, has
10 to 15% of fossil liquid fuels in the transport sector [5]. been carried out [4].
Fossil fuels are expected to continue supplying much of the Pure plant oil (PPO), also referred as PVO (Pure Vegetable Oil)
energy used worldwide. Although liquid fuels remain the largest or SVO (Straight Vegetable Oil), is the use of plant and vegetable
source of energy, their share of world marketed energy consumption oils without any modification to their chemical structure as a fuel to
is projected to fall from 35% in 2007 to 30% in 2035 (Fig. 1). The be combusted inside a diesel engine. This method should not be
decline is due to projected high world oil prices that lead energy confused with biodiesel, which is a fuel derived from pure plant oils
users to switch away from liquid fuels when possible [6]. through a transesterification process that splits fatty acids from
glycerin to reduce the viscosity of the pure plant oil similar to that
Altough diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline engines of mineral diesel [11].
History 2008 Projections Vegetable oils represent a ready, renewable and clean energy
250
Energy consumption by fuel (quadrillion Btu)

source that has shown promise as a substitute to petroleum diesel

fuel for diesel engines. There are different ways of utilizing
200 vegetable oils as a substitute for petroleum diesel: (i) crude or
refined neat oil; (ii) mixture of oil with diesel fuel with appropriate
Liquids dilutions; and (iii) alkyl ester products from the transesterification
150 process [12].
Coal
Since the most of European biodiesel is made from vegetable
Natural gas oil, this has led to a rapid increase in demand, with a significant
100
impact on European vegetable oil markets [13].
Renewables
Because the population is constantly growing and also food
50 need is increasing, it is important to focus our attention on non-
Nuclear
edible crops. Non-edible oils are not suitable for human food due to
the presence of some toxic components in the oil [14].
0
1990 2000 2008 2015 2025 2035 As indicated by Table 1, numerous plant oils have been tried in
Fig. 1 World energy consumption by fuel, from diesel engines at some time or other. Relatively few, however, have
1990 to 2035 [6]. been systematically evaluated and used [4].
Table 1: Potential edible and non-edible plant oils for use in CI engines [4]. special type of heat exchanger. The operation of this system is that
Edible oil Non-edible oil upon shut down of the engine the mineral diesel or biodiesel from
Sunflower oil, Rapessed oil, Rice Jatropha oil, Karanji or the smaller tank “O” is feed into the engine until all the vegetable
oil, Soybean oil, Coconut oil, Corn Pongamia oil, Neem oil, Jojoba oil is purged out [11].
oil, Palm oil, Olive oil, Pistachia Ol, oil, Cottonseed oil, Deccan hemp
Sesame seed oil, Peanut oil, Poppy oil, Kusum oil, Orange oil, Literature on using vegetable oils as fuel for diesel engine
oil, Safflower oil Rubber seed oil shows that exhaust gas temperature and smoke intensity may either
increase or decrease in comparison to fossil diesel.
Advantages of non-edible crops are ready availability,
renewability, higher heat content, lower sulfur content, lower Wang et al. [18] carried out a series of experimental tests to
aromatic content and biodegradability, adaptability of cultivating evaluate the performance and gaseous emission characteristics of a
non-edible oil feedstock in marginal land and non-agricultural areas diesel engine when fuelled with vegetable oil and its blends of 25%,
with low fertility and moisture demand, eliminate competition for 50%, and 75% of vegetable oil with ordinary diesel fuel separately.
food and feed [14]. The engine works at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm, but at different
loads respectively, i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of engine
There are 350 species of oil-producing plants and thousands of full loads. The experimental results show that power output and fuel
sub-species [15]. Table 2 gives the average annual oil yield for the consumption are comparable to diesel when fueled with vegetable
common oil plants cultivated in Europe. oil and its blends. The emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from
vegetable oil and its blends are lower than that of pure diesel fuel.
Table 2: Oil producing crops in European Union [adapted from 13]
This emission character found in the tests to some extent is of
Oil producing crops in kg oil/
significance for the practical application of vegetable oil to replace
European Union hectare
Corn 145
ordinary diesel fuel.
Oat 183 A technical review and life-cycle analysis [4] revealed that
Cotton 273 when the engine runs on plant oil, emissions of CO and HC may
Hemp 305 either increase or decrease (Fig. 3). At low load operation using
Linseed 402
plant oil, CO emission is almost the same as for fossil diesel.
Pumpkin seed 449
Whereas at higher loads, the mixture becomes richer thus more CO
Sunflower 800
Rapessed 1000
is produced due to the lower oxygen content of plant oil. Emissions
Olive tree 1019 of NOx tend to increase with the nitrogen content of the oil. Most
literature reports a decrease in NOx emission with plant oil (or
Diesel engines are designed to burn diesel fuel, which has a blends) compared to fossil diesel (Fig. 3).
lower viscosity than vegetable oil. Therefore the direct usage of
60
% change from fossil diesel

pure plant oil in the engine leads to poor fuel atomisation and CO NOx Smoke
incomplete combustion, which can rapidly damage the engine. Pure 40
vegetable oil thickness is the central problem for their use since it is
11–17 times thicker than conventional fuel [11]. 20

In the process of converting an engine, adaptations may need to 0

be made to the fuel lines, combustion chamber and fuel injectors. -20
The engine modifications necessary to run a diesel engine with
vegetable oils can be divided into two categories: one tank systems -40
and two tank systems. The best way is to fit a professional kit to the
diesel engine which includes replacement injectors and glow plugs -60
Palm blend
Palm pure
Soybean pure
Soybean pure

Rapeseed pure

Orange pure
Coconut pure
Sunflower blend
Sunflower blend
Sunflower blend
Sunflower pure
Sunflower pure
Sunflower pure

Rubber seed pure

Peanut pure
Jatropha pure
optimised for vegetable oil, as well as fuel heating [16,8]. Oil (1) pure

The major components of a professional kit are: electrical

switching unit (switching to the gas, rinse/ventilation) and an
integrated heater (Diesel-Therm), control electronics (diesel - quick
rinse, warning when off on vegetable oil), heat exchanger for water
/ oil circuit, fuel lines, fuel filter, cockpit panel for plant oil / diesel
with LED's all operating conditions signal and audible warning Fig. 3 CO, NOx and smoke emission of CI engines running
when off mode in vegetable oil, complete manufactured cable set on plant oil (or blends with fossil diesel) as compared to
with relay sockets, plugs and fuses, various small material (hose fossil diesel (Oil (1): unknown) [4].
clamps), detailed installation manual [17].
One can observe that the CO emitted by all biodiesel blends of
With two-tank PPO kits (Fig. 2), one tank holds the vegetable various origins is lower than that by the corresponding neat Diesel
oil and the other petro-diesel (or biodiesel). The engine is started on fuel case, with the reduction being higher the higher the percentage
the petro-diesel tank and runs on petro-diesel for the first few of the biodiesel in the blend [19].
minutes while the vegetable oil is heated to lower the viscosity [11].
Emissions of NOx tend to increase with the nitrogen content of
Items “O” and “N” represent the two tanks, which are installed the oil. The NOx emissions were slightly reduced with the use of
inside a vehicle. Heating systems include “M” which is a heater biodiesel or vegetable oil blends of various origins with respect to
located inside in the vegetable oil tank and “E” which is normally a that of the neat Diesel fuel, with this reduction being higher the
higher the percentage of biodiesel or vegetable oil in the blend
[4,19].
The smoke density was significantly reduced with the use of
biodiesel blends of various origins with respect to that of the neat
Diesel fuel, with this reduction being higher the higher the
percentage of biodiesel in the blend. On the contrary, it was
increased with the use of vegetable oil blends of various origins,
with this increase being higher the higher the percentage of
Fig. 2 Illustration of a two tank system, which vegetable oil in the blend [19].
allows a vehicle to run on PPO [11].
 In other experiment [20], Rakopoulos et al. have evaluated the O O
use of sunflower, cottonseed, corn and olive straight vegetable oils CH2 -O-C-R 1 CH3-O-C-R 1
of Greek origin, in blends with diesel fuel at proportions of 10
vol.% and 20 vol.%, in a six-cylinder, turbocharged and after- O O CH 2-OH
cooled, heavy duty, direct injection, Mercedes-Benz diesel engine. CH2 -O-C-R 2 + 3 CH3-OH CH3-O-C-R 2 + CH-OH
(Catalyst)
Fig. 4 shows, for the speed of 1500 rpm, the emitted nitrogen O O CH 2-OH
oxides (NOx) for the neat diesel fuel, and the 10% and 20% blends CH2 -O-C-R 3 CH3-O-C-R 3
of the four vegetable oils with diesel fuel, at the three loads. One triglyceride methanol mixture of glycerol
can observe that the NOx emitted by all vegetable oil blends are fatty esters
equal or slightly higher than the ones for the corresponding diesel
fuel case, with this increase being higher the higher the percentage Fig. 6 Transesterification reaction [22].
of the vegetable oil in the blend [20].
reaction [1]. The result of transesterification reaction (Fig. 6) is
1200 LOAD biodiesel, as a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain
SPEED: 1500 RPM fatty acids derived esters from vegetable oils or animal fats,
20%
1000 40% designated B100 [23].
60%
Because the biodiesel viscosity is almost twice higher than the
NOx (ppm)

800 diesel fuel viscosity (according to Standard EN 14214:2003, the

biodiesel viscosity at 40°C is 3.5-5.0 mm2/s [24]), biodiesel is
currently used in blends with diesel fuel.
600
Biodiesel can be produced from various vegetable oils, waste
cooking oils or animal fats. The fuel properties of biodiesel may be
400 changed when different feedstocks are used [25]. However,
biodiesel production is highly dependent on many local variables
200 such as feedstock and land availability, costs associated with
10% 20% 10% 20% 10% 20% 10% 20% feedstock procurement, government subsidies and tax reductions as
DIESEL
SUNFL COTTON CORN OLIVE well as interactions with the food industry [26].
Fig. 4 Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) for neat diesel fuel, and the 10% The main stages of the fuel systems for biodiesel from
and 20% blends of the four vegetable oil with diesel fuel [20]. vegetable oil and waste cooking oil are shown in Figure 7.

For the same experiment [20], it can be observed that the soot Rapeseed WCO
Production Collecting
emitted by all vegetable oil blends is lower than the ones for the
corresponding neat diesel fuel case, with this reduction being higher
the higher the percentage of the vegetable oil in the blend. This is Rapeseed Oil
attributed to the combustion being mixing controlled for these Extraction

vegetable oil blends, as it is also the case for the neat diesel fuel
case, which is however now assisted by the presence of the fuel
Rapeseed Biodiesel WCO Biodiesel
bound oxygen even in locally rich zones [20]. Production Production

8 SPEED: 1500 RPM LOAD 8

Pretreatment Pretreatment
20%
Smoke opacity (% hartridge)

40%
6 60% 6 Biodiesel Production Biodiesel Production
Process Process
Petroleum Diesel
Production
4 4
B100 B100
Rapeseed WCO
2 2
Blending Blending Diesel

0 0
10% 20% 10% 20% 10% 20% 10% 20%
DIESEL B5 or B20 B5 or B20
SUNFL COTTON CORN OLIVE

Fig. 5 Emissions of smoke for neat diesel fuel, and the 10% and Diesel Engines
20% blends of the four vegetable oil with diesel fuel [20].
Fig. 7 Fuel systems for biodiesel from vegetable oil (rapeseed
3. Biodiesel oil) and waste cooking oil (WCO) (adapted from [26]).

Crude vegetable oils are inferior as fuel in terms of viscosity, A survey on 27 literatures [27], to study the effect of pure
heating value, freezing point, etc. [21]. In order to reduce viscosity, biodiesel on engine power, showed that 70.4% of them agreed that,
vegetable oils are converted into esters by transesterification with biodiesel (especially with pure biodiesel), engine power will

Table 3: Statistics of effects of pure biodiesel on engine performances (adapted from [27])
Total number of Increase % Similar % Decrease %
references Number Number Number
Power performance 27 2 7.4 6 22.2 19 70.4
Economy performance 62 54 87.1 2 3.2 6 9.7
drop due to the loss of heating value of biodiesel (Table 3). 4. CNG as fuel for diesel engine
However, the results reported show some fluctuation. Some authors
found that the power loss was lower than expected (the loss of International communities are seeking reliable and alternative
heating value of biodiesel compared to diesel) because of power fuel sources and technologies to reduce environmental stresses, air
recovery. pollution, increase fuel availability, decrease the use of and
dependence on foreign oil, and optimize the performance of existing
Due to the increasing interest in the use of biodiesel, the fuel supply infrastructures [31].
Environmental Protection Agency (USA) has conducted a
comprehensive analysis of the emission impacts of biodiesel using Natural gas (NG) is one of the most important energy carriers
publicly available data [28]. This investigation made use of today because it is available in large quantities and its reserves are
statistical regression analysis to correlate the concentration of of the same magnitude as the crude oil reserves [32]. The use of
biodiesel in conventional diesel fuel with changes in regulated and natural gas as a fuel has garnered considerable interest since the
unregulated pollutants. Since the majority of available data was beginning of the 1990s.
collected on heavy-duty highway engines, this data formed the basis Italy was the first country in which the use of natural gas as fuel
of the analysis. The average effects are shown in Figure 8. One may for the propulsion of road vehicles was successful [33]. In the last
observe that due to higher content of oxygen in biodiesel, CO, PM decade the number of NG vehicles has risen to over a million in
and HC emission are reduced, but the NOx emission is higher than several countries around the globe. One reason for this evolution is
that of diesel fossil fuel. economic: in many countries NG is considerably less expensive
than conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel. The other
20%
advantage is the fact that natural gas burns in a cleaner, less
10% NOx polluting way. Natural gas sources are spread throughout the world,
Percent change in emissions

0% which reduces the risk of an energy crisis [32].

-10% CNG/NG, is a mixture of hydrocarbons in gaseous form,
consists of approximately 80-90% of methane along with some
-20% PM percentage of ethane, propane, nitrogen [34]. A gaseous form of
-30% natural gas, clearly has some substantial benefits compare to petrol
-40% and diesel.
CO According to [32], the main constituent of NG is methane (80–
-50%
98%, depending on the extraction source). Other (about 2%), butane
-60% and pentane (less than constituents are ethane (1–8%), propane 1%).
HC
-70% NG also contains nitrogen and carbon dioxide (0.2–1.5%) and small
quantities of sulfur compounds (hydrogen sulphide and
-80%
0 20 40 60 80 100 mercaptans). Of all hydrocarbon compounds used as motor fuels,
Percent biodiesel methane has the highest knock resistance [32]. Its octane number is
ca. 130. NG is non-toxic, odourless and non-corrosive. It is lighter
Fig. 8 Average emission impacts of biodiesel for than air and is slightly soluble in water.
heavy-duty highway engines [28].
Amrouche et al. [35] have found that CNG:
The results of an experimental investigation [29], using two  Is composed of 85 to 99% methane;
different samples of B10 blend of eucalyptus biodiesel, showed that  Has the highest energy/carbon ratio of any fossil fuel, and has
smoke opacity improves for both samples, smoke is found to be a high octane (110/130) (against 95 and 98 for gasoline and
64.5% and 62.5% cleaner than that of diesel. Out of all blends B10 92/96 for the diesel). His feature helps the increase of the
was found to be a suitable alternative to conventional diesel fuel to compression ratio engines and thus the efficiency;
control air pollution without much significant effect on engine  Is safely: It is lighter than the air, in the case of gas leak, it
performance. goes to the atmosphere;
As for the vegetable oils as alternative fuel for diesel engines,  Auto-ignite above 540°C (450°C for LPG, 220°C for
the literature on biodiesel emission is not uniform. unleaded gasoline and 225°C for diesel).
 Doesn't freeze until below -165°C, which makes it insensitive
In this respect, some available results of Light-Duty diesel with the climatic conditions.
vehicle test data for some rapeseed biodiesel blends (a minimum of
20 measurements of a particular blend were required to assess the One of the reasons to use NG as an alternative fuel was the
significance of the effect) allow one to explore the differences in the ecological consideration [32], NG having the potential to mitigate
effects on emissions of the different biodiesel feedstocks [30]. The CO2 emissions due to its lower carbon content [36].
emission data are discussed as follows: Natural gas is used as a fuel in two forms [32]:
- HC lower for B20 and B100, but no correlation between biodiesel 1. In its gaseous form (at ambient temperature and under a high
content in the blend and level of HC emission; pressure of 20 MPa) it is called compressed natural gas (CNG).
- NOx higher than for diesel fuel for all blends, the higher content 2. In its liquid form (cooled to a temperature of -161°C at
of biodiesel, the higher NOx emission; atmospheric pressure) it is called liquefied natural gas (LNG).
- CO emission is random, lower for B20, but higher for B30;
- Particulate matter (PM) emission is not significant versus diesel In the case of using CNG, vehicle engines should be modified
fuel. However, a very slight increase of PM for biodiesel blends (dedicated/retrofitted) at the same time with changing fuels [36].
is observed. Dedicated vehicles are preferable but there are a few light-duty
CNG vehicles available. For applying to a specific type of vehicle,
The heterogeneous and uncorrelated data from [27] could be retrofitting is an option. However, the efficiency of retrofitted
due to the use of biodiesel and biodiesel blends on diesel engines vehicles is questionable on reduction of CO2 emissions [36].
tuned only for pure diesel fuel or for B5-B7 blends. Using higher
percentage biodiesel blends, or even B100 fuel, on existing In order to ensure smooth transportation life cycle and
unmodified engines, could cause an inappropriate response of the sustainability, it is important to synchronize CNG fuel supply, CNG
engine in respect of torque (power) and emission. refueling stations and CNG fuel vehicles [31]. Recent studies show
that the proper implementation with reasonable ratio of refueling
stations to alternative fuel vehicle is of great importance [31].
 Many investigations were carried out in order to use of CNG as oils, biodiesel and CNG to provide a suitable diesel oil substitute for
an alternative fuel according to their fuel usage and they are [34]: internal combustion engine.
 Dual fuel: like the CNG buses the mixture of CNG and diesel
As an alternative fuel for compression ignition engines, plant
introduced in the engine. As natural gas will not ignite under
oils are in principle renewable and carbon neutral, but their use
combustion chamber alone so diesel is required.
raises technical, economic and environmental issues.
 Bi-fuel: like cars and light motor vehicle, convention petrol
engine where the fuel system has been modified to operate There are different ways of utilizing vegetable oils as a
either petrol gas. substitute for petroleum diesel: (i) crude or refined neat oil; (ii)
 Mono-fuel: this is specialized engine type which has been mixture of oil with diesel fuel with appropriate dilutions; and (iii)
designed and optimized to operate only on natural gas. alkyl ester products from the transesterification process.
The natural gas vehicle is currently one of least polluting Since diesel engines are designed to burn diesel fuel, which has
vehicles available on the market [35]. In fact, compared to others a lower viscosity than vegetable oil, using only vegetable oil as fuel
vehicles powered with petroleum products, the CNG vehicles have needs to fit a professional kit to the diesel engine, which includes
shown a very strong reduction of the polluting emissions (-100 % of replacement injectors and glow plugs optimised for vegetable oil, as
lead, the Non-Methane Hydrocarbons are reduced by approximately well as fuel heating.
50%, - (50-87%) of NOx, - (20-30%) of CO2, - (70-95%) of CO.
Literature on using vegetable oils as fuel for diesel engine
And the combustion of natural gas produces almost no fine
shows that CO emission is decreasing, while emissions of NOx tend
particulate matter). Natural gas vehicles have significantly low
to increase.
noise levels and engine vibration, it reduce noise about -5 to -8
decibels by vehicle [35]. To reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils, vegetable oils are
converted into esters by transesterification reaction. Because the
Introducing vehicles that run on CNG can significantly reduce
biodiesel viscosity is almost twice higher than the diesel fuel
black carbon emissions from on-road vehicles [37].
viscosity, biodiesel is currently used in blends with diesel fuel.
The use of natural gas as a vehicle fuel is claimed to provide
Using pure biodiesel, engine power drops due to the loss of
several benefits to engine components and effectively reduce
heating value of biodiesel. In some cases, the power loss was lower
maintenance requirements [34]. It does not mix with or dilute the
than expected because of power recovery.
lubricating oil and will not cause deposits in combustion chambers
and on spark plugs to the extent that the use of petrol does, thereby Due to higher content of oxygen in biodiesel, CO, PM and HC
generally extending the piston ring and spark plug life. In diesel emission are reduced, but the NOx emission is higher than that of
dual-fuel operation evidence of reduced engine wear is reported, diesel fossil fuel.
leading to expected longer engine life [34].
One of the reasons to use natural gas as an alternative fuel was
Development of the CNG dual-fuel turbocharged CI engine was the ecological consideration, NG having the potential to mitigate
described in reference [32]. NG was introduced into the engine CO2 emissions due to its lower carbon content.
cylinder in the gaseous state through a honeycomb mixer. The pilot
ignition fuel was diesel fuel. The following results on emissions In the case of using CNG, vehicle engines should be modified at
were obtained (Fig. 9): the same time with changing fuels. Dual fuel, bi-fuel or mono-fuel
 An increase in pilot diesel fuel extends the lean burning limit fuel systems have been designed and optimized to allow diesel and
and decreases HC and CO emissions (while NOx emissions spark ignition engines to operate only on natural gas.
increase), which is generally higher than for diesel fuelling. Compared to others vehicles powered with petroleum products,
 Smoke emission is considerably reduced for dual fuelling. the CNG vehicles have shown a very strong reduction of the
 NOx emission is also reduced. polluting emissions.

5. Conclusions The use of natural gas as a vehicle fuel is claimed to provide

several benefits to engine components and effectively reduce
To meet the energy requirements and environmental concerns, maintenance requirements .
there has been growing interest in alternative fuels like vegetable

200
800
HC emission, ppm

150 Diesel
Dual fuel 600
NO x , ppm

100

50 400 Diesel
Dual fuel
0 200

0.2 4
CO emission, %

Smoke, BSU

0.1 2

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0 0.4 0.8 1.2
BMEP, MPa BMEP, MPa

Fig. 9 HC, CO, NOx and smoke emissions versus b.m.e.p. for dual and diesel fuelling of
a turbocharged engine at n=1600 r/min [32].
 6. References [19] Rakopoulos, C. D. et al. Comparative performance and
emissions study of a direct injection Diesel engine using blends of
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