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The Effect of Eschatological Hope on Actions of College Students

Jordyn Hatfield

Department of Psychology, Biola University

BBST 465-01: Positive Psychology

Dr. Hall & Dr. McMartin

May 1, 2020
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The Present Study

Through this study, it is hoped that a relationship between hope and kindness is present in

college students attending a Christian university. Hope has a strong connection to looking at the

future while impacting the daily actions of individuals. The influence of eschatological hope

implies that the current, physical world is temporary and that the coming kingdom is much

greater. Having this in mind, those who consider themselves Christians would most likely aim to

exemplify this belief in Jesus and His divine agenda. Interactions made with others would

demonstrate such hope in a greater future through how everyday interpersonal situations are

handled. With this assumption made of hope, it is expected that those who consider themselves

Christians exhibit more kindness to the people that they interact with.

It is hypothesized that those who have greater eschatological hope will also have greater

lovingkindness towards others. With that, those who score low for eschatological hope would be

expected to have lower lovingkindness scores. Class status may affect these findings in that

upperclassmen students at Biola University would have taken more Bible courses and therefore

should have a greater understanding of eschatology over the lowerclassmen. This additional

knowledge should lead to higher lovingkindness scores for students in their junior or senior year.

Literature Review

The Formation, Purpose, and Action of Hope

Hope is intrinsic in human nature. Philosophers, such as Descartes, describe the

experience of hope as longing for something more than oneself. With this, hope can be seen in

partnership with religion as well as professionalism. Key components of hope are trust and

expectancy in relation to the future (Smith, 2007). These components are based on the

experience of change thus linking hope to trusting and expecting change. Common in
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psychology is defining hope as “the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and

motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways” which reveals its cognitive nature

that uniquely motivates individuals in regards to future outcomes (Snyder, 2007; Bruininks &

Howington, 2019). It is clear to see the connections to trust and expectancy when viewing hope

as a means to reach certain goals since actively pursuing such desires requires confidence that

they can and will be achieved.

Formation of Hope

With the understanding that hope has its purpose in looking to the future, it is clear that

creating hope must also look to the future. C. R. Snyder, who has extensive research on the topic

of hope, categorized hope into three distinct units (2002). The first is the necessity of goals.

Snyder proposed that goals provide “targets of mental action sequences” so that an individual’s

hope is cognitively directed towards the completion of certain tasks. With this, goals must have

value and be grounded in reality such that they have a desire to be achieved and can actually be

achieved. Second is the involvement of goals in the present, which Snyder identifies as “pathway

thinking”. What this entails is incorporating goal-completing thoughts into one’s daily mental

space. This unit of hope is extremely practical and action based since mental pathways “should

become increasingly refined and precise as the goal pursuit sequence progresses towards goal

attainment”. The last aspect of Snyder’s Hope Theory is the motivational aspect which he deems

as “agency thinking”. This pivotal component is what keeps hope alive in the face of adversity

and obstacles. Agency thinking compels individuals to think of other solutions so that their goal

can be attained. This motivation is unique because it expands the previous notion that hope was

just an emotion. Snyder constantly emphasizes the cognitive processes that hope requires and

therefore mental motivation to complete a goal is grounded in action. When obstacles arise,
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feelings of despair can set in, but agency thinking is invoked to combat these challenges and

continue the process of hope. Snyder’s extensive research into the theory of hope has encouraged

many others in evaluating how hope is formed in human lives.

Building upon the Hope Theory, David B. Feldman and Diane E. Dreher specifically

researched the formation of hope in college students, focusing on Snyder’s goal unit. Their aim

was to see if hope could be developed in a “hope intervention”. Compared to previous studies

that conducted these interventions in more than five sessions, Feldman and Dreher desired to test

the malleability of hope through a single session lasting 90 minutes. They had college student

participants engage in a hope intervention that was comprised of “the choosing of a personal

goal, psychoeducation regarding hope, a hope-based goal mapping exercise, and the hope

visualization exercise” (2012). Each step of the hope intervention was directed towards an

individual goal that they would like to realistically accomplish in the following six months. As a

comparison, they had other college participants assigned to a standard progressive muscle

relaxation intervention. For control, they had participants that were not involved in any

intervention. At the beginning of each intervention, participants were given four questionnaires –

goal survey, Goal-Specific Hope Scale (GSHS), Purpose in Life Test (PILT), and the Vocation

Identity Questionnaire (VIQ). One month after the interventions, participants were given these

questionnaires again as well as the additional goal attainment survey. Feldman and Dreher found

substantial results and some support for their hypotheses. Results revealed that there was

significance for the hope intervention in terms of increasing goal progress in the one-month

follow-up. According to their findings, hope was an important factor in tangible goal

progression. This is fitting with the Hope Theory proposed by Snyder since the formation of

hope requires a goal to be made and pursued. These college participants experienced the creation
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of hope as they actively cultivated their goal and made way for pathway and agency thinking

processes.

Along with having a specific goal, hope utilizes pathway thinking as well as agency

thinking. Pathway thinking is a cognitive process that focuses on “how we can link our present to

imagined futures” which encourages hoped goals to become reality. Lorraine Hedtke defines

hope as a verb, action-based, and thus requiring practice (2014). This consistent practice of

integrating goal achievement into daily habits is precisely what Snyder was advocating for in

pathway thinking. Agency thinking is the specific process enacted in times of significant

challenges that aids in continuing hope. This practice of agency thinking is the motivational

factor in forming hope. The study Hedtke conducted to demonstrate pathway thinking as well as

agency thinking looked at creating stories, narratives, for the lives for those in the midst of

illness and death. Through the work of developing a narrative that explained a personal life

effected by illness, hope is engrained in every aspect. It gives meaning to the narratives as they

cause inspiration in the members and other recipients. Creating the narratives demand certain

pathways such as daily transforming such pains into positive possibilities for improvement.

Hedtke found that these narratives are extremely beneficial for those in these situations. Through

personal interviews, she gathered information about a family who had experienced a death and

was in the middle of an awful illness. Narratives provided a tool to discuss their situation with

hope as to make sense of it all and not wallow in despair. Agency thinking is particularly

important to narratives when difficult questions and circumstances arise. These agencies help

family members maintain hope and overcome distress and despair since hope has previous been

in practice. Due to the current hope of the individuals, motivation is able to persist.

Purpose of Hope
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Because hope is a virtue that is engrained in human nature, it is incredibly valuable to

humanity. Hope can lead to greater life satisfaction and carry the feeling of having a sense of

purpose. Having hope causes a change in perspective, especially in regard to agency thinking.

Challenges are not viewed as failures but rather as setbacks, healthier methods of problem

solving are considered when one is hopeful.

A study conducted on another group of college students, though this time it was limited

to those in their first year, tested whether higher life satisfaction and feeling of purpose were in

any way correlated to hope (Stoyles, G., Chadwick, A., & Caputi, P., 2015). Multiple

questionnaires were given to measure these effects of hope. The Purpose in Life Survey (PILS),

Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES), Adult Trait Hope Scale (ATHS), and the Spiritual Index of

Well-Being (SIWB) were the tools used in this experiment. Results from the students concluded

that a positive relationship is significant between life satisfaction and hope. This experiment

demonstrated how the units of hope work to improve life satisfaction through “the ability to

‘think out’ one’s way to goal achievement (ATHS, or agency thinking) together with the

capacity to be sensitive to oneself through contact with, and interpretation of, the events and

people of one’s world (spirituality, or SWIB)” which “are the principle predictors of a robust

purpose in life (PILS)” (p. 129). While hope is aimed at completing goals and using the specific

mental capacities to do so, this study revealed how hope is ultimately more than that. When goals

are being met and mental thinking processes are practiced, hope is able to create a sense of

purpose and increase life satisfaction.

With hope being correlated with higher life satisfaction and purpose, religion has often

claimed to be the cultivator of this hope that increases life satisfaction and well-being. Neal

Krause and Kenneth Pargament conducted a study that examined the practice of reading the
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Bible with coping responses and hope (2018). Because hope can be defined by goal achievement,

this study would argue that choosing to read the Bible and doing so despite imperfect life

circumstances is completion and therefore supplies hope and an increase sense of purpose to

individuals. Through a nationwide survey that measured hope, bible reading, stressful life events,

and benevolent religious reappraisals, results concluded that Bible reading cannot explain all the

variance in hope responses. Despite the lack of strong significance, they suggest that “hope is

likely to be influenced by other aspects of religious life” thus still attributing hope to religious

origins (p. 1437).

In contrast to this view, Naser Aghababaei et al.’s study highlighted that science also

plays a role in hope caused well-being (Aghababaei, N., et al., 2015). To emphasize that hope in

something other than religion provides life satisfaction, it was stated that “science and

technology offers meaning and hope by alleviating human diseases and sufferings, and

prolonging and promoting human life and relationships” thus confirming that hope can be found

in science (p. 94). The focus of this hope is the meeting of needs – accomplishing survival goals

– and creating the abilities to foster healthy relations so that needs can be met – pathway and

agency thinking. This study had Iranian university students complete various questionnaires

concerning views of religion, specifically Muslim, views of science, hope scales, and

purpose/satisfaction of life surveys to measure such orientations. Results revealed that there was

significance between a sense of purpose, well-being, and hope in science. This expands hope to

not only be concentrated on the personal goals of individuals but having hope in the goals and

accomplishments of others as well as in broad fields.

While there can be much debate over whether there are grander origins of hope, it is

evident that hope improves life satisfaction and provides a sense of purpose. Being able to
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healthily overcome stressors and pressures from everyday life create hope which leads to a

higher quality of life.

Hope in Society

Hope, when formed with the three units – goals, pathways, and agency – as well as the

experience of a sense of purpose and greater life satisfaction in our lives, can positively impact

society. This illustrates how hope is pervasive among humanity and how communities thrive off

having hope.

Concerning general hope among societies, Smadar Cohen-Chen and Martijn Van

Zomeren studies the difference between “high hope” and “low hope” in societies in relation to

whether action would be taken (2019). Through three separate studies, situations evoking hope

were manipulated to see if participants would collectively take action. The first study had

Jewish-Israelis examine the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the context of being completely

hopeless. This “low hope” situation yielded little hope emotions which proven significant against

other controls for this situation. In study 2, the privatization of the National Health Service

(NHS) in the United Kingdom was observed. This purposefully ambiguous situation was

selected so that manipulation of hope and group efficacy beliefs could be possible. Participants

for this study were all residents of the United Kingdom who were given context about the

situation. It was found that when the situation was manipulated to have high hope, then the group

had more desire to take action as opposed to the less hopeful manipulation when the group was

not as likely to engage in creating change. The third study also looked at an ambiguous situation,

gun control reform in the United States of America. The same results were found as study 2. The

collective results reveal a need for hope in society so that changes and improvements can be

pursued.
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More specifically, hope in the education system provides significant result. Dante Dixson

proposed that “higher hope is associated with higher academic achievement” (2019). High

school and college student participants were required to take various measures concerning hope,

academic engagement, academic self-efficacy, work ethic, curiosity, and the amount of school

days missed. It was discovered that higher hope filled students had more success-oriented

behavior thus revealing the importance of hope in society. While this study did not look into

ways of improving hope in the education system, the results are revealing enough to determine

the need for hope. With more encouragement of goals, pathway practice, and agency thinking,

more students would find success in their education.

Another area of society where hope is necessary is in the career field. A study was

conducted looking at refugees in Canada and their unemployment rates (Yoon, H. J., et al.,

2019). With the difficulties that refugees face, unemployment is a valid area to not experience

hope, though these researchers attempted to change that. They utilized the Hope-Action Theory

(HAT) which positively approaches career development using the aspect of Snyder’s Hope

Theory as well as career meta-competencies. Through multiple measures, the mainly middle

eastern refugees in Canada were given treatment based on HAT for two weeks. At the end, it was

discovered that the program was effective in developing hope in regard to working towards a

career. This higher hopeful state in career and work engagement is significant to understanding

the role of hope in society. The outcomes of people’s lives could be changed due to the

investment of hope and fostering that for others.

Society requires hope to facilitate change and move towards a better future. These

previous studies have highlighted how teaching hope creates hopeful societies that can seek

improvements and then in turn actively invests in hope for others.

Worldview Assumptions

Much of the literature surrounding hope reveals the importance and apparent necessity of

this phenomenon. Snyder’s entire Hope Theory (2007) is based off the belief that hope is goal

oriented. It is proposed that the only reason that hope exists is so that personal goals can be

attained and so that the goals need to be, to some extent, realistic and tangible. Without

something tangible or attainable in the future, then hope would cease because apparent progress

with be very difficult to measure. These pathway practices and agency thinking would show no

markers of improvement if the hoped-for goal was entirely greater than oneself.

The assumption that Krause and Pargament (2018) make in their research is that God is

necessary for hope. Their study states that the Bible was significant in aiding in coping with

stress and that the virtue of hope is evident in this process. To understand biblical teaching and

engaging in biblical practices is instrumental in the formation and endurance of hope.

A contrasting worldview to the previous one is that religion is not the basis on which

hope can be found but rather hope in science is just as credible. This could argue that there is less

of a need for religion since one of the pivotal points of religion, the great hope that the religious

have, is no longer isolated to them. Because of scientific and technological advancements, hope

in such knowledge is sufficient for being the same great home.

Lastly, Cohen-Chen and Van Zomeren’s study (2019) concerning high hope and low

hope in societal groups reveals the assumption that string convictions and feelings of hope will

cause a change. They seem to suggest that when hope is strongly experienced, that efforts will be

made to put the hope into action. Inversely, if hope is not felt, then no action will be taken. With

this, hope is the only motivation for pursing change and acting in the issues that prevail.
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Throughout the extensive research concerning hope, it is evident that is it a unique

process of both experiencing the presence and looking to the future. Hope requires constant

attention to what is desired and the practical ways in which to achieve them. Not only must steps

be planned and taken, but in the face of challenge, hope must remain and become adaptive to any

circumstance. Hope is significant on the individual level as well as the global level. While many

facets of hope have been surveyed, not all is known about the placement of hope which leaves

room for further study to take place.

Biblical Survey: Hope

Hope is an inescapable virtue throughout Scripture. Defined, hope is “to trust in, wait for,

look for, or desire something or someone; or expect something beneficial in the future” (Elwell,

W. A., 1996). This understanding of hope is intimately connected with God and His plan for

redemption of humanity. Biblically, hope is a central theme that is present in both the Old

Testament and the New Testament. From the Israelites in the wilderness to the Gentiles living in

the Roman era, hope seemed to be encompassed into the essence of Christianity (Easton, M. G.,

1897).

Old Testament Hope – Trust and Expectation

There is a considerable difference between hope in the Old Testament and hope in the

New Testament. In the Old Testament, hope was closely synonymous with trusting God (Elwell,

W. A., 1996). Because of the implication of trust in the meaning of hope, verses such as

Jeremiah 14:22 saying “our hope is in you, for you are the one who does all this” (NIV),

referring to God’s sovereignty over the Israelites and other nations, reveal that hope was wholly

connected to having confidence that God is the all-powerful creator of the heavens and the earth

who has divine dominion. In a culture where many gods and goddesses were worshiped,
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Jeremiah 17:13 illustrates how God is worthy of trust (Elwell, W. A., 1996). God is the source of

hope and therefore the ultimate place for trust to be directed. The Old Testament hope that is

rooted in trust also emphasizes waiting for the Lord. This specific hope is connected with the

Israelites having had visible and numerous interactions with the almighty God and could

expectantly wait for more of Him. They had expectant hope that God will physically provide for

them (Job 5:8-27, NIV), that He will guide them (Exodus 13:21-22, NIV), and that He will lead

them to the military victory despite opposition (Joshua 6:6-27, NIV). Most contexts of hope in

the Old Testament are limited to the physical period in which they were living thus there was

little mention of hope in eternity with God (Elwell, W. A., 1996). The fulfillment and

“realization of one’s hopes” (Elwell, W. A., 1996) is placed in the coming kingdom that God will

establish. From the very beginning in Genesis 3:15 God’s plan for redemption, which is the hope

of humanity, is addressed. The promised Messiah is the mode in which the Lord will deliver His

people permanently and bring the everlasting kingdom (2 Samuel 7:12-13, NIV).

New Testament Hope – In Christ

Moving from the Old to the New Testament, there is much evidence that Jesus is the one

that many Old Testament verses were referring to when speaking of the promised Messiah in

which all hope can be placed in. Matthew 1:1 confirms the prophesized lineage of the Messiah,

who is Jesus. Because the promised Messiah was the hope of all believers in the Old Testament,

the application of this in the New Testament places hope in Jesus (Torrey, R. A., 1897). Paul

asserts that we place our hope in Jesus Christ (Ephesians 1:12 & 1 Timothy 1:1, NIV). He would

freely state this directive when addressing his letter thus making it widely known among

Christians the importance of such hope in Jesus. Specifically, in his letter to Titus, Paul again

states and expands that the proper place for hope is in Jesus Christ because of what he has done
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and what he will do in the future (Titus 2:11-14). Köstenberger notes that this phrasing of “God

and Savior” (v. 13, NIV) to Jesus is making a powerful “Christological confession”

(Köstenberger, A. J., p. 339). This claim is highlighting how Greeks would generously attribute

their rulers and other wealthy individuals thus elevating Jesus to such a status in Gentile minds

(Köstenberger, A. J., 2017). It is because of Christ’s “gracious incarnation” (Köstenberger, A. J.,

p. 340) from being perfectly divine that hope of a glorious future is able to be attributed to solely

him. There is no other human in which hope can be fulfilled. The beautiful image of Christ being

the “living hope” as stated in 1 Peter 1:3 (NIV) demonstrates the continuing need for expectation

of Christ to come again.

Eschatological Hope

Hope in the New Testament is complex and directly reflects the current state in which

Christians live today. This New Testament hope goes beyond the tangible evidences that the Old

Testament displayed. The current state of hope today can be more accurately described as

eschatological hope (Davie et al., 2016). With the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ,

humanity has been ushered into a new timeline where creation is expectantly waiting the second

coming. This hope has moved from trusting that a Messiah will deliver humanity to the

fulfillment of this promise which now places trust in the coming kingdom of Jesus Christ. While

the Old Testament looked forward to Jesus and the kingdom he will establish, the gospels of the

New Testament give insight as to why the only human acceptable to be the receiver of hope is

Jesus. Beyond the gospels, the New Testament is in the state of the inaugurated kingdom where

sanctification processes have begun but cannot be carried out into completion. The hope of

future glory through Jesus Christ is now present (Davie et al., 2016). This future hope can be

described as a ministry of reconciliation (Davie et al., 2016). Creation is longing to be made right
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with God once again and patiently expect to see that fulfilled. In the current period after the

resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit has been sent as a means of empowering creation

and sealing the hope (Davie et al., 2016). 1 Corinthians 15:19 perfectly captures the hope of

Christians in reference to the heavenly kingdom hoped for. Paul writes. “if only for this life we

have hope in Christ, we are of all people most to be pitied” (NIV) signifying how the world will

always be against Christians therefore it is absurd to have such belief (Manetsch, S. M., 2017).

However, there is confidence and trust in expecting all that has been promised to be fulfilled.

This is the hope of Christians. As the promise of a Savior Messiah to make a way for all to

eternity, so too will the promise of a victorious kingdom with the perfect God. These are

promises we can rest assured in (Romans 8:22-25).

Hope is Steadfast

Viewing hope as persistent and patient connects the Old Testament and New Testament

together. Elwell describes this process as connecting the “patient endurance of the Old

Testament” with the “New Testament trials [leading] to hope”. The point is made that when there

is something to place hope in, patience follows the hardships of having that hope. In that regard,

hope is steadfast in the lives of many individuals. Paul writes in Romans 15:4 that the purpose of

all past scripture which details the history of God’s people and the life of Jesus is to provide

Christians with the sense of hope. Just as God constantly redeemed Israel, it is expected and

trusted that He will also redeem those who struggle today. Steadfast hope was exemplified in

Jesus Christ who persevered against sin and ultimately sacrificed himself for the hope of the

glory of God (1 Thessalonians 1:3, NIV). With the model of hope by Jesus, it can be assuring

that hope in him can be unchanging just as God the Father is unchanging (James 1:17, ESV). A

powerful assertion of the steadfastness of hope can be found in Hebrews 6:18-20 where hope is
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referred to as an anchor (Torrey, R. A., 2000). The anchor is a strong description of hope because

“Paul shows that while we are still in the world and not yet departed from this life, we are

already living amid God’s promises” (Heen, E. M., Krey, P. D., & Oden, T. C., 2005). Just as an

anchor is let down from a ship, the promise of hope and power of its implication are sent from

God to humanity. Hope can remain firm in even the toughest of trials as it is not based on human

origin but rather is coming from God, just as promised. The means in which He keeps us steady

is through the work of the Holy Spirit (Elwell, W. A., 1897).

Hope in Faith, Joy, and Love

Hope is intimately viewed as belonging with the other Christian virtues of faith and love.

All three are fundamental aspects of Christian character and perspective. Colossians 1:4-5 groups

these virtues together and even have them build upon one another. It is through the faith had in

Jesus Christ and the love of people that the hope of eternity is seen. According to this passage,

hope is foundation in which faith and love emerge from a Christian life. Even in 1 Corinthians

13:13 where love is discussed, all three virtues, including hope are present and necessary for

each of the others. Hope is essential and “in it the whole glory of Christian vocation is centered”

(Easton, M. G., 1897). Ephesians 4:4 supports this claim to be united by hope and how hope

guides our future endeavors. Not only is hope central with faith and love, it also brings about joy

in the Christian life. Hope is patient in trials yet can be rejoiced in. Paul in Romans 12:12 makes

note of this joyous hope as necessary. Because there is assurance of the hope for future glory,

this life can be joy filled when facing hardships.

Hope motivates a life to be interactive and engage with others so that this hope in Christ that

trust and expects heaven can be shared. The Bible provides countless evidence for the case of

hope in the Christian life. It is to be placed in confidence of God, in Christ as the Messiah, and in
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the work of the Holy Spirit to hold believers steady in the period of anxious waiting for the

perfect reconciliation of God and humanity.

Method

Participants

The participants of this study were 68 current undergraduate students from Biola

University (M = 20.04, SD = 4.80). More specifically, students are enrolled in PSYC 200

Introduction to Psychology as well as students taking any upper division psychology courses.

Varying class statuses were present among the participants with freshman (N = 33), sophomores

(N = 13), juniors (N = 13), and seniors (N = 9). Both male (N = 18) and female (N = 50)

participants of any ethnicity were included. Most frequently were European American/Caucasian

participants (N = 38) followed by Asian/Asian American participants (N = 16), then

Latino/a/Hispanic participants (N = 8), a Native American participant (N = 1), and a

Black/African American participant (N = 1). Four participants (N = 4) selected the “other” option

for their ethnicity. Participants were recruited through a link on SONA systems provided by

Biola University. As compensation for completing this questionnaire, the student participants

have received 2 credits for their corresponding classes.

Procedure

Various surveys were compiled into a Qualtrics questionnaire. The completed Qualtrics

questionnaire was uploaded online onto the SONA system for psychology students at Biola

University to access. They first answered a consent question followed by a demographics

portion. After the demographics portion of questions was various surveys on a range of subjects.

All of these questions were answered electronically and anonymously. Once the entire survey

was completed, course credit or extra credit was given to the participants.
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Measures

Eschatological Hope Survey (EHS)

The Eschatological Hope Survey (Hall, 2020) is designed to examine the level of

eschatological hope in a participant’s life at the current time. This scale is in the process of being

published. The test contains seven statements that aim to measure the participant’s degree of

hope in relation to God and His coming kingdom. These are scored with a 5-point Likert scale.

All items range from 1 (not like me at all) to 5 (exactly like me). Examples include, God is the

source of my hope; Christ’s resurrection gives me hope. Total scores are obtained by adding the

total numbers together to yield a goal score. In all scoring, higher numbers represent greater

eschatological hope.

Lovingkindness-Compassion Scale (LCS)

The Lovingkindness-Compassion Scale (Cho et al., 2018) is a measure used to examine

the level of kindness in which individuals treat others. The test contains 15 statements that assess

a relationship between individuals and their interpersonal relationship interactions. These are

scored on a 5-point scale that ranges from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (very true of me).

Examples include, I empathize with those whose hearts are wounded; I have a hostile attitude

toward other people. Total scores are obtained by taking the mean of the total items. Higher

scores represent higher levels of loving kindness towards others while lower scores indicate

selfish tendencies.

Results

A correlational analysis was conducted in order to examine whether there was a

significant relationship between the Eschatological Hope Scale (EHS) scores and the

lovingkindness-compassion scale (LCS) scores. These variables were both measured on a 5-point
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Likert scale. The mean (SD) of responses for the EHS was 4.33 (.72) and the mean (SD) of

responses for the LCS was 3.18 (.52). According to the Pearson Correlation, one-tailed, there is a

significant relationship between EHS scores and LCS scores, r = .24, p < .05. This positive

correlation indicates that as an individual’s EHS scores increase, then one’s LCS will increase as

well. To test the relationship between class status and EHS scores, another correlational analysis

was conducted. The mean (SD) for class status was 1.97 (1.10) and the mean for EHS scores was

4.33 (.72). There was no significant relationship between class status and EHS scores, r = -.04, p

> .05, one-tailed. Therefore, it appears that class status has no effect on an individual’s EHS

scores due to weak negative correlation. With a correlational analysis, the relationship between

class and LCS scores were examined. The mean (SD) for class was 1.97 (1.10) and the mean

(SD) for LCS scores was 3.18 (.52). Once again, there was no significant relationship between

class status and LCS scores, r = .06, p > .05, one-tailed. There is a very weak positive correlation

but has no significance.

Discussion

As expected, participants who yielded higher EHS scores also had higher LCS scores.

This significant correlation supports the hypothesis in that as the EHS scores increase, so do the

LCS scores. It was surprising to discover the class status has no significant effect on either EHS

scores or LCS scores. There was a slight difference between the two results despite both being

insignificant. The relationship between class status and EHS scores has a very weak negative

correlation while the relationship between class status and LCS scores was a weak positive

correlation. While both have weak correlations, it is interesting to note the negative nature of the

relationship between class status and EHS scores. This may allude to a trend where the more

information about eschatological hope that upperclassmen have, the lower EHS scores. The
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relationship between class status and LCS, while insignificant, still demonstrated that

upperclassmen might tend to yield higher LCS scores. The discrepancy between the two

relationships involving class status is incongruent with the hypotheses claimed earlier.

There is a lack of focus on eschatological hope in psychological literature. Therefore, this

study is able to highlight the importance of such hope and how it impacts others. By examining

eschatological hope and its effect on individuals, research is able to understand how

eschatological hope is unique to the Christian religion and how it can yield such powerful results

in people.

This study had various limitations to it. First, there was a disproportionate number of

students representing each class status. With the majority of participants being freshmen

students, the data was unable to account for possible significance between freshmen and seniors,

of which there were nine. Also, the sample was exclusively Christian participants therefore it

would be intriguing to see how this study compared to one done with both Christians and non-

Christians.

All in all, this study does demonstrate the relationship that Christians have in reference to

eschatological hope and implementing a general attitude of loving-kindness and compassion

towards others. While both EHS scores and LCS scores were not affected by class status, both

highlighted neither were exclusive to any class status in a university.

Integrative Synthesis: Hope

After an extensive review of the current literature in psychology on hope and a

theological examination of hope, sufficient claims about their relationship can be made in regard

to the type of revelation they provide. The psychological findings on the topic of hope are

general revelations of God since they are observable in human nature. Biblical evidence and
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theological findings concerning hope are special revelations from God because He has disclosed

knowledge about Himself through scripture.

A point of congruence between these two revelations is the perspective that hope is

foundational and motivational to individuals. General revelation through psychology emphasizes

the importance of hope in our daily lives and as a motivation to complete goals. This is found in

C. R. Snyder’s Hope Theory components of pathway thinking and agency thinking (2002).

Pathway thinking is the practice of daily including thoughts that move an individual towards

their goal. This is foundational to human lives since it becomes a habitual process that begins to

shape mindset and action. The grounding nature of pathway thinking to realistically pursue one’s

goals transforms all thought to focus on the hoped goal. Motivation is introduced through agency

thinking which is the encouraging factor in the face of challenges. Agency thinking is the process

that compels individuals to search for multiple solutions so that they are able to attain their goal.

This required cognitive process emphasizes the motivation aspect in hope. Because a goal has

been set, motivation to persevere through adversity is a key component of having hope.

Hope as foundational and motivational in special revelation is evident through passages

found in scripture. Throughout the Bible, hope is listed among faith and love as the essential and

fundamental aspects of Christianity (Easton, M. G., 1897). Colossians 1:4-5 explicitly names

hope as source from which love and faith are derived. Since hope is the very essence of human

lives, motivation is required to persist through hardships. The Bible paints hope as steadfast by

referencing an anchor as a descriptor (Torrey, R. A., 2000). This steadfastness of hope as

motivating provides encouragement to persevere through trials because of the powerful

implication that God has sent hope to humanity and that is unchanging (Romans 15:4, NIV).
21

Where general revelation and special revelation complement each other is in their views

of hope’s trust and expectancy components. General revelation attributes these components to be

in relationship with the future (Smith, 2007). The formation process of hope is oriented towards

trusting that a goal can be accomplished as well as expecting to attain that goal. Trust is put into

the individual’s abilities that they currently have or may develop in time. Motivation to

accomplish these goals is the individual’s sense of expectancy that they will accomplished what

they have set out to do. Each of these aspects, trust and expectancy, have a future focus.

Special revelation differs slightly on the direction of trust and expectancy in hope. The

Old Testament usage of hope was synonymous with trusting God (Elwell, W. A., 1996). Hope as

trust in God means that He is the source for which hope is placed (Jeremiah 14:22, NIV).

Emphasis is also placed on waiting for the Lord throughout the Old Testament scriptures. This

future oriented view has expectations that God’s trusted promises will be fulfilled and

accomplished (2 Samuel 7:12-13, NIV).

A point of completion for hope in general revelation and special revelation is the extent

of goal attainment. Most commonly in general revelation, goals that are selected are ones that

can tangibly be reached and physically observed. In trying to foster hope in others, the exercise

of selecting a goal that an individual would like to realistically accomplish is recommended

(Feldman, D. B., & Dreher, D. E., 2012). This practical goal is a key component in Snyder’s

Hope Theory.

To take goal completion further, special revelation directs hope to the future glory of

Jesus Christ and his coming kingdom. This state of hope, expectantly waiting the second coming,

is described as eschatological hope (Davie et al., 2016). The goal set forth is not one any human
22

can attain but rather places all hope in God’s goal for humanity, which is reconciliation with

humanity. All human goals are moving towards this larger context where Jesus will be glorified.

The conflict found between general revelation and special revelation in regard to hope is

the fundamental focus and placement of an individual’s hope. General revelation does not have a

clear or absolute solution as to what the source of hope is or where to place all hope. Instead, a

variety of subjects can be responsible for promoting hope – individual desires, religion, or

science. Research has indicated that for some, religion provides greater hope than other sources,

however for others, science has strong claims that give hope (Krause, N., & Parament, K., 2018,

Aghababaei, N., et al., 2015).

In contrast, special revelation supplies very clear evidence for the source of all hope and

the proper placement of all hope. Biblical evidence reveals that both the Old Testament and New

Testament place hope in Jesus Christ (Torrey, R. A., 1897). This assertion is evident in scriptures

such as Titus 2:11-14 which state that Jesus’ actions in the past and what he will do in the future

are reason for this claim. His goal of reconciling humanity is greater than any other.

Hope, in light of evidence from general revelation and special revelation, is fundamental

to the lives of individuals and necessary for perseverance through having high degrees of trust

and expectancy for the future in seeing the fulfillment of goals. Humanity is capable of hope at

the individual level and societal level which reveals its pervasive and essential nature. Since it is

inescapable, it is important to understand its facets. The motivational aspect of hope is significant

in building up perseverance. Because hope encourages taking action that moves towards a goal,

it also trains individuals how to succeed in the face of adversity. When challenges arise, strong

hope will look for a solution to the circumstance so that the path to the goal may be resumed.

Having hope in something is placing trust in that very thing. Because hope and trust are so
23

intertwined with each other, individuals should be cautious as to where they place their hope.

Hoping for something is expecting that very thing to be fulfilled. Individuals do not hope in

something that they do not wish to happen, rather hope is placed in something of value to the

individual that they desire. These areas of trust and expectation in hope look to the future

accomplishment of goals. Some goals may be given a time limit whereas others, time does not

apply. Regardless of the timeframe, the aspects of trust and expectation are significant in the

desired fulfillment.

Ultimately, the only place of true, everlasting worth is in Jesus Christ. As he is the Son of

God, who acted as the perfect sacrifice for atonement and will come again, he alone is the proper

place for hope. This hope in Jesus is gifted by God and solidified through the work of the Holy

Spirit (Elwell, W. A., 1897). The current state of eschatological hope is the patient waiting for

the kingdom of Jesus Christ. This is the pinnacle of goals made by humanity as everything can

be used to glorify God. As the Old Testament eagerly awaited the Messiah, humanity now

anticipates reconciliation with and glorification of Jesus. This waiting is trust in Jesus Christ and

expecting that he will fulfill the promise made. The essential hope Christians place in Jesus is the

response to undeniable biblical evidence (Romans 8:22-25, NIV).

There remains tension between such truths. This notion that hope flows from God and

should be placed in Jesus Christ for his eternal kingdom is not a popular belief in the larger

human culture. Since not all people ascribe to the Christian faith, this is not an explicit belief that

they validate for themselves. With many religions, hope is placed in their own deity and values.

For the unreligious, hope can be placed in the individual or in success and money. This

placement of hope in other subjects does not decrease their hope but rather limits it to only what
24

is tangible and physical. The hope that Christians hold is greater since it looks beyond the

temporary circumstances of this world to the eternal promises of God.

Hope creates action in the interest of fulfilling a goal which moves the individual to

feeling purposeful. The satisfaction that having hope produces is one that gives a sense of

meaning and importance to the life of the individual since accomplishment rewards the effort

made. Hopeful living generates encouraged mindsets that seek out certain agendas as it pertains

to the desired goal. Such goals impact the lives of the individual and those around the individual.

Hope, as intrinsic to human nature, is a basis for which other strengths and virtues can grow.
25

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