Apsis

Apsis (Greek: ἀψίς; plural apsides /ˈæpsɪdiːz/,

Greek: ἀψῖδες; "orbit") denotes either of the two
extreme points (i.e., the farthest or nearest point)
in the orbit of a planetary body about its primary
body (or simply, "the primary"). The plural term,
"apsides," usually implies both apsis points (i.e.,
farthest and nearest); apsides can also refer to the
distance of the extreme range of an object orbiting
a host body. For example, the apsides of Earth's
orbit of the Sun are two: the apsis for Earth's
farthest point from the Sun, dubbed the aphelion;
and the apsis for Earth's nearest point, the
perihelion (see top figure). (The term "apsis", a The apsides refer to the farthest (1) and nearest (2) points
cognate with apse, comes via Latin from reached by an orbiting planetary body (1 and 2) with
Greek).[1] respect to a primary, or host, body (3).
*The line of apsides is the line connecting positions 1 and
There are two apsides in any elliptic orbit. Each is 2.
named by selecting the appropriate prefix: ap-, *The table names the (two) apsides of a planetary body (X,
apo- (from ἀπ(ό), (ap(o)-) 'away from'), or peri- "orbiter") orbiting the host body indicated:
(from περί (peri-) 'near')—then joining it to the (1) farthest (X) orbiter (3) host (2) nearest
reference suffix of the "host" body being orbited. apogee Moon Earth perigee
(For example, the reference suffix for Earth is -
apojove Ganymede Jupiter perijove
gee, hence apogee and perigee are the names of
aphelion Earth Sun perihelion
the apsides for the Moon, and any other artificial
satellites of the Earth. The suffix for the Sun is - aphelion Jupiter Sun perihelion
helion, hence aphelion and perihelion are the aphelion Halley's Comet Sun perihelion
names of the apsides for the Earth and for the apastron exoplanet star periastron
Sun's other planets, comets, asteroids, etc., (see apocenter comet, e.g. primary pericenter
table, top figure).) apoapsis comet, e.g. primary periapsis
____________________________________
According to Newton's laws of motion all
For example, the Moon's two apsides are the farthest
periodic orbits are ellipses, including: 1) the single
point, apogee, and the nearest point, perigee, of its orbit
orbital ellipse, where the primary body is fixed at
around the host Earth. The Earth's two apsides are the
one focus point and the planetary body orbits
farthest point, aphelion, and the nearest point, perihelion,
around that focus (see top figure); and 2) the two- of its orbit around the host Sun. The terms aphelion and
body system of interacting elliptic orbits: both perihelion apply in the same way to the orbits of Jupiter
bodies orbit their joint center of mass (or and the other planets, the comets, and the asteroids of the
barycenter), which is located at a focus point that Solar System.
is common to both ellipses, (see second figure).
For such a two-body system, when one mass is
sufficiently larger than the other, the smaller ellipse (of the larger body) around the barycenter comprises one of
the orbital elements of the larger ellipse (of the smaller body).

The barycenter of the two bodies may lie well within the bigger body—e.g., the Earth–Moon barycenter is
about 75% of the way from Earth's center to its surface. If, compared to the larger mass, the smaller mass is
negligible (e.g., for satellites), then the orbital parameters are independent of the smaller mass.
When used as a suffix—that is, -apsis—the term can refer to the
two distances from the primary body to the orbiting body when
the latter is located: 1) at the periapsis point, or 2) at the apoapsis
point (compare both graphics, second figure). The line of apsides
denotes the distance of the line that joins the nearest and farthest
points across an orbit; it also refers simply to the extreme range of
an object orbiting a host body (see top figure; see third figure).

In orbital mechanics, the apsides technically refer to the distance

measured between the barycenters of the central body and
orbiting body. However, in the case of a spacecraft, the terms are
commonly used to refer to the orbital altitude of the spacecraft
above the surface of the central body (assuming a constant,
standard reference radius).

The two-body system of interacting elliptic

Contents orbits: The smaller, satellite body (blue)
orbits the primary body (yellow); both are
Terminology in elliptic orbits around their common
Etymology center of mass (or barycenter), (red +).
Terminology summary ∗Periapsis and apoapsis as distances:
The smallest and largest distances
Perihelion and aphelion between the orbiter and its host body.
Inner planets and outer planets
Lines of apsides
Earth perihelion and aphelion
Other planets
Mathematical formulae
Time of perihelion
See also
References
External links

Terminology
The words "pericenter" and "apocenter" are often seen, although Keplerian orbital elements: point F, the
periapsis/apoapsis are preferred in technical usage. nearest point of approach of an orbiting
body, is the pericenter (also periapsis) of
For generic situations where the primary is not an orbit; point H, the farthest point of the
specified, the terms pericenter and apocenter are used orbiting body, is the apocenter (also
for naming the extreme points of orbits (see table, top apoapsis) of the orbit; and the red line
figure); periapsis and apoapsis (or apapsis) are between them is the line of apsides.
equivalent alternatives, but these terms also frequently
refer to distances—that is, the smallest and largest
distances between the orbiter and its host body, (see second figure).
For a body orbiting the Sun, the point of least distance is the perihelion (/ˌpɛrɪˈhiːliən/), and the
point of greatest distance is the aphelion (/æpˈhiːliən/);[2] when discussing orbits around other
stars the terms become periastron and apastron.
 When discussing a satellite of Earth, including the Moon, the point of least distance is the
perigee (/ˈpɛrɪdʒiː/), and of greatest distance, the apogee, (from Ancient Greek: Γῆ (Gē), "land"
or "earth").[3]
There are no natural satellites of the Moon. For man-made objects in lunar orbit, the point of
least distance may be called the pericynthion (/ˌpɛrɪˈsɪnθiən/) and the greatest distance the
apocynthion (/ˌæpəˈsɪnθiən/); or perilune and apolune are sometimes used.[4]

Etymology

The words perihelion and aphelion were coined by Johannes Kepler[5] to describe the orbital motions of the
planets around the Sun. The words are formed from the prefixes peri- (Greek: περί, near) and apo- (Greek:
ἀπό, away from), affixed to the Greek word for the sun, (ἥλιος, or hēlíou).[2]

Various related terms are used for other celestial objects. The suffixes -gee, -helion, -astron and -galacticon are
frequently used in the astronomical literature when referring to the Earth, Sun, stars, and the galactic center
respectively. The suffix -jove is occasionally used for Jupiter, but -saturnium has very rarely been used in the
last 50 years for Saturn. The -gee form is also used as a generic closest-approach-to "any planet" term—
instead of applying it only to Earth.

During the Apollo program, the terms pericynthion and apocynthion were used when referring to orbiting the
Moon; they reference Cynthia, an alternative name for the Greek Moon goddess Artemis.[6] Regarding black
holes, the terms perimelasma and apomelasma (from a Greek root) were used by physicist and science-fiction
author Geoffrey A. Landis in a 1998 story;[7] which occurred before perinigricon and aponigricon (from
Latin) appeared in the scientific literature in 2002,[8] and before peribothron (from Greek bothros, meaning
hole or pit) in 2015.[9]

Terminology summary

The suffixes shown below may be added to prefixes peri- or apo- to form unique names of apsides for the
orbiting bodies of the indicated host/(primary) system. However, only for the Earth and Sun systems are the
unique suffixes commonly used. Typically, for other host systems the generic suffix, -apsis, is used instead.[10]

Host objects in the Solar System with named/nameable apsides

Astronomical
Sun Mercury Venus Earth Moon Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn
host object

‑chron[4]
‑lune[4]
‑kronos
Suffix ‑helion ‑hermion ‑cythe ‑gee ‑cynthion ‑areion ‑demeter[11] ‑jove
‑saturnium
‑selene[4]
‑krone[12]
Luna
Origin Zeus Cronos
Helios Hermes Cytherean Gaia Cynthia Ares Demeter
of the name Jupiter Saturn
Selene
 Other host objects with named/nameable apsides
Astronomical host
Star Galaxy Barycenter Black hole
object
‑center ‑melasma
Suffix ‑astron ‑galacticon ‑focus ‑bothron
‑apsis ‑nigricon
Gr: melos; black
Origin
Lat: astra; stars Gr: galaxias; galaxy Gr: bothros; hole
of the name
Lat: niger; black

Perihelion and aphelion

The perihelion (q) and aphelion (Q) are the nearest and farthest points
respectively of a body's direct orbit around the Sun.

Comparing osculating elements at a specific epoch to effectively those

at a different epoch will generate differences. The time-of-perihelion-
passage as one of six osculating elements is not an exact prediction
(other than for a generic 2-body model) of the actual minimum
distance to the Sun using the full dynamical model. Precise
predictions of perihelion passage require numerical integration.

Inner planets and outer planets Diagram of a body's direct orbit

around the Sun with its nearest
The image below-left features the inner planets: their orbits, orbital (perihelion) and farthest (aphelion)
points.
nodes, and the points of perihelion (green dot) and aphelion (red dot),
as seen from above Earth's northern pole and Earth's ecliptic plane,
which is coplanar with Earth's orbital plane. From this orientation, the
planets are situated outward from the Sun as Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, with all planets travelling their
orbits counterclockwise around the Sun. The reference Earth-orbit is colored yellow and represents the orbital
plane of reference. For Mercury, Venus, and Mars, the section of orbit tilted above the plane of reference is
here shaded blue; the section below the plane is shaded violet/pink.

The image below-right shows the outer planets: the orbits, orbital nodes, and the points of perihelion (green
dot) and aphelion (red dot) of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—as seen from above the reference orbital
plane, all travelling their orbits counterclockwise. For each planet the section of orbit tilted above the reference
orbital plane is colored blue; the section below the plane is violet/pink.

The two orbital nodes are the two end points of the "line of nodes" where a tilted orbit intersects the plane of
reference;[13] here they may be 'seen' where the blue section of an orbit becomes violet/pink.

The two images below show the positions of perihelion (q) and the aphelion (Q) in the orbits of the planets of
the Solar System.[1]
 The perihelion and aphelion points of the The perihelion and aphelion points of the
inner planets of the Solar System outer planets of the Solar System

Lines of apsides

The chart shows the extreme range—from the closest approach (perihelion) to farthest point (aphelion)—of
several orbiting celestial bodies of the Solar System: the planets, the known dwarf planets, including Ceres,
and Halley's Comet. The length of the horizontal bars correspond to the extreme range of the orbit of the
indicated body around the Sun. These extreme distances (between perihelion and aphelion) are the lines of
apsides of the orbits of various objects around a host body.

Distances of selected bodies of the Solar System from the Sun. The left and right edges of each
bar correspond to the perihelion and aphelion of the body, respectively, hence long bars denote
high orbital eccentricity. The radius of the Sun is 0.7 million km, and the radius of Jupiter (the
largest planet) is 0.07 million km, both too small to resolve on this image.

Earth perihelion and aphelion

Currently, the Earth reaches perihelion in early January, approximately 14 days after the December solstice. At
perihelion, the Earth's center is about 0.983 29 astronomical units (AU) or 147,098,070 km (91,402,500 mi)
from the Sun's center. In contrast, the Earth reaches aphelion currently in early July, approximately 14 days
after the June solstice. The aphelion distance between the Earth's and Sun's centers is currently about
1.016 71 AU or 152,097,700 km (94,509,100 mi).

The dates of perihelion and aphelion change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which
follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. In the short term, such dates can vary up to 2 days
from one year to another.[14] This significant variation is due to the presence of the Moon: while the Earth–
Moon barycenter is moving on a stable orbit around the Sun, the position of the Earth's center which is on
average about 4,700 kilometres (2,900 mi) from the barycenter, could be shifted in any direction from it—and
this affects the timing of the actual closest approach between the Sun's and the Earth's centers (which in turn
defines the timing of perihelion in a given year).[15]

Because of the increased distance at aphelion, only 93.55% of the radiation from the Sun falls on a given area
of Earth's surface as does at perihelion, but this does not account for the seasons, which result instead from the
tilt of Earth's axis of 23.4° away from perpendicular to the plane of Earth's orbit.[16] Indeed, at both perihelion
and aphelion it is summer in one hemisphere while it is winter in the other one. Winter falls on the hemisphere
where sunlight strikes least directly, and summer falls where sunlight strikes most directly, regardless of the
Earth's distance from the Sun.

In the northern hemisphere, summer occurs at the same time as aphelion, when solar radiation is lowest.
Despite this, summers in the northern hemisphere are on average 2.3 °C (4 °F) warmer than in the southern
hemisphere, because the northern hemisphere contains larger land masses, which are easier to heat than the
seas.[17]

Perihelion and aphelion do however have an indirect effect on the seasons: because Earth's orbital speed is
minimum at aphelion and maximum at perihelion, the planet takes longer to orbit from June solstice to
September equinox than it does from December solstice to March equinox. Therefore, summers in the northern
hemisphere last longer than summers in the southern hemisphere by 92 days versus 89.[18]

Astronomers commonly express the timing of perihelion relative to the First Point of Aries not in terms of days
and hours, but rather as an angle of orbital displacement, the so-called longitude of the periapsis (also called
longitude of the pericenter). For the orbit of the Earth, this is called the longitude of perihelion, and in 2000 it
was about 282.895°; by the year 2010, this had advanced by a small fraction of a degree to about
283.067°.[19]

For the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, the time of apsis is often expressed in terms of a time relative to
seasons, since this determines the contribution of the elliptical orbit to seasonal variations. The variation of the
seasons is primarily controlled by the annual cycle of the elevation angle of the Sun, which is a result of the tilt
of the axis of the Earth measured from the plane of the ecliptic. The Earth's eccentricity and other orbital
elements are not constant, but vary slowly due to the perturbing effects of the planets and other objects in the
solar system (Milankovitch cycles).

On a very long time scale, the dates of the perihelion and of the aphelion progress through the seasons, and
they make one complete cycle in 22,000 to 26,000 years. There is a corresponding movement of the position
of the stars as seen from Earth that is called the apsidal precession. (This is closely related to the precession of
the axes.) The dates and times of the perihelions and aphelions for several past and future years are listed in the
following table:[20]
 Perihelion Aphelion
Year
Date Time (UT) Date Time (UT)
2010 January 3 00:09 July 6 11:30
2011 January 3 18:32 July 4 14:54
2012 January 5 00:32 July 5 03:32
2013 January 2 04:38 July 5 14:44
2014 January 4 11:59 July 4 00:13
2015 January 4 06:36 July 6 19:40
2016 January 2 22:49 July 4 16:24
2017 January 4 14:18 July 3 20:11
2018 January 3 05:35 July 6 16:47
2019 January 3 05:20 July 4 22:11
2020 January 5 07:48 July 4 11:35
2021 January 2 13:51 July 5 22:27
2022 January 4 06:55 July 4 07:11
2023 January 4 16:17 July 6 20:07
2024 January 3 00:39 July 5 05:06
2025 January 4 13:28 July 3 19:55
2026 January 3 17:16 July 6 17:31
2027 January 3 02:33 July 5 05:06
2028 January 5 12:28 July 3 22:18
2029 January 2 18:13 July 6 05:12

Other planets

The following table shows the distances of the planets and dwarf planets from the Sun at their perihelion and
aphelion.[21]
 Type of
Body Distance from Sun at perihelion Distance from Sun at aphelion
body
Mercury 46,001,009 km (28,583,702 mi) 69,817,445 km (43,382,549 mi)
Venus 107,476,170 km (66,782,600 mi) 108,942,780 km (67,693,910 mi)
Earth 147,098,291 km (91,402,640 mi) 152,098,233 km (94,509,460 mi)
Mars 206,655,215 km (128,409,597 mi) 249,232,432 km (154,865,853 mi)

Planet Jupiter 740,679,835 km (460,237,112 mi) 816,001,807 km (507,040,016 mi)

Saturn 1,349,823,615 km (838,741,509 mi) 1,503,509,229 km (934,237,322 mi)
2,734,998,229 km
Uranus 3,006,318,143 km (1.868039489 × 109 mi)
(1.699449110 × 109 mi)
4,459,753,056 km
Neptune 4,537,039,826 km (2.819185846 × 109 mi)
(2.771162073 × 109 mi)
Ceres 380,951,528 km (236,712,305 mi) 446,428,973 km (277,398,103 mi)
4,436,756,954 km
Pluto 7,376,124,302 km (4.583311152 × 109 mi)
(2.756872958 × 109 mi)
5,157,623,774 km
Haumea 7,706,399,149 km (4.788534427 × 109 mi)
Dwarf planet (3.204798834 × 109 mi)
5,671,928,586 km
Makemake 7,894,762,625 km (4.905578065 × 109 mi)
(3.524373028 × 109 mi)
5,765,732,799 km 14,594,512,904 km
Eris
(3.582660263 × 109 mi) (9.068609883 × 109 mi)

Mathematical formulae
These formulae characterize the pericenter and apocenter of an orbit:

Pericenter

Maximum speed, , at minimum (pericenter) distance, .

Apocenter

Minimum speed, , at maximum (apocenter) distance, .

While, in accordance with Kepler's laws of planetary motion (based on the conservation of angular
momentum) and the conservation of energy, these two quantities are constant for a given orbit:

Specific relative angular momentum

Specific orbital energy

where:

a is the semi-major axis:

 μ is the standard gravitational parameter
e is the eccentricity, defined as

Note that for conversion from heights above the surface to distances between an orbit and its primary, the
radius of the central body has to be added, and conversely.

The arithmetic mean of the two limiting distances is the length of the semi-major axis a. The geometric mean
of the two distances is the length of the semi-minor axis b.

The geometric mean of the two limiting speeds is

which is the speed of a body in a circular orbit whose radius is .

Time of perihelion
Orbital elements such as the time of perihelion passage are defined at the epoch chosen using an unperturbed
two-body solution. To get an accurate time of perihelion passage you need to use an epoch close to the
perihelion passage. For example, using an epoch of 1996, Comet Hale–Bopp shows perihelion on 1 April
1997.[22] Using an epoch of 2008 shows a less accurate perihelion date of 30 March 1997.[23] Short-period
comets can be even more sensitive to the epoch selected. Using an epoch of 2005 shows 101P/Chernykh
coming to perihelion on 25 December 2005,[24] but using an epoch of 2011 produces a less accurate
unperturbed perihelion date of 10 January 2006.[25]

See also
Distance of closest approach
Eccentric anomaly
Flyby (spaceflight)
Hyperbolic trajectory#Closest approach
Mean anomaly
Perifocal coordinate system
True anomaly

References
1. "the definition of apsis" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/apsis). Dictionary.com.
 2. Since the Sun, Ἥλιος in Greek, begins with a vowel (H is the long ē vowel in Greek), the final o
in "apo" is omitted from the prefix. =The pronunciation "Ap-helion" is given in many dictionaries
[1] (https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/aphelion), pronouncing the "p" and "h"
in separate syllables. However, the pronunciation /əˈfiːliən/ [2] (http://www.dictionary.com/brows
e/aphelion) is also common (e.g., McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th
edition, 1994, p. 114), since in late Greek, 'p' from ἀπό followed by the 'h' from ἥλιος becomes
phi; thus, the Greek word is αφήλιον. (see, for example, Walker, John, A Key to the Classical
Pronunciation of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names, Townsend Young 1859 [3] (https://
play.google.com/store/books/details?id=LuF-9HKGbl4C&rdid=book-LuF-9HKGbl4C&rdot=1),
page 26.) Many [4] (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aphelion) dictionaries give
both pronunciations
3. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Perigee" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6
dia_Britannica/Perigee). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 149.
4. "Basics of Space Flight" (https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/glossary). NASA. Retrieved
May 30, 2017.
5. Klein, Ernest, A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1965. (Archived version (https://archive.org/stream/AComprehensiveEtymological
DictionaryOfTheEnglishLanguageByErnestKlein/A%20Comprehensive%20Etymological%20
Dictionary%20of%20the%20English%20Language%20by%20Ernest%20Klein_djvu.txt))
6. "Apollo 15 Mission Report" (https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15mr-f.htm). Glossary. Retrieved
October 16, 2009.
7. Perimelasma (http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/perimelasma.htm), by Geoffrey Landis, first
published in Asimov's Science Fiction, January 1998, republished at Infinity Plus
8. R. Schödel, T. Ott, R. Genzel, R. Hofmann, M. Lehnert, A. Eckart, N. Mouawad, T. Alexander, M.
J. Reid, R. Lenzen, M. Hartung, F. Lacombe, D. Rouan, E. Gendron, G. Rousset, A.-M.
Lagrange, W. Brandner, N. Ageorges, C. Lidman, A. F. M. Moorwood, J. Spyromilio, N. Hubin,
K. M. Menten (October 17, 2002). "A star in a 15.2-year orbit around the supermassive black
hole at the centre of the Milky Way". Nature. 419: 694–696. arXiv:astro-ph/0210426 (https://arxi
v.org/abs/astro-ph/0210426). Bibcode:2002Natur.419..694S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
2002Natur.419..694S). doi:10.1038/nature01121 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01121).
PMID 12384690 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12384690).
9. Koberlein, Brian (March 29, 2015). "Peribothron – Star makes closest approach to a black hole"
(https://briankoberlein.com/2015/03/29/peribothron/). briankoberlein.com. Retrieved
January 10, 2018.
10. "MAVEN » Science Orbit" (http://lasp.colorado.edu/home/maven/science/science-orbit/).
11. "Dawn Journal: 11 Years in Space" (http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/marc-rayman/2
0181019-dawn-journal-11-years-in-space.html). www.planetary.org.
12. Cecconi, B.; Lamy, L.; Zarka, P.; Prangé, R.; Kurth, W. S.; Louarn, P. (March 4, 2009).
"Goniopolarimetric study of the revolution 29 perikrone using the Cassini Radio and Plasma
Wave Science instrument high-frequency radio receiver" (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
9JGRA..114.3215C/abstract). JGRA. 114 (A3): A03215. doi:10.1029/2008JA013830 (https://do
i.org/10.1029%2F2008JA013830) – via ui.adsabs.harvard.edu.
13. Darling, David. "line of nodes" (http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/L/line_of_nodes.htm
l). The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
14. "Perihelion, Aphelion and the Solstices" (https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/perihelion-a
phelion-solstice.html). timeanddate.com. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
15. "Variation in Times of Perihelion and Aphelion" (http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/apsides.php).
Astronomical Applications Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory. August 11, 2011.
Retrieved January 10, 2018.
16. "Solar System Exploration: Science & Technology: Science Features: Weather, Weather,
Everywhere?" (http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/postsecondary/features/F_Planet_S
easons.html). NASA. Retrieved September 19, 2015.
17. "Earth at Aphelion" (http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html). Space Weather. July
2008. Retrieved July 7, 2015.
18. Rockport, Steve C. "How much does aphelion affect our weather? We're at aphelion in the
summer. Would our summers be warmer if we were at perihelion, instead?" (https://usm.maine.
edu/planet/how-much-does-aphelion-affect-our-weather-were-aphelion-summer-would-our-su
mmers-be-warmer-if). Planetarium. University of Southern Maine. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
19. "Data.GISS: Earth's Orbital Parameters" (http://data.giss.nasa.gov/ar5/srorbpar.html).
data.giss.nasa.gov.
20. Espenak, Fred. "Earth at Perihelion and Aphelion: 2001 to 2050" (http://astropixels.com/ephem
eris/perap2001.html). astropixels. Retrieved December 24, 2019.
21. "NASA planetary comparison chart" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160804162808/http://solars
ystem.nasa.gov/planets/compare). Archived from the original (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/plan
ets/compare) on August 4, 2016. Retrieved August 4, 2016.
22. JPL SBDB: Hale-Bopp (Epoch 1996) (https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?soln=J971A%2F1&sstr
=Hale-Bopp&cad=1)
23. JPL SBDB: Hale-Bopp (https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1995O1)
24. 101P/Chernykh - A (NK 1293) by Syuichi Nakano (http://www.oaa.gr.jp/~oaacs/nk/nk1293.htm)
25. JPL SBDB: 101P/Chernykh (https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?ID=c00101_0)

External links
Apogee – Perigee (http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Lunar-Scenes-Apo-Perigee.htm) Photographic
Size Comparison, perseus.gr
Aphelion – Perihelion (http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Solar-Scenes-Aph-Perihelion.htm)
Photographic Size Comparison, perseus.gr
Earth's Seasons: Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000–2020 (http://aa.usno.n
avy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.php), usno.navy.mil
Dates and times of Earth's perihelion and aphelion, 2000–2025 (http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/do
cs/EarthSeasons.php) from the United States Naval Observatory
List of asteroids currently closer to the Sun than Mercury (https://newton.spacedys.com/astdys/i
ndex.php?pc=3.2.1&pc0=3.2&udfs=0.3) (These objects will be close to perihelion)

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This page was last edited on 31 October 2020, at 01:19 (UTC).

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