2019/2020

MECH3429
AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION:

PART 1 – AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION

Yuguo Li

CHAPTER 3 HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER IN

BUILDINGS, AND COOLING AND HEATING LOADS
Key topics
On air conditioning
The overall thermal resistance of the wall, the overall heat transfer
coefficient,
On cooling/heating loads
heating load, cooling load, the mean coincident web-bulb temperature,
effective temperature, minimum recommended ventilation rates, basic
principles of RTS and CTS methods, sol-air temperature, degree days

OF 56 2`
 Steady heat transfer through multi-layered
structures

At least two methods, i.e. the parallel path

method and the isothermal plane method

In the isothermal plane method, we assume that the heat flow paths
are parallel only through the insulation and the studs.

The individual thermal resistances of the wall sections are

1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴 1𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝐴 2𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑠 ; 𝑅4 = 𝐴 4𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
𝑤 𝑜 𝑤 1 𝑤 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑤 4
𝐿𝑖𝑛 1
𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑖𝑛
; 𝑅𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴𝑤 ℎ 𝑖
Where the total wall area 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴𝑖𝑛
The overall thermal resistance of the wall
1 1 −1
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + +𝑅 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ;
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑛
We can then calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑈𝑜
∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅 ; where ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 is the overall
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
temperature difference.
Radiation heat transfer coefficient
The temperature difference between surfaces is generally small, and this allows
us to simplify the calculation.

Consider a flat surface, e.g. a roof, losing heat by both thermal radiation and
convection to the surrounding ambient. The sky, with which the surface
exchanges radiation, may be treated as a large hemispherical surface at an
absolute temperature 𝑇𝑜 .

The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the surface and sky is
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑜4 , where 𝜀, 𝐴 and 𝑇𝑠 are the emissivity, area and the
absolute temperature of the surface.
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇𝑜
Let ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 and 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = 2
, we can write (derivation not shown)
3 0.25∆𝑇 2 3
𝑄𝑟 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 4𝑇𝑎𝑣 1+ 2
𝑇𝑎𝑣
≈ 𝐴 4𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝜎𝜀 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑠 −
𝑇𝑜 ;
3
where ℎ𝑟 = 4𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝜎𝜀 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient.

The convective heat transfer rate 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐴ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 , and if the sky

temperature assumed to be close to the ambient air temperature 𝑇𝑎 , the total
heat transfer rate becomes

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴 ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴ℎ𝑐𝑟 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ; where ℎ𝑐𝑟 is the combined

convection-radiation heat transfer coefficient.
Table 1. Surface combined heat transfer coefficients in still air (ASHRSE
2013 Fundamentals)

Orientation of Heat flow Emissivity =0.9 Emissivity =0.2 Emissivity =0.05

surface direction ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K] ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K] ℎ𝑐𝑟 [W/m2K]

Horizontal Upward 9.26 5.17 4.32

Slope 45 Upward 9.09 5.0 4.15

Vertical Horizontal 8.29 4.2 3.35

Slope 45 Downward 7.5 3.41 2.56

Horizontal Downward 6.13 2.1 1.25

For moving air:

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 34 [W/m2K] at speed 6.7 m/s and
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 22.7 [W/m2K] at speed 3.4 m/s.
 Figure 2. (a) Double-glazing unit
Overall heat transfer
construction; (b) heat flow sections of
coefficient of windows and
window.
doors

Overall heat transfer coefficient of windows and doors

Heat transfer across windows and doors occur through the transparent section as
well as the frame.

Again we assume that the heat flow is 1D for the central glass area, but 2D for
the edge of the glass and the frame.

For design calculations, the window or door is divided into three sections with
different average heat transfer coefficients, i.e. the center of the glass (area 𝐴𝑐𝑔 ),
the edge of the glass (area 𝐴𝑒𝑔 )and the frame (area 𝐴𝑓𝑟 ). The average heat
transfer coefficients for the edge and the frame can be done by 2D simulations.

The total heat transfer across the window may be expressed in terms of an
average heat transfer coefficient 𝑈𝑜 .

𝐴𝑐𝑔 + 𝐴𝑒𝑔 + 𝐴𝑓𝑟 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝐴𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑐𝑔 ∆𝑇 + 𝐴𝑒𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 ∆𝑇 + 𝐴𝑓𝑟 𝑈𝑓𝑟 ∆𝑇;

𝐴𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑐𝑔 +𝐴𝑒𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 +𝐴𝑓𝑟 𝑈𝑓𝑟

𝑈𝑜 = .
𝐴 𝑐𝑔 +𝐴𝑒𝑔 +𝐴𝑓𝑟
 Table 2. U-values of fixed double-glazed windows [W/m2K] (ASHRSE 2013
Fundamentals) (based on -18oC outdoor and 21 oC indoor temperatures, wind speed of 6.7
m/s.)

Gap, gas in Center of glass Edge of glass Aluminum Aluminum

space 𝑈𝑐𝑔 𝑈𝑒𝑔 frame without frame with
break,𝑈𝑓𝑟 break, 𝑈𝑓𝑟

6 mm, air 3.12 3.63 3.88 3.52

13 mm, air 2.73 3.36 3.54 3.18
6 mm, argon 2.90 3.48 3.68 3.33
13 mm, argon 2.56 3.24 3.39 3.04
6 mm, air* 2.95 3.52 3.73 3.38
13 mm, air* 2.50 3.20 3.34 2.9
6 mm, argon* 2.67 3.32 3.49 3.13
13 mm, argon* 2.33 3.08 3.20 2.84

*) for the two surfaces facing the gas space, the emissivity, 𝜀 = 0.60

Calculations for basement walls and floors are possible, but not included here.
Infiltration
This is the unintended air flows into a conditioned space through cracks and
openings in the building envelope. The infiltration rate 𝑚𝑎 can be estimated
using the air flow theory.

The cooling load 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙

The sensible and latent cooling loads
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ; 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 and added moisture 𝑚𝑤 =
𝑚𝑎 𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 .

Substituting the density and specific heat capacity of air at standard conditions
of 1 bar and 15oC,

𝑄𝑠𝑠[kW]
𝑄 [kW]==1.23𝑉
1.23𝑖𝑛𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑜 −𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑖−; 𝑄
𝑡𝑖𝑙 [kW]
; 𝑄𝑙 [kW] = 3020
= 3010𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜 𝑉
−𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑖𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖

Where 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the volume flow rate of infiltration air (m3/s).

The infiltration air flow rate is sometimes specified as air exchanges per hour
(ACH).
3600 𝑉𝑖𝑛
ACH= , where V is the building volume.
𝑉
Solar radiation
Solar radiation incident on the external surfaces of a building contributes
significantly to the cooling load of the building.
 Opaque surfaces such as walls and roofs absorb a fraction of the incident
solar radiation, and reflect the rest. A portion of the absorbed radiation is
conducted through the wall or roof, while the rest is lost to the ambient by
convection, and thermal radiation exchange with surrounding surfaces.
 On transparent surfaces like glass windows and skylights, the solar radiation
incident undergoes reflection, absorption and transmission. The absorbed is
either transferred to the inside air by conduction and then convection, or to
the surroundings by radiation. The transmitted arrive on different inner
surfaces such the floor, being absorbed, conducted or radiated again by these
inner surfaces. The glass windows and skylights are usually called
fenestrations.

Total solar radiation incident on a surface (horizontal, vertical or inclined) can be

calculated or measured, as a function of the three fundamental angular quantities, the
latitude, the declination and the hour angle. The location of the sub at any time
during the day can be specified by two angles, i.e. the solar altitude angle and the
solar azimuth angle.

The shading of surfaces from solar radiation can also be estimated.

Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside,
followed by a layer of 20 cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is
sandwiched between the concrete and a layer of plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10
m long and 3 m high. The outside and inside heat transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2K and 9
W/m2K respectively. The outside and inside air temperature are 22oC and -15oC respectively.
Calculate
(a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall.
Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside, followed by a layer of 20
cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is sandwiched between the concrete and a layer of
plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10 m long and 3 m high. The outside and inside heat transfer coefficients are 30
W/m2K and 9 W/m2K respectively. The outside and inside air temperature are 22 oC and -15oC respectively. Calculate
(a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and Layer, i 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall. Brick 0.81 100 0.123
Concrete 1.8 200 0.11
Mineral wool 0.035 150 4.29
Plywood 0.095 10 0.105

Solution: Consider unit area of the wall where the constituent layers are in series.
1
The thermal resistance of a layer is 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐴 𝐾 . Here we obtain the data as follows
𝑖 𝑖
(note: we obtain the thermal conductivity values from ASHRA 2013
Fundamentals).
1 1 1 1
Also 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.11 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜𝑢 = = = 0.033 m2K/W
ℎ 𝑖𝑛 9 ℎ 𝑜𝑢 30
Total thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.033 + 0.123 + 0.11 + 4.29 + 0.105 + 0.11 =
4.77 m2K/W;
1 1
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 𝑈𝑜 = = = 0.21W/ m2K.
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 4.77
The total heat transfer rate through the wall is 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑈𝑜 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 10 × 3 ×
0.21 × 22 + 15 = 233W.
Example 2. A building has an exterior wall with 3.8 cm × 14 cm framing that makes 20% of its
area. The wall consists of the following layers of materials:

9.5 cm thick gypsum board on the inside of the framing, fiber glass in the spaces between the
framing, 12.7 mm thick sheathing next to the insulation and framing, 38 cm thick layer of
expanded polystyrene, 100 cm thick layer of brick on the outside.

The air temperature inside is 20oC and the outside ambient temperature is -10oC. The wind speed
is 12 km/h. The inside heat transfer coefficient is 8 W/m2K. Calculate (a) the total thermal
resistance; (b) the average heat transfer coefficient, and (c) the average heat transfer rate through
the wall using (i) the parallel path method, and (ii) the isothermal plane method.

Layer, i Actual 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W

area, m2
Brick 1.0 0.89 100 0.11
Polystyrene 1.0 0.036 38 1.06
Sheathing 1.0 0.055 12.7 0.23
Wood frame 0.2 0.15 140 0.93
Fiber glass 0.8 0.04 140 3.5
Gypsum 1.0 0.16 9.5 0.059
Solution
𝐿
It is convenient to first compute the unit thermal resistance 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 , considering the unit
𝑖
cross sectional area of each heat transfer path.
For wind speed 13 km/h or 3.6 m/s, we can find from reference that ℎ𝑜 = 25 W/m2K.
The unit thermal resistance of the indoor and outdoor air films, including contributions
due to thermal radiation are
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑖 = ℎ = 8 = 0.125 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜 = ℎ = 25 = 0.04 m2K/W
𝑖 𝑜

Method 1: parallel path method

Consider two parallel heat flow paths from the outside air to the inside air, the first
through the wood framing and the second through the fiber glass insulation.
The total thermal resistance of these two paths are
1 2.554
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 𝐴 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 0.93 + 0.059 + 0.125 = 0.2 = 12.77 K/W;
𝑓𝑟
1 5.124
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 3.5 + 0.059 + 0.125 = = 6.405 K/W;
𝑖𝑛 0.8
The two resistances above are in parallel. Therefore the overall thermal resistance is
−1 −1
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝𝑟 = + = + = 4.27 K/W
𝑅𝑓𝑟 𝑅𝑖𝑛 12.77 6.405
The overall heat transfer coefficient is
1 1
𝑈𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 4.27×1 = 0.234 W/m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is
𝑄𝑝𝑟 = 𝐴𝑈𝑝𝑟 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 1 × 0.234 × 20 − −10 = 7W/m2
Solution continuing
𝐿𝑖
It is convenient to first compute the unit thermal resistance 𝑅𝑖 = , considering the unit
𝑘𝑖
cross sectional area of each heat transfer path.
For wind speed 13 km/h or 3.6 m/s, we can find from reference that ℎ𝑜 = 25 W/m2K.
The unit thermal resistance of the indoor and outdoor air films, including contributions
due to thermal radiation are
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑖 = = = 0.125 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜 = = = 0.04 m2K/W
ℎ𝑖 8 ℎ𝑜 25

Method 2: Isothermal plane method

In the isothermal plane method we assume that heat flows uniformly through all the
layers except the framing and the insulation where the heat flow paths are parallel. The
thermal resistances of the latter two paths are
0.93 3.5
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 0.2 = 4.65 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.8 = 4.375
The equivalent resistance of these two parallel paths is
−1 −1
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑓𝑟 +𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠
= 4.65+4.375
= 2.254 K/W
Hence the total thermal resistance is
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 0.04 + 0.11 + 1.06 + 0.23 + 2.254 + 0.059 + 0.125 = 3.88 K/W
The overall heat transfer coefficient is
1 1
𝑈𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑅 = 3.88×1 = 0.258 W/m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑜
The average heat transfer rate through the wall is
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 1 × 0.258 × 20 − −10 = 7.74W/m2
Heat transfer in gas filled cavities
Gas filled spaces or cavities are present in several building envelop
components, such as walls, roofs and multi-glazed fenestrations like
windows, doors and sky lights. In some windows, the space between the
two glass panes may be filled with a gas like argon or krypton.

Heat transfer across the gas space of two surfaces 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , occurs due to
radiation and convection.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ;
3 𝑇1 +𝑇2
ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 =ℎ𝑐 + 4𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜎𝑇𝑎𝑣 , where 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = 2

The ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 values are also available from ASHRAE 2013 fundamentals.
Table 3 presented some representative values for 13 mm vertical air spaces.

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ℃ ∆𝑇, ℃ 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.03 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.05 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.2 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.5 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.82

32.2 5.6 2.33 2.44 3.45 5.26 7.14

10.0 16.7 2.22 2.33 3.13 4.55 6.25
10.0 5.6 2.13 2.22 3.03 4.55 6.25
-17.8 11.1 2.0 2.08 2.63 3.85 5.0
-17.8 5.6 1.92 2.0 2.56 3.7 5.0
-45.5 11.1 1.96 2.0 2.44 3.23 4.17
-45.6 5.6 1.79 1.82 2.22 3.03 3.85
Example 3. A building has a double-glazed vertical window with a 13 mm air space between
the two glasses. The glass thickness is 6 mm and thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/mK. The
emissivity of glass is 0.9. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 8.3 W/m2K and
34 W/m2K respectively. The indoor air conditions are 20oC and 49% RH. The outdoor air
temperature is -10oC. The ambient pressure is 101.3 kPa.
(a) Calculate the rate of heat loss through the center of the window.
(b) Will condensation occur on the inner surfaces of the window?
Solution: Consider unit area (𝐴 = 1 m2) of the window.
Thermal resistance of each glass pane is
𝐿𝑔 6×10 −3
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑘 = 0.8
= 7.5 × 10−3 m2K/W
𝑔
The effective emissivity for the air-filled cavity between the glass panes is
given
1 1 1 2 2
𝜀
= 𝜀
+ 𝜀
− 1 = 0.9
− 1 = 1.22, so 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.82 W/m K.
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔 𝑔

As an initial guess assume the inner and outer glass surface temperature to
be 14oC and -8oC respectively. The mean air space temperature is 3oC, and
the temperature difference is 22oC. The air space heat transfer coefficient is
a function of the surface emissivity, mean air space temperature and
temperature difference.

Table 3 includes some typical values. Using interpolation, we find ℎ𝑐 =

6.02 W/m2K.

The overall thermal resistance of the center of the window is

1 1 −3 1 −3 1
𝑈
= 8.3
+ 7.5 × 10 + 6.02
+ 7.5 × 10 + 34
= 0.33 ,
𝑜
and 𝑈𝑜 = 3.02 W/m2K.

The total heat transfer rate per unit area through the center of the window is

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 3.02 × 30 = 90.6W/m2
We now obtain an improved estimate of the inner glass surface temperatures
by applying network analogy. Hence we have
1 −3
𝑇𝑔1 = 20 − 90.6 + 7.5 × 10 = 8.4℃;
8.3
1 −3
𝑇𝑔2 = −10 + 90.6 + 7.5 × 10 = −6.65℃.
34

Therefore, the new mean air space temperature and the temperature
difference are 0.9oC and 15oC respectively.

We use the same Table 3 to obtain new air space heat transfer coefficient,
ℎ𝑐 = 5.7 W/m2K
The overall thermal resistance of the center of the window is
1 1 1 1
= + 7.5 × 10−3 + + 7.5 × 10−3 + = 0.34 , and 𝑈𝑜 = 2.94
𝑈𝑜 8.3 5.7 34
2
W/m K.

The total heat transfer rate per unit area through the center of the window is

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 2.94 × 30 = 88.2W/m2
We now obtain an improved estimate of the inner glass surface temperatures
by applying network analogy. Hence we have
1
𝑇𝑔1 = 20 − 88.2 8.3 + 7.5 × 10−3 = 9.4℃.

Now the indoor air conditions are 20oC and 49% RH, hence the dew-point is
9oC, according to the psychrometric chart, which is slightly lower than the
inner glass surface temperature, hence probably no condensation occurs.
Figure 3. Illustration how energy and moisture flow in a building
Cooling load and heating load calculations
Space heating load refers to the rate of heat input needed to maintain the indoor
temperatures and humidity of a building within specified limits during the winter
heating season. The heating load includes:
 The heat loss to the outside ambient across the building envelope
 The heat required to raise the temperature of the infiltrated air as the outdoor air
is colder than the indoor air.
Space cooling load refers to the total rate of heat that is needed to be removed from
the space to maintain a comfortable temperature and relative humidity. The cooling
load includes
 The heat gain from the outside ambient across the building envelope
 Solar radiation entering through the windows
 Heat released from lighting, occupants and other equipment such as computers.
 Heat gained due to the infiltration of the outside warmer and humid air

The space loads are time varying. The detailed energy and moisture flows in a
building are shown in Figure 3. Clearly, a detailed analysis of all the transient
process is complex and also tedious. In real design, load estimation is done by
computer software. Our aim here is to describe the physical principles that form the
basis of these computerized procedures of load estimation.

Note that ASHRAE simplified the wind heating load estimation, by ignoring the
solar radiation gain.
Smart engineers

• Assume that we have a magic and accurate computer software which can simulate the
entire system of a building including the heat and moisture transfer, and the air
conditioning system operation.

• We have the detailed, say hourly weather data over the last 100 years. We can simulate
how the system performs all the 100 × 365 × 24 hours, and a large number of design
options need to be tested. We can choose an ideal design which can satisfy, say 99% of
time, as the most extreme weather conditions may lead to unrealistic cost.

• In practice, we cannot choose such a process, and engineers are smarter (as always). They
choose the design conditions for both outdoor and indoor, and they make assumptions so
that their design calculations are sufficiently fast.
Outdoor design conditions
The design is normally done to meet the first the extreme weather conditions expected at a
location. The weather records for a large number of locations around the world have been
compiled and processed to develop a series of weather related outdoor design conditions. They
are tabulated in ASHRAE Fundamentals.
Table 1. Design weather data for winter heating systems
Location Lat deg. Long. deg DB (oC) DB (oC) Wind Wind
99.6% 99% speed speed
(m/s) 1% (m/s) 5%
New York 40.7N 73.8W -13.0 -10.2 12.1 9.2
Dallas 32.9N 97.04W -5.0 -2.6 11.6 9.2
Toronto 43.68N 79.63W -16.1 -13.3 13.3 10.5
Sydney 33.93S 151.18E 6.1 7.1 12.9 10.2
Beijing 39.93N 116.28E -11.0 -9.1 9.8 6.7
Bangalore 12.97N 77.58E 15.2 15.9 5.5 4.1
Table 2. Design weather data for summer cooling systems
Location DB/MCWB (oC) DB/MCWB (oC) 1.0 % DB/MCWB (oC) 2.0%
0.4%
New York 29.8/22.4 27.8/21.6 26.6/21.1
Dallas 38.0/23.6 37/23.7 35.8/23.9
Toronto 28.5/21.8 26.8/21.4 25.3/20.8
Sydney 32.9/19.5 30.1/20.1 28.2/20.0
Beijing 35//22.0 33.2/22.5 32/22.4
Bangalore 34.2/19.8 33.4/19.8 32.6/19.8
Human body thermal balance
The human body metabolism generates heat. The metabolic heat generation rate, usually in
met unit in thermal comfort (1 met = 58.2 W/m2 of body area), depending on the activity
level, age and health conditions.

Temperature regulation of the body is achieved through the control of blood flow rate to the
skin. As the environmental temperature goes up, the blood flow rate to the skin increases to
raise the skin temperature, which in turn, increases the heat transfer rate to the environment.
This process is effective until the skin temperature reaches the core body temperature of 37
oC. At this stage, sweating is initiated, which transfer the metabolic heat to the surroundings

by evaporation.
Question: Can the temperature of surrounding surfaces differ from the air
temperature? Explain your answer.
Please rate your overall thermal sensation:
Please rate your overall thermal comfort:

very cold very comfortable

cold
comfortable
cool
slightly cool
just comfortable
neutral
just uncomfortable
slightly warm
warm uncomfortable
hot
very hot very uncomfortable

Courtesy: from Literature

 Indoor design conditions
The ASHARE thermal comfort chart based
on the effective temperature concept is
shown in Figure.

The indicated comfort zones for winter and

summer are for people performing office
type work, and wearing clothing with
Winter summer
thermal resistances of 1.0 clo (winter) and
0.5 clo (summer) respectively. The speed of
air movement is less than 0.2 m/s. The upper
limit of the humidity ratio is 0.012 kg/kg
DA, and no lower limit is recommended. The
recommended temperature range is 20-25oC
for winter and 24-28 oC for summer.

The ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones.

In the middle of a thermal comfort zone, a person wearing the prescribed clothing would have a
neutral thermal sensation. The middle of the winter and summer comfort zones are 22oC /50%
RH, and 25oC/50%RH respectively.
 PMV = exp(Met) * L

1:50 pm, Monday 14

March 2011, HKU
campus

Courtesy of Innova
Courtesy of Innova
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Airborne pollutants are generated within the conditioned space, and can also be transported
from the ambient or neighboring rooms. One major pollutant sources is due to the human body.
Some pollutants can be removed by air cleaning, e.g. filtration for removing fine particles.

In general, ventilation, i.e. supply of outdoor “clean” air can be used to dilute the indoor air
pollutants. This also means that the ventilation air intakes should not be close to high pollution
areas, such as roads with heavy traffic.

Ventilation air needs to be cooled and dehumidified (e.g. in Hong Kong), the amount of
ventilation air should be as small as possible while maintaining a reasonable IAQ.

The minimum ventilation rates are given. The values depend on the number of occupants, and
their activities, as well as the indoor materials.
Table 3. Minimum ASHRAE recommended ventilation rates.
Application Function Design Ventilation air flow rate
occupancy/100m2 per person (L/s)
Office Offices 7 10
Conference room 50 10
Restaurant Lounge 100 15
Dining room 70 10
Kitchen 20 7.5
Retail store Shops, malls 20 1 (L/sm2)
Sport area Ballrooms 100 13
Gymnasiums 30 10
 Before 1900: After 1900: After 1990:
Miasma Influenza pandemic 1918-1919 Sick building syndrome
Lavoisier 1774 O2 Carrier 1919 “manufactured US Indoor Air Act of
Lavoisier 1775 CO2 weather” 1991
Polluted cities Paris and Fanger thermal comfort Eurovent 2002
London, late 18th and Energy crisis 1973 SARS epidemics 2003
19th century WorldVent 2006

Health period Comfort period Health perio

30
Bilings
1895 Disease
25
Ventilation Rate (L/s)

EuroVent
2002
WorldVent
20 2007
ASHVE
1914
15 Bilings
1895 Comfort ASHRAE
Yaglou
10 1936 1973 ASHRAE
Flugge
1905 1989/2004
5
ASA ASHRAE
1946 1981
0
1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025
Year
Internal heat sources in buildings (people, lights, and equipment)
Table 4. Heat and moisture released by people of different activities
Activity level Total heat (W) Sensible Latent Radiant/sensible heat (%)
Adult male Adjusted for heat (W) heat (W) Low air speed High air
M/F/children 0.5 m/s speed 2 m/s
Seated at theater 115 95 65 30 60 27
Moderate office 140 130 75 55 58 38
work
Walking, standing 160 145 75 70 58 38
Light bench work, 235 220 80 140 49 35
factory
Heavy work, 440 425 170 255 54 19
factory

Heat gain from people

Metabolic heat of people is released to the air both as sensible heat, and latent heat due to
sweating,
 The sensible heat consists of a convective component (thus released to indoor air
immediately) and a radiative component, which first absorbed by other surfaces and
later released to indoor air by convection. This time delay needs to be considered.
 The latent heat is released to indoor air immediately
Heat gain from lighting
The radiant energy emitted by lights is absorbed by different surfaces in the room, especially the
floor (as most lighting is on the ceiling), and the absorbed heat on surfaces released to indoor air
later. Lights also transfer heat to air directly by convection due to their higher operating
temperature.

The rate of heat gain, 𝑞𝑒𝑙 = 𝑊𝐹𝑢𝑙 𝐹𝑠𝑎 , where 𝑊is the total light wattage (not including the energy
released by ballasts), 𝐹𝑢𝑙 is the fraction of the wattage in use, and 𝐹𝑠𝑎 is the special allowance
factor which is the ratio of the actual energy released by the lighting fixture to the power
consumption of the lamps.

Furthermore, the fraction of the total heat that enters the room is called the space fraction. For
example, for the recessed lights located in ceilings, only a portion of the heat released enters the
room air, while the rest goes to unconditioned space above the ceiling.

Table 5. Lighting heat gain parameters

Luminaire type Space fraction Radiative fraction

Recessed fluorescent without lens 0.64-0.74 0.48-0.68
Recessed fluorescent with lens 0.40-0.50 0.61-0.73
Downlight compact fluorescent 0.12-0.24 0.95-1.0
Downlight incandescent 0.70-0.80 0.95-1.0
Not-in-ceiling fluorescent 1.0 0.50-0.57
Heat from equipment
Estimation is difficult due to the wide variety, and varying operating schedules. The direct
use of the energy data on the nameplate can be a significant overestimate. For a list of
equipment, see the latest ASHRAE handbooks.

Table 6. Radiative and convective fractions for various heat gains.

Type of heat gain Radiative fraction Convective fraction

Occupants, office 0.6 0.4
Office equipment 0.1-0.8 0.9-0.2
Lights
Conduction through walls 0.46 0.54
Conduction through roofs 0.6 0.4
Conduction through windows
SHGC>0.5 0.33 0.67
Transient effect
We demonstrate difficulty of thermal storage. Assume the room air temperature, 𝑇𝑎 is constant.

The interior or exterior surface absorbs a fraction 𝛼 of the incident solar radiation or lighting
radiation, 𝐼 𝑡 , and there is a combined convection and thermal radiation (ℎ𝑠 ). The wall is thin with
a high conductivity, and assume its temperature is uniform.
𝑑𝑇
𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴 𝑠 = 𝐴𝛼𝐼 𝑡 − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ; (1)
𝑑𝑡
where A is the wall surface area, l is the thickness, c is the specific heat capacity, and 𝜌 is the
density of wall material.

The heat flux per unit area entering the room is 𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 (2)
𝑑𝑞𝑖 ℎ𝑠 𝛼ℎ𝑠
Thus + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼 𝑡 , (3) where  = and 𝛽 = = 𝛼 .
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑙 𝜌𝑐𝑙

The solution of this first order ODE (3) is

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑞 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼 𝐼 𝜏 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
𝑖 𝑖0 0
(4)
where 𝑞𝑖0 is the heat flux at time 𝑡 = 0. The above solution shows that the current heat flux at time
𝑡 is affected by the heat gain that occurred at earlier times, i.e. between 𝑡 = 0 to the present.

If 𝐼 𝑡 is a constant 𝐼0 , we have 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝛼𝐼0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 (5)

𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝐶)
1
(note that


Figure 6. A simple model of a thin wall; (a) thin wall surface;

(b) thin interior surface.
Solution (5) shows that as time goes to infinity, 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝛼𝐼0 , though at time 𝑡 = 0,𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 .

We divide the period 𝑡 into 𝑡 = 𝑁∆𝜏. Assume each interval ∆𝜏 is one hour, and assume 𝐼 𝜏 is constant
during each time interval.
Solution (4) gives 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 + 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 − 𝑛+1 ∆𝜏
𝑁−1
(6)
Where 𝐼𝑛 is the short wave radiation at time internal 𝑛 = 0, 𝑁 − 1.
In equation (6), we let 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 − 𝑒 − 𝑛+1 ∆𝜏 = 𝐴𝑛 , i.e. the transfer function coefficients.

We assume 24-hour steady periodic conditions. This means 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 − 24 .

Consider at 𝑛 = 0, 𝑞𝑖 0 = 𝑞𝑖 −24 = 𝑞𝑖0 , equation (6) becomes

𝑞𝑖 𝑡 1 − 𝑒 −24∆𝜏 = 23 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒
−𝑛∆𝜏
1 − 𝑒 −∆𝜏 ; or

23 −𝑛∆𝜏 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏

𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑒 .
1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏
𝑛=0

This equation is applicable to a 24-hour period, where 𝑁 = 24, ∆𝜏 = 1 hour. We define radiant time
factors
1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏
𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 ; and we can find out 𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 = 1
23 23
𝑟𝑛 =
1−𝑒 − 𝑁∆𝜏 1−𝑒 − 𝑁∆𝜏 𝑛=0

23
Hence 𝑞𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑛=0 𝛼𝐼𝑛 𝑟𝑛 .

This is an amazing formula, showing that the instantaneous heat flux (cooling load) at time 𝑡 can be
calculated using the radiant time factors, which depends only on the geometrical and thermal properties.
We write 𝛼𝐼𝑛 as 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 , the radiant heat gain rate during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour
𝑡, and 𝑟𝑛 is the radiant time factor for hour 𝑛. Hence

23
𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = 𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Note that this approaches works for a thin wall, which can be assumed to have a uniform
temperature distribution.

In case, a thick wall does not have a uniform temperature distribution, the basic 1D heat
conduction equation can also be analyzed, though the procedure becomes complex. The
results are similar as follows.

The hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is

𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = 23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 .

Where 𝑐𝑛 is the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏. 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 is the
heat imput at the exterior surface of the wall during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour.

𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴 𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 ; where 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall, 𝐴
surface area, 𝑡𝑎 indoor air temperature (constant). 𝑡𝑠𝑎 is the so-called sol-air temperature.
The concept of sol-air temperature for an exterior surface is used to simplify the surface heat gain
calculation due to the combined effect of solar radiation, and convection/thermal radiation.
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠 ; or
𝑄𝑒 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝜀∆𝑅;
where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 and ℎ𝑜 = ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟 . We let 𝑄𝑒 = ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 by defining a new
variable 𝑇𝑠𝑎 .
Thus, ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 + ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝜀∆𝑅, where 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 −𝜀∆𝑅
We find the new variable, i.e. sol-air temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎𝑎 + ℎ𝑜
The small term 𝜀∆𝑅 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑎 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 is generally considered to be a small correction term for
the difference between the sky and air temperature.

Thus, the sol-air temperature is an effective driving temperature that incorporates the
contributions of solar radiation, long wave radiation, and convection to the energy interactions at
an external surface.
The cooling load calculation by the RTS and CTS methods
The above derived radiant time factor series (RTS) and conduction time factor series (CTS) can
be used to convert heat gains on surfaces to cooling loads by accounting for the time delays
caused by the thermal storage of walls, roofs and surfaces within a zone.

Values for RTS and CTS for different walls and roofs are available in ASHRAE 2013
Fundamentals.
Table 6. Conduction time series (CTS) for two walls and one roof
Curtain wall: mass = 20.9 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 20.4 kJ/m2K; U=0.429 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 25 57 15 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brickwall: mass = 304 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 253.5 kJ/m2K; U=0.348 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 7 7 7 6 6
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 1
Metal deck roof: mass = 57.6 kg/m2; thermal capacity = 57.2 kJ/m2K; U=0.297 W/m2K
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 0 10 22 20 14 10 7 5 4 3 2 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 2. Nonsolar radiant time series (RTS) for two constructions

Light construction: with carpet, 50% glass

Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Light construction: with carpet, 10% glass
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 47 11 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Building energy estimation and modelling: Degree-day method with the following assumptions
 The heating load depends only on the indoor and outdoor dry-bulb temperatures
 The efficiency of the heating system is constant
 The internal heat gain due to solar radiation, people, lights and equipment are constant
 Air infiltration affects only the sensible heating load

Different instantaneous energy flow rates in and out of the space :

Heat flow rate across the envelope 𝑄𝑒 = 𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 (1)
where 𝑈𝑒 and 𝐴𝑒 are the heat transfer coefficient and area of the building envelop respectively.
Sensible heat flow due to infiltration 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 (2)
where 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑐𝑝 are the infiltration rate and specific heat of air respectively.

Adding (1) and (2), we obtain the total energy loss due to envelop heat transfer and infiltration,
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ; where 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 is the effective heat transfer conductance.
The rate of heat gain due to solar energy, people, lights and equipment 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑝𝑒𝑜 + 𝑄𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 + 𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝

At steady state the heating load, 𝐿ℎ = 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡
Define a balance temperature. 𝐿ℎ = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 , and 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − . The heating load is zero when 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 .
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜

The heating degree-day method is based on the observation that the heating system needs to supply heat only when 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 <
𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 . Thus the total amount of heat to be supplied by the heating system during the heating season is
𝑡𝑠 +
𝐸ℎ𝑒 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 0
𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑑𝑡; (note: the superscript “+” indicates only positive values included.)

For a period, such a month,𝐸ℎ𝑒,𝑚 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝐷 𝑚, where 𝐷𝐷 𝑚 is the total heating degree-days for the month.
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝐷 𝑚
If the furnace efficiency is 𝑓 , the amount of fuel energy required 𝐸𝑓𝑢,𝑚 = .
𝑓
A similar cooling degree days can be defined. Thus we have heating and cooling degree days (HDD and CDD).
Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40
faces 35 east of south. The measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the
location on August 15 at 10 am solar time are 580 W/m2, and 148 W/m2 respectively. The
reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3. With such information, we can estimate the
direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8 W/m2; the diffuse radiation
incident on unit area is 133.57 W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on unit area of
surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on unit area of the wall is 554.8
W/m2. (Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the
lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air
temperature are 28oC and 23oC respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer
coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5 W/m2K respectively. Assume that the heat capacity and the
thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.
Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40 faces 35 east of south. The
measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the location on August 15 at 10 am solar time are 580 W/m 2,
and 148 W/m2 respectively. The reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3. With such information, we can estimate
the direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8 W/m2; the diffuse radiation incident on unit area is 133.57
W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on unit area of surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on
unit area of the wall is 554.8 W/m2. (Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the
lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air temperature are 28 oC and 23oC
respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5 W/m2K respectively. Assume
that the heat capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.

Solution: The sol-air temperature

𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙 −𝜀∆𝑅 0.85×554.8
𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 + = 28 + = 41.47℃. Note that we assume that ∆𝑅 = 0.
ℎ𝑜 35

Since the thermal capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible, the net heat
flow rate

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 = ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ; 35 41.47 − 𝑇𝑤 = 8.5 𝑇𝑤 − 23 .

𝑇𝑤 = 37.86℃.
Example 7. The zone of a building is occupied by people engaged in moderate office work.
The occupancy schedule is given in Table E2.1. Each person generates 75W of sensible
heat and 55W of latent heat. The radiative fraction of the sensible component is 0.6. The
interior of th ezone is of light construction for which the appropriate non-solar RTS values
are given in Table E2.2.
The cooling load due to people was calculated for all hours except hour 11 and 15, as
shown in Table E2.3
(a) Calculate the cooling load due to people for hour 11 and hour 15.
(b) Obtain the highest cooling load due to people and its occurrence time.

Table E2.1 Occupancy schedule of zone (* hour from midnight; 𝑁𝑝 =number of people)
Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 12 12
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑁𝑝 12 12 12 12 12 12 5 0 0 0 0 0

Table E2.2 Nonsolar radiant time series (RTS)

Light construction: with carpet, 50% glass
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Hour 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table E2.3 Cooling load due to people at 22 of the 24 hours

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 340 1020 1020
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 90 302 432
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 430 1322 1452
Time 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 425 0 0 0 0 0

𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 461 481 504 509 514 363 199 132 96 74 55

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 1480 1501 1524 1529 1534 788 199 132 96 74 55
 Solution
(a) The latent heat gain and the convective component of the sensible heat gain from people
contribute to the cooling load immediately. Hence for hour 11, we have
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙1 = 𝑁𝑝 𝑞𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 0.4𝑞𝑠𝑒𝑛 = 12 × 55 + 0.4 × 75 = 1020 W;

Here comes the important part – the radiant components of the sensible heat gains during the
previous 24 hours contribute to the cooling load at 11 am. These hourly contributions are
obtained by the hourly radiant heat gains and RTSs for the 24 hours, i.e 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 =
23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Table E2.4 Computation of radiant contributions for hour 11. (* 24 hours before hour 11)

Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
𝑁𝑝 12 12 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 540 540 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 270 97.2 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 5 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 225 540 540 540 540 540 540 540
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table E2.5 Computation of radiant contributions for hour 15. (* 24 hours before hour 15)

Hour* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑐𝑛 (%) 50 18 10 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
𝑁𝑝 12 12 12 12 12 12 4 0 0 0 0 0
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 540 540 540 540 540 540 180 0 0 0 0 0
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 270 97.2 54 32.4 21.6 16.2 3.6 0 0 0 0 0
Hour* 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑐𝑛 (%) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑁𝑝 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 12 12 12
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 540 0 225 540 540 540
𝑐𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The total contribution from radiant heat gains during the 24 hours prior to hour 11
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 = 23 𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 = 270 + 97.2 + 18 + 0 + ⋯ = 385.3 W;
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1020 + 385.2 = 1405.2 W

For hour 15,

𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑙2 = 23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 = 270 + 97.2 + 54 + 32.4 + 21.6 + 16.2 + 3.6 + 0 +
⋯ = 495 W;
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1020 + 495 = 1515 W
Table E2.3(completed) Cooling load due to people at 22 of the 24
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 340 1020 1020 1020
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 90 302 385 432
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 42 35 29 24 19 13 8 2 430 1322 1405 1452
Time 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
𝑄𝑙𝑎𝑡 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 1020 425 0 0 0 0 0
+ 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 461 481 495 504 509 514 363 199 132 96 74 55
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 1480 1501 1515 1524 1529 1534 788 199 132 96 74 55

The highest cooling load due to people is 1534 W, and occurs at hour 18.
Example 8. The all of a building is 8 m long and 3 m high. It has two equal sized windows of
length 2.5 m and height 2 m located in it. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall is
0.246 W/m2K. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the window is 3.02 W/m2K. The
indoor and outdoor design temperatures are -10oC and 20oC respectively. Calculate the total
heat load due to heat loss through the wall.

Solution
𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 8 − 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 14 m2;
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑈𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 14 × 0.246 × 20 + 10 = 103.3 W;

𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 10 m2;

𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑙 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 10 × 3.02 × 20 + 10 = 906 W;
Therefore, the total heating load due to wall heat loss is
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 103.3 + 906 = 1009.6W.
Example 9. For a two-story building, the infiltration rate is 0.068 m3/s. The indoor
design conditions are 22oC and 40% relative humidity. The outdoor ambient air is
saturated at -10 oC. The pressure is 101 kPa. Calculate the sensible and latent heat loads
due to infiltration of ambient air.

Solution: From the psychrometric chart, 𝜔𝑖 = 0.0066; and 𝜔𝑜 = 0.001606 (the values
were actually from tabulated data).

𝑄𝑠 = 1.23𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑜 = 1.23 × 0.068 × 1000 × 22 − −10 = 2676 W;

𝑄𝐿 = 3010𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑖 − 𝜔𝑜 = 3010 × 0.068 × 1000 × 0.0066 − 0.001606 =
1022W.
Review

On air conditioning

The overall thermal resistance of the wall, the overall heat transfer coefficie

On cooling/heating loads

heating load, cooling load, the mean coincident web-bulb temperature, eff
rates, basic principles of RTS and CTS methods, sol-air temperature, degree

Formulas:
1 𝐿
Steady heat transfer through multi-layered structures: 𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴
𝑤 ℎ𝑜 𝑤
1 1 1 −1 ∆
; 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + +𝑅 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅
𝐴𝑤 ℎ𝑖 𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤

A simple model of a thin wall; thin wall surface or thin interior surface: The
heat flux 𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ;
𝑑𝑞𝑖 ℎ𝑠 𝛼ℎ𝑠
Thus + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼 𝑡 , where  = and 𝛽 = = 𝛼.
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑙 𝜌𝑐𝑙

For 24-hour steady periodic conditions, we define radiant time factors 𝑟𝑛 =

23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

For thick walls, the hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is 𝑞𝑖𝑐,
factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏 and 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴 𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 ;
OF 56 50 `