Lecture 1

Functions, Limits and Continuity

This lecture focuses on functions, limits and continuity. The students after this lecture should understand
the concept of functions, their precise mathematical definition, the limits and continuities.

1.2 Functions

When you want to pass an exam, what you do is that you study the topics for that exam. Your score will
depend on how much knowledge retained in your brain after studying. For this example, we can say that
your score is related to your knowledge retained. When you have remembered everything you studied,
you get a good score and on the other hand when you do not remember anything at all, surely you will
fail. Thus, we can say that your score is a function of your knowledge. Mathematically, when two
quantities A and B are related to each other so that for some values of B, the value of A is determined by
that of B. Therefore, we can say that A is function of B. The variable A is then called the dependent
variable and B is called the independent variable.

The following are some familiar functions the students may already know:

1. Square Root

y= √ x , where x ≥ 0

2. Linear Polynomial

y=mx+b

3. Quadratic Polynomial

y= A x 2 + Bx+C

There are many functions you can think of but the focus of this lecture are those functions defined by
equations. Such functions that we will be dealing with are large class functions therefore, we use the
symbol such as f (x), which will be read as of x and denotes as function of x. Here are some examples
to help student understand functions.

The Graph of a Function

Consider the function f ( x )=¿ x∨¿. Its graph is the graph of the equation y=| x|, shown in Figure 1.

Notice that f ( x )=x when x ≥ 0 , whereas f ( x )=−x when x ≤ 0. The domain of f consists of all real
numbers, but the range is the set of all nonnegative real numbers.

Figure 1 Graph of y = |x|

Examples

1. y=f ( x ) is read as y is a function of x. The set from which the values of x can be chosen is called the
domain of the function and the set of all corresponding values of y is called the range of the function.

2. z=w ( v ) is read as z is a function of v. For this example, w is used instead of f but both have the same
meaning, that is to convey a function.

3. Let f ( x )=x 3 +1. Find f ( 2 ) , f (−5 ) , f ( a−1 ) , f (−x )

Solution:

f ( 2 ) =( 2 )3+ 1=9

3
f (−5 )=(−5 ) +1=−124

f ( a−1 )= ( a−1 )3 +1=a3−3 a 2+3 a

3 3
f (−x )= (−x ) +1=−x +1

Classification of Functions
1. Algebraic – algebraic functions are rational integral functions, or polynomials; rational fractions, or
quotients of polynomials; and irrational functions.

2. Transcendental – are trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, exponential functions

(exponents are variables) and logarithms.

1.3 Definition of a Limit

Let f ( x ) be a function of x and let a be constant. If there is a number L such that, in order to make the
value of f(x) as close to L as may be desired, it is sufficient to choose x close enough to a, but different
from a, then we say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a , is L.

lim f ( x )=L Equation 1

x→ a
if for every number ε > 0 there is some number δ >0 such that

¿ f ( x )−L∨¿ ε whenever 0< ¿ x−a∨¿ δ

Equation 1 is read as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a , is L.”

What does this really mean? A graph is shown below to explain the definition of the limit.

In the figure above, if it is desired to force f ( x ), to differ from L by less than a prescribed quantity ε ,

¿ f ( x )−L∨¿ ε , then all that is needed is to choose x anywhere within a certain amount δ of the value
x=a , 0< ¿ x−a∨¿ δ .

Example
1. Show that

lim (2 x+1)=7
x →3

Analysis of the Problem. Given an ε , we wish to satisfy the inequality

¿( 2 x +1)−7∨¿ ε

by choosing x as close to 3. Then

¿ 2 x−6∨¿ ε

Or

ε
¿ x−3∨¿
2

ε
Proof of the Desired Limit Property. We will now choose δ . Let δ = , then for all x such that
2

ε
|x−3|< x ≠ 3,
2

It follows that

¿ 2 x−6∨¿ ε

From which

¿( 2 x +1)−7∨¿ ε

So that by the definition,

lim (2 x+1)=7
x →3
Theorems on Limits

The following theorems on limits are shown below.

Theorem 1. If f ( x )=c, a constant, then lim f ( x )=c

x→ a

If lim f ( x )= A , and lim g ( x )=B , then:

x→ a x→ a

Theorem 2. lim kf ( x ) =kA , k being any constant

x→ a

Theorem 3. lim [f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ]=lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x )= A ± B

x→ a x→ a x→a

Theorem 4. lim [f ( x ) g ( x ) ]=lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) =AB

x→ a x →a x→a

lim f ( x )
f ( x) A
Theorem 5. lim [ ]= x →a = , provided B≠ 0
x→ a g ( x ) lim g ( x ) B
x→a

n n n
Theorem 6. lim √ f ( x)= lim f ( x )= √ A , provided √
√ n
A is a real number
x→ a x→a

Right-Hand and Left-Hand Limits

Right-Hand Limit. A limit where the independent variable x approaches a from the right. This means
that each x involved is greater than a .

lim ¿
+¿
x→ a f ( x ) =L¿

Left-Hand Limit. A limit where the independent variable x approaches a from the left. This means that
each x involved is lesser than a .

lim ¿
−¿
x→ a f ( x ) = M ¿

If the ordinary limit exists, the right-hand and left-hand limits each exists and all three have the same
value. If the right-hand and left-hand limits exist and have the same value, the limit itself exists and has
that value.
Examples

Evaluate the following limits

2
1. lim ( x +3 x−5 )
x→ 4

Solution:

By Theorem 1,2,3.

lim ( x2 +3 x−5 ) =lim ( x2 ) + lim ( 3 x )−lim ( 5 )

x→ 4 x→ 4 x →4 x→4

By Theorem 4,

lim ( x2 +3 x−5 ) =lim ( x ) lim ( x ) +lim (3 ) lim ( x )−lim ( 5 )

x→ 4 x→ 4 x→4 x→ 4 x →4 x→4

¿ 4 ( 4 )+ 3 ( 4 )−5=23

We can solve this limit by Substitution Method.

2
lim ( x2 +3 x−5 ) =( 4 ) +3 ( 4 )−5=23
x→ 4

2 t 2 +1
2. lim
x →0 ( t 3 +3 t−4 )
Solution:

lim ( 2 ) lim ( t ) lim ( t )+ lim ( 1 )

2 t 2 +1
lim 3 (
x →0 t +3 t−4
= ) x→ 0 x→ 0 x →0 x→0

lim ( t ) lim ( t ) lim ( t ) +lim ( 3 ) lim ( t ) −lim ( 4 )

x →0 x →0 x→ 0 x→ 0 x →0 x→ 0

2 t 2 +1 2 ( 0 ) ( 0 ) +1
lim
x →0 ( 3
=) =
t +3 t−4 0 ( 0 )( 0 )+ 3 ( 0 )−4 4
−1
 x 2−1
3. lim
x →1 ( x 2+3 x−4 )
Solution:

lim ( x ) lim ( x ) −lim ( 1 )

x 2−1
lim 2 (
x →1 x +3 x−4
= ) x →1 x →1 x→ 1

lim ( x ) lim ( x )+ lim ( 3 ) lim ( x )−lim ( 4 )

x→1 x →1 x→1 x→ 1 x →1

x 2−1 1 ( 1 )−1 0
lim
x →1 ( 2
= ) =
x +3 x−4 1 ( 1 ) +3 ( 1 )−4 0

Since Theorem 5 cannot be applied because the denominator is zero, we first remove the common factor

x 2−1 (x−1)(x +1) x +1

lim
x →1 ( 2 ) (
=lim =lim
x +3 x−4 x →1 (x +4 )( x−1) x→ 1 x+ 4 ) ( )
After removing the common factor, we now evaluate the limit,

lim ( x ) + lim (1)

x 2−1 x +1
lim 2 (
x →1 x +3 x−4
=lim ) ( )
x →1 x+ 4
= x →1 x →1

lim ( x ) +lim (4 )
x→ 1 x→ 1

x 2−1 x +1 1+1 2
lim
x →1 ( 2 ) ( )
=lim = =
x +3 x−4 x →1 x+ 4 1+ 4 5

y 3−13 y +12
4. lim
y →3 ( y 3−14 y +15 )
Solution:

When evaluating this limit, you will get a 0/0.

y 3−13 y +12 0
lim
y →3 ( =
y 3−14 y +15 0 )
Therefore, we cannot apply Theorem 5. We need to remove the common factor first

y 3−13 y +12 ( y−3 ) ( y 2+3 y −4) ( y 2 +3 y−4)

lim 3 (
y →3 y −14 y +15
=¿ lim ) ( 2
y →3 ( y −3)( y +3 y −5)
=lim
) (
2
y →3 ( y +3 y −5)
¿
)
 ( y 2 +3 y−4 ) lim ( y ) lim ( y ) +lim (3 ) lim ( y )−lim ( 4 )
lim
( 2
y →3 ( y +3 y−5 )
= y→ 3
)
y→ 3 y →3 y→3 y →3

lim ( y ) lim ( y )+ lim ( 3 ) lim ( y ) −lim ( 5 )

y →3 y →3 y→ 3 y →3 y→ 3

( y 2 +3 y−4 ) 3 ( 3 )+3 ( 3 ) −4 14
lim
y →3 ( =
) =
( y 2 +3 y−5 ) 3 ( 3 ) +3 ( 3 )−5 13

x 2+ x−2
5. lim
x →1 ( ( x−1 )2 )
Solution:

x 2+ x−2 ( x−1)( x +2) x+ 2

lim
x →1 ( ( x−1 ) 2 )
=¿ lim
x →1 (
( x−1 ) 2
=lim
x →1 ) ( )
x−1
=∞; no limit exist ¿

1.4 Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x=a if all three of the following conditions are satisfied:

1. f ( a ) exists

2. lim f (x ) exists
x→ a

3. lim f (x )=f (a)

x→ a

Example

1. f ( x )=x 2 +1 is continuous at x=2 because

2
f ( 2 ) =( 2 ) +1=5

2
lim ( x2 +1 ) =( 2 ) + 1=5
x →2

f ( 2 ) =lim ( x 2 +1 )=5
x→ 2
If any one, or more conditions is not satisfied, the function f (x) is said to be discontinuous at x=a .

When f ( a ) exists and lim ¿, the function f (x) have right-hand continuity at x=a .
+¿
x→ a f (x)= f (a )¿

When f ( a ) exists and lim ¿, the function f (x) have left-hand continuity at x=a .
−¿
x→ a f (x)=f (a)¿

Example

1
1. Evaluate continuity of f ( x )= at x=2
x−2

1
f ( 2) = =does not exist
2−2

1
lim
x →2
( x−2 )=∞, no limit exist
f (x) is discontinuous at x=2.

The function is, however, continuous everywhere except at x=2

The discontinuity cannot be removed because the limit also does not exist.

2. Evaluate continuity of f ( x )= √ x at x=0 .

Solution:

f ( 0 )=0 , but at x <0 , f ( x ) is not defined . Therefore, lim ¿ does not exists.
−¿
x→ 0 f (x)¿

However, lim ¿, therefore, f ( x )= √ x has right-hand continuity at x=0 .

+¿
x→ 0 √ x=0 ¿

x 2−4
3. f ( x )= is discontinuous at x=2.
x−2

Solution:
 22−4 0
f ( 2) = = =does not exist
2−2 0

x 2−4 ( x−2)( x +2)

lim
x →2
( x−2 ) (
=lim
x→2 x−2 )
=¿ lim ( x+ 2 )=¿ 2+2=4 ¿ ¿
x →2

x 2−4
The discontinuity is removable since it may be removed by redefining the function as f ( x )= for
x−2

x 2−4
x ≠ 2 ; f ( 2 )=4 . The graph of f ( x )= and g ( x )=x+ 2 are identical except at x=2, where f (x) has a
x−2
hole. Removing the discontinuity consists simply of filling the “hole.”

x 3−9 x +10
4. f ( x )= is discontinuous at x=2.
x−2

Solution:

23 −9 ( 2 )+ 10
f ( 2) = =does not exist
2−2

x3 −9 x+ 10 ( x−2)(x 2 +2 x−5)
lim
x →2
( x−2 ) (
=lim
x →2 x−2 x →2
)
=¿ lim ( ( x 2 +2 x −5) ) =22 +2 ( 2 )−5=3 ¿

x3 −9 x+ 10 x 3−9 x +10 is discontinuous at

Since f ( 2 ) does not exist and lim
x →2
( x−2 )
exists, f ( x )=
x−2
x=2.

x 3−9 x +10
But we can remove the discontinuity by redefining f (x)= with another function
x −2
g ( x )=x 2+2 x−5 at x ≠ 2. The graph of f ( x ) and g( x ) is the same as shown below.

x 3−9 x +10
4. f ( x )= is discontinuous at x=2.
x−2
Solution:

23 −9 ( 2 )+ 10
f ( 2) = =does not exist
2−2

x3 −9 x+ 10 ( x−2)(x 2 +2 x−5)
lim
x →2
( x−2 ) (
=lim
x →2 x−2 x →2
)
=¿ lim ( ( x 2 +2 x −5) ) =22 +2 ( 2 )−5=3 ¿

x3 −9 x+ 10 x 3−9 x +10 is discontinuous at

Since f ( 2 ) does not exist and lim
x →2
( x−2 )
exists, f ( x )=
x−2
x=2.

x 3−9 x +10
But we can remove the discontinuity by redefining f (x)= with another function
x −2
g ( x )=x 2+2 x−5 at x ≠ 2. The graph of f ( x ) and g( x ) is the same as shown below.

Finite Jumps

It may happen that both the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit exists, but are not equal. At such a
point the function has a finite jump.

Evaluating Functions as x approaches infinity

To understand this, consider the following examples

x2 −1
1. lim 2
x→ ∞ x +1

Solution:
 1
2
1−
x −1 x2
lim 2 =lim =1
x→ ∞ x +1 x→∞ 1
1+ 2
x

1
The term above will approach to zero as the value of x increases without bound, therefore, the
x2

1
function above will reduce to which is equal to 1.
1

x2
2. lim
x→ ∞ x−2

Solution:

x2 x
lim =lim =∞
x→ ∞ x−2 x → ∞ 2
1−
x

2
In the above example, the term will approach zero as x increases to a positive number without bound
x
and since x increases without bound, no limit as approached as x increases without bound in the positive
direction.

x2
3. lim
x→−∞ x−2

Solution:

x2 x
lim = lim =−∞
x→−∞ x−2 x →−∞ 2
1−
x

Since x increases without bound, no limit as approached as x increases without bound in the negative
direction.

100 100
4. lim ; where t= , t is the time to travel a distance of 100 at a velocity v
x→ ∞ v v

Solution:
 100
lim =0
x→ ∞ v

In this example, as v (velocity) increases without bound, the time t will approach zero. This means that,
as we increase the velocity v, we could cover the distance in any desired time.

Exercises

1
f ( x )=
1 1
1. Let 1+ . Then a) f ( ) and b) the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except ____,
1 2
1+
x
____, and___.

2. If f ( x )=x 2−x +3 , find f ( 0 ) , f ( 2 ) , f (−4 ) , f (−2 x ).

3. If g ( x )=4 x 4−3 x 2+2 x−2 , find g ( 2 ) , g (−2 ) , g ( −12 ) , g (−x ) .

4. Express the amount of $1 at 4% simple interest as a function of time.

5. Express the volume of a sphere as a function of the radius.

6. Express the length e of an edge of a cube as a function of the surface area A of the cube.

7. Express the altitude of a right triangle as a function of the base, if the hypotenuse is given.

8. Given f ( x )= √ x∧g ( x )=x−1. Find f ( 0 ) , f ( h ) , g ( x+ h ) , ( f + g ) ( x ) , f ( g ( x ) )∧g(f ( x ))

9. Given f ( x )= √ 4−x∧g ( x )=x 2. Find f ( 0 ) , f ( h ) , g ( x+ h ) , ( f + g ) ( x ) , f ( g ( x ) )∧g(f ( x ))

1 3
10. Given f ( x )= ∧g ( x )=1−x . Find f ( 0 ) , f ( h ) , g ( x+ h ) , ( f + g ) ( x ) , f ( g ( x ) )∧g(f ( x ))
x
Evaluate the following limits. If limit does not exist, say so, and use the symbols ∞∧−∞ if appropriate.

2
11. lim ( x −6 x+1 ) lim ¿
x →2 17. √ x−2 ¿
+¿
x→ 2
(√ )
2
x −4

x 2+3 x−10
12. lim
x →2
( x−2 ) 18. x→ 3
lim
+¿ x−3
(√ )
2
¿
¿
x −9

3−x 2
13. lim
x→ ∞ ( 1+2 x 2 ) 19. +¿
x→ 2
lim
√ x−2 ¿
(√ )
2
¿
x −4

1+ x+ 5 x 2
14. lim
x→−∞ ( −3+ x−3 x3 ) 20. lim
( √ x 2−x + 4−2
)
x →0 x2 +3 x
sin 2 θ
15. lim
1
θ→ π
2
( ) 3
tan θ 21. lim
x →0 ( sec x−cos x
3 x2 )
3−x 2
16. lim
x→ ∞ ( 1+2 x 2 ) 22. lim
( 2 x 4 −137 )
(
x→ ∞ ( x 2 +429 )
10
5

)
23. Show that f ( x )=| x| is everywhere continuous.

3 x+2
24. Find the point of discontinuity of f ( x )= 2 .
x −6 x +9

4
25. Find the point of discontinuity of f ( x )= 3 2 .
x −4 x −3 x +18

1
26. Show that the function y=x sin is discontinuous at the origin.
x

1
27. Show that the function y=x tan is discontinuous at the origin
x
1d

1h