Sport Vol 2 PDF

BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F
World
Sport
BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F
World
Sport
VOLUME 2
David Levinson and
Karen Christensen
Editors
BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING GROUP
Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.
www.iWorldSport.com
Copyright © 2005 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
314 Main Street
Great Barrington, Massachusetts 01230
www.berkshirepublishing.com
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Berkshire encyclopedia of world sport / David Levinson and Karen Christensen, general editors.
p. cm.
Summary: “Covers the whole world of sport, from major professional sports and sporting events
to community and youth sport, as well as the business of sports and key social issues”—Provided
by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-9743091-1-7
1. Sports—Encyclopedias. I. Levinson, David, 1947- II. Christensen, Karen, 1957-
GV567.B48 2005
796.03--dc22
2005013050
Editorial and
Production Staff
Project Director Designers
David Levinson Joseph DiStefano and Linda Weidemann
Editorial and Production Staff Printers

Rachel Christensen, Tom Christensen, Elizabeth Eno, Thomson-Shore
Jess LaPointe, Courtney Linehan, Marcy Ross,
Gabby Templet Composition Artists
Brad Walrod and Linda Weidemann
Photo Coordinator
Joseph DiStefano Production Coordinator
Marcy Ross
Copy Editors
Eileen Clawson, Robin Gold, Mike Nichols, Proofreaders
Carol Parikh, Mark Siemens, Daniel Spinella Mary Bagg, Eileen Clawson, and Elizabeth Larson
Information Management and Programming Indexers

Trevor Young Peggy Holloway and Barbara Lutkins
Editorial Board
Editors Editorial Board
David Levinson Edward Beauchamp, University of Hawaii
Karen Christensen Jay Coakley, University of Colorado, Colorado
Berkshire Publishing Group Springs
Allen Guttmann, Amherst College
Leslie Heywood, State University of New York,
Binghamton
Gertrud Pfister, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Roland Renson, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium
Allen L. Sack, University of New Haven
Thierry Terret, University of Lyon, France
Wayne Wilson, Amateur Athletic Foundation
Contents
List of Entries, ix
Reader’s Guide, xiii
Entries
volume i:
Academies and Camps, Sport–Dance
2
volume ii:
DanceSport–Kinesiology
443
volume iii:
Kite Sports–Sexual Harassment
903
volume iv:
Sexuality–Youth Sports
1357
Index 1751
VII
List of Entries
Academies and Camps, Sport Athletes as Celebrities Boomerang Throwing

Adapted Physical Education Athletes as Heroes Boston Marathon
Adventure Education Athletic Talent Migration Bowls and Bowling
Aerobics Athletic Training Boxing
Aesthetics Australia Brand Management
African Games Australian Rules Football Brazil
Agents Austria British Open
AIDS and HIV Auto Racing Bulgaria
Aikido Bullfighting
All England Lawn Tennis and Badminton Burnout
Croquet Club Ballooning Buzkashi
Alternative Sports Baseball
Amateur vs. Professional Debate Baseball Nicknames Cameroon
American Sports Exceptionalism Baseball Stadium Life Camogie
American Youth Soccer Baseball Wives Canada
Organization (AYSO) Basketball Canoeing and Kayaking
America’s Cup Baton Twirling Capoeira
Anemia Beauty Carnegie Report
Animal Rights Belgium Carriage Driving
Anthropology Days Biathlon and Triathlon Central American and
Anti-Jock Movement Billiards Caribbean Games
Arab Games Biomechanics Cheerleading
Archery Biotechnology Child Sport Stars
Argentina Bislett Stadium China
Arm Wrestling Boat Race (Cambridge vs. Oxford) Clubsport Systems
Art Boating, Ice Coaching
Ascot Bobsledding Coeducational Sport
Ashes, The Body Image Coliseum (Rome)
Asian Games Bodybuilding Collective Bargaining
Astrodome Bondi Beach College Athletes
IX
x BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Commercialization of ESPN Globalization

College Sports Euro 2004 Goalball
Commodification and European Football Championship Golf
Commercialization Eurosport Greece
Commonwealth Games Exercise and Health Greece, Ancient
Community Extreme Sports Growth and Development
Competition Extreme Surfing Gymnastics, Apparatus
Competitive Balance Gymnastics, Rhythmic
Cooperation Facility Management
Country Club Facility Naming Rights Handball, Team
Cricket Falconry Hang Gliding
Cricket World Cup Family Involvement Hazing
Croquet Fan Loyalty Henley Regatta
Cross-Country Running Fantasy Sports Heptathlon
Cuba Fashion Highland Games
Cultural Studies Theory Feminist Perspective Hockey, Field
Curling Fencing Hockey, Ice
Cycling Fenway Park Hockey, In-line
Czech Republic Finland Holmenkollen Ski Jump
Fishing Holmenkollen Sunday
Dance Fitness Home Field Advantage
DanceSport Fitness Industry Homophobia
Darts Floorball Honduras
Davis Cup Flying Horse Racing
Deaflympics Folk Sports Horseback Riding
Denmark Footbag Human Movement Studies
Diet and Weight Loss Football Hungary
Disability Sport Football, Canadian Hunting
Disordered Eating Football, Flag Hurling
Diving Football, Gaelic
Drake Group Foro Italico Iditarod
Duathlon Foxhunting India
France Indianapolis 500
East Germany Franchise Relocation Injuries, Youth
Economics and Public Policy Free Agency Injury
Egypt Injury Risk in Women’s Sport
Eiger North Face Games of the New Emerging Innebandy
Elfstedentocht Forces (GANEFO) Interallied Games
Elite Sports Parents Gay Games Intercollegiate Athletics
Endorsements Gender Equity International Olympic Academy
Endurance Gender Verification International Politics
Environment Germany Internet
LIST OF ENTRIES xi
Interpretive Sociology Marathon and Distance Running Pain

Iran Marketing Pan American Games
Ireland Mascots Parachuting
Ironman Triathlon Masculinity Paralympics
Islamic Countries’ Women’s Masters Pebble Beach
Sports Solidarity Games Media-Sports Complex Pelota
Israel Memorabilia Industry Pentathlon, Modern
Italy Mental Conditioning Performance
Mesoamerican Ball Court Games Performance Enhancement
Jamaica Mexico Personality
Japan Mixed Martial Arts Physical Education
Japanese Martial Arts, Traditional Motivation Pilates
Jogging Motorboat Racing Play vs. Organized Sport
Jousting Motorcycle Racing Play-by-Play Announcing
Judo Mount Everest Poland
Jujutsu Mountain Biking Polo
Mountaineering Polo, Bicycle
Karate Movies Polo, Water
Karting Multiculturalism Portugal
Kendo Postmodernism
Kenya Naginata Powerlifting
Kinesiology Narrative Theory Prayer
Kite Sports Native American Games and Professionalism
Koreas Sports Psychology
Korfball Netball Psychology of Gender Differences
Netherlands
Lacrosse New Zealand Race Walking
Lake Placid Newspapers Racism
Law Nextel (Winston) Cup Racquetball
Le Mans Nigeria Radio
Lesbianism Norway Religion
Lifeguarding Nutrition Reproduction
Literature Revenue Sharing
Lord’s Cricket Ground Officiating Ringette
Luge Olympia Rituals
Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Rodeo
Maccabiah Games Olympics, 2004 Romania
Madison Square Garden Olympics, Summer Rome, Ancient
Magazines Olympics, Winter Rope Jumping
Management Orienteering Rounders and Stoolball
Maple Leaf Gardens Osteoporosis Rowing
Maracana Stadium Ownership Rugby
xii BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Russia and USSR Spain Track and Field—Jumping and

Ryder Cup Special Olympics Throwing
Spectator Consumption Track and Field—Running and
Sail Sports Behavior Hurdling
Sailing Spectators Tug of War
Salary Caps Speedball Turkey
Scholar-Baller Sponsorship Turner Festivals
School Performance Sport and National Identity
Scotland Sport as Religion Ultimate
Senegal Sport as Spectacle Underwater Sports
Senior Sport Sport Politics Unionism
Sepak Takraw Sport Science United Kingdom
Sex and Performance Sport Tourism
Sexual Harassment Sporting Goods Industry Values and Ethics
Sexuality Sports Medicine Venice Beach
Shinty Sportsmanship Violence
Shooting Sportswriting and Reporting Volleyball
Silat Squash Volleyball, Beach
Singapore St. Andrews
Skateboarding St. Moritz Wakeboarding
Skating, Ice Figure Stanley Cup Weightlifting
Skating, Ice Speed Strength Wembley Stadium
Skating, In-line Stress Wimbledon
Skating, Roller Sumo Windsurfing
Ski Jumping Sumo Grand Tournament Women’s Sports,
Skiing, Alpine Series Media Coverage of
Skiing, Cross-Country Super Bowl Women’s World Cup
Skiing, Freestyle Surf Lifesaving Worker Sports
Skiing, Water Surfing World Cup
Sled Dog Racing Sweden World Series
Sledding—Skeleton Swimming World University Games
Snowboarding Swimming, Synchronized Wrestling
Snowshoe Racing Switzerland Wrigley Field
Soaring Wushu
Soccer Table Tennis
Social Class Taekwando X Games
Social Constructivism Tai Chi
Social Identity Technology Yankee Stadium
Softball Tennis Yoga
South Africa Title IX Youth Culture and Sport
South East Asian Games Tour de France Youth Sports
Reader’s Guide
College Sports Officiating European Football Championship

Amateur vs. Professional Debate Performance Enhancement Games of the New Emerging
Carnegie Report Personality Forces (GANEFO)
College Athletes Professionalism Gay Games
Drake Group Rituals Henley Regatta
Intercollegiate Athletics Sex and Performance Highland Games
Racism Spectators Holmenkollen Sunday
Title IX Sport as Religion Iditarod
Sport as Spectacle Indianapolis 500
Culture of Sport Sport Politics Interallied Games
Adapted Physical Education Sportsmanship Ironman Triathlon
Adventure Education Islamic Countries’ Women’s
Athletes as Celebrities Events Sports Solidarity Games
Athletes as Heroes African Games Le Mans
Baseball Stadium Life America’s Cup Maccabiah Games
Baseball Nicknames Anthropology Days Masters
Baseball Wives Arab Games Nextel (Winston) Cup
Burnout Ashes, The Olympics, 2004
Clubsport Systems Asian Games Olympics, Summer
Coaching Boat Race (Cambridge vs. Oxford) Olympics, Winter
Coeducational Sport Boston Marathon Pan American Games
Fan Loyalty British Open Paralympics
Gender Verification Central American and Caribbean Ryder Cup
Hazing Games South East Asian Games
Home Field Advantage Commonwealth Games Special Olympics
Homophobia Cricket World Cup Stanley Cup
Mascots Davis Cup Sumo Grand Tournament Series
Mental Conditioning Deaflympics Super Bowl
Motivation Elfstedentocht Tour de France
Multiculturalism Euro 2004 Turner Festivals
XIII
xiv BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Wimbledon Play-by-Play Announcing Poland

Women’s World Cup Radio Portugal
World Cup Sportswriting and Reporting Romania
World Series Women’s Sports, Rome, Ancient
World University Games Media Coverage of Russia and USSR
X Games Scotland
National Profiles Senegal
Health and Fitness Argentina Singapore
Aerobics Australia South Africa
AIDS and HIV Austria Spain
Anemia Belgium Sweden
Athletic Training Brazil Switzerland
Biomechanics Bulgaria Turkey
Biotechnology Cameroon United Kingdom
Diet and Weight Loss Canada
Disordered Eating China Paradigms and
Endurance Cuba Perspectives
Exercise and Health Czech Republic Cultural Studies Theory
Fitness Denmark Feminist Perspective
Fitness Industry East Germany Human Movement Studies
Injury Egypt Interpretive Sociology
Injury Risk in Women’s Sport Finland Kinesiology
Jogging France Narrative Theory
Nutrition Germany Physical Education
Osteoporosis Greece Postmodernism
Pain Greece, Ancient Social Constructivism
Performance Honduras Sport Science
Pilates Hungary
Reproduction India Sports Industry
Sports Medicine Iran Agents
Strength Ireland Athletic Talent Migration
Stress Israel Brand Management
Tai Chi Italy Collective Bargaining
Yoga Jamaica Commodification and Commer-
Japan cialization
Media Kenya Competitive Balance
ESPN Koreas Endorsements
Eurosport Mexico Facility Management
Internet Netherlands Facility Naming Rights
Magazines New Zealand Fashion
Media-Sports Complex Nigeria Franchise Relocation
Newspapers Norway Free Agency
READER’S GUIDE xv
Management Social Identity Sports—Body Movement

Marketing Sport and National Identity and Strength
Memorabilia Industry Technology Baton Twirling
Ownership Values and Ethics Bodybuilding
Revenue Sharing Violence Capoeira
Salary Caps Cheerleading
Spectator Consumption Behavior Sports—Air Dance
Sponsorship Ballooning DanceSport
Sport Tourism Flying Gymnastics, Apparatus
Sporting Goods Industry Hang Gliding Gymnastics, Rhythmic
Unionism Kite Sports Powerlifting
Parachuting Rope Jumping
Sport in Society Soaring Tug of War
Aesthetics Weightlifting
American Sports Exceptionalism Sports—Animal
Animal Rights Bullfighting Sports—Combative
Art Buzkashi and Martial
Beauty Carriage Driving Aikido
Body Image Falconry Archery
Commercialization Foxhunting Arm Wrestling
Community Horse Racing Boxing
Competition Horseback Riding Bullfighting
Cooperation Hunting Buzkashi
Country Club Jousting Fencing
Economics and Public Policy Polo Japanese Martial Arts, Traditional
Environment Rodeo Jousting
Gender Equity Judo
Globalization Sports—Ball Jujutsu
International Politics Basketball Karate
Law Bowls and Bowling Kendo
Lesbianism Floorball Mixed Martial Arts
Literature Footbag Naginata
Masculinity Goalball Shooting
Movies Handball, Team Silat
Prayer Korfball Sumo
Psychology Mesoamerican Ball Court Games Taekwando
Psychology of Gender Differences Pelota Wrestling
Religion Netball Wushu
Scholar-Baller Volleyball
Sexual Harassment Volleyball, Beach Sports—Environmental
Sexuality Sepak takraw Fishing
Social Class Speedball Hunting
xvi BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Foxhunting Sledding—Skeleton Sports—Stick and Ball

Mountaineering Snowboarding Baseball
Orienteering Snowshoe Racing Billiards
Cricket
Sports—Field Sports—Mechanized Croquet
Australian Rules Football and Motor Golf
Camogie Auto Racing Rounders and Stoolball
Football Carriage Driving Softball
Football, Canadian Cycling
Football, Flag Hockey, In-line Sports—Throwing
Football, Gaelic Karting Boomerang Throwing
Hockey, Field Motorboat Racing Darts
Hurling Motorcycle Racing Heptathlon
Innebandy Mountain Biking Ultimate
Lacrosse Polo, Bicycle Track and Field—Jumping and
Rugby Skateboarding Throwing
Shinty Skating, In-line
Soccer Skating, Roller Sports—Water
Canoeing and Kayaking
Sports—General Sports—Mixed Diving
Alternative Sports Biathlon and Triathlon Extreme Surfing
Disability Sport Duathlon Lifeguarding
Fantasy Sports Extreme Sports Polo, Water
Folk Sports Heptathlon Rowing
Native American Games and Pentathlon, Modern Sail Sports
Sports Sailing
Senior Sport Sports—Racket Skiing, Water
Worker Sports Badminton Surf Lifesaving
Racquetball Surfing
Sports—Ice and Snow Squash Swimming
Boating, Ice Table Tennis Swimming, Synchronized
Bobsledding Tennis Underwater Sports
Curling Wakeboarding
Hockey, Ice Sports—Running Windsurfing
Luge and Jumping
Skating, Ice Figure Cross-Country Running Venues
Skating, Ice Speed Heptathlon All England Lawn Tennis and
Ski Jumping Marathon and Distance Croquet Club
Skiing, Alpine Running Ascot
Skiing, Cross-Country Race Walking Astrodome
Skiing, Freestyle Track and Field—Running and Bislett Stadium
Sled Dog Racing Hurdling Bondi Beach
READER’S GUIDE xvii
Coliseum (Rome) Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Anti-Jock Movement

Eiger North Face Pebble Beach Child Sport Stars
Fenway Park St. Andrews Elite Sports Parents
Foro Italico St. Moritz Family Involvement
Holmenkollen Ski Jump Venice Beach Growth and Development
International Olympic Academy Wembley Stadium Injuries, Youth
Lake Placid Wrigley Field Play vs. Organized Sport
Lord’s Cricket Ground Yankee Stadium School Performance
Madison Square Garden Youth Culture and Sport
Maple Leaf Gardens Youth Sports Youth Sports
Maracana Stadium Academies and Camps, Sport
Mount Everest American Youth Soccer
Olympia Organization (AYSO)
DANCESPORT 443
swing); England (quickstep); Cuba (rumba, cha cha

DanceSport cha); and Brazil (samba).
Developing Associations
T he history of ballroom dancing competitions can be
traced to pre–World War I days, and its popularity
has increased over the years, most dramatically in the
Ballroom dancing competitions occurred as early as
pre–World War I in European cities such as Paris
1990s. DanceSport, the competitive version of ball- and Berlin. These competitions were private because
room dancing, requires athletic skills, combined with reno international organizations for either amateurs or
quired techniques, floorcraft, and artistic interpretation, professionals existed. The first international amateur
to produce a disciplined dance performance. Competi- association was formed in 1935 in Prague; this Feder-
tions involve couples, or groups of couples combining ation Internationale de Dance pour Amateurs (FIDA)
as a team, and a panel of judges evaluates competitors. was active until the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
DanceSport attracts equal numbers of men and women, In 1950, the first professional dance organization, the
thus eliminating gender bias. DanceSport is currently International Council of Ballroom Dancing (ICBD),
practiced on all five continents, from young children to was formed in Edinburgh, Scotland.
older adults. Because the interests of FIDA and ICBD were so di-
The International DanceSport Federation (IDSF) is verse, the two organizations did not cooperate, and
the governing body for DanceSport, and in 2004, there FIDA ceased its activities by 1956. A core of dedicated
were eighty-one national DanceSport federations, rep- amateurs founded the International Council of Amateur
resenting more than four million athletes throughout Dancers (ICAD) in 1957 in Wiesbaden, Germany, with
the world. Forty-six of the eighty-one national DanceS- the approval of ICBD. By 1958, fourteen national or-
port federations have been recognized by their national ganizations from twelve countries claimed membership
Olympic committees. DanceSport proponents are push- in this new amateur organization. In 1990, the ICAD
ing to make it an Olympic sport. changed its name to the IDSF, primarily so that ball-
Modern ballroom dancing has its origins in the room dancing could become recognized by the Inter-
dance styles of medieval Europe. From the choral national Olympic Committee (IOC) as a sport and gain
dance of the Middle Ages emerged the practice of entry into the Olympic Games.
dancing in couples, leading to the popular court In North America, the United States Amateur Ball-
dances of Renaissance Europe. The stately minuet room Dancers Association (USABDA) was formed in
made its debut in the early 1700s, but the waltz 1965. Its membership doubled in the late 1980s, and by
changed couple dancing forever. Known as wild and 1987 IDSF had designated USABDA as the sole gov-
risqué, it became the rage throughout Germany in erning body for ballroom dancing in the United States.
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The Currently, USA DanceSport (the competitive arm of
waltz was not, however, readily accepted everywhere. USABDA) is the title recognized by the U.S. Olympic
Eventually, English society accepted it, and both Committee. In the early 1990s, many changes occurred:
France and Austria followed their neighbor’s lead; the
waltz (notably the Vienna Waltz of Austria’s capital ■ Eastern European and Asian countries added to the
city) became the classical, whirling favorite of Euro- growing IDSF membership.
pean ballrooms. ■ In 1995, IDSF was granted provisional federation
Other countries contributed dances to the ballroom status by the International Olympic Committee.
genre during the first half of the twentieth century, ■ In 1997, IDSF was welcomed into the Olympic fam-
including Argentina (tango); United States (foxtrot, ily as a fully recognized federation.
444 BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
A dance team
performing the salsa.
Source: istockphoto/StyleP.
The IDSF goal is acceptance

into the Olympic Games for the
2012 Olympic Games. No new
sports were admitted for the
Athens 2004 or the Beijing
2008 Olympic Games.
DanceSport athletes, under
the auspices of IDSF, competed
in a full program of competi-
tions at the 1997 and 2001
World Games in Finland and
Japan, respectively. In 2005,
DanceSport athletes will com-
pete at the World Games in
Germany. The World Games
were established in the 1970s
to showcase the world’s best athletes in those sports not
yet included in the Olympic Games. The Asian Games Competition at the Top
also included DanceSport for the first time in Thailand IDSF World DanceSport Championships are held in
in 1998, then again in South Korea in 2002. the following categories:
The current level of interest worldwide continues to
■ Standard: waltz, tango, Viennese waltz, slow foxtrot,
expand, and IDSF touts the following reasons to in-
quickstep
clude DanceSport in the Olympic Games:
■ Latin-American: samba, cha cha cha, rumba, paso
■ The event has 100 percent gender parity doble, jive
■ No major venue construction is needed. ■ Ten Dance: all those listed in Standard and Latin-
■ The event would attract television viewers. American
■ A maximum of 160 participants (including athletes, ■ Rock ’n’ Roll: rock ’n’ roll, boogie woogie, Lindy
judges, coaches, and officials) are required hop
■ Olympic competition would take only two days to
The Standard and Latin-American sections include
complete.
competition for both couples and formation teams.
Teams consist of either six or eight couples dancing to
What Is DanceSport? choreography and music of their own choosing. The Ten
The focus of DanceSport is to create opportunities for Dance section is for couples only. Judging is done by
individuals of all ages to participate in DanceSport elimination rounds, and the final round usually consists
competitions as well as in social ballroom dancing. This of six couples.
activity brings physical, social, and mental benefits to
participants; it requires discipline and teamwork and The Future
breeds self-confidence. Supporters promote ballroom If the increasing number of DanceSport competitions
dance and DanceSport in elementary and secondary worldwide is any indication of the sport’s future, there
schools, at the college/university level, and in clubs to is a robust outlook for DanceSport. Among youth, sen-
ensure the future of DanceSport. ior, and open competitions, there exists something for
DARTS 445
[Darts] is a game to play with the golden glow of beer in one’s

brain, to the sound of tinkling glasses. ■ RUPERT CROFT-COOKE
everyone. DanceSport competitions are now included Darts can be played alone, in pairs, or by teams. It has
on the IOC website (sporting events calendar), and the no restrictions in terms of gender, ability or disability,
IOC Programme Commission continues to note global size, height, or ethnic origin.The standard game is 501.
participation and direct emphasis on development of In this each player must reduce the score of 501 to zero
youth as two essential criteria for the addition of any fu- and finish on a double (if a player has 16 points left, the
ture Olympic sport. player should hit a “double” 8 to win, for example). All
One of the newest IDSF members, as of 2005, is the that any player requires is a set of darts and a dart-
Federation of DanceSport South Africa (FEDANSA), board. Darts can be played anywhere—in the home, in
which received full recognition as the sole governing the garage, on board ship, indoors or outdoors.
body for DanceSport from the National Olympic Com-
mittee of South Africa. This is one more “feather in the The History of Darts
cap” for the future of DanceSport. Up until the early part of the twentieth century, darts ex-
isted in disparate forms across parts of England, the
Governing Bodies only matches taking place being either “in-house” or
Governing organizations include the International friendly matches between teams from taverns that were
DanceSport Federation (IDSF) (www.idsf.net); and the close to each other. (The cost of transportation was
United States Amateur Ballroom Dancers Association prohibitive at that time.) However, after the Great War,
(USABDA, www.usabda.org)—also known as USA the first brewery leagues appeared and grew to such an
DanceSport. extent that, in 1924, the National Darts Association
(NDA) was founded in London. The NDA standardized
Elizabeth A. Hanley
the sport and introduced the first national rules and
regulations.
Further Reading Such was the popularity of this “new” sport that in
DanceSport Today. (2005). Retrieved February 7, 2005, from http:// 1927 the News of the World—an extremely popular
www.idsf.net/dancesport _ today/idsf _ dancesport _ today.htm
Danceweek. (2005). Retrieved February 7, 2005, from http://www.
British Sunday newspaper—sponsored what was to be-
ballroom.org/danceweek.htm come the News of the World Individual Darts Champi-
Rushing, S., & Macmillan, P. (1997). Ballroom dance. Dubuque, IA:
onship. The newspaper provided “a silver cup and many
Eddie Bowers.
other prizes” while the organization of the event was the
responsibility of the NDA. For the first year the cham-
pionship was held only in the London area, but by the
Darts end of the 1930s, it had expanded to cover most of
England. Such was the enthusiasm of brewers and the
D arts is one of the oldest established English pub

games that, since the late 1970s, has become one
of the most popular indoor sports in the world. Darts
dart-playing public for the game that by the 1930s it
had become a popular national recreation in England
and parts of Wales. An indication of the popularity of
has been considered as a derivative of javelins, crossbow the sport in England and Wales alone is that the num-
bolts, and archery. The most likely scenario is that the ber of entrants for the 1938–1939 News of the World
game has its roots in archery. The earliest type of dart- competition was in excess of 280,000. Participants
board was a concentric target, a miniature form of the came from all classes, and interest in the game by
archery target. Moreover, darts is most commonly women increased substantially when Queen Elizabeth,
known in England as “arrows”—a possible, if tenuous the Queen Mother, played a game of darts in a worker’s
link to its origins as a target sport. social center in Slough, Buckinghamshire, England, in
Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, plays

darts at a social center in Slough, Berkshire,
England, in December 1937. Source: Patrick Chaplin.
1937. Regrettably, one of the downsides of the in-

creasing popularity of the sport was that darts often
ousted existing pub games such as skittle and rings (in-
door quoits), some of them disappearing forever. In ad-
dition, the development of darts by “southerners” in the
form of the NDA based in London, found some resist-
ance in places in the north of England, such as Man-
chester, where the smaller Manchester “log-end”
dartboard was played on and where it still holds sway participation were still extremely high, between 3 and
to this day. 4 million in England alone. The NDAGB did outstand-
ing work during this time both in establishing county
DARTS IN WORLD WAR II leagues and organizing top competitions, such as the
Dart playing boosted morale in the armed forces during NODOR Fours for its sponsor the NODOR Dartboard
World War II. It was played in the officers’ mess and Company.
even in some prisoner of war camps, where the playing In the 1960s darts appeared on TV in Britain for the
of darts reminded the prisoners of what they might be first time, but not until the establishment of the British
doing if they were at home—that is “down the pub, Darts Organization (BDO) in 1973 and the introduction
playing darts.” The rules tended to be those of the News of split-screen technology did darts really take hold in
of the World competition. By the middle of the war, Britain. The rest of the world followed. The Embassy
darts was standard issue in the Navy, Army and Air World Professional Darts Championship—the most
Force Institutes (NAAFI) sports packs issued to troops. sought after trophy in the sport—was established in
American soldiers visiting England took darts home 1978.The Embassy—now renamed the Lakeside World
with them and generated substantial interest in this Championship following the government’s ban on to-
“olde English” pastime that up until that time was little bacco advertising in 2003—remains the key darting
played in the United States. event seen on non-satellite TV in the U.K..
P OSTWAR GROWTH WHO RULES THE GAME?

The News of the World Individual Darts Championship With the television companies and a multitude of spon-
was revived in 1947–1948, this time on a national sors on board, the late 1970s and 1980s saw the cre-
basis, and continued to be described as “the champi- ation of the first household names—the first darts
onship every dart player wants to win” until its demise “stars”—including Eric Bristow, John Lowe, Alan Evans,
in the 1990s. The end of the war also saw the return of Jocky Wilson, and Leighton Rees.
The People National Team Championships (first played In 1993 sixteen so-called rebel professionals, who
for in 1938–1939). However, the original National wanted more say in the future of the sport, broke away
Darts Association did not survive the war. Although a from the ranks of the BDO and were from then on rep-
number of attempts were made to introduce another na- resented by the World Darts Council (WDC). This
tional, controlling agency, nothing firm was realized action by the players eventually led to the two organi-
until 1954 when The People—another national U.K. zations going to court in 1997 and the arguments pri-
Sunday newspaper—supported the setting up of the marily related to alleged restriction of trade being
National Darts Association of Great Britain (NDAGB). settled in the Tomlin Order.
The 1950s and 1960s were decades when darts The establishment of the World Darts Council (now
maintained a fairly low profile even though levels of the Professional Darts Corporation—PDC) following
DAVIS CUP 447
the “great split” of 1993 took darts in a new direction. tween the United States and the British Isles. Today, the
This has resulted in the introduction of key, high-profile Davis Cup has become the indisputable prime event of
competitions, including the World Matchplay, Grand international team tennis. In 2001, a record 142 na-
Prix, and the World Championship. Meanwhile, the tions entered the Davis Cup competition. Through
BDO continues to provide support to the grassroots of 2004, the championship had been held ninety-three
the sport, to the youth and women’s game, and at the times; the only interruption to this annual competition
same time it has managed to introduce a number of was two world wars and a hiatus in 1901 and again in
new major competitions. 1910.
However, despite the Tomlin Order, the BDO and the
PDC—although between them they control the future The Beginning
of the sport—maintain a distance between each other Like most other American sports, tennis in America has
that appears unlikely to be breached any time soon. a British origin with upper-class trappings. The Lawn
Tennis Championships at Wimbledon were established
Governing Body in 1877 as a result of garden parties of the British so-
The primarily governing bodies are the British Darts cial elites. Nearly a quarter century later, a wealthy
Organization (www.bdodarts.com) and the Profes- young American founded the Davis Cup, which would
sional Darts Corporation (www.planetdarts.co.uk). become another symbol in the world of elite sports.
Dwight Filley Davis was born into a wealthy family in
Patrick Chaplin
St. Louis, Missouri, in 1879. At age eighteen, Davis
went to Boston and began his college education at Har-
Further Reading vard University. The horizon of Davis’s life, however,
Brown, D. (1981). The Guinness book of darts. Enfield, UK: Guinness spread beyond the famed Cambridge campus. Before
Superlatives. long the young Missourian found himself much more
Chaplin, P. (2004). Darts history. Retrieved November 26, 2004, from
http://www.patrickchaplin.com/
interested in the sporting opportunities among Boston
McClintock, J. (1977). The book of darts. New York: Random House. Brahmins than the quality education that Harvard of-
Peek, D. W. (2001). To the point—The story of darts in America. Co- fered. Harvard, meanwhile, was engaged in the first in-
lumbia, MI: Totem Pointe.
Taylor, A. R. (1992). The Guinness book of traditional pub games. En- tercollegiate athletic competition in a crew meet with
field, UK: Guinness Publishing. Yale and was responsible for adopting the game of
Turner, K. (1980). Darts—The complete book of the game. Newton
Abbot, UK: David & Charles.
rugby, which evolved into American football. Interest-
ingly, the most prestigous institute of American higher
education in the eve of the twentieth century bred more
tennis enthusiasts than rowers and football players.
Boston was the hotbed of American lawn tennis, and
Davis Cup college men of the Northeast, many of them from Har-
vard, dominated the American game.
T he Davis Cup, technically the International Tennis

Federation (ITF) Team Championship for men, is
the largest annual international tennis team competi-
Davis was one of the greatest athletes that Harvard
had ever produced. By 1899, Davis had established
himself as the second-highest-ranked player in the
tion. The event was established in 1899 by Dwight Fil- United States. That year, he commissioned Boston jew-
ley Davis (1879–1945), a twenty-year-old Harvard eler Shreve, Crump & Low to produce a $1,000 silver
University student from St. Louis. When commenced in trophy for an international tennis championship. It was
1900, the event was intended to be a challenge be- designed by Rowland Rhodes and crafted by William B.
Davis Cup
Winners of the Davis Cup
COUNTRY # OF WINS (1893–1953). Tilden not only led the U.S. team to
United States 31 seven consecutive wins of the Davis Cup (1920–1926)
Australia 24 and dominated the tennis scene of the decade, but his
France 9 flamboyant style of play helped to propel tennis into a
Great Britain 9 major spectator sport. In 1923 the ITF revised the
Sweden 8 championship structure by dividing the world into two
Australasia* 4 zones—American and European—to accommodate the
Germany 3 increasing number of participating nations.
Spain 2 America’s reign of the Davis Cup in the 1920s ended
Czechoslovakia 1 in 1927 when a more balanced and well-trained French
Italy 1 team took the championship title. The fabulous French
Russia 1 team, better known as the “Four Musketeers,” not only
South Africa 1 brought the Davis Cup to their home soil, but kept the
*Australia and New Zealand competing as one country championship round as a fixture of the Paris scene for
six years, until Great Britain recaptured the cup in
1933. With the exception of Japan in 1921, no teams
other than the United States, Great Britain, Australasia,
Durgin’s silverware manufacturers in Concord, New and France ever made it to the challenge round of the
Hampshire. When completed in 1900, the beautiful sil- Davis Cup in its first six decades.
ver trophy, in the shape of a punch bowl, stood 33 cen-
timeters high and 46 centimeters across at the top, and The Postwar Era
weighed 6.1 kilograms. Like most other international sporting events, the Davis
Davis’s proposal to establish the championship Cup was canceled during World War II, between 1940
earned the support of the United States National Lawn and 1945. After it was reinstated in 1946, the United
Tennis Association and met enthusiastic response from States won the championship four consecutive times.
the British. The first Davis Cup was subsequently The postwar era of the Davis Cup, nevertheless, be-
arranged and held at Boston’s Longwood Cricket Club longed to the team Down Under. Under the legendary
in early August 1900. The U.S. team, captained by coach Harry Hopman (1906–1985), Australia won fif-
Davis, defeated the British Isles 3-0 and became the first teen Cup titles in eighteen years between 1950 and
Davis Cup winner. The first three years (1900, 1902, 1967. Australia also competed in twenty-five consecu-
1903) of the event were held as Davis had hoped— tive championship rounds and was victorious sixteen
team tennis challenges between the United States and times between 1938 and 1968.
the British Isles. But in 1904 Belgium and France also The increasing popularity of the Davis Cup with a
joined the competition. By the end of the first decade, growing number of participating nations led to several
newcomer Australasia (a combined team of Australia structural changes of the event, most drastically in
and New Zealand) had taken over as the new owner of 1972, when the traditional challenge round was abol-
the Davis Cup. ished. All nations, including the standing champion,
World War I was the first major interruption of the were required to play in the elimination rounds in their
Cup when it was canceled between 1915 and 1918. respective zones: American (north and south sections),
The 1920s began with a U.S. dominance of the cham- Eastern (A and B sections), and European (A and B sec-
pionship epitomized by the stardom of Bill Tilden tions). In 1981 the World Group was established. Only
DEAFLYMPICS 449
sixteen nations that had entered this group were eligi- Evans, R. (1999). The Davis Cup: Celebrating 100 years of international
ble annually to compete for the Cup itself. Remaining tennis. New York: Universe.
Kriplen, N. (1999). Dwight Davis: The man and the cup. London: Ebury.
countries would engage in regional (“zonal”) competi- Merrihew, S. W. (1928). The quest of the Davis Cup. New York: Ameri-
tion with the possibility of being promoted to the World can Lawn Tennis.
Metzler, P. (1979). Great players of Australian tennis. New York: Harper
Group the following year, replacing four first-round & Row.
World Group losers who were relegated to zonal play. Potter, E. C. (1969). The Davis Cup. New York: A. S. Barnes.
The structural changes since 1972 eliminated the Trengove, A. (1985). The story of Davis Cup. London: Stanley Paul.
privilege of the reigning champion for an automatic

seat in the championship round. Consequently, a na-
tion’s chance to retain its championship title was greatly
reduced. The Davis Cup in the first three quarters of the
century was dominated by four nations: the United
Deaflympics
States, Australia, Great Britain, and France. Since 1974,
seven new nations have joined the champion’s list:
South Africa, Sweden, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Germany,
D eaflympics (formerly known as Deaf World
Games, World Games for the Deaf, and Interna-
tional Silent Games) is an international multisport com-
Spain, and Russia. petition held every four years for elite deaf and hard of
For seven decades, the Davis Cup competition was hearing athletes. It is closely modeled after the Olympic
confined to amateur athletes. In 1969, professional Games and is the oldest international sports organiza-
players associated with their national federations be- tion for people with disabilities. The International
came eligible. Finally in 1973, the Davis Cup became Olympic Committee (IOC) recognized the Deaflympics
an open event to all players. in 1955 as an “International Federation with Olympic
Currently, the format for a match (or tie) is a best-of- standing.” Unlike the Paralympics and Special Olym-
five series over three days with four singles and one pics, there are no changes in the rules of events, nor are
doubles. A team may be composed of a minimum of there special classifications for deaf and hard of hearing
three and a maximum of four players, with two desig- athletes.Visual cues such as flashing strobe lights for au-
nated singles players. The number one computer-ranked ditory starting signals are the only adaptations neces-
player of a country will face the number two player of sary. The Summer Deaflympics include fifteen sports:
the other country on the first day with the opponents re- athletics, badminton, basketball, bowling, cycling, foot-
versed on the third day. A draw determines who plays ball (soccer), handball, orienteering, shooting, swim-
the first match each day. Nations visit one another for ming, table tennis, tennis, volleyball, water polo, and
matches, a scheduling formula determining which of wrestling. The Winter Deaflympics are held two years
two opponents has choice of ground. after the Summer Deaflympics (a practice the IOC
adopted in the 1990s) and offers Alpine and Nordic ski-
Ying Wushanley
ing, ice hockey, and snowboarding.
Further Reading History of the Games

Two deaf Europeans, Eugene Rubens Alcais of France
Barrett, J. (Ed.). (1995). World of tennis. London: Collins Willow.
Collins, B. & Hollander, Z. (Eds.). (1997). Bud Collins’ tennis ency- and Antoine Dresse of Belgium founded the Interna-
clopedia. New York: Visible Ink. tional Silent Games, now known as the Deaflympics, in
Davis Cup official Website. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2004, from
http://www.daviscup.com/about/rulesregs.asp.
Paris, France, in 1924. At the time of its founding, there
Evans, R. (1988). Open tennis. London: Bloomsbury. were six official national federations for deaf sport in
Taiwanese delegates at the 2003 Deaflympics flash peace signs. Source: CISS/Ralph Fernandez
existence. Rubens Alcais and Dresse united these fed- participating in 1955 Winter Deaflympics in Oberam-
erations and created an international governing body, mergau, Germany.
the Comité International des Sports Silencieux (CISS), In 1933 the World Records Commission (WRC) was
to oversee the Deaflympics and world championships. established to keep track of deaf world records in ath-
Athletes from the six countries of the official federa- letics and swimming. The WRC later added shooting,
tions (Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, speed skating, and short-course swimming records. The
the Netherlands, and Poland), along with those from Deaflympics awards gold, silver, and bronze medals for
Hungary, Italy, Latvia, and Romania competed in the first-, second-, and third-place winners. The ICSD main-
first Deaflympics held 10–17 August 1924 in Paris, tains records of all medal winners by individual, team,
France. Sports included were athletics, cycling, football, and country categories. In 1974 the CISS Museum
shooting, and swimming. Women competed in these opened in Rome, Italy, to showcase the long and rich
games from the onset. history of deaf sports.
The Winter Deaflympics was founded by Heinz Proc- The CISS has undergone two name changes since its
hazka of Austria and held in Seefeld, Austria, from 26– inception. Sourds (deaf) replaced Silencieux (silent) in
30 January 1949. There were five nations competing, 1979 as voted by the Twenty-fifth CISS Congress. It
with a total of thirty-three competitors. Athletes com- then was changed to the International Committee of
peted in Alpine skiing (men’s downhill, men’s slalom, Sports for the Deaf (ICSD) in 2001 when the IOC ap-
men’s combined classification, and Nordic skiing— proved the Deaflympics name change from Deaf World
men’s 15km and men’s 3 ✕ 10km relay). Women began Games. An eight-member executive committee, all of
DEAFLYMPICS 451
Deaflympics
Autonomy for the Deaflympics
The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf at the 1995 Congress. The IOC continued to recog-
(ICSD) was a founding member of the International nize ICSD and the Deaflympics.
Coordinating Committee (currently the International Dr. Donalda Ammons, interim president and sec-
Paralympic Committee—IPC). The IPC is the um- retary general of the ICSD, states that maintaining its
brella of sports for disabled athletes under the aus- independence remains necessary for the organiza-
pices of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). tion, which is the oldest international organization of
It is a multi-disability, multisport event for elite ath- sports for the disabled. The Deaflympics serve not
letes who are physically disabled (i.e., spinal cord in- only as a sporting event but also as a socialization
juries, amputees, blind/visually impaired, cerebral and cultural vehicle for deaf people. Competitors in
palsy, and some mental disabilities). The IPC cate- the Paralympics communicate in spoken languages
gorizes the disabilities in complex classifications and whereas deaf people tend to communicate via sign
the rules of sports are adapted depending upon the languages. If the Deaflympics merge with the Para-
disability. Deaf and hard of hearing athletes are not lympics, the cost of providing sign language inter-
physically disabled and do not require special classi- preters would be astronomical and impractical. Very
fications or any alterations in rules other than visual few interpreters are needed in the Deaflympics (usu-
cues for auditory starting signals. The ICSD joined ally only for communication with nondeaf officials
the IPC in 1986 with the understanding that they and coaches) whereas deaf athletes, coaches, and of-
would maintain their autonomy and continue the ficials communicate directly with one another.
Deaflympics. However, problems arose when many Should the Deaflympics merge with the Paralympics,
national sporting bodies and committees reduced or the deaf athletes would be isolated from the nondeaf
cut off funding and ordered their deaf athletes to par- athletes with very little means of communication.
ticipate in the Paralympics, when in fact, there were Dr. Ammons stresses that the ICSD remains com-
and are not any competitions for deaf athletes in mitted to working with the IPC in resolving issues
these games. The Deaflympics did not receive equal and achieving common goals. However, she con-
financial parity from the IPC as originally agreed nor cludes: “We, the deaf, maintain our right to self-
did they include the ICSD in important decision- determination and the full control of our sport
making concerning deaf athletes. The ICSD after sig- organizations. This right will not be compromised
nificant deliberations in an effort to resolve some of nor relinquished in the interest of funding support for
the problems and confusion between the IPC and our various levels of sports.”
ICSD voted to resign their membership from the IPC Becky Clark
whom are deaf, manages the ICSD. Deaf individuals the organization the Coubertin Olympic Cup in 1966,
must make up 51 percent of the membership of the created by the founder of the modern Olympic Games,
national federations as mandated by the ICSD consti- Baron de Coubertin, in recognition of ICSD’s strict ad-
tution. Membership has boomed since the first Deaf- herence to the Olympic ideal and its service to interna-
lympics, from six to ninety countries representing deaf tional sports.
national sports governing bodies. Since its recognition Other notable historic moments include the election
by the IOC as an international federation with Olympic of Maria Dolores Rojas de Bendeguz of Venezuela in
standing in 1955, ICSD and IOC have developed a pro- 1981 as the first deaf woman to serve on the ICSD
ductive and successful relationship. The IOC awarded executive committee. Dr. Donalda Ammons served as
second vice president (1995–1997) and secretary gen- while maintaining their autonomy. The Deaflympics is a
eral (1997–present) of the ICSD Executive Committee cultural event as well as one that provides the opportu-
and is currently its interim president. The IOC honored nity for deaf athletes to excel at the pinnacle of elite com-
former ICSD president Jerald M. Jordan in 1995 with petition among other deaf athletes. The Deaflympics are
the Olympic Order—the highest award the IOC can truly a celebration of the Olympic ideals that the IOC
give to any person—for his outstanding work of nearly continues to recognize.
a quarter century in the true spirit of the Olympic ideals.
Becky Clark
Significance of Deaflympics
The Deaflympics is unique in that it is organized and Further Reading
governed by and for deaf people. The only classification Ammons, D. K. (1990,Winter/Spring). Unique identity of the World
necessary to compete is one must be deaf or hard of Games for the Deaf. Palaestra, 6, 40–43.
Clark, R. A. (1998). Deaf women and sport. In C. Oglesby, D. L.
hearing (a loss of 55 decibels or greater in the better Greenberg, R. Louise Hall, K. L. Hill, F. Johnston, & S. Easterby
ear). Hearing aids are not permitted in competition in (Eds.), Encyclopedia of women and sport in America (pp. 64–66).
order to maintain a level playing field among athletes. Phoenix, AZ: The Oryx Press.
Clark, R. A. (2001). Deaf Olympics. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann,
Deaf people consider themselves a cultural and lin- & G. Pfister, (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women & sports
guistic minority, not “disabled,” as is typically the view (pp. 314–315). New York: Macmillan Reference.
DePauw, K. P., & Gavron, S. J. (1995). Disability and sport. Cham-
of nondeaf people. Only when competing in the non- paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
deaf world where communication is spoken is the deaf International Committee of Sports for the Deaf. Retrieved May 25,
athlete at a disadvantage. Hence, Dr. David Stewart 2004, from http://www.deaflympics.org
Jordan, J. M. (2001). CISS and the International Paralympics Com-
stated that “deafness is a communication disability in mittee. In J. M. Lovett, J. Eickman, & T. Giansanti (Eds.), CISS 2001:
the hearing society” (Jordan 2001, 55). A review (pp. 54–57). Redditch, UK: Red Lizard Limited.
Lovett, J. M., Eickman, J., & Giansanti, T. (Eds.). (2001). CISS 2001: A
The Deaflympics also serves as a rich cultural and so- review. Redditch, UK: Red Lizard Limited.
cial event for deaf people from all over the world. Deaf Stewart, D. A. (1991). Deaf sport: The impact of sports within the deaf
people tend to communicate with each other using in- community. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University.
Stewart, D. A., & Ammons, D. K. (2001, Summer). Future directions
ternational sign language and/or their national sign of the Deaflympics. Palaestra, 17(3), 45-49.
language. Over 3,000 deaf athletes from eighty coun-
tries competed in the 2001 Summer Deaflympics in
Rome, Italy. An average of 5,000 spectators daily, the
majority of whom were deaf, attended these games.
More than 4,000 athletes from ninety countries are ex-
pected to compete in fifteen different sports at the 2005
Denmark
Summer Deaflympics in Melbourne, Australia. The Win-
ter Deaflympics, although smaller than the summer
games, also draws large crowds from every corner of the
D enmark is a small Scandinavian country with ap-
proximately 5 million inhabitants. Its government
consists of a monarchy; representative democracy, with
globe. a parliament; and 275 self-governing regions. Denmark
has several cities, but only one metropolis, Copen-
The Future hagen, with approximately 1 million inhabitants. The
The Deaflympics continue to prosper and expand. The official Danish sport policy is built on a close inter-
ICSD is working with the International Paralympics connection between sporting organizations and facili-
Committee (IPC) to develop a mutual working relation- ties; that is, the government has provided facilities,
ship in providing financial parity for the Deaflympics which sporting associations have priority access to. The
DENMARK 453
Denmark
Fagenes Fest: The Festival
of the Professions
government created preconditions for sport; however,
without a detailed plan describing the government’s The extract below is a 1938 newspaper account
role, it was necessary for the general population to use of Fagenes Fest, the “Festival of the Professions”:
legislation to create the framework. This article presents a sporting event sponsored annually by the Dan-
the development of sport across two distinct periods: ish workers movement.
the mid-1800s until World War II and from World War
II to the present day. There was a gigantic performance. The black-
smiths quickly defeated the bakers, and the tai-
The First Period: 1861–1945 lors could not stand long time against the
Danish citizens did not have the right to assemble nor coal-heavers who weighed at least twice as
to form associations before the Constitution of 1849 much. But there arose a gigantic competition be-
that stated: tween the dairy workers and the brewery men—
and much to the distress of the agitators for ab-
S. 78(1) Citizens shall, without previous permission, be
stinence, the beer won. The final was between
free to form associations for any lawful purpose.
the brewers and the coalmen, and here the brew-
S. 79 Citizens shall, without previous permission, be at ery workers had “to bite the dust.” “This is not at
liberty to assemble unarmed. . . . all surprising,” said the captain of the coal-
These two rights were decisive if citizens were to be heavers. “You only carry the beer, but it is us
able to engage in sports in the modern sense of the who drink it.”
word. How the civilian population used these rights Source: Hansen, J. (1993). Fagenes Fest. Working-class culture and sport. In:
K. Dietrich & H. Eichberg (Eds.), Körpersprache. Über identität und konflikt
with regard to sport is a process that started in the (p. 97ff). Frankfurt, Germany: Afra Verlag.
1860s. The time was characterized by the political bat-

tle between the government party, the Conservatives,
and the opposition party, the Liberals. During this pe-
riod many associations were formed in opposition to most 1,000 village halls were built in Denmark, and at
the Conservatives, for example, the first youth/rifle as- the turn of the century almost every village had its own
sociation, which was founded in 1861 and is regarded hall. The village halls became the “home” for many rifle
as the first sporting association. Later, associations in- and gymnastics associations. Up until the 1920s and
tegrated (Swedish) gymnastics which during this period 1930s gymnastics, that is, Swedish team gymnastics,
quickly became the most popular sport in the country- was the dominant winter sport in the countryside for
side. English sports like rowing, ball games, sailing, ten- men and women.
nis, and horse racing gained popularity in the larger The development in the Copenhagen area differed
towns, especially in Copenhagen. These sports led to from that of the rest of the country. The first sports cen-
the further development of clubs and associations. ters in Copenhagen were private, that is, large football
Gymnastics and shooting merged and the Danish (soccer) clubs bought land and built their own facilities.
Shooting Association (later called the Danish Gymnas- Several of these clubs housed football (soccer), cricket,
tics and Sports Association—DGI) was created in and tennis that were exclusively for men (from upper-
1861. Other sports were mainly organized in the Den- class society). In 1911 the municipality of Copenhagen
mark’s Sports Federation (DIF), founded in 1896. provided a sports center (Idrætsparken) with an ad-
At this time Denmark was an agricultural society, joining clubhouse for a number of poor common foot-
the majority of whose population lived in the country- ball (soccer) clubs (for apprentices and workers). During
side. From the beginning of the 1870s up to 1905, al- this period townswomen also practiced gymnastics in
Denmark
Key Events in Denmark Sports History
1861 A youth/rifle association is formed as the 1948 The government begins to subsidize sports
first sports association in Denmark. associations.
1861 The Danish Shooting association is formed. 1952 A movement emerges to support youth
sports.
1896 Denmark’s Sport Federation is founded.
1968 The Leisure-Time Act and other legislation
1911 Copenhagen builds a sports center for public guarantee equal opportunity in sport.
use.
1984 Team Demark is formed to support elite-level
1930s Soccer has become as popular as gymnastics. athletes.
1937 Sports centers are built at all schools. 1994 The Danish Foundation for Culture and
1940s Many public facilities are built leading to Sports Facilities is established to build more
much participation in sport. facilities.
clubs and private institutions. In addition they also par- their availability for use by the general public in the
ticipated in hockey, ice-skating, rowing, and tennis. Al- 1930s and 1940s. Most of the outdoor sporting facili-
though gymnastics was the most accepted sport for ties and clubhouses that were built in the first half of the
women, there was considerable resistance to women last century were built on the initiative of local clubs
practicing sport in public. Copenhagen continued to and on a voluntary basis. However, the administration
build municipal sports centers throughout the first half of most of these facilities was later overseen by the local
of the 1900s, but after World War II, Copenhagen was authorities. Many sporting facilities were built through-
not able to provide the rest of the country with good out the 1940s.
sports facilities. During this period participation in sport grew. This
The building of sports facilities all over the country was a turning point for Denmark sport as it was no
accelerated with the School Act of 1937, which stipu- longer reserved for an exclusive circle, even though it
lated that schools with more than twelve students was still mainly boys and young men who participated
should have a sports hall with adjoining changing in sports activities. A study of participation in sport
rooms and shower facilities. And each municipality had from 1938 showed that nationwide women made up
to provide a suitable area for ball games and other approximately 35 percent of the total number of those
sports for children and young people. It was also active in sports (Trangbæk 1998, 29).
stressed to the parish councils that they could lend their
sporting facilities to local sporting clubs. This opportu- The Second Period: 1945–Present
nity paved the way for football (soccer) and (outdoor) After World War I, the youth of Denmark became the
team handball to spread from the cities to the rest of the focus of the government in its attempt to reconstruct
country during the 1920s and 1930s. At the end of the and develop a welfare state. In 1948 the Football Pool
1930s, as many people played football (soccer) as took Act was passed as a permanent government subsidy to
part in gymnastics, however, football (soccer) was not three voluntary sporting organisations: DGI, DIF, and
well supported by the government. In 1937–1938, the DFIF (Danish Federation of Company Sports, founded
government subsidy that football received was half the 1946). In 1952 a Youth Commission’s report on “youth
size of that given to rifle and gymnastic associations and leisure” stressed the importance of suitable facilities
(Ibsen 1999). for sport and stated that providing them was a public
Parallel with the building of sporting facilities was responsibility. In actual fact the division of work and re-
DENMARK 455
sponsibility among the state, the local authorities, and courts, riding schools, bowling alleys, golf courses,
the local associations still exists today. The commission aquatic centers, and fitness clubs. There were many rea-
report stated that the local associations had to provide sons for the decrease in the building of sports centers.
voluntary work and subscriptions in order for the as- Perhaps the most important reason was a diversification
sociations to survive. The local authorities had to pro- of interests. Regular surveys from 1964 on indicate the
vide the facilities, and the government had to support proportion of Danes participating in sport had steadily
the education of leaders in the sporting organizations. increased: from 15 percent in 1964 to 29 percent in
At the end of the 1960s, legislation on leisure activ- 1975, to 47 percent in 1993, 51 percent in 1998, and
ities peaked. The Leisure-Time Act passed in 1968 em- reaching 72 percent in 2002.
bodied as legislation social democratic ideals about The latest surveys show that the most characteristic
equal opportunities for all and equal access to sports changes in sports participation over the past decades
and other leisure activities—welfare benefits to all citi- are as follows:
zens. (These acts from the late 1960s have been re-
■ The total number of people participating in sport
tained with minor amendments by the Act on General
has tripled.
Education [Enlightenment of the People] from 1991.)
■ Sporting activities outside associations (commercial
Sport becomes more politicized in the 1970s and
and private) has more than tripled.
1980s. Several parliament debates took place about the
■ Activity in associations has almost tripled.
role of sport. During the late nineteenth century, the
■ Women’s participation in sport has increased four-
state always regarded sport as a means to preventing so-
fold (and is now equal to that of men).
cial problems among young people, increasing health,
■ The number of people over 66 years of age partici-
and teaching democracy. These principles existed until
pating in sporting activities has increased tenfold.
the 1980s when new measures were taken and the state
began to support elite athletes via Team Denmark (a na- These changes in sports participation, Denmark’s rat-
tional organization due to an act passed in 1984). ification of the Council of Europe’s “Sports for All” char-
The involvement of the government and local au- ter in 1972, and an increasing focus on sports as a
thorities in youth leisure time, strong economic growth means of preserving health (WHO’s “Health for All” by
in society, and an intense expansion of the public sec- the year 2000) led to a criticism of public funding for
tor throughout the 1970s and 1980s resulted in a sporting associations.This resulted in a small portion of
boom in the building of sporting facilities. From the late the public funding for sport being earmarked for the dis-
1960s to the mid-1980s approximately one thousand abled, elderly, refugees, ethnic minorities, and poor areas
sports halls were built, almost the same number as vil- in the big cities. The critique of public funding, changes
lage halls built one hundred years previously. During in funding allocations, and the lull in the development
this period the local authorities increased their role in of sports centers led to a time for reflection. In order to
the management of sport. This included centralizing counter the decline in new sports centers, the Danish
and expanding many sports centers into hall com- Foundation for Culture and Sports Facilities (LOA) was
plexes, football (soccer) pitches, tennis courts, facilities founded by an act of parliament in 1994. Since the es-
for athletics, and the like. tablishment of the foundation, there has been an in-
From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, the local au- crease in the building of new sporting facilities.
thorities almost stopped building sporting halls due to It is interesting to note that there was obviously never
financial constraints and changes in participation in one single national plan for the development of sport in
sport. A growing number of sports facilities were built Denmark. The importance that the government has
by private investors, in particular tennis courts, squash placed on associations since the Constitution of 1849
has greatly influenced state involvement. “Association ing weight. Dieting is best understood as the practice
democracy” was therefore regarded as an important of eating and drinking in a regulated fashion with the
component of government equal to the formal repre- aim of losing (or sometimes gaining) weight. Dieting
sentative democracy (Kaspersen and Ottesen 2001). for weight loss has been around for hundreds if not
For this reason sporting associations were regarded as thousands of years, although it is only in more recent
the backbone of Danish sports culture and sports pol- times that it has occupied such a central position in so-
icy throughout the twentieth century. The building of ciety. In the twenty-first century, diet and weight loss
sporting facilities was controlled more by this idea than are terms we are likely to encounter every day, such is
the population’s participation in sport, even though their centrality to contemporary discussions of identity.
sport always has been the most popular leisure-time The societal value placed upon the body is now ar-
activity in Denmark. guably greater than at any other time in history, lead-
ing to an increased interest in, and awareness of, the
Laila Ottesen
foods we eat.
Further Reading Healthy Eating

Ibsen, B. (1999). Structure and development of sport organisations in Diet and nutrition are important for everyone, but they
Denmark. In Sports clubs in various European countries. Schorndorf, are especially important for those who exercise, as food
Germany: Hofmann Verlag.
Kaspersen, L., & Ottesen, L. (2001). Associalism for a hundred and fifty
and drink are the fuel that our bodies burn. Nutrition
years—and still alive and kicking: Some reflections on the Danish is the science of feeding the body with the right nutri-
civil society. In Critical review of international social and political ents. Nutrients perform three major roles:
philosophy. Abingdon, UK: Frank Cass Taylor and Francis Group.
Larsen, K. (2003): Idrætsdeltagelse og idrætsforbrug i Danmark. Arhus, 1. Growth, repair, and maintenance of all body cells
Denmark: Klim/IFO.
Ottesen, L. (2004). Sports participation, gender and the welfare state. 2. Regulation of body processes
In Sportswissenschaft. Schorndorf, Germany: Hoffman Verlag. 3. Supplying of energy for cells
Ottesen, L., & Ibsen, B. (2000). Forsamles og forenes om idræt. Lokale
og anlægsfondens skriftrække 5. København, Denmark: Lokale & A good diet should contain carbohydrates, fats, pro-
Anlægsfonden.
Ottesen, L., & Ibsen, B. (2004). Sport and the welfare society: The de- teins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Most foods are
velopment of sport between state, market and civil society. In K. mixtures of nutrients. Bread, for example, is usually de-
Heinemann (Ed.), Sport in the welfare society. Hamburg, Germany:
Iinst. Für Soziolgie, Universität Hamburg.
scribed as a carbohydrate food, yet it supplies fats, pro-
Trangbæk, E. (1998). I med-og modvind. In A. L. Poulsen (Ed.) teins, and other nutrients also. Without an adequate
Kvindeliv-idrætsliv. Kvindeidræt i Danmark. København, Denmark: supply of nutrients, cells lose their ability to perform
Udgivet af kvindemuseet i Danmark og Institut for Idræt, Køben-
havns Universitet. their jobs. Eventually, this affects the rest of the body,
and nutritional deficiencies develop. Each type of nu-
trient performs a different function.
CARBOHYDRATES
Diet and Weight Loss When taken into the body, these are broken down into
glucose (our main source of energy). Carbohydrates
T he term diet actually means those things that are

customarily eaten. However, the meaning of “diet”
has changed over the years, and now the common per-
help build up energy reserves and can be found in foods
like bread, pasta, and potatoes. It is often recommended
that carbohydrates make up at least half our total food
ception of a diet is of a food regime designed for los- intake.
DIET AND WEIGHT LOSS 457
What some call health, if purchased by perpetual anxiety about diet,

isn’t much better than tedious disease. ■ GEORGE DENNISON PRENTICE
FATS ical activity. It is important to note that we are not los-

Fats can be broken down into two main types: saturated ing water only when sweating; even when we are
fats, found in animal products such as milk, meat, and breathing, we are losing water. The more active an in-
cheese; and polyunsatuated fats, found in cooking oils, dividual, the more water is lost. Loss of too much water
nuts, and seeds. Fats provide a layer of energy to be leads to dehydration, which can cause illness and even
used when an individual is resting, help keep us warm, death.
and protect vital organs. Like carbohydrates they are a
source of energy but should account for no more than The Social Value of the Body
one-third of daily food intake. For a large part of Western society, the modern diets we
eat, together with increasingly inactive lifestyles, are re-
PROTEINS sulting in fatter people than at any other time in history.
Proteins supply energy when our body has used up its In traditional Christian culture, diet was perceived as a
stores of fats and carbohydrates. Proteins are made method of regulating the self to protect the soul from
from amino acids and can be found in foods such as the ravages of sexuality. The diet has a very close rela-
fish, eggs, and meat. Bodies use amino acids to build tionship to religion, which as a system of disciplinary
cells and replace body tissue. Protein should account for practices binds the individual to the collective whole
approximately 15 percent of our daily food intake. through rituals such as the Eucharist.
In contemporary society looking good means looking
VITAMINS sexually attractive, and for women this has come to
Like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, vitamins are or- mean being thin. The modern psyche is expressed
ganic compounds that are essential for health. Although through a sexually charged body image that is socially
only required in very small amounts, vitamins perform good. Sociologists suggest that the slogan “eat less fat”
many roles, primarily as regulators of body processes. is accepted within popular culture because it is under-
Most people are familiar with the letter names for vita- stood within a discourse of the sexual body. Therefore,
mins such as vitamin A and vitamin C. the role of the body has been reversed, as we now diet
in order to express our sensuality and sexuality.
MINERALS Sports stars are often used as examples of “healthy”
Over twenty mineral elements need to be supplied by bodies, and many are used to endorse certain food and
the diet. They are necessary for a variety of jobs such as drinks. Particularly in women’s sports, athletes that are
forming strong bones, activating enzymes, and main- deemed to be the most physically attractive receive a
taining water balance. Minerals include iron (helps pro- greater share of media coverage and more lucrative en-
duce the oxygen-carrying compartments in the blood), dorsements. The social value attached to the body has
calcium (helps keep teeth and bones hard) and potas- never been greater, and the weight-loss industry has
sium (helps muscles work and prevents cramp). Vita- been quick to capitalize on this.
mins and minerals interact with one another—if you do Today the diet industry’s marketing strategy is based
not get enough of one, the other may not work the way largely on the creation and perpetuation of fear, bias,
it is supposed to. and stereotype. Fat people are portrayed as unhealthy,
Water is the most essential nutrient and is the main unattractive, and weak, while a thin figure is linked to
component of cells and blood. It plays an important health and success. This is somewhat dangerous; in pur-
role in regulating our temperature when exercising. As suit of this thin ideal, many individuals have developed
perspiration (sweat) it helps cool us down during phys- serious eating disorders and other associated problems.
Whenever I get the urge to exercise, I lie down until

the feeling passes away. ■ ROBERT M. HUTCHINS
Eating Disorders ily muscled individuals will have a much higher weight
For many people weight loss becomes an obsession than the stated norm on such charts.
that poses a very real threat to health and well-being. In the United Kingdom, for example, 20 percent of
Bulimia and anorexia nervosa are two of the most com- women and 17 percent of men are classified as obese,
monly reported eating disorders in modern society. and it is estimated that if the current trend continues
Bulimia involves recurrent episodes of binge eating more than one-quarter of British adults will be obese by
followed by purging. Usually the binge eating involves the year 2010. Studies have shown that foods high in
food high in calories from fat or sugar. To avoid gain- fat promote “passive overconsumption” due to their low
ing weight from such eating, individuals follow this bulk and limited ability to satisfy the desire for food.
binge eating with vomiting, laxatives, or fasting. This Foods high in carbohydrate have a lower energy density
purging usually takes place in secret, and some bulim- and higher satiety value. Studies have also shown evi-
ics go to great lengths to hide this behavior from fam- dence of modest weight loss when fat is reduced in
ily and friends. the diet and complex carbohydrate consumption is
Anorexia nervosa is a psychological disease in which increased.
a person develops an aversion to food and a distorted
body image. Over a period of time, an individual can TACKLING THE OBESITY PROBLEM
lose a significant amount of body weight, but sufferers There needs to be a greater awareness and acceptance
cannot be convinced that they are too thin. Anorexics of the causes of obesity and its adverse health conse-
should be referred to a psychologist or a medical doc- quences. It is important that interventions to tackle
tor who specializes in such cases. these problems begin in childhood and adolescence, as
Both of the above illnesses are more prevalent these are crucial periods in the development of behav-
among females. While there is significant pressure to ior patterns. Most studies suggest that an increase in
conform to thin ideals in Western society in general, the carbohydrates and a decrease in fat consumption are
pressure faced by women to achieve a thin figure is crucial for weight control. There is a need for a range
much greater than for men. A growing number of news- of parties to work together to promote healthy eating
papers and magazines carry regular features about in society, although it must also be noted that individ-
women’s relationships with their bodies. Thinness, cen- uals must ultimately take responsibility for their own
tral to notions of a desirable femininity, is promoted well-being.
and celebrated, while being fat is characterized as one
of society’s great ills. Weight Loss
Although there are many programs advertised to help
Obesity individuals lose weight, the only proven safe and long-
Obesity is one of the largest and fastest-growing health term method is to burn more calories than are con-
problems in the world today. It is defined as an exces- sumed. This is achieved by eating less and by eating
sive accumulation of fat beyond what is considered nor- healthier foods coupled with an increase in energy ex-
mal for an individual’s age, sex, and body type. Obesity penditure. Dieting should encompass a nutritionally
is defined as more than 20 percent above desirable balanced, low-calorie diet together with an increase in
weight, or as 20 percent fat for men and 30 percent fat physical-activity levels.
for women. A Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30 and above A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise one
is also taken as an indicator of obesity, although it must cubic centimeter of water one degree Celsius. A kilo-
be noted that muscle weighs more than fat, and heav- calorie is equal to one thousand calories and is the term
DIET AND WEIGHT LOSS 459
A young woman on
a diet measuring how
much weight she has lost.
Source: istockphoto/tomazi.
weight control can best be achieved through a

combination of sensible eating and regular
physical activity. Many crash diets tend to offer
short-term results, but a number of these have
significant health risks if followed over a longer
time period. Such diets usually prove unsatisfac-
tory and are often followed by further weight gain.
There is evidence that dieting can lead to be-
coming overweight and is linked to some cases of
obesity. A process of gaining weight, dieting, gain-
ing weight, dieting again, and so on is known as
weight cycling or “yo-yo” dieting. During this
process, the body becomes more fuel efficient
and the metabolic rate declines, resulting in
weight being regained three times faster in
the second cycle. Muscle weakness, blood-
pressure abnormalities, thermoregulatory
generally used as a standard measurement in nutrition problems, and impaired memory function are all by-
and exercise. One pound of fat contains approximately products of weight cycling.
3,500 calories, so to lose one pound a week an indi-
vidual should consume 3,500 fewer calories each week. WEIGHT LOSS IN SPORT
This can best be achieved by reducing daily caloric in- Sport, like all other forms of physical activity, is char-
take by 500 calories a day. It is also important to note acterized as an effective way to lose weight. Despite the
that exercise burns calories, so an overall caloric deficit healthy image associated with athleticism, research has
can be achieved through a combination of exercise and shown that many athletes are engaging in practices that
modified eating—weight loss does not have to be solely are detrimental to their health. Weight loss, when
about a reduced food intake. The lowest recommended achieved through a combination of aerobic exercise
daily intake is 1,500 calories for men and 1,200 calo- and carefully planned dietary manipulation, is recom-
ries for women. A lower calorie intake than this should mended as being both safe and effective.
only be undertaken if following a medically supervised In many weight-category combat sports, participants
program. fight in the lowest possible weight class in order to gain
a competitive advantage. Rapid weight reduction is
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE WEIGHT LOSS often seen as the answer, yet weight loss of more than
Changes to lifestyle behavior are difficult, as both diet two pounds a week may involve either dehydration or
and physical habits are highly resistant to change. There starvation.
is also a great deal of sensationalism and hype within
the media about different diet plans and weight-loss Dehydration
practices. Many celebrities endorse particular products, Dehydration is one of the most commonly reported
and there is also a tendency to promote “quick-fix” so- methods of weight loss among athletes in combat
lutions to weight problems. Crash diets are definitely sports. Dehydration has been shown to result in a re-
not the solution to this problem; as noted previously, duction in blood and plasma volume, resulting in a
Diet and Weight Loss

Hippocrates on Health
Positive health requires a knowledge of man’s The Future
primary constitution and the powers of various At present dieting is viewed as the deprivation and pun-
foods, both those natural to them and those re- ishment one must endure for overindulgence. Thinness
sulting from human skill. But eating alone is not rather than health is the overriding concern. In any
enough to health. There must be exercise, of weight loss program the “long haul” must be empha-
which the effects likewise be known. If there is sized. Extra weight has generally taken a long time to
any deficiency in food or exercise the body will acquire, so it is obvious that to lose it safely will also
fall sick. take a long time. Inactivity and poor food choices have
resulted in a massive rise in overweight people and an
obesity epidemic. Huge numbers of people will diet
and attempt to lose weight at some stage in their lives.
compensatory increase in heart rate. Given that one It must be noted that physical activity is the positive
liter of water weighs approximately one kilogram, then way to achieve weight control, as dieting by itself is
dehydration can lead to significant weight loss, partic- rarely successful in the long run.
ularly when considering that 55–60 percent of adult
John Harris
body weight is made up of water. Serious injuries and
some fatalities in the sport of boxing are often linked to See also Exercise and Health; Nutrition
dehydration; evidence indicates that many serious in-
juries tend to occur among boxers in the lighter-weight
categories and not among heavyweights. In 1997, in Further Reading
separate incidents over the course of little more than a Clark, N. (1997). Nancy Clark’s sports nutrition guidebook (2nd ed).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
month, three young American wrestlers died while try- Eisenman, P., Johnson, S., and Benson, J. (1990). Coaches guide to nu-
ing to make the weight for their sport. Such incidents trition and weight control (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.
Sharkey, B. (2002). Fitness & health (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
often involve individuals exercising in saunas while Kinetics.
wearing rubber suits. The body knows how much water Shilling, C. (2003). The body and social theory (2nd ed.). London:
it needs, so attempting to lose water as a means of Sage.
Stearns, P. (1997). Fat history. New York: New York University Press.
weight reduction should not be attempted. Turner, B. (1996). The body & society (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
World Health Organization (1998). Obesity: Preventing and managing
the global epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organiza-
DIET TRENDS tion.
The weight loss industry is now a multibillion dollar
business. Numerous companies have attempted to cash
in on such a potentially lucrative market, leading to a
whole host of different weight-loss programs being pro-
moted. Many of these offer quick-fix solutions to weight
problems. There are very few controls or regulations in
Disability Sport
place to protect dieters, and weight-loss success stories
are often only vaguely defined using short-term results.
Diet fads have come and gone over the years, usually
T oday, images of athletes with a disability are be-
coming more commonplace. Stories appear in the
sports section (not just the human interest section).
with more sophisticated marketing techniques but often Athletes with a disability earn money for competing
with little change to the programs themselves. High- and have sponsors for their athletic endeavors. They
protein diets are one such example of a particular di- serve as commentators for sports events, and the pre-
etary plan that resurfaces every few years or so. miere international sporting events that include athletes
DISABILITY SPORT 461
Fall down seven times, get up eight ■ CHINESE PROVERB
with a disability get coverage on national television. The abilities. Disability sports might include sports that were
president of the International Paralympic Committee designed for a selected disability group: goalball for
(IPC) was voted into membership on the International blind athletes, wheelchair basketball for athletes with
Olympic Committee (IOC). physical impairments who use a wheelchair, or sitting
Elite international and national competitions for ath- volleyball for athletes with lower-limb impairments. Dis-
letes with a disability are held regularly; they include the ability sport also includes those sports practiced by
International Paralympics Games, Deaflympics, Inter- able-bodied individuals (e.g., athletics, volleyball, swim-
national Special Olympics, and numerous sport specific ming, etc.) that have been modified or adapted to in-
world championships. International and national or- clude athletes with disabilities (e.g., wheelchair tennis,
ganizations governing these competitions have emerged tandem cycling) as well as those that require little or no
throughout the world. Rules governing competitions, modification to allow individuals with disabilities to
sports, athlete eligibility and classification, doping in participate (e.g., athletics, wrestling, swimming).”
sport, and more have become more defined. Many athletes with hearing impairments and deaf-
The records held by elite athletes with a disability ness do not consider themselves a part of the disability
are seconds or tenths of seconds behind those of elite community or disability sport. Without wishing to of-
able-bodied athletes in such sports as downhill skiing, fend, I include mention of deaf athletes and deaf sport
swimming, and track events. Athletes with double leg for the readers who might not know that sport oppor-
amputations finish the 100-meter race under 11 sec- tunities for deaf individuals exist.
onds (10.85 seconds). Elite male wheelchair marathon-
ers complete marathons in under 90 minutes, frequently Historical Perspectives
averaging 3.5 minutes per mile. Female wheelchair Individuals with a disability have participated in sport
marathoners often finish in 1:49 (Paralympian 2000). for more than one hundred years dating back to the late
In field events athletes with single leg amputations have nineteenth century. The initial sport experiences and
jumped 6 feet, 8 inches. opportunities were quite limited until the 1940s. Sport
Sport has become a viable entity for youth with a dis- opportunities for athletes with a disability now span the
ability: Athletic role models exist for aspiring young continuum from recreational sports to elite competi-
athletes, and community and recreation centers pro- tive sports.
vide opportunities for these individuals. Interscholastic In recorded history deaf athletes were among the
athletic competition in wheelchair basketball exists. Ath- first individuals to participate in sport through the
letes with a disability have appeared on the Wheaties Sports Club for the Deaf founded in Berlin in 1888.
box and have become celebrities. Disability sport is an The first international competition for deaf athletes was
entity whose time has finally come. held in Paris in 1924 at the same time that the Comité
Internationale des Sports des Sourds (CISS), or Inter-
Defining Disability Sport national Sports Committee for the Deaf, was founded.
Throughout its history, many terms have been used to Competitions for deaf athletes, known initially as the
describe sport participation by individuals with a dis- World Games for the Deaf and now known as the
ability: handicapped sports, sport for the disabled, Deaflympics, have been held every four years since. The
adapted sport, disabled sport, wheelchair sport, blind CISS was recognized by the International Olympic
sport, and deaf sport. The most recent, and widely ac- Committee in 1955 and has national affiliated associ-
cepted, term is disability sport. DePauw and Gavron ations throughout the world.
(2005) define disability sport as “sport that has been de- The significant impact of the aftermath of the world
signed for or specifically practiced by athletes with dis- wars is seen in the development of sport rehabilitation
Things do not change. We change. ■ HENRY DAVID THOREAU
programs. The most notable of these was developed in and Gavron 2005). Following the Arnhem Seminar in
the 1940s by Sir Ludwig Guttman of Stoke Mandeville, 1987 and the subsequent meeting in Dusseldorf, Ger-
England, who first introduced competitive sports as an many, on 21 September 1989, the International Para-
integral part of the rehabilitation of disabled veterans. lympic Committee (IPC) was born.
The International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation
(ISMGF) was formed by Guttman in 1960 to sanction International Paralympic
all international competition for individuals with spinal Committee (IPC)
cord injuries. The International Paralympic Committee, the umbrella
Competitive teams of wheelchair athletes emerged multidisability organization for elite sport for athletes
across the European continent and spread to the United with a disability, has the primary responsibility to or-
States in 1949 when the first national wheelchair bas- ganize, supervise, and coordinate the Paralympic
ketball tournament was held at the University of Illi- Games and other multidisability elite sports competi-
nois. This precipitated the founding of the National tions. The purposes of the IPC include organizing the
Wheelchair Basketball Association (NWBA) that would Paralympics and Multi-Disability World Games.
ultimately become the governing body for wheelchair The Paralympics have a historical connection to the
basketball in the United States. Olympic Games. As early as 1960, an attempt was
During the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s, interna- made to hold the Paralympic Games in the same coun-
tional sport competitions were expanded to include try (and city) and same year of the Olympic Games
other disability groups not eligible for the World Games (e.g., Rome, 1960).The Olympic flag has flown over the
for the Deaf or international wheelchair competitions. Paralympic Games since the International Games for
These included the following: the Disabled were held in New York in 1984. Since the
Summer Paralympic Games in South Korea in 1988,
■ International Sports Organization for the Disabled
the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games have been
(ISOD) (1964)
officially held in the same city, following shortly after the
■ Special Olympics International (1968)
Olympic Games and making use of the same facilities.
■ International Cerebral Palsy Society (1968)
Today, the bidding process for hosting future Olympic
■ Cerebral Palsy International Sports & Recreation As-
Games includes a formal bid for organizing the Para-
sociation (CP-ISRA) (1978; reorganized as U.S. Cere-
lympic Games as well. Relationships between the IPC
bral Palsy Athletic Association, 1986)
and IOC were formalized in 2000 through IPC repre-
■ International Blind Sports Association (IBSA) (1981)
sentation in selected IOC commissions, financial assis-
In 1982, CP-ISRA, IBSA, ISMGF, and ISOD came tance to the IPC by the IOC, and official membership
together to form the International Coordinating Com- on the IOC by the IPC president (Paralympian 2000).
mittee (ICC) to coordinate disability sport worldwide
and to negotiate with the International Olympic Com- Elite International Competitions
mittee (IOC) on behalf of athletes with a disability. In There are three major international competitions: Par-
addition to the four founding member organizations, alympics, Deaflympics, and Special Olympics.
CISS and Federation for Sports for Persons with Men-
tal Handicaps (INAS-FMH) joined the ICC in the PARALYMPICS
1980s. The ICC served as a fragile alliance of interna- The term Paralympics comes from combining the Latin
tional sport federations and experienced an uneasy his- word para meaning “next to” or “with” and “Olympics”
tory during the years between 1982 and 1987 (DePauw (DePauw and Gavron 2005). The chronology of the
Table 1.
Sports Offered in International Competitions
Sport Paralympics Special Olympics Deaflympics
Archery ✘
Paralympic Games can be traced to Sir Ludwig Gutt- Athletics ✘ ✘ ✘
man, who founded the First Stoke Mandeville Games Badminton ✘ ✘
for the Paralyzed in 1948. Four years later, the first in- Basketball ✘ ✘ ✘
ternational competition for wheelchair athletes was held Bocce ✘ ✘
at Stoke Mandeville, with teams from Britain and the Bowling ✘ ✘ ✘
Netherlands competing. Since then, summer interna- Curling ✘
tional competitions for athletes with a disability have Cycling ✘ ✘ ✘
been held every four years, with increases in the num- Equestrian ✘ ✘
ber of sports, the number of athletes, and type of dis- Fencing ✘
ability. Competitions in winter sports, which began in Figure Skating ✘
1976, have followed a similar pattern. Goalball ✘
Golf ✘
DEAFLYMPICS Gymnastics ✘
The Deaflympics (formerly known as the World Games Hockey ✘ ✘ ✘
for the Deaf) are a quadrennial event that includes both Judo ✘
summer and winter games (Stewart and Ammons Orienteering ✘
2001) usually conducted the year after the Olympic Powerlifting ✘ ✘
Games. The Summer Deaflympics includes competi- Roller Skating ✘
tions in athletics, badminton, basketball, cycling, mara- Rugby ✘
thon, shooting, soccer, and swimming. The Winter Sailing ✘ ✘
Deaflympics includes Nordic skiing, speed skating, Shooting ✘ ✘
Alpine skiing, and hockey. Skiing ✘ ✘ ✘
Snowboarding ✘ ✘
SPECIAL OLYMPICS Snowshoeing ✘
In 1968 Eunice Kennedy Shriver founded Special Soccer ✘ ✘ ✘
Olympics to benefit individuals with mental retardation Softball ✘
and hosted the first International Special Olympic Speed skating ✘
Games at Soldier Field, Chicago. These competitions Swimming ✘ ✘ ✘
are held every two years, alternating between the Winter Table tennis ✘ ✘ ✘
and Summer Games. Special Olympics also includes Team handball ✘ ✘
year-round programming for athletes with intellectual Tennis ✘ ✘ ✘
disabilities. (The sports included on the program of these Volleyball ✘ ✘ ✘
elite international competitions are shown in Table 1.) Water Polo ✘
Wresting ✘
Issues and Controversies

A number of issues and controversies have arisen along classification systems, inclusion, ethical dilemmas, and
with the emergence of disability sport since the late drug testing and doping.
nineteenth century. Athletes with a disability have ben-
efited by the technological advances, improved training CLASSIFICATION
techniques, and the assistance of coaches and sports Classification is related to the underlying philosophy of
medicine personnel. The controversies have included disability sport. For some the goal of classification is to
Before disability sport was taken seriously,

so-called cripple races were a form of
amusement in England.
ined and refined for use in international com-

petitions.
INCLUSION AND INTEGRATION

One can argue that classification is primarily a
concern for the fairness of competitions among
athletes with a disability. But central to sport
and disability in the broader context is the issue
of competition with able-bodied athletes and the
inclusion of athletes with a disability in elite sport
competitions (e.g., Olympics).This issue manifests it-
self in two distinct ways: the inclusion of disability sport
events within competitions for able-bodied athletes and
competition between athletes with a disability and able-
bodied athletes.
enable each competitor, regardless of severity of im- Over the years athletes with a disability have experi-
pairment, to compete in a fair manner with others of enced selected “inclusion” within the Olympic arena.
similar ability/disability (a more medical-based classifi- Athletes have been included in exhibition events at the
cation system). For others the goal of classification is to Summer and Winter Olympics. The IOC granted ap-
provide for meaningful athletic competition based on proval to use the term Paralympics. Full medal events
ability, not disability. In this instance of emphasis on for athletes with a disability were incorporated into the
ability and less on adaptation/modification of the sport, Commonwealth Games.
the more severely impaired are more likely to be elimi- But the question of integrating athletes with a dis-
nated from elite athletic competition. This latter goal of ability into international competitions remains some-
classification has emerged partly because of the ad- what controversial. A growing number of athletes with
ministrative problem and logistics of numerous classes a disability advocate the inclusion of events for athletes
for competitions. with a disability within major international competi-
Classification of athletes with a disability for com- tions such as the Olympic Games, Pan American
petition has been a long-standing controversy, particu- Games, World University Games, and Commonwealth
larly for the Paralympic Games. Prior to the 1990s, a Games. Others question this approach because it would
medical classification system was used to assign athletes eliminate the more severely disabled athletes from in-
with physical and sensory impairments to numerous ternational competition.
“classes” for competition (e.g., 50 and 100-meter races The dilemma continues. Inasmuch as disability re-
by gender and disability type—3 for blind, 8 for cere- mains an important factor (for both the IPC and the
bral palsy, 9 for amputee, 6 for les autres, 7 for wheel- Olympic Games organizers), the events selected will be
chair users). With pressure to reduce the number of limited to selected athletes with a disability, and specific
classes in major competitions, the medical system fi- disabilities in particular.
nally gave way in the 1990s to the functional classifi-
cation system used in the Paralympic movement. ETHICS, DRUG TESTING, AND D OPING
Classification remains a hotly debated topic within Unfortunately, disability sport is not immune to the
the Paralympic movement today. Integrated or func- ethical issues that are apparent in able-bodied elite
tional classification systems will continue to be exam- sport. Boosting due to autonomic dysreflexia can result
Disability Sport
The U. S. Supreme Court Decision in PGA Tour, Inc. v. Martin
Enforcement of the Americans with Disabilities Act in the athletic events petitioner offers to those mem-
(ADA) enters into the world of sports in 2001 with bers of the public who have the skill and desire to
this decision from the United States Supreme Court. enter. That is exactly what the ADA requires. As a re-
sult, Martin’s request for a waiver of the walking rule
Under the ADAs basic requirement that the need of
should have been granted.
a disabled person be evaluated on an individual
The ADA admittedly imposes some administra-
basis, we have no doubt that allowing Martin to use
tive burdens on the operators of places of public ac-
a golf cart would not fundamentally alter the nature
commodation that could be avoided by strictly
of petitioners tournaments. As we have discussed,
adhering to general rules and policies that are en-
the purpose of the walking rule is to subject players
tirely fair with respect to the able-bodied but that
to fatigue, which in turn may influence the outcome
may indiscriminately preclude access by qualified
of tournaments. Even if the rule does serve that pur-
persons with disabilities. But surely, in a case of this
pose, it is an uncontested finding of the District
kind, Congress intended that an entity like the PGA
Court that Martin easily endures greater fatigue even
not only give individualized attention to the handful
with a cart than his able-bodied competitors do by
of requests that it might receive from talented but dis-
walking. 994 F.Supp., at 1252. The purpose of the
abled athletes for a modification or waiver of a rule
walking rule is therefore not compromised in the
to allow them access to the competition, but also
slightest by allowing Martin to use a cart. A modifi-
carefully weigh the purpose, as well as the letter, of
cation that provides an exception to a peripheral
the rule before determining that no accommodation
tournament rule without impairing its purpose can-
would be tolerable.
not be said to fundamentally alter the tournament.
The judgment of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
What it can be said to do, on the other hand, is to
It is so ordered.
allow Martin the chance to qualify for and compete
in enhanced performance and has been reported to list of the prohibited substances and has identified
have occurred during competitions. Thus, boosting and penalties for violations. Currently, the IPC is working
doping have become important considerations in team closely with the IOC and the World Anti-Doping
and athlete management. Drug testing now occurs reg- Agency (WADA) to develop a testing program and an
ularly at international competitions for athletes with a educational program designed to prevent doping in dis-
disability. Equipment modifications for wheelchair ability sport.
and other assistive devices are also ripe for manipula-
tion in an effort to win. These and other ethical issues Trends
for Paralympians will continue to be present long into Disability sport has been influenced by the elite sport
the future. movement and has been shaped by the political, social,
The fight against doping has become important for and economic factors of society’s cultural contexts. Ac-
disability sport, especially the Paralympic athletes. Sim- cording to DePauw and Gavron (2005), the historical
ilar to the IOC, the IPC has taken a strong stance trends include the following:
against doping and has developed and implemented
policies and procedures to prevent the use of perform- ■ A vertical structure of sport with extensive de-
ance enhancing drugs by athletes with a disability. The velopmental sports programs for individuals with
IPC Medical and Anti-Doping Code has developed a a disability leading toward a national-level and
international-level competitive structure for elite ath- Further Reading

letes with disabilities DePauw, K. P., & Gavron, S. J. (2005). Disability sport. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
■ Establishment of multidisability national and inter- Disability Today Publishing Group. (1997). The triumph of the human
national sport organizations as the governing bodies spirit: The Atlanta Paralympic experience. Ontario, Canada:
for disability sport with strong links to and within the Oakville.
Doll-Tepper, G., Kroner, M., & Sonnenschein, W. (Eds). (2001). New
national and international sport structure (organized horizons in sport for athletes with a disability. Cologne, FRG: Meyer
more by sport than by disability) & Meyer Verlag.
International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved May 23, 2002, from
■ Increased emphasis on high levels of athletic excel- www.paralympic.org.
lence and high standards for performance Paralympian. (2000). IOC-IPC Cooperation Agreement. Retrieved May
■ Increased specialization within sport among athletes 23, 2002, from www.paralympic.org/paralympian/20004/20004
05.html.
with a disability and fewer athletes being able to par- Scruton, S. (1998). Stoke Mandeville: Road to the Paralympics. Ayles-
ticipate in multiple events bury, UK: The Peterhouse Press.
Stewart, D. A. (1991). Deaf sport. Washington, DC: Gallaudet Uni-
■ Classification and competitions becoming more sport versity Press.
specific and ability oriented than disability specific Stewart, D. A., & Ammons, D. (2001). Future directions of the Deaf-
■ Increased numbers of individuals with a disability lympics. Palaestra, 3, 45–49.
(adults, youth, seniors) pursuing sport programs

■ Increased concern for equity in sport opportunities
for girls and women with a disability and increasing
attention to issues of race and socioeconomic status Disordered Eating
■ Inclusion of athletes with a disability within major in-
■
ternational competitions such as the Olympic Games
and world championships
Inclusion of persons with a disability within the
D isordered eating is a spectrum of attitudes and be-
haviors such as a preoccupation with weight and
shape, insufficient energy availability, and dieting as
structure of disability sport as well as coaches, offi- well as binging, vomiting, and abusing diuretics, laxa-
cials, and administrators tives, diet pills, and exercise. Disordered eating may
■ Increased public awareness and acceptance of ath- develop in frequency and intensity to a degree that a
letes with a disability and of sport as a viable option person suffers from a clinically significant eating disor-
for youth der such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.
Athletes constitute a unique population, and the im-
Disability sport has made its mark on society. Today, pact on them of factors such as training, eating pattern,
athletes with a disability have a far greater number of extreme diets, restriction of food intake, and psycho-
opportunities for sport participation and competitions logical profile must be evaluated differently than the im-
than in any other time in history. Sport will be an av- pact on nonathletes. Many women athletes are not
enue for youth with a disability in the same way that aware of the energy requirements necessary to meet the
sport serves the able-bodied youth. Sport opportuni- demands of their energy expenditure and to prevent or
ties for and including individuals with a disability will reverse amenorrhea (abnormal absence or suppression
continue to increase into the twenty-first century, and of menses) or the negative effect on bone health. These
disability sport will be viewed as sport. athletes may have entirely normal eating behaviors and
attitudes, but they are not eating enough to meet their
Karen P. DePauw
energy demands. Thus, an athlete can have insufficient
See also Adapted Physical Education; Deaflympics; Par- energy availability without having disordered eating or
alympics; Special Olympics an eating disorder.
DISORDERED EATING 467
Anorexia nervosa is the extreme of restrictive eating tional and psychological state of the athletes must also
behavior in which an athlete views herself as overweight be examined. A clinical interview based on standard di-
and is afraid of gaining weight even though she is 15 agnostic criteria is necessary to distinguish true eating
percent below ideal body weight. Amenorrhea is one of disorders from concerns about eating, weight, and
the DSM-IV (American Psychological Association’s Di- shape or disordered eating. In contrast to athletes with
agnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, anorexia, most athletes with bulimia nervosa are at or
fourth edition) diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. near normal weight and therefore difficult to detect.
Behaviors observed in bulimia nervosa follow a cycle of Hence, team staff members and parents must be able to
food restriction or fasting leading to overeating or bing- recognize the physical symptoms and psychological
ing followed by purging. Purging behavior includes characteristics.
vomiting, the use of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas, and/ Athletes with disordered eating may show some of
or excessive exercise. Persons suffering from bulimia the common psychological traits associated with clini-
nervosa are usually at “normal” body weight. In both cal eating disorders such as high achievement orienta-
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa restricting types tion, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, and perfection-
and binge-purging types exist. ism. However, these traits are generally expected and
The category “Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Spec- usually essential for competing successfully.
ified” (EDNOS) includes eating disorders that do not
meet the criteria for a specific eating disorder such as Prevalence
anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. This category ac- In general, studies have suggested a higher frequency of
knowledges the importance of a variety of eating dis- eating problems in athletes than nonathletes, particu-
orders. A person with EDNOS is usually of average larly in athletes competing in sports that emphasize
weight; however, the person still has a preoccupation leanness or a low body weight. However, some studies
with body image and weight and guilt about eating. suggest a similar risk for eating disorders compared
with controls for women athletes in aesthetic sports
Diagnosis of Athletes and running and for women athletes of lower competi-
We should not think of disordered eating behavior as a tive levels. Of the few studies that include men athletes,
benign or adaptive variant in certain environments. Be- some indicate an increased risk for eating disorders in
cause athletes constitute a unique population, special dimen athletes competing in weight class and endurance
agnostic considerations should be made when working sports, and others indicate a lower risk for eating dis-
with this group. Identifying disordered eating among orders in men figure skaters and swimmers. A controlled
athletes must go beyond focusing on those who meet study shows that the prevalence of eating disorders is
formal diagnoses to include those who have symptoms higher in women athletes (20 percent) than in nonath-
of disordered eating and who are in negative energy bal- letic women controls (9 percent) and more common
ance and engage in a myriad of pathogenic weight con- among those competing in leanness-dependent and
trol behaviors that have clinical significance and that weight-dependent sports than in other sports. (See Table
can severely compromise health and performance. 1.) Also, the prevalence of eating disorders among men
People who are helping such athletes must determine national team members is higher (8 percent versus .05
whether the athletes’ abnormal eating and dieting be- percent) than among men controls.
havior is a transient behavior associated with the spe-
cific demands of sports or if the symptoms are more Health Consequences
stable and part of a clinical eating disorder. Therefore, Energy deficiency and disordered eating practices im-
merely documenting behaviors is not enough; the emo- pair health and physical performance. Problems result
However, a number of studies have shown that active

Table 1.
men and women have been reported as being more sat-
Prevalence (Percentage) of Eating Disorders in Women
isfied with their bodies than less active people and that
Elite Athletes Representing Different Sports Groups and
Nonathletes preoccupation with body weight is often associated
with a negative body perception. Some researchers also
Sports Groups Prevalence (%)
have suggested that some habitual exercisers may de-
Technical 12/72 17
velop an increased awareness of body size and shape as
Endurance 24/102 24
well as disordered eating patterns. We might reasonably
Aesthetic 22/52 42
believe that certain physically active people tread a nar-
Weight dependent 16/53 30
row line between optimal performance inclination and
Ball games 39/252 16
harmful health behaviors.
Power 1/31 —
Women athletes at the greatest risk for disordered
Antigravitation 1/10 —
eating are (1) those who restrict energy intake to lose
Athletes total 115/572 20
weight or maintain a low body weight, to increase ex-
Nonathletes 52/574 9
ercise energy expenditure through increased hours of
Only one athlete representing power sports was diagnosed with eating
disorders.
training, and/or to increase exercise intensity without
Source: Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveit (2004).
increasing energy intake and (2) those athletes who are
vegetarian or limit the types of food they will eat.
from depletion of muscle glycogen stores, dehydration, Prevention

loss of muscle mass, hypoglycemia, electrolyte abnor- Because athletes—at least at the elite level—are evalu-
malities, anemia, menstrual dysfunction, and loss of ated by their coach every day, changes in behavior and
bone mass. Problems associated with binging and purg- physical symptoms of disordered eating should be eas-
ing are depressive symptoms, low self-esteem, and anx- ily observed. However, symptoms of disordered eating
iety. (See Table 2.) in competitive and elite athletes are too often ignored or
not observed by coaches. One reason for this failure is
Risk Factors lack of knowledge about disordered eating.
Many factors contribute to the development of disor- Physicians, athletic trainers, nutritionists, and other
dered eating and clinical eating disorders. The most members of the health-care team as well as coaches,
common factors are low self-esteem, social pressure to parents, athletes, and athletic administrators should
be lean, family dysfunction, abuse, and biological fac- emphasize prevention through education and increased
tors. Additional factors for competitive athletes include awareness of disordered eating and the female athlete
personality factors, pressure to lose weight that leads to triad (disordered eating, menstrual dysfunction, and
restrained eating and/or frequent weight cycling, early low bone mass). These people also should emphasize
start of sport-specific training, injury, overtraining, and energy availability as a cause of eating disorders and the
the impact of coaching behavior. Thus, for some ath- female athlete triad and emphasize optimizing energy
letes who start dieting to improve performance, weight availability as a prevention and treatment. They also
concerns and use of extreme weight control methods should emphasize maximizing peak bone mass in pe-
become the focal point of their athletic existence. diatric and young athletes. Collaborative efforts among
A model of activity-induced anorexia nervosa in rats organizations and administration will likely be needed
has been reported. Some researchers also claim that ex- for further prevention of eating disorders and female
ercise per se can trigger eating disorders in humans. athlete triad disorders. These efforts may entail rule
Table 2.
Signs, Symptoms, and Medical Complications of Disordered Eating
Orofacial Lipid abnormalities

Perimolysisb Obesityb
Dental cariesb Renal
Cheilosisb Renal calculi
Enlargement of the parotid gland b
Reproductive
Cardiovascular Infertility
Postural and nonpostural hypotension Insufficient weight gain during pregnancy
Acrocyanosis Low-birth weight infant
Electrocardiographic abnormalities: low voltage, prolonged Integumentary
QT interval, prominenta U waves Dry skin and hair
Sinus bradycardia Hair loss
Atrial and ventricular arrhythmias Lanugo
Left ventricular changes: decreased mass, decreased cavity size Yellow skin due to hypercarotenemia
Mitral-valve prolapse Hand abrasions
Cardiomyopathy (due to ipecac poisoning) Neurologic
Gastrointestinal Peripheral neuropathy
Esophagitis hematemesis (including Mallory-Weiss Reversible cortical atrophy
syndrome)b
Ventricular enlargement
Delayed gastric emptying
Hematologic
Decreased intestinal motility
Anemia, leucopenia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia
Constipation
Fluids and electrolytes
Rectal prolapse
Dehydration
Gastric dilatation and ruptureb
Edema
Abnormal results on liver-function tests
Electrolyte abnormalities
Elevated serum amylase level
Hypokalemia
Endocrine and metabolic
Muscle cramps
Hypokalemia (including hypokalemic nephropathy)
Metabolic alkalosis
Hyponatremia, hypernatremia (rarely)
Thermoregulation
Hypomagnesemia
Hypothermiaa
Hyperphosphatemia
Hypoglycemia Others
Hypothermia Significant weight loss (beyond that necessary for optimal
Euthyroid sick syndrome sport performance)a
Hypercortisolism, elevated free cortisol level in urine Frequent and often extreme weight fluctuationsb
Low serum estradiol level Low weight despite eating large volumesb
Decreased serum testosterone level Fatigue (beyond that normally expected in training or
Amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea competition)
Delay in puberty Muscle weakness
Arrested growth More training (aerobic type) than required for performance
enhancement
Osteoporosis
Stress fractures
aEspecially for anorexia nervosa; bespecially for bulimia nervosa.
Source: Sundgot-Borgen (2002).
There’s no substitute for guts. ■ PAUL BEAR BRYANT
changes by national and international governing bodies ticipation examination and during evaluation of the
and athletic associations. Experts recommend that all following: energy intake and nutrient intake, possible
national and international governing bodies and ath- eating disorder behavior, menstrual status and history,
letic associations have procedures and policies in place weight change, cardiac arrhythmias including brady-
to eliminate weight control practices that could poten- cardia, depression, and stress fracture. The athlete sus-
tially harm athletes. pected of suffering from disordered eating or an eating
Early intervention is also important because the disorder should be asked certain questions at the first
longer eating disorders progress, the more difficult they consultation. (See Table 3.)
are to treat. Therefore, professionals working with ath- Few researchers have studied the issue of athletes
letes should be informed about risk factors for the de- and the treatment of eating disorders. The success of a
velopment, early signs, and symptoms of disordered treatment plan is based on a trusting relationship be-
eating; the medical, psychological, and social conse- tween athletes and care providers. This relationship in-
quences of eating disorders; how to approach the dis- cludes respecting an athlete’s desire to be lean for
orders if they occur; and what treatment options are optimal athletic performance and expressing a willing-
available. ness to help the athlete be lean and healthy.
Therefore, health-care personnel, coaches, trainers, According to Manore (2002), the most common nu-
administrators, and parents should receive information trition issues in athletes with disordered eating and/or
about energy and nutrition demands, consequences of menstrual dysfunction are poor energy intake and/or
extreme weight control methods, eating disorders, the poor food selection, which can lead to poor intake of
menstrual cycle and related issues such as growth and proteins, carbohydrates, and essential fatty acids. The
development, and the relationship between body com- most common micronutrients to be in low supply are
position, health, and performance. In addition, coaches the bone-building nutrients, especially calcium, B vita-
should realize that they can strongly influence their ath- mins, iron, and zinc. If energy drain is the primary fac-
letes. Coaches and others involved with young athletes tor contributing to athletic menstrual dysfunction,
should not comment on an athlete’s body size or re- improved energy balance will improve overall nutri-
quire weight loss in young and still-growing athletes. tional status and may reverse the menstrual dysfunc-
Unless they offer further professional guidance, dieting tion, thus returning the athlete to normal reproductive
may result in unhealthy eating behavior or eating dis- function. Because bone health can be compromised in
orders in highly motivated and uninformed athletes. women athletes with menstrual dysfunction, intake of
Teammates, coaches, and parents who are familiar bone-building nutrients is especially important.
with the signs of disordered eating are likely to notice In addition, normalizing weight, body composition,
them. Those people who provide medical care for ath- and menstrual cycle, modifying unhealthy thought
letes should be alert to energy deficiency, eating disor- processes that maintain the disorder, and dealing with
der behavior, irregular periods, fractures, fatigue, the emotional issues in an athlete’s life are important.
anemia, and depression as possible signs of eating dis- The younger the athlete, the more the family’s involve-
orders, particularly noting unusual fractures that occur ment is recommended.
from minimal trauma If menstrual irregularities are confirmed, the therapist
should inform the athlete about the detrimental effects
How to Help Athletes of loss of menses in relation to skeletal integrity. The
Women athletes with one component of the female ath- therapist should emphasize both short- and long-term
lete triad should be screened for the other components. consequences of decreased bone mineral density. If the
Screening for the triad can be done during the prepar- athlete has experienced irregular menses for some time,
Table 3.
Questions That Can Be Asked at the First Consultation
QUESTIONS
Regarding Training
Regarding Food Regarding Weight Regarding Menstruation and Injuries
How do you feel about What has been your When did you start to Have you changed your
food? Do you have a highest and lowest weight menstruate? training regime (type, load,
“relaxed” relationship with during the last year? or intensity)?
food?
How is your eating What do you consider to Has your menstrual cycle Do you engage in forms of
pattern?* be your competition been regular after training other than that
weight-match weight? menarche (the beginning related to your specific
of the menstrual function)? sport?
How many meals do you Have you reduced your What has been the longest Have you experienced a
eat per day? weight lately? What did time without menstrual stress fracture or a regular
you do to achieve the bleedings? fracture?
weight loss?
Do you try to avoid any Are you satisfied with you When did you have your
sort of food (forbidden present weight? last menstrual bleeding?
food)?
What did you eat and Do other persons have How do you experience
drink yesterday? opinions about your your menstrual cycle?**
weight?
Questions about purging Do you use or have you

(ask about the past) used oral contraceptives?
* A person with disordered eating may have difficulty recalling what he or she ate. A person with anorexia nervosa avoids fat and is usually vegetarian. A person
with bulimia nervosa constantly tries to avoid the calorie intake and binge eats in the afternoon and evening.
** An athlete with disordered eating prefers the absence of menstruation (considers having a percentage of body fat required for regular cycles to be a detriment).
a bone-density assessment via dual-energy X-ray ab- pression. Some women athletes who have insufficient
sorptiomentry should be carried out. A diagnosis of os- energy availability may not have a psychological com-
teopenia (a bone-related health condition that is a ponent to explain their chronic caloric deficit. When
precursor to osteoporosis) may be enough for the ath- these athletes are identified, intervention may need to
lete to initiate a change in behavior or training regimen. involve only educating the athletes on how best to in-
Health professionals should question athletes who crease energy intake and/or reduce energy expenditure
have had stress fractures about menstruation history in order to have optimal energy available for exercise
and eating history. The presence of other symptoms and sports.
such as tiredness-exhaustion, inadequate or poor nutri-
tion, anemia, electrolyte imbalance, and depression Perspective
should also lead to an evaluation. Identifying disordered eating among athletes must go
beyond focusing on those who meet formal diagnostic
Treatment criteria for an eating disorder and should include ath-
Treatment for eating disorders includes individual psy- letes who are in a negative energy balance and who en-
chotherapy, cognitive group therapy, and nutrition gage in unhealthy weight control practices that have
counseling. (See Table 4.) Medications are sometimes clinical significance and that can severely compromise
prescribed, especially for bulimia or concomitant de- health and performance. Many athletes with disordered
Table 4.
Treatment of Athletes with Disordered Eating
Type of Treatment Contents
Individual psychotherapy The therapist works with the disordered eating athlete and tries to:
■ determine the nature of the athlete’s eating difficulties and how they might be most
effectively changed
■ implement a change process
■ teach the athlete to deal with how her sport may be contributing to the maintenance of
the disordered eating
Group therapy The athlete is part of a group made up of other eating disordered athletes.
The athlete discovers that others have a similar problem.
This therapy gives the athlete a support group who understands her feelings and eating
difficulties.
This therapy provides a safe environment for the athlete to practice the new skills and
attitudes she has learned.
Family therapy This therapy includes the patient and her immediate family.
The family is the focus of treatment.
A goal is to modify maladaptive family interactions, attitudes, and dynamics to decrease
the need for, or the function of, the disordered eating in the family.
Nutrition counseling This is often part of a multimodal treatment approach.
Athletes with disordered eating do not remember what constitutes a balanced meal or
“normal” eating.
The dietitian’s primary roles involve providing nutritional information and assisting in
meal planning.
Pharmacotherapy This therapy can be useful in some cases, especially with patients with bulimic behaviors.
Source: Sundgot-Borgen (2002).
eating behaviors need help from a health-care provider See also Diet and Weight Loss; Exercise and Health;
to normalize eating behaviors and to redefine their Nutrition
goals related to their performance and school, work,
and personal life. Treatment for clinical eating disorders
includes individual psychotherapy, cognitive group ther- Further Reading
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batics, and tumbling. Early gymnasts from Sweden and
Thiel, A., Gottfried, H., & Hesse, F. W. (1993). Subclinical eating dis- Germany moved gymnastics apparatus to the beach
and practiced maneuvers over the water. Diving was a Diving Association, was formed in Britain in 1901 and
good alternative, allowing athletes to land in water later was merged with the ASA.
rather than on hard ground. Soon the sport developed Springboard diving, which allows a diver to get ad-
into plain diving events and fancy diving events, which ditional spring from the board, was introduced during
included acrobatics. the 1920s. The springboard has a movable fulcrum and
German and Swedish divers dominated globally was first used in competition in the 1924 Olympic
prior to the two world wars; afterward the United States Games in Paris. The movable fulcrum allows divers to
dominated. However, since 1984 China has been dom- adjust the pivot point of the diving board and thus gain
inant in the sport. greater spring and height to perform a variety of dives.
Diving is more closely related to gymnastics than to As a result divers began to perform dives that the world
swimming, but because both diving and swimming re- had never seen before. For example, Peter Desjardins in
quire water, the two sports have been grouped together. the 1928 Olympic Games performed a forward one-
Thus, diving is considered an aquatic sport and is gov- and-one-half somersault with a full twist. Two of his
erned by the International Federation of Aquatics, which dives earned the highest score of any diver in the
oversees swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, Olympics. He averaged a 9.2 score out of a possible 10
and water polo. The federation was founded in 1908. for ten dives.
Germany and Sweden helped to popularize diving, The first European championships in diving were
building on their strong backgrounds in gymnastics. held in 1926 and were dominated by German divers.
Sweden introduced a dive technique called the “Swedish
swallow” that later in the United States was called the Rules and Strategies
“swan dive.” The dive was named because of its simi- Divers perform a series of dives for judges who score
larity to the graceful dive of the bird. It required a one- the dives according to degree of difficulty. The highest
foot takeoff that was thought to give more control to the possible score is 10. Individual diving (platform and
diver than a two-foot takeoff. springboard) typically is judged by seven judges who
During the 1890s Britain gained interest in diving focus on approach, takeoff, execution, and entry into
after the Swedes Hjalmar Johansson, Otto Hageborge, the water.
and C. F. Mauritzi visited the country and introduced In synchronized diving two divers perform the same
fancy diving, which was being developed in Sweden. In or similar dives simultaneously and are judged on their
fancy diving a person performed somersaults, twists, dives and on their synchronization. Synchronized div-
and so forth before landing in the water. In plain diving has nine judges; five concentrate on synchronization
ing a person faced the water, dove, and landed head (how the two divers are similar in height, distance,
first in the water. Whereas Swedish divers specialized in speed of rotation, and entry into water); four concen-
the Swedish swallow, British divers performed the plain trate on each swimmer’s dive.
dive with the arms held above the head. Swedes domi- Springboard diving has five groups of dives: inward,
nated plain diving contests with their Swedish swallow forward, backward, reverse, and twisting. Platform div-
dives. ing has an additional group: arm stand. Not only does
In 1895 the National Graceful Diving Competition a diver perform a dive from one of the groups of dives,
began in Britain. It consisted of running dives from 4.5 but also a diver can select pike, tuck, or straight-layout
meters and 9.1 meters. According to the Amateur Swim- positions of a dive.
ming Association (ASA), this competition continued Strategies include balancing risk and difficulty with
through 1961 as the “Plain Diving Championships of execution. A diver performing a difficult dive with exe-
the ASA.” The first diving association, the Amateur cution errors will outscore a diver performing a less-
DIVING 475
Young woman on a
high dive.
Source: istockphoto.com/ PhotoInc.
Mike Peppe (United States)

were well-known diving
coaches. Peppe coached more
Olympic divers than any other
coach. He was the U.S. Olym-
pic team coach in 1948 and
1952 and the diving coach at
Ohio State University for thirty-
three years. Brandsten was a
1912 Olympic competitor for
Sweden and a four-time Olym-
pic coach. He also coached the
Stanford University diving
difficult dive with no execution errors. Divers must se- team. Brandsten is credited with inventing the movable
lect dives that not only have some difficulty but also that fulcrum.
they can execute well. Greta Johanson Brandsten (Sweden), wife of Ernst,
During the years diving competition rules have fluc- was the first woman to win a gold medal in diving in
tuated between mandating certain dives and allowing the Olympics. She won in the 1912 games in her home-
divers to select dives. Springboard diving competition town of Stockholm.
has five compulsory dives. The top divers advance to the Ingrid Kramer was one of the top divers from Ger-
final round, where they perform six dives of their choice. many. She won gold medals in the springboard and
Today more than one hundred dives are performed. platform events in the 1960 and 1964 Olympics.
Most are performed with a head-first entry because it is Klaus Dibiasi (Italy) is the only diver to win three
deemed less difficult to control than a feet-first entry. successive gold medals in diving: in the 1968, 1972,
and 1976 Olympics. He also won the silver medal in
Top Athletes platform diving in 1964.
Hjalmar Johansson (Sweden) was the leading pioneer in Victoria Manalo Draves (United States) was the first
diving during the late 1800s and early 1900s. He was woman to win both the springboard and platform
the oldest Olympic diving champion, winning the 10- events in the same Olympics (1948). She was born to
meter platform event at the 1908 games at the age of an English mother and a Filipino father and faced dis-
thirty-four. He won a silver medal in plain high diving crimination in some competitions, causing her to
at the 1912 Stockholm games at the age of thirty-eight. change her name. Draves was the first woman of Asian
Annette Kellerman (Australia) was not an Olympic descent to win an Olympic medal.
competitor, but she was a swimming champion during Sammy Lee was the first U.S. male athlete of Asian
the early 1900s. She was a great ambassador for swim- descent (Korean parents) to win an Olympic medal.
ming, diving, and entertainment. She was considered to He won a gold in the platform event and a bronze in
have the perfect body and pushed the limits of what the springboard event at the 1948 Olympics and an-
women were allowed to wear in competition. Kellerman other gold in the platform event at the 1952 Olympics.
had a successful vaudeville swimming and diving career. Lee was the U.S. Olympic diving coach in 1964 and
She performed many high dives for motion pictures, in- 1968.
cluding Diving Venus. Tan Liangde (China) won the silver medal in spring-
Ernst Brandsten (Sweden and United States) and board diving at the 1984 Olympics. While competing
internationally for ten years, he was a talented and con- a silver medal in springboard diving and a bronze
sistent diver. Liangde usually finished in second place to medal in the 100-meter backstroke event.
Greg Louganis of the United States, who is considered Xiong Ni (China) is one of only three men to have
to be the best diver ever. won five Olympic medals in diving. He won silver in
Fu Mingxia (China) became the second youngest per- 1988 and bronze in 1992 in the 10-meter platform
son in Olympics history to win an individual gold event. He won the gold medal in 1996 and 2000 in the
medal when she won a gold medal in the 10-meter springboard event. He also won the synchronized
platform event at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona, springboard event in 2000.
Spain. Mingxia matched the record of Pat McCormick Albert Zurner (Germany) won a gold medal in the
and Louganis of the United States by winning a total of springboard event at the 1908 Olympic Games. He
four gold medals in diving. She also won gold in both also won a silver in the platform event at the Olympics
the platform and springboard events in 1996 and her in 1912. Zurner was one of the early talented German
fourth gold medal in the 2000 Olympics in Australia. divers.
Greg Louganis won his first Olympic medal in 1976,
winning a silver in the platform event at the age of six- Competition at the Top
teen. Because of the boycott of the Olympic Games, Diving (plunging and plain high diving) became an of-
Greg did not compete again until the 1984 games. At ficial men’s event in the 1904 Olympic Games in St.
both the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games, he won both Louis, Missouri, although the plunging event was held
the springboard and platform competitions. In 1988 he only in 1904. Since 1928 men and women have com-
dramatically won the gold in the springboard event peted in 3-meter springboard and 10-meter platform
after hitting his head on the diving board during a dive. diving. In men’s diving from 1912 to 1924 plain high
Pat McCormick won the gold medal in both the diving was also included. In 2000 synchronized diving,
springboard and platform events in the 1952 and 1956 3-meter springboard, and 10-meter platform were
Olympic Games. No one had ever won gold medals in added for men and women.
back-to-back Olympic Games before. McCormick was Women first competed in the Olympic Games in div-
also the first woman to be inducted into the Interna- ing in 1912—the year when fancy high diving was in-
tional Swimming Hall of Fame. In addition, Mc- troduced. Women’s springboard diving debuted in
Cormick’s daughter, Kelly, won a silver medal in diving 1920. Nonetheless, women were limited in the types of
at the 1984 Olympics and a bronze at the 1988 games. dives they were allowed to perform. Not until 1957,
McCormick trained with fellow U.S. divers Victoria after the Melbourne, Australia, Olympics of 1956, were
Draves and Sammy Lee. the limits lifted.
Gao Min (China) won back-to-back gold medals in During the 1920s the pike and tuck positions be-
the springboard events in the 1988 and 1992 came popular, making multiple somersaults possible.
Olympics. She dominated women’s diving from 1986 The first permanent concrete diving tower appeared in
to 1992, winning as many international awards on one Paris in 1924. In that year Albert White, with the first
board as Louganis did. She, too, is considered to be one perfect score of 10, won two gold medals, marking the
of the best divers in history. first time a person had won both the springboard and
Aileen Riggin (United States) was the first person to platform events in the same Olympics.
win medals in both swimming and diving at the During the early years of Olympic diving Sweden
Olympics. As a fourteen-year-old from Newport, Rhode and Germany dominated. One exception was the Ital-
Island, Riggin won a gold medal in springboard diving ian Klaus Dibiasi. In the 1908 and 1912 Olympics,
at the 1920 Olympics. In the 1924 Olympics she won Swedish men won all medals possible except one,
DRAKE GROUP 477
which Germany won. Quickly, though, the United worlds of swimming, diving, and entertainment. Sporting Traditions,
States began to dominate. This domination was re- 14(2), 25–35.
Markel, R., & Brooks, N. (1985). For the record: Women in sports. New
flected in 1932, when the United States captured all York: World Almanac Publications.
medals for men and women in diving. O’Brien, R. (2003). Springboard & platform diving (2nd ed.). Cham-
paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
The 1936 Olympics in Munich, Germany, featured Rackham, G. (1975). Diving complete. London: Faber and Faber.
the youngest competitor ever to win a medal. Marjorie
Gestring of the United States was thirteen years and
nine months old when she won the gold medal in the
springboard event. With the onset of World War II the
1940 and 1944 Olympics were not held. Thus,
Gestring could not compete in the Olympics again until
Drake Group
1948, when she just fell short of winning another
medal.
China began its domination in diving with Jihong
T he Drake Group is a national coalition of faculty
members dedicated to defending academic integrity
in the face of the burgeoning college sports industry by
Zhou in 1984. Zhou was the first Chinese diver to be lobbying for proposals that will enable faculties to pro-
inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame vide college athletes with access to an education.
and the first Chinese woman to win an Olympic gold
medal in the 10-meter platform diving event. In 2000 History
China won five of eight gold medals, led by Xi Niong Jon Ericson, then provost and professor of rhetoric at
and Fu Mingxia. Mingxia has won four gold medals in Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa, founded The
individual diving. Mingxia won a fifth Olympic medal, Drake Group in 1999. The first meeting called together
coming in second in the 3-meter synchronized event at several faculty authors, athletic administrators, and
the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games and becoming the members of the sports media to address the problem of
first woman to win five diving medals. Three men have academic corruption in college sports.
won five medals: Greg Louganis, Klaus Dibiasi, and Since that first meeting The Drake Group has con-
Xiong Ni. tinued to grow in membership, fueled by the difficulties
Out of the twenty-four possible diving medals in the of providing access to an education to athletes who
2004 Athens Olympic Games, China won nine (six find their time increasingly compromised by the de-
gold), Australia won six, Russia won four, Canada won mands of commercial and media interests in the enter-
two, and Great Britain, Germany, and Greece each won tainment sports.
one. Since 1904 the United States has won the most The Drake Group has drafted proposals for athletic
Olympic diving medals (128), followed by China (38) academic reform to protect college athletes’ student
and Sweden and Germany (21 each). rights and to protect the rights of faculty members as
educators of these students. In addition to meeting an-
Shawn Ladda
nually at the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) basketball championship games to lobby for
these proposals, members of The Drake Group network
Further Reading with other reform groups who share The Drake Group’s
Armbruster, D. A., Allen, R. H., & Harlan, B. (1958). Swimming and
diving (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby. goals (e.g., the Coalition of Faculty Senates, the Amer-
Cahn, S. (1994). Coming on strong: Gender and sexuality in twentieth- ican Association of University Professors, the Knight
century women’s sport. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Louganis, G. (1995). Breaking the surface. New York: Random House.
Commission, and the Collegiate Athletes Coalition).
Lucas, J. (1998). Making a statement: Annette Kellerman advances the The Drake Group also provides support for faculty
Drake Group
The Drake Group
Mission
faculty members use to refer to athletes should not be
The mission of The Drake Group (TDG) is to determined by the public relations needs of the NCAA.
help faculty and staff defend academic integrity Replacing the term student-athlete with student or col-
in the face of the burgeoning college sport in- lege athlete in college documents is an action that fac-
dustry. The Drake Group’s national network of ulty members can take immediately, The Drake Group
college faculty lobbies aggressively for proposals believes.
that ensure quality education for college ath-
letes, supports faculty whose job security is PROVIDE ACADEMIC COUNSELING
threatened for defending academic standards, AND SUPPORT SERVICES
and disseminates information on current issues The Drake Group proposals further reinforce the notion
and controversies in sport and higher education. that athletes are students and should be integrated into
The Drake Group seeks to form coalitions with the general student body. Separate athletic counseling
other groups that share its mission and goals. centers have been spawned by the “student-athlete” phi-
losophy that The Drake Group rejects. The goal of aca-
Source: The Drake Group website. (n.d.) Retrieved February 22, 2005 from
www.thedrakegroup.org demic counseling, The Drake Group believes, is
education, not athletic eligibility. This goal cannot be ac-
complished in a setting that is compromised by pressure
to produce winning athletic teams. The Drake Group
members whose job security is threatened by their at- believes that faculty senates should act to ensure equal
tempts to defend academic standards at their institu- access to education for all students.
tions and gives the annual Robert Maynard Hutchins
Award to a faculty member who has demonstrated re- EMPHASIZE CLASS ATTENDANCE
markable courage in defending the academic rights of To protect athletes’ right to equal access to educational
college athletes. opportunities, The Drake Group proposes that faculties
enforce a policy that class attendance should take pri-
Proposals ority over athletic participation. Whenever scheduling
The Drake Group urges faculty senates and other bod- conflicts exist between sports and course requirements,
ies concerned with academic integrity to endorse its faculty members have a professional responsibility to
proposals as a first step toward closing the ever- enforce attendance policies that support quality in-
widening gap between athletics and education. struction. In some instances, The Drake Group believes,
the problem arises because faculty, rather than athletic
RETIRE THE TERM STUDENT-ATHLETE personnel, does not demand that students attend class.
The proposals, for example, recommend retiring the Faculty senates, The Drake Group believes, should re-
term student-athlete, affirming that athletes are an inte- quire faculty members to establish attendance policies
gral part of the student body. People, The Drake Group that treat all students equally.
believes, have no more need to call athletes “student-
athletes” than to call members of the marching band REPLACE ONE-YEAR RENEWABLE SCHOLARSHIPS
“student-band members.” The term student-athlete was The Drake Group also believes that as long as coaches
created by the NCAA in the 1950s to deflect the threat and athletic directors can use factors related to athlet-
that its new athletic scholarship policy might lead work- ics to determine whether financial aid to athletes will be
ers’ compensation boards to view athletes as paid em- renewed, athletes are under considerable pressure to
ployees. The Drake Group believes that the words that make sports their main priority. This situation, The
DRAKE GROUP 479
The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort,

but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy. ■ MARTIN LUTHER KING JR .
Drake Group believes, highlights the inherent hypocrisy grade inflation and the educational practices that affect
in the term athletic scholarship, a term that should be the quality of an institution’s degrees. The Drake
related to educational opportunities. To ensure that ed- Group does not advocate that academic records of ath-
ucation remains the main priority, The Drake Group letes be revealed, nor does The Drake Group wish to
urges that renewal of athletic scholarships be unrelated “blame” athletes for this situation. Rather, The Drake
to athletic performance or that athletic scholarships Group wishes to expose areas in education where the
themselves be replaced with educational grants awarded so-called preferential treatment of athletes (i.e., ad-
on the basis of financial need. In either case, The Drake visement into bogus or easy courses, manipulation of
Group believes, colleges should be committed to ath- grades) constitutes a denial of equitable access to edu-
letes as students whose value to the colleges exceeds cational opportunity.
their role in athletics. The Big Ten Conference and the
Knight Foundation have listed the creation of multi- INSTITUTE A FIRST-YEAR
year scholarships among possible reform measures that RESIDENCY REQUIREMENT
they could support. The Drake Group also proposes a first-year residency re-
quirement to put the decision of who will represent an
REQUIRE A CUMULATIVE GRADE institution in athletic competition squarely in the hands
P OINT AVERAGE OF 2.0 of the faculty of that institution. Each student who rep-
The Drake Group further proposes that students whose resents that institution should prove that he or she can
cumulative grade point average (GPA) falls below 2.0 in do the academic work. In addition, The Drake Group
any given semester should give immediate attention to believes, each student should have a full year to adjust
academic performance. Some people might argue that to college life and to explore the many opportunities
this standard is unfair because the standard for student available before being required to spend many hours on
academic eligibility on some campuses may be less than the road in athletic competition.
a cumulative 2.0 GPA. However, given the steady de-
Linda Bensel-Meyers
cline in graduation rates for athletes in the revenue-
producing sports (rates that decline despite the rise of
multimillion-dollar academic support units) and the ac-
knowledged stressors on the lives of athletes, The Drake
Further Reading
Gerdy, J. R. (2000). Sports in school: The future of an institution. New
Group believes that such a GPA requirement would York: Teachers College Press.
provide a safety net for athletes who are most academ- Gerdy, J. R. (2002). Sports: The all-American addiction. Jackson, MS:
University of Mississippi Press.
ically at risk. Sack, A. L., & Staurowsky, E. J. (1998). College athletes for hire: The evo-
lution and legacy of the NCAA’s amateur myth. Westport, CT: Praeger
Publishing.
ENSURE THAT COLLEGES PROVIDE Salzwedel, M., & Ericson, J. (2004). Cleaning up Buckley: How the
ACCOUNTABILITY Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act shields academic cor-
Much of the academic fraud that has come to be asso- ruption in college athletics. Wisconsin Law Review (WLR), 2003(6),
1053–1113.
ciated with college athletics could be eliminated, The Sperber, M. (1990). College sports, Inc.: The athletic department vs. the
Drake Group believes, if information on how students university. New York: Holt.
are educated were publicly disclosed. Disclosure, The Sperber, M. (2000). Beer and circus: How big-time sports is crippling un-
dergraduate education. New York: Holt.
Drake Group believes, is not about student behavior— Svare, B. (2003). Crisis on our playing fields: What everyone should
it is about institutional behavior. Academic evidence of know about our out of control sports culture and what we can do to
change it. Delmar, NY: Sports Reform Press.
the quality of education being given athletes would Zimbalist, A. (1999). Unpaid professionals: Commercialism and conflict
enable faculty members and administrators to monitor in big-time college sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
guards and more adventurous runners and swimmers.

Drugs A few such races were bike/swim races. These events,
which differ greatly from the running and biking events
See Bodybuilding; Horse Racing; Nutrition; Perfor- of today, were called biathlons, indicative of their dual
mance Enhancement; Powerlifting sport nature. As the sport of triathlon began to grow in
popularity in the late 1970s and 1980s, particularly
with the intrigue created by television coverage of the
Ironman Triathlon, these events became a secondary di-
Duathlon version to the more formalized offspring.
Events similar to the run/bike/run duathlon events
D uathlon, formerly known as biathlon, is a race in-

cluding two disciplines, typically biking and run-
ning. Unlike other multisport events, like the pentathlon
we see today emerged in the early 1980s. However, the
growth of this sport, which was still called biathlon, oc-
curred slowly at the onset, particularly when juxtaposed
and decathlon, disciplines in a duathlon are done with- to the triathlon explosion of the mid-1980s. Biathlons
out any time breaks, and athletes must quickly transi- did not begin to grow in number or in number of par-
tion from one event to the other. Various formats, ticipants until the late 1980s, when major corporate
distances, and settings exist for the sport, although sponsors helped to fund the growth of the sport. This
there are several standardized distances and formats growth was fairly pronounced. In 1984, only fifteen
that prevail in many of the most popular events. In biathlons were staged in America. According to the U.S.
most cases, duathlons are formatted run/bike/run. Ath- Biathlon Association, this number grew only to twenty-
letes begin by running, then cycle, and finish with a sec- seven in 1986. The New York Biathlon Series, which in-
ond running leg. cluded races throughout New York City and were staged
A near relative of the more popular and established by the Big Apple Triathlon Club, were among these
sport of triathlon, duathlon has historically been over- early races. Nineteen eighty-six was also the first year
shadowed by triathlon. Perhaps because triathlon was the sport named a national championship race, that
perceived as more grueling or perhaps due to more ag- year held at the New York City Biathlon. While some
gressive marketing of triathlon, duathlon has consis- races numbered in the hundreds of participants, they
tently lagged behind triathlon in media and fan support still catered to amateur athletes. As such, races didn’t in-
as well as the number of events and participants. While clude large monetary prizes for winners, nor did they in-
duathlon did reach a fairly lofty peak in the mid- to late volve large national sponsorships.
1980s, it soon thereafter plummeted in popularity. The This began to change in 1987, when the sport grew
sport has enjoyed a considerable resurgence in popu- exponentially, with approximately three hundred races
larity in the past few years, in part due to corporate run throughout the course of the year. Races also
sponsorship of events around the United States. started to see more elite participants, both crossover
athletes from triathlon and athletes who were dedicated
History exclusively to biathlons. Many athletes who either dis-
The official origins of duathlon are hazy at best, par- liked swimming or were weak swimmers enjoyed
ticularly as early examples of the sport differ greatly greater success in biathlon than in triathlon. Particularly
from their later evolutions. In many ways, variants of as triathletes became equally proficient in all three
duathlon led to the later creation of triathlon (in 1974), sports, those who were strong runners and cyclists but
although not in a formal sense. In the early 1970s, novice swimmers began to fall farther back in
swim/run events were common in Southern California. triathlons, often beginning the cycling leg far behind
These informal competitions were popular with life- their swifter-swimming competitors. In biathlon, how-
DUATHLON 481
The only way to overcome is to hang in.

Even I’m starting to believe that. ■ DAN O’BRIEN
ever, this was not the case, and this was a likely com- Games (accomplished in 2000), Tri-Fed spent much
ponent in the exponential growth of the sport. There more of its promotional resources growing the sport of
was similar acceptance of this sport amongst interna- triathlon. Interest in biathlon fell in conjunction with
tional athletes as well, and the first world duathlon the growth of other endurance events.
championship was held in 1990—only one year later Further hindering growth, the sport of biathlon was
than triathlon. forced to change its name in the early 1990s to avoid
Capitalizing on this explosive growth, Coors spon- legal conflicts with the older Olympic sport of biathlon,
sored a nationwide biathlon series that would become which paired shooting with either cross-country skiing
the most visible and recognizable duathlon races in the or running. Therefore, the sport of biathlon became
country. This series included a considerable cash prize known as duathlon, which is still the name of the two-
purse for elite athletes, an obvious factor in the in- discipline sport. While this change was largely seman-
creased professionalization of the sport. The Coors tic, duathlon, more so than its predecessor biathlon,
Light Biathlon Series began in 1988 with twelve races only referred to events that were staged with the run-
across the country. By 1991, the series had grown to fif- bike-run format. Therefore, swim-run events or swim-
teen races and distributed $100,000 in prize money. bike events (which were exceptionally rare) would not
The largest races in the series, such as the annual event be called duathlons. So while this name change did
in Chicago, attracted nearly 2,500 participants at the represent a loss to the rarely contested Olympic
height of the biathlon boom. Additionally, the amount biathlon and a virtual loss of sporting heritage, it also
of money to be made at these races attracted increas- provided an increased formalization of the sport that al-
ingly elite athletes who, like in endurance sports such as lowed participants and spectators to have a more con-
marathon running and triathlon, made their living cise understanding of the sport.
through sport. These races sponsored by Coors were With the demise of the Coors-sponsored race series
only but fifteen of hundreds across the country, but and increased attention placed by Tri-Fed on the sport
they served as the driving force and the increasingly of triathlon, duathlon enjoyed little growth through the
public face of the sport in America. Thus, when the se- mid-1990s. One bright spot, however, came as the com-
ries was discontinued after 1992 due to general spon- pany Dannon began to sponsor a new duathlon series
sor disinterest and decreasing race participation, the in 1995. Although it began with only two races and
sport of biathlon would take a considerable fall in pop- was not nearly as extravagant as its predecessor, this se-
ularity from which it might never truly recover. ries did attract those who had committed to racing as
Several conditions caused the rise of biathlon to ebb professional duathletes, as well as elite amateur ath-
and quickly subside. First, corporate sponsorships, such letes and recreational athletes. Race distances varied
as that from Coors, were pulled, ending the viability of slightly in this series, but most followed the 5K run–
popular races and series. Second, public interest began 30K bike–5K run format. This series has never reached
to wane, leading to fewer participants in the shrinking the same popularity as the Coors race series, and some
number of races. Many biathlon competitors searched of the races have been expanded to include triathlon
for other athletic challenges, most notably mountain events. However, it has remained a constant that helped
biking, marathon racing, or triathlon. The sport also did stabilize participation in the sport.
not receive the institutional support from its own gov- In addition to shorter races, duathletes have also
erning body. USA Triathlon, then know as Tri-Fed, was looked to longer, more challenging events—both in
in charge of the growth and management of both America and abroad. Much of this has been spurred by
triathlon and biathlon, setting rules for the sports and the famed race in Switzerland known as Powerman
helping to market and grow these sports. As triathlon Zofingen, which has often been referred to as duath-
began to achieve its goal of inclusion in the Olympic lon’s version of the Hawaiian Ironman. The distances
for the race are typically 10K run (originally 8.5K)– onship events. To accomplish this, USA Triathlon must
150K bike–30K run, and much of the race is contested rely on a limited staff and a loyal group of volunteers.
over rigorous mountain terrain. Started in 1989, the The rules of duathlon are effectively the same as
race has been contested by many of the sport’s top ath- those for triathlon, and they share the same official
letes, as well as several top triathletes and Ironman USA Triathlon rule book. While there are many details
champions. Financial difficulties nearly sidelined the to the rule book, the spirit of the rules—that each par-
race in 2003, but necessary sponsorship was found to ticipant must complete the course unassisted—is fairly
afford the race and its generous prize purse of approx- straightforward. After the first run segment, athletes
imately $50,000. In addition to the famed Swiss race, enter a designated transition area, where they have left
many other races in the Powerman Series have been their bicycles, and begin the cycling leg of the race. At
added in recent years. Most of these events contest ap- the end of the bike segment, athletes again enter the
proximately half the distance of Zofingen, and the series transition area, leaving their bicycles and exiting for
includes venues in Europe and the United States. There the final run segment. Many athletes change shoes dur-
are currently eleven races in the Powerman Series. ing each transition area, allowing them to wear spe-
The current state of duathlon finds the sport in a rel- cialized cycling shoes that fit into aerodynamic pedals.
atively stable position, even if the sport remains far Athletes must also wear a helmet during the cycling leg.
from its peak and nowhere near its former goal of The most regulated and often most controversial rule
Olympic recognition. Race distances range from sprint in duathlon is that prohibiting drafting, or riding in a
distance races (3K run–16K bike–3K run) up to Pow- pack or pace line during the cycling leg. This common
erman distance races. USA Triathlon has organized a practice in cycling races makes athletes able to ride
“grand prix” system, a group of twenty-one duathlons faster with less effort. Since duathlon, like triathlon, is
that would award points and modest prizes to series to be an individual effort, drafting is not allowed and is
winners. USA Triathlon currently certifies over one hun- monitored by race officials. If athletes are caught draft-
dred duathlons each year, merely a fraction of the num- ing, time penalties are assessed after the race. Multiple
ber of triathlons certified by the governing body. At penalties result in disqualification. Adding to the con-
least for the time being, the sport of duathlon seems troversy of drafting are the different rules for profes-
poised to remain a stepchild of the sport of triathlon, sional and amateur athletes. In recent years, certified
one that will support the overall efforts of triathlon but professional athletes have been allowed to draft during
not challenge the sport in its status or popularity. certain races, although not all. This change has been
made to increase spectator interest in professional
Rules, Governance, and duathlon. Amateur athletes, however, are still prohibited
Championships from drafting. This rule change has not been embraced
The national governing body for duathlon in the United by all in the sport, especially those that view duathlon
States is USA Triathlon, although much more of their ef- as a personal voyage instead of a group competition.
forts are placed toward the growth and promotion of Additionally, the difference in rules between amateurs
triathlon. USA Triathlon employs a duathlon commis- and professionals has alienated some from a sport that
sion chair, and there are also several elected regional originally adhered to an egalitarian ethic.
representatives. USA Triathlon’s primary jobs include Duathletes have the opportunity to compete in re-
certifying duathlons across the country, establishing gional, national, and international championships at a
rules, overseeing a system of national rankings, select- variety of distances. The national championships rotate
ing national and regional championship events, and amongst different race sites, as do international cham-
organizing the team to participate in world champi- pionships, which are organized by the International
DUATHLON 483
Triathlon Union (ITU). In order to participate in ITU number of athletes ranked for triathlon, there remains
duathlon championships, athletes must qualify by rank- a loyal base of amateur duathletes maintaining the
ing at qualifier races set by their national governing sport.
body, which for Americans is USA Triathlon. Profes-
sional duathletes race in separate divisions in these The Future
championships—often draft legal—with several thou- The future of duathlon, as it is still a relatively new
sands of dollars for top finishers. Championships aside, sport, lies in the hands of race and series organizers,
Powerman Zofingen is still generally regarded as the such as those for the Dannon Duathlon Series, and
premier duathlon in the world and still the ultimate loyal amateur athletes who continue to race duathlons
prize for most amateur and professional duathletes. despite their stepchild image. It appears, at least for the
near future, duathlon will not achieve its original goal of
Athletes Olympic inclusion. It also seems that duathlon will con-
Perhaps the American most synonymous with duathlon tinue to trail the Olympic sport of triathlon in both
in history is Kenny Souza, who dominated the sport number of participants and promotional efforts. That
throughout the sport’s heyday of the late 1980s and said, perhaps the greatest asset for the sport of duathlon
early 1990s. Souza won eight national championships will be its shared lineage with triathlon. An increasing
and one world championship. He also garnered atten- number of events now offer triathlon and duathlon
tion for his flamboyant clothing and hairstyles. Michael choices at the same race. Additionally, triathletes will
Tobin was also a frequent top duathlon finisher and a continue to compete in duathlons as part of their tri-
series champion of the 1991 Coors Biathlon Series. On athlon preparation and to vary their racing experiences.
the women’s side, Liz Downing dominated American This is particularly true during the spring and fall, when
racing for years, also taking the 1991 Coors series title lakes and oceans are often too cold for swimming. So
and winning two world championships. Downing re- while duathlon may not soon equal its peak of the late
tired from professional racing in 1994. Many duathlons 1980s, it is well positioned to attract loyal elite and am-
were won by athletes who primarily competed in ateur participants seeking a varied athletic challenge.
triathlons, yet raced in duathlons both for additional
Keith Strudler
competition and for more chances for prize money.
In recent years, Greg Watson has led all American
duathletes, and he remains one of the few elite athletes
to focus exclusively on duathlon. Watson won his first Further Reading
Edwards, S. (2001). The complete book of triathlons. New York: Three
ITU duathlon world championship in 2004, and he has Rivers.
won several Dannon Duathlon Series titles. Eric Fitzgerald, M. (2003). Triathlete Magazine’s complete triathlon book: The
Schwartz also regularly finishes at the top of the pro- training, diet, health, equipment, and safety tips you need to do your
best. New York: Warner.
fessional ranks. Anne Curi-Pressig is one of the leading Friel, J. (2004). The triathlete’s training bible. Boulder, CO: Velo.
American women in the sport, although European ath- Harr, E. (2003). Triathlon training in four hours a week. Emmaus, PA:
Rodale.
letes have largely dominated the sport in recent years. Hottenrott, K. (1999). Complete guide to duathlon training. Aachen,
Clearly, the sport continues to be driven by less com- Germany: Meyer & Meyer Sport.
petitive, amateur athletes. Approximately one thousand Lund, B. (1996). Triathlon. Mankato, MN: Capstone.
Sisson, M. (1989). Training and racing biathlons: A complete training
amateur athletes compete in at least three duathlons per program for achieving peak performance in run-cycle biathlons. Los
year (the minimum number to gain a national ranking Angeles: Primal Urge.
Souza, K., & Babbitt, B. (1989). Biathlon: Training and racing tech-
by USA Triathlon), and many events still attract several niques. New York: McGraw-Hill/Contemporary.
hundred athletes. While this is only a fraction of the Tinley, S. (1998). Triathlon: A personal history. Boulder, CO: Velo.
East Germany
Economics and Public Policy
Egypt
Eiger North Face
Elfstedentocht East Germany
Elite Sports Parents
Endorsements T he German Democratic Republic (GDR), or
Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR), had
about 17 million inhabitants. East Germany in the
Endurance
1980s ranked first in the world in winter sports and
Environment achieved the number three ranking in the Summer
ESPN Olympics. In official documents not only the elite sports
system was well developed (winning more than 200
Euro 2004 Olympic gold medals), but also general sports and
European Football women’s sports were highly regarded.
Championship
History
Eurosport From 1945 on East Germany was the western part of
Exercise and Health the Eastern Bloc, thereby especially dominated by the
Soviet Union, as were the other satellite states. This
Extreme Sports was a consequence of the Nazi aggression: at the end of
Extreme Surfing World War II (1939–1945) Germany was divided. The
eastern state had to take the name “German Democra-
tic Republic,” and the capital was—against interna-
tional regulations—the Soviet-controlled part of Berlin.
In reality the GDR was a Communist dictatorship,
based on Soviet power and guided by Communists
in the predominant Socialistic Unity Party (“Sozialistis-
che Einheits-Partei Deutschlands,” “SED”), which was
even controlling the umbrella organization for physical
culture: the Deutscher Turn-und Sportbund (German
Gymnasts and Sport Association, DTSB) enforced an
uncompromising monopoly on sports, as well as steady
political control of the members. Development of
the subdisciplines like the athletic associations that
followed the will of their members was not possible.
Following a crisis in economy and society and after
opening the Iron Curtain between Hungary and Austria
E
Governmental support for sports opened a scissor
that divided the chance of participation in sports for
girls and women, boys and men. First priority was the
in October 1989, giving a way to escape the totalitar- political correctness of active sports people (witnesses
ian system, a great “Friendly Revolution” surprisingly say that that was a great reason to avoid getting into
ended the existence of the state in November 1989— organized sports and instead to have informal sports
without any violence. From 1990 on the process of activities, like in the Nazi era). Second, there was re-
democratic reunification of West and East Germany striction on participation. The main element of the
started, bringing new structures and a much higher de- GDR system since 1950 was a politically dominated
gree of voluntary work for coaches or functionaries. professional sport without free access and with life-
In the GDR, as the geographical middle-eastern part long employment guarantee. This sector was dominat-
of the former “Deutsches Reich,” all traditional sports ing amateur forms of sport engagement, by attempting
disciplines were practiced, but the trend was to con- to dominate world sports by seeking of “new blood”
centrate on medal-intensive Olympic events. The em- through the selection of the top 3 percent of each GDR
phasis on female swimming (no GDR tradition) and generation.
cutting off water polo (even if the GDR was a leading Sport was organized following the principles of an
power in this sport) was a symbol for that decision. army: following all “orders” and “commands” from
Indigenous sports like German Turnen (enjoyed by everybody above the athlete. Besides that, the athletes
versatile healthy men and especially women, but be- were victims of a rigorous control, because the Secret
yond any goal of medals or records), Faustball (fist Service (Stasi) used about 3,000 volunteers, named
ball), the more modern German Feldhandball (field “IM” (“unofficial supporters” of the State Security) to
handball), or the very strong left-wing worker sports generate confidential information about athletes’ poli-
clubs of the years before the Nazi dictatorship could not tics and private life, in addition to the absolute control
be maintained in their old forms because the new sys- of sports by the SED. More than 4,700 professional
tem banned all democratic forms of sport organization. trainers and about 1,000 medical doctors or helpers as
The only viable imported sport was volleyball, which well as 5,000 administrators were involved in high-
was imported by the Red Army of the Soviet Union and level sport. Nearly 1,500 persons were active in “re-
became known as the “sport of socialism,” especially for search” or “application” of doping means; about 10,000
the younger generation. In fact, volleyball’s popularity athletes were doped and are suffering today from severe
grew over the years, leaving the traditional fist ball and side effects. That was the result of the GDR goals; in-
field handball behind, a situation that continues until ternal plans for 1984 and 1988 saw the ranking of
today, more than in the former West Germany. “number one” as realistic. This shows that the rulers
485
hoped that the GDR, a state with a population of 17 guaranteed careers and the obligation to withhold in-
million, would dominate world sport. formation about the day-to-day course of athletic life, in-
cluding practices that are identified today as massive
Participant and Spectator Sports doping.
As shown above, elite sports were actively abused to Girls and women were the basis for the medals—
construct a national identity. The most accepted specta- they won most of them. But, the higher the position of
tor sports were, for male viewers, soccer and cycling; for women in the elite sports, the lower was the representa-
female spectators, figure skating, horse riding, gymnas- tion of them, which proves the strong conservative ten-
tics; for both genders, the Olympics. Under the GDR dencies in the male-dominated GDR world of sports.
dictatorship there was more freedom to act outside so- Girls’ and women’s soccer may have been a positive de-
cietal norms in attending sports events than in other ac- velopment, compared with other nations who had ten-
tivities; this was abused by fascist “fans” or hooligans in dencies to hinder women from kicking the ball.Women’s
soccer stadiums, who were a growing problem in the sports in general followed the hierarchy of gender, con-
1980s. trary to the propaganda, which claimed the emancipa-
Because of fear of political demonstrations the inter- tion of women in the GDR.
national matches were attended by State Security: 80 to
90 percent of the spectators were agents who had the Youth Sports
task to play “good” fans. This was a symbol of dictator- The nature of youth participation in sport followed the
ship in GDR sports. principle of steady screening for world mastery: seeking
(Sichtung) youngsters for the elite sector. This group of
Women and Sport about 80,000 children had good chances for practice
In theory and at international congresses women’s par- and education in sports; those who had to leave lost
ticipation in sports was a great goal. But in reality girls these chances again. Interviews prove that the loss of an
and women had few chances. Stories like that of a mem- elite-sport position resulted in a very bad life crisis.
ber of the Democratic Women’s Organization were Near the end of the GDR there was a growing sector
often reported: “Because society is not able to give me of voluntary sports activities for pupils at school facili-
a temporary nurse for my child, I have to miss the next ties, organized by teachers in their free time: Schul-
assembly of our organization for the rights of women.” Sportgemeinschaften. But in general the youth had in
On the one hand women were the main part in the comparison to those of other nations very few chances
Olympic medal statistic of the GDR and, as a result, to practice sports in sport organizations on a lower or
were the bigger part in recruiting “new blood.” An over- medium level.
all analysis of the entire East German youth population
brought approximately 60,000 children of both sexes Organizations
into the 1,800 state-run “training centers”—selected The GDR sport organization DTSB integrated officially
against their own will. Rigorous selection of 10,000 independent national organizations in disciplines, such
athletes led into the second level: the “sport clubs” for as Deutscher Fussball-Verband. Democracy in electing
training. These “SCs” were combined with “child and the governing bodies was just for show. All organiza-
youth sport schools.” Twenty percent of this group tions had to have the suffix der DDR (of the GDR), and
could rise to the 2,000 top athletes of the real national all were subjected to the SED-controlled DTSB. Even
teams—as “pros” in high-performance training. In real- above the umbrella organization DTSB and the Na-
ity GDR athletes were exceptionally well-paid civil ser- tional Olympic Committee the highest organizing body
vants, soldiers, policemen, or officers of the Stasi with was a secret SED commission that controlled and de-
EAST GERMANY 487
Luck is what happens when preparation

meets opportunity. ■ COACH DARREL ROYAL
cided, named Leistungssportkommission der DDR ducing the biggest part of positive identification with
(Central Sport Commission of the GDR). The presi- state and society by that “achievement” of young ath-
dent was controlled by the Secretary of Youth and Se- letes. But today we see behind the curtain of Commu-
curity in the central committee of the SED. He wrote nist propaganda and disinformation, even though the
internal orders like doping or training plans as “state- GDR Secret Service has tried to hide information about
run secrets,” which were given by a Secret Service offi- drug abuse and violating amateur ideals. For example,
cer to the clubs. Following the International Olympic we could show that the State Secretary of Sports had to
Committee rules a National Olympic Committee of the resign at once by political decision when he tried to
GDR existed, but in reality it was not independent. make Volkssport stronger.
The biggest regular events were the Deutsche Turn- The status of elite athletes in society was extremely
und Sportfeste at Leipzig with a political focus and the high because of the high level of identification of the
Zentrale Jugend-Spartakiade, focusing on elite sport GDR with their achievement. But in the last decade that
and mastery of junior cadres. Other most accepted tendency changed, because the pattern of cheating by
sport events were soccer leagues and cycling competi- doping was known and openly discussed and the huge
tions, and there was a growing reception of TV shows expenditures in that sector were criticized in a society
on elite sports. that was going down economically and where it was
As a consequence in a society with limited economic nearly impossible to buy sports shoes.
power, a very small sum of money was given to the
sports activities of the majority outside that elite sports The Future
army of 90,000. Estimates of critical research go in the Today there is a controversy about the future of sport
same direction: more than 80 percent (maybe 90 per- in the former GDR. Sports-for-all as well as school ed-
cent, integrating “secret” money for state-run doping) ucation is a negative model; in comparison this sector
was given to elite sports, not to the wide majority out- was poor, lacking money, gymnastic or swimming halls,
side the national team. Even this “rest” was divided: sport dresses and shoes. This underdevelopment led to
“Sport 2” consisted of achievement sports without par- a very low participation in sport-for-all: even today—
ticipation in the international competition system of one and a half decades after the end of Communist
European championships or the Olympics (for instance, East Germany—it is only a fraction, compared with the
basketball). Sport 2 got more money than “sports for Democratic Western part. In contrary the high-level
all” (Volkssport or Freizeit-und Erholungssport) or sport sector is discussed from different perspectives. Scientists
of the handicapped. That is one reason why organized or politicians who like the “straight” model (of central
sport in the former East Germany after reunification is decisions of the political system and with literally un-
until now on a level equivalent to that of West Germany limited resources and salaries) tend to ignore the sys-
in the 1950s. temic elements like damaging health, cheating by
As a consequence of GDR politics, new disciplines doping and money, and giving inappropriate pressure
were not allowed to be integrated. So karate, windsurfing, and transforming the minds and bodies of children
and triathlon had to find a way to develop self-organized and youngsters.
and outside of organizations, with many restrictions. That system lives on in the perception that organized
sport is connected with money or employment, so it is
Sports in Society a problem to organize truly amateur sports in now dem-
Elite sports in society had an extraordinary high value ocratic East Germany, in contrast to other industrial so-
—it had become virtually the only sector of society cieties. Even the personal influence of former agents of
where the GDR had reached an international level, pro- Stasi as well as doping criminals and the undemocratic
structures are discussed now, one and a half decades Spitzer, G. (2001c). Doping in the former GDR. In C. Peters, T. Schulz,
after the fall of the Berlin Wall. & H. Michna, (Eds.), Biomedical side effects of doping. Project of the
European Union (pp. 115–125). Bonn, Germany: Bundesinstitut fur
Sportwissenschaft.
Giselher Spitzer Spitzer, G. (2002). Sejrskode, oekonomi og politik som begrundelse for
sundhedsfare og regelbrud: Doping-historie og doping i DDR. In J.
Hansen & T. Skovgaard (Eds.), Sportens vaesen og uvaesen: Idraet-
Further Reading shistorisk Arbog 2001 (pp. 95–117). Odense, Denmark: Argang.
Spitzer, G. (2004). Doping in der DDR: Ein historischer Ueberblick zu
Baur, J., Spitzer, G., & Telschow, S. (1997). Der DDR-sport als
einer konspirativen Praxis: Genese, Verantwortung, Gefahren: Wis-
gesellschaftliches teilsystem. Sportwissenschaft, 27, 369–391.
senschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des Bundesinstituts fuer
Buss, W., & Becker, C. (Eds.). (2001). Der sport in der SBZ und fruhen
Sportwissenschaft (3rd ed.). Cologne, Germany: Sport und Buch
DDR: Genese, strukturen, bedingungen. Schorndorf, Germany: Hof-
Strauss.
mann.
Spitzer, G. (2004). Fussball und Triathlon: Sportentwicklungen in der
Delow, A. (1999). Leistungssport und biographie: DDR-leistungssportler
DDR. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.
der letzten generation und ihr schwieriger weg in die Moderne.
Spitzer, G. (2004). “Sicherungsvorgang Sport”: Das Ministerium fuer
Muenster, Germany: Lit.
Staatssicherheit und der DDR-Spitzensport. Schorndorf, Germany:
Ewald, M. (1994). Ich war der sport: Wahrheiten und legenden aus
Hofmann.
dem wunderland der sieger: Manfred Ewald interviewt von Rein-
Spitzer, G. (2005). Sport and the systematic infliction of pain: A case
hold Andert. Berlin, Germany: Elefanten.
study of state sponsored mandatory doping in East Germany. In I.
Franke, W., Berendonk, B. (1997). Hormonal doping and androgeni-
sation of athletes–a secret program of the German Democratic Re- Waddington (Ed.), Sport and pain. London: Routledge.
Spitzer, G., et al. (Eds.). (1998). Schluesseldokumente zum DDR-Sport:
public Government. In Clinical Chemistry, 43, 7.
Ein sporthistorischer Ueberblick in Originalquellen. Aachen, Ger-
Hartmann, G. (Ed.). (1998). Goldkinder: Die DDR im spiegel ihres
many: Meyer & Meyer.
spitzensports (2nd ed.). Leipzig, Germany: Forum.
Hinsching, J. (Ed.). (1998). Alltagssport in der DDR. Aachen, Ger- Teichler, H. J., Reinartz, K., Delow, A., Haffner, K., Kruger, D., &
many: Meyer & Meyer. Wille, U. (Eds.). (1999). DasLleistungssportsystem der DDR in den
80erJjahren und im Prozess der Wende. Schorndorf, Germany: Hof-
Hoberman, J. (1992). Mortal engines: The science of performance and
the dehumanization of sport. New York: The Free Press. mann.
Hoberman, J. (1994). Sterbliche Maschinen. Dopping und die Unmensch- Ungerleider, S. (2002). Faust’s gold. Inside the East German doping ma-
chine. New York: St. Martin’s Press:
lichkeit des Hochleistungssports. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer
Verlag. Wonneberger, G., Westphal, H., Oehmigen, G., Fiebelkorn, J., Simon,
Hoolihan, B. (1999). Dying to win: Doping in sport and the develop- H., & Skorning, L. (Eds.). (2002). Geschichte des DDR-sports. Berlin,
Germany: Spotless.
ment of anti-doping polic. Strassburg, Germany: Council of Europe.
Kuehnst, P. (1982). Der missbrauchte sport: Die politische instrumen-
talisierung des sports in der SBZ und DDR 1945–1957. Cologne,
Germany: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik.
Economics and
Pfister, G. (2002). Frauen und sport in der DDR: Wissenschaftliche
berichte und materialien des bundesinstituts fuer sportwissenschaft,
2002. Cologne, Germany: Sport und Buch Strauss.
Ritter, A. (2003). Wandlungen in der steuerung des DDR: Hochleis-
tungssports in den 1960er und 1970er jahren (Potsdamer Studien
zur Geschichte von Sport und Gesundheit 1). Potsdam, Germany:
Public Policy
Universitaetsverlag.
Spitzer, G. (1994). Une generation superflue dans le sport allemand?
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lapres-guerre. In J. M. Delaplace, G. Treutlein, & G. Spitzer (Eds.),
Le sport et l’education physique en France et Allemagne: Contribution
E conomics has a profound influence on the world of
sport. This influence is especially felt in the most
popular spectator sports where the players are paid
a une approche socio-historique des relations entre les deux pays (pp. professionals and the teams are firms. Researchers have
188–212). Montpellier, France: Edition AFRAPS.
Spitzer, G. (2001a). Remarks to the hidden system of stately organized
conducted the majority of economic research in three
doping in the German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.). In J. areas of investigation: the organization and structure of
Buschmann & G. Pfister (Eds.), Sports and social changes (Interna-
sports leagues, the labor market in sports, and the issue
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Michna, (Eds), Biomedical side effects of doping. Project of the Eu-
ropean Union (pp. 127–139). Bonn, Germany: Bundesinstitut fur
decisions, and public policy decisions have affected the
Sportwissenschaft. economic choices of individuals and firms.
ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC POLICY 489
In each of these issues important distinctions exist be- be much more interested in sports that culminate in an
tween sports institutions in Europe (primarily European ultimate victor being declared, creating a need to coop-
football—soccer) and “the big four” professional sports erate to formalize a league schedule and championship.
leagues in North America—the National Football In marked difference with other industries, every busi-
League (NFL), the National Basketball League (NBA), ness or team in a sporting league depends on the other
Major League Baseball (MLB), and the National businesses or teams with which it competes. Ford can
Hockey League (NHL). produce a car without any assistance from Chrysler,
but no sports team can put on a contest by itself, cre-
Peculiar Economics of ating a unique interdependence between the teams in a
Professional Sports league.
Sport exhibits a number of characteristics that distin- This interdependence is reinforced by the importance
guish it from other fields of economic endeavor. No- of uncertainty of outcome. Because few people will
table among these characteristics is the applicability of show up to watch a game in which the result is a fore-
one of the fundamental assumptions of economics, gone conclusion, both teams must have some chance of
namely that the driving motivation behind any business winning the game. The success of the Cleveland
is the desire to maximize profit. However, the app- Browns, who won fifty-one of fifty-seven games and all
lication of this assumption to sports firms has been four championships in the history of the All American
criticized as inaccurate given the social status that ac- Football Conference (AAFC), reduced interest in all of
companies ownership of such a culturally important the other teams to such an extent that the conference
asset. Owners may be motivated to own teams as a folded.
means to boost their ego, increase their public profile, The practical consequence of this interdependence is
or even (as with basketball’s Dallas Mavericks owner that each team or firm has an interest in the perform-
Mark Cuban) to relive their childhood dreams of play- ance of its rivals. This peculiar economics of interde-
ing professional sports. The realization of any of these pendence has given rise to a host of cooperative rules
motives is dependent on the playing success of the within leagues that goes well beyond what is strictly
team. Therefore, some owners might be willing to sac- necessary to coordinate league play.
rifice profits in order to have a team that wins more
games. COOPERATION IN LEAGUE STRUCTURE
In North America all of the professional sports leagues
ECONOMICS OF TEAMS AND LEAGUES maintain tight control over both the number of teams
In most industries cooperation between competing in the league and their location. In general, each fran-
firms is called “collusion” and is prohibited. Antitrust chise in a league is given monopoly rights to a given re-
legislation exists to enforce this prohibition. However, gion (in the NFL the region is 120 kilometers around
in the sports industry cooperation between competing the franchise’s home stadium), meaning that no other
teams is standard business practice. All professional team in that league will be allowed to locate in that
sports teams cooperate by forming into leagues. Origi- market. Exceptions to this rule exist where some large
nally this cooperation was done in an effort to formal- markets have more than one team in each sport, but a
ize the rules. Teams in different regions often operated new franchise must compensate the existing franchise
under vastly different rules, making competition diffi- for the lost revenue caused by the competition. For ex-
cult. In England the debate about whether handling the ample, the NHL Anaheim Mighty Ducks had to pay the
ball was legal resulted in the division between soccer Los Angeles Kings $25 million for encroaching on their
and rugby. Teams also quickly realized that fans would exclusive rights in the Los Angeles region.
Owners also determine the number of teams in a national contracts with ABC, Fox, CBS, and ESPN. At
league. In considering the optimal size of a league, the the other end of the spectrum, the NHL contract with
existing teams will weigh the costs and benefits of per- ABC/ESPN that ran from 1999 to 2003 was worth
mitting an additional team. The benefits include any ex- only $120 million per year.
pansion of revenue that is shared among the teams in Revenue sharing is not without its problems from an
a league (such as national television revenue) and the economic standpoint. It creates an incentive system that
expansion fees that are charged to new franchises. The penalizes success and rewards failure. For example, the
costs include the dilution of any future shared revenue Oakland Raiders sell more NFL merchandise than any
by the addition of a franchise and increased competition other team. However, because revenue from merchan-
for the closest existing team to the proposed new dising is shared equally among all of the teams in the
franchise. NFL, the Raiders do not benefit from their marketing
Control of league size is much less of an issue in Eu- skills any more than the team that sells the least amount
ropean soccer, where leagues include far more teams of merchandise. The corollary of this fact is that teams
that are organized into divisions. For example, the Eng- with weaker sales have little incentive to improve.
lish league contains ninety-two teams divided into four A second issue is that not all revenue sources are
divisions, and below these is a pyramid of nonleague shared, creating an incentive for teams to concentrate
clubs. Unlike in North American sport, where no moon expanding nonshared revenues more than shared
bility of teams exists between the “big leagues” and the revenues. For example, in the NFL, gate, TV, and mer-
minor leagues in each sport, at the end of every season chandising are shared, whereas luxury box revenue is
in Europe the top teams in each division move up, and not. As a result, owners have been building stadiums
the bottom teams move down. With almost every pop- with more luxury boxes and less general seating. This
ulation center represented by a team at some level, and situation has also contributed to the seemingly strange
with the opportunity for every team to play in the top movement of teams from large to small markets (for ex-
division, decisions about league expansion are some- ample, the Rams moved from Los Angeles to St. Louis).
thing of a moot point. Smaller markets have been able to attract teams by con-
structing stadiums that maximize nonshared revenue
Cooperation in Revenue Sharing such as luxury boxes.
Revenue sharing is another economic anomaly that is Without revenue sharing one of the major benefits of
peculiar to sport and related to the issue of interde- locating in a large market is the revenue from contracts
pendence. Team owners argue that revenue sharing is with local media outlets. Movement from large to small
important because equalizing revenue between teams markets is more likely when this benefit is diluted,
helps improve competitive balance within the league by which is the case when media revenue is shared, as is
allowing small-market teams to compete financially the case in the NFL, which has a national, shared TV
with large-market teams. The most common form of contract and prohibits local TV contracts. This situation
revenue sharing is a leaguewide national television creates a problem for the league as a whole because
broadcast contract, which is distributed equally between leaguewide revenues (such as a national TV contract)
all teams. Negotiating as a unit rather than as individ- would increase with more teams in larger markets.
ual sellers also allows teams in a league to earn more Revenue sharing also reduces spending on players.
revenue from the broadcast networks. The shared rev- Profit-maximizing teams will hire additional players
enue from national TV broadcasts varies widely be- only if the revenue generated is greater than the cost of
tween the professional leagues. Between 1998 and the players. With revenue sharing the benefits of im-
2005 the NFL will receive $2.2 billion a year for its four proving the team (measured, for example, by increased
Heavy Athenian
construction in
preparation for the
2004 Olympics.
challenge of a rival league since

the Federal League, whereas all
of the other three major North
American leagues have had to
fend off competition. As a
league, baseball also has more
power over its team owners’ lo-
cation decisions. Few would
argue that given the paltry at-
tendance figures for the Expos
in Montreal that the team
needed to move at the end of
the 2004 season. Prior to this,
no baseball team had changed
cities since 1972 when the
gate revenues) are shared among all of the teams in the Washington Senators moved to Texas to become the
league. However, the entire cost of that improvement (in Rangers, and the league has been able to prevent other
terms of spending on players) falls on the individual team owners who were interested in moving their fran-
team. As a result, teams are unwilling to spend as much chises from doing so. The NFL, by contrast, has not
on wages as they would if they were able to retain all of been able to prevent teams from relocating since Al
the additional revenue. Davis successfully sued the league for attempting to
prevent him from moving the Raiders to Los Angeles
Cooperation and Public Policy from Oakland in 1980 (they moved back in 1996).
Antitrust laws in the United States stipulate that firms Antitrust laws have been applied only sporadically to
cannot conspire to increase joint profits or restrain other leagues. For example, the rival United States Foot-
trade. In addition, firms cannot monopolize or attempt ball League (USFL) successfully sued the NFL for re-
to monopolize trade. However, the application of these straint of trade (although the damage award was only
laws to professional sports teams has been uneven. A $1) based on the pressure tactics applied by the NFL on
1922 court case granted MLB the only blanket exemp- the broadcast networks to keep the USFL from gaining
tion from antitrust law. The case was brought to the a television contract. However, courts have consistently
Supreme Court by Ned Hanlon, owner of the Balti- granted leagues the right to collude in negotiating col-
more Terrapins of the rival Federal League. In a unani- lectively for national television contracts. In fact, the
mous decision the Supreme Court ruled that baseball NFL was granted a limited exemption to antitrust leg-
should not be subject to antitrust laws because baseball islation explicitly to allow it to negotiate a league-wide
is a public exhibition rather than a business. This ruling TV deal.
has never been adequately justified, especially since the Europe has less need for antitrust policy, however in-
Supreme Court has not allowed this ruling to set a consistently applied, because open entrance into the
precedent and has denied other sports a similar ex- existing league creates much less incentive to start rival
emption. leagues. In addition, with the exception of league-wide
These court decisions have had a significant impact TV contracts, little in the way of revenue sharing exists
on the power of the leagues in the marketplace and on in Europe. However, the European Union (EU) has
their constituent franchises. Baseball has not faced the been threatening to prevent leagues from negotiating
Economics and Public Policy

1890—Not A Great Year for Baseball Owners
Cleveland, O., Nov. 21.—Players’ National League $2231,000. Against the latter item stands a claim by
figures are full of deep interest to the public at this J. Palmer O’Neil that the Pittsburg[h]s lost but $3,700
time. The losses of the league during the season last season. He also has a claim for $2,000 for extra
through the playing side of the game footed about mileage traveled, but doesn’t hope to get is all.
$125,00, divided as follows: Boston, none; New Added to the losses in case the Players’ League
York, $15,000; Philadelphia, $20,000; Cleveland, does not go on, may be added the following sums
$15,000; Pittsburg[h], $20,000; Buffalo, $20,000; spent in building and equipping grounds: Boston,
Brooklyn, $19,000; Chicago, $16,000. Total, $40,000; New York, $60,000; Philadelphia,
$125,000. $38,000; Brooklyn, $42,000; Chicago $25,000;
In the conferences the following admissions as to Cleveland, $20,000; Pittsburg[h], $18,000; Buffalo,
losses have been made by National League men about $13,000, Total, $215,000. Grand total invested:
National League clubs: Boston, $60,000; New York, $340,000. The Brooklyn club did not pay for its
$45,000; Chicago, $35,000; Brooklyn, $25,000; ground or stands.
Cleveland, $23,000; Philadelphia, $16,000; Cin- Source: Here are the figures: The losses of the base-ball year made public at last. (1890,
November 22). Chicago Tribune.
cinnati, $15,000; Pittsburg[h], $12,000. Total,
nationwide TV contracts, although this prohibition has fer system, like the reserve clause, bound players to one
not yet come to pass. particular team for their entire career. Players could
move between teams only with the payment of a trans-
Labor Market fer fee from the new team to the old team. The purpose
Researchers have applied most economic analysis of of this payment was to provide compensation from the
the labor market in sports to determining the impact of wealthy buying teams to the more modest selling teams
changes in the structure of the labor market on both for the loss of a valuable playing asset. Finally, Euro-
player wages and competitive balance in league play. pean leagues contained import restrictions stipulating
Historically, labor market restrictions have been the maximum number of foreign players permitted on
prevalent in both Europe and North America. The main each team. This stipulation was designed to both foster
restriction on the labor market in all of the North Amer- the development of domestic talent, which is important
ican leagues used to be the reserve clause, which stated in a sport in which competition between national teams
that at the end of a player’s contract, owners could uni- (such as the World Cup) is prestigious, and to prevent
laterally extend the terms of the previous contract for an wealthy teams from stocking up on foreign superstars
additional year. Unless players were willing to take the and dominating a league.
extraordinary step of sitting out a year, this clause ef-
fectively bound players to their existing team for their Current Labor Market
entire playing career, eliminating bidding for players Under pressure from individual players, who challenged
by other teams in the league. leagues in court under restraint of trade, and player
In Europe three labor market restrictions were in unions negotiating in the collective bargaining process,
place: the maximum wage, the retain and transfer sys- the reserve clause in North America was gradually elim-
tem, and import restrictions. The maximum wage stip- inated and replaced with free agency, which allows play-
ulated the maximum amount that a player could be ers to negotiate with any team at the end of their
paid and was abolished in 1961. The retain and trans- contract. By allowing a more competitive labor market
to develop in sports, free agency has stimulated an in- team during the previous season gets the first choice of
crease in player salaries as teams vie with each other to entry-level players. Of course, eliminating competitive
attract talented athletes. bidding between teams on entry-level players also re-
In an effort to control salaries in the era of free duces the cost of recruiting new players.
agency, the NFL and the NBA have implemented salary Players object to the elimination of bidding, as well
caps, a maximum amount that can be spent on all of as to the possibility of being compelled to play for a
the players on a team. Although caps do reduce spend- team, or in a city, that they do not like. Under pressure
ing on players’ salaries, salary caps create some impor- from players and their unions, the number of draft
tant problems. First, the maximum payroll makes it rounds has been gradually reduced. For example, in
difficult to keep successful teams together. Players on the NBA it has been reduced from seven rounds to only
successful (especially championship) teams are more two. Players who are not drafted are free to attempt to
likely to command higher salaries, which makes it un- make any team they choose.
likely that teams will be able to re-sign their free agent In Europe the retain and transfer system was dra-
status and stay under the salary cap. In 1983, for ex- matically altered when a Belgian soccer player, Jean-
ample, the Boston Celtics of the NBA discovered that Marc Bosman, challenged it before the European
re-signing Larry Bird would use up most of their salary Union. Unhappy at his original team, F. C. Liege, Bos-
cap, forcing them to sell off much of the rest of their man wanted a transfer to French team Dunkirk, but the
team. In an effort to avoid this problem, the NBA per- deal foundered on the large transfer fee requested by
mitted teams to re-sign their own free agents without re- Liege. In 1990 Bosman sued for damages based on re-
gard to the salary cap, which came to be known as a straint of trade, and, after numerous appeals, in 1995
“soft cap.” Of course, omitting the salaries of re-signed the EU ruled that transfer fees contravene Article 48 of
players from the cap limit severely compromises its abil- the EU Treaty of Rome, which states that residents of
ity to constrain salaries. EU nations must be free to ply their trade in any coun-
The second difficulty is that teams often have an in- try of the EU. This ruling forced European soccer clubs
centive to cheat on the salary cap. Teams that are caught to cease the practice of charging transfer fees after a
going over the cap incur a fine. However, because of the player’s contract is over, although it is still permitted for
complex financial arrangements in players’ contracts, the duration of the contract. The Bosman ruling also en-
detecting teams that have cheated is difficult. In addi- couraged the EU to force the various soccer associations
tion, some team owners may be willing to accept the in Europe to abandon their restrictions on the number
fine if they can attract more talent and win more games of imported players that are permitted on a team.
than teams that obey the cap. This situation is quite
likely if owners are not profit maximizers, willing to Salaries of Professional Athletes
compromise profits for playing success. However, even In both North America and Europe the reduction of
if owners were strictly profit maximizers, going over labor market restrictions has paved the way for rapidly
the cap is still rational if the additional revenue from increasing salaries for athletes. For example, salaries in
signing a player is greater than the cost. the NHL increased by 400 percent between 1990 and
Another peculiar aspect of the labor market in sports 1999. This increase was not unique to North America.
is the draft, which exists in all four North American Between 1994 and 1999 wages in the Premier Division
leagues. Drafts are designed to improve long-term com- in England increased by 200 percent. In 2002 average
petitive balance by having teams select entry-level play- player salaries were $4.5 million in the NBA, $2.5 mil-
ers in reverse order of the teams’ playing performance lion in MLB, $1.6 million in the NHL, and $1.3 million
during the previous season. For example, the worst in the NFL.
There isn’t a single professional sports season now that doesn’t go on at

least a month too long. Baseball starts in football weather, and football in
baseball weather, and basketball overlaps them both. ■ JAMES RESTON
Without question major league athletes are gener- market will offer the player more money than will the
ously paid. However, economists distinguish between team in the smaller market, and the player will go to the
being well paid and being overpaid. The most fre- larger market team. With the reserve clause in place, the
quently used definition of a “fair” wage in economics is larger market team cannot negotiate with the player,
to compare workers’ earnings with their contribution to who is contractually bound to the smaller market team.
their firm’s revenue, termed the “marginal revenue prod- However, the larger market team can negotiate with
uct” (MRP). If earnings are below MRP, then players are the smaller market team, who will agree to sell the
being paid less than they are contributing to the firm player if the larger market team offers more than the
and are being “exploited,” whereas if the opposite is player can contribute to the smaller market team. Be-
true, players are overpaid. Evidence from the NHL and cause the player can generate more revenue in the larger
MLB suggests that when the reserve clause was in place market, the player will be sold.
players were badly exploited, earning as little as 10–20 Notice that although in either case the player ends up
percent of their MRP. In the era of free agency, however, with the larger market team, under free agency the
the opposite has occurred. Players are, on average, player keeps all of the benefits from being able to sign
being paid more than their MRP. with the larger market team, whereas under the reserve
Economists argue that no firm that is attempting to clause the smaller market team receives the payment
maximize profits should ever pay a wage in excess of a from the larger market team. Therefore, although the
worker’s MRP. The most straightforward explanation of distribution of playing talent remains the same, the re-
why this argument does not appear to be heeded in pro- serve clause does redistribute income away from players
fessional sports is that owners are not profit maximiz- and toward small-market teams.
ing and are willing to sacrifice profits for success.
Another possible explanation is the winner’s curse, Subsidization of Professional
which occurs when a number of bidders are in an Sports Teams
auction-type setting with a degree of uncertainty about The third important area of economic research in the
the value of the subject of the auction, as is the case sports realm emerged when governments became in-
when a number of teams are bidding on a free-agent volved in the economics of sports by subsidizing teams.
athlete. The successful bidder will inevitably be the one This involvement is particularly common in North
with the most optimistic evaluation of the athlete, cre- America. In an extreme example, the NFL Baltimore
ating a tendency for the winning bid to overestimate the Ravens pay nothing to play in a publicly funded facility.
value of the athlete. Two questions arise from this practice. First, does an
Economists also have asked whether the relaxation of economic justification exist for this subsidy? Second, if
labor market restrictions has had an impact on the dis- no justification exists, why is subsidization so prevalent?
tribution of playing talent in professional sports. Em- The use of public money to support what is essen-
pirical evidence, in North America at least, suggests no tially little more than grownups playing children’s
impact has occurred. Two studies have demonstrated games at first seems to defy rationality. However, at
that no change has taken place in the distribution of least in theory, some potential justifications exist for
winning percentages in any one season after the move subsidization, assuming that in the absence of the sub-
from the reserve clause to free agency in baseball. Econ- sidy, the team would leave for another city. If no threat
omists explain this fact through the “invariance princi- of a team leaving exists, then no economic rationale for
ple,” which holds as follows. Assume that the same subsidization exists.
player has a higher value in a larger market than in a The presence of a team may bring several types of
smaller market. Under free agency the team in the larger economic benefits that could justify subsidization. First,
A bike path in Vancouver, British Columbia;

such paths are important community
resources. Source: istockphoto/Waynerd.
sidy, dedicating considerable resources to a campaign to

curry the favor of the public and politicians is rational.
On the other hand, the costs of the subsidy are spread
thinly across the entire taxpaying public, meaning that
it is not economically “rational” for people to invest
much time or money in a countercampaign. The pro-
subsidy camp has both the resources and the incentive
to dramatically outspend its opponents in a political
system in which money can purchase results. This un-
equal contest in the political system can result in gov-
ernment subsidies even when the majority of the public
would not reasonably support the policy.
The greater incidence of public subsidies of teams in
North America compared with teams in Europe is
caused in part by the tight control over the number of
teams exercised by North American leagues. This con-
a team can increase spending in the local economy, trol ensures that not all major markets contain teams,
both by increasing tourism and by capturing more of making threats of relocation highly credible. As noted
the discretionary spending of locals. For example, pur- earlier, in Europe the number of teams in a league is not
chasing season tickets instead of a foreign vacation re- similarly restricted. London, for example, had five teams
duces spending that would have otherwise “leaked” out playing in the English Premier division in 2003–2004
of the region. Second, sports teams are considered by and numerous others toiling away in the divisions
some to be a cultural amenity that attracts businesses below.Virtually all major centers already contain teams
and workers who would not otherwise locate in a re- with a strong traditional fan base, making it difficult for
gion, thus contributing to general economic expansion. a team to pack up and move to another region and re-
Third, sports teams have an “existence value,” which is main viable. Indeed, the only instance of such a move
the value that residents derive from the mere presence occurring in England in recent history was the move of
of the team in their city. Unfortunately, existence values Wimbledon to Milton Keynes. Not only was this move
are difficult to quantify. As far as the more tangible eco- greeted with horror across the country, but also the
nomic benefits are concerned, a number of economic team became known derisively as “Franchise FC,” and
studies have found no connection between the pres- has attracted few fans in its new location, incurred mas-
ence of a professional sports team and a variety of eco- sive debts, and was relegated from the first division in
nomic indicators such as economic growth, income, or 2004. The limited possibility of team movement in Eu-
employment. rope would make any owner’s relocation threat, on
The explanation for the seemingly perplexing politi- which most subsidy decisions in North America are
cal decision to subsidize teams with so little economic based, quite hollow.
justification rests partially on the ability of wealthier
and more organized groups to exert greater influence Economic Crisis?
on the citizenry and on political decision makers than Professional sports are going through something of an
can disorganized and poorly resourced groups. For the economic crisis. In both Europe and North America
team itself and those groups (such as the construction the easing of restrictions in the labor market has paved
industry) who stand to gain considerably from the sub- the way for dramatic salary escalation. Owners have
responded in two ways. First, they have sought to con- Neal, W. (1964). The peculiar economics of professional sport. Quar-
vince, with varying degrees of success, fellow owners terly Journal of Economics, 78(1), 1–14.
Noll, R. (1974). Government and the sports business, Washington, DC:
and players that new restrictions in the form of salary Brookings Institution.
caps and revenue sharing are necessary. This effort has Noll, R., & Zimbalist, A. (1997). Sports jobs and taxes. Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution.
been truly successful only in the NFL, which is both the Quirk, J., & Fort, R. (1992). Pay dirt: The business of professional team
most profitable league and has the strongest salary cap sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
and most revenue sharing. Second, teams have at- Quirk, J., & Fort, R. (1999). Hard ball: The abuse of power in pro team
sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
tempted to expand all of their revenue sources. This at- Rottenberg, S. (1956). The Major League Baseball player’s labor mar-
tempt has resulted in efforts to expand the sales of ket. Journal of Political Economy, 64, 242–258.
Scully, G. (1974). Pay and performance in Major League Baseball.
league merchandise around the globe (most aggressively American Economic Review, 64, 915–930.
by the English soccer team Manchester United, which Scully, G. (1995). The market structure of sports. Chicago: University
has opened club superstores in several Asian locations) of Chicago Press.
Siegfried, J., & Zimbalist, A. (2000). The economics of sports facilities
and pressure on governments to increase team revenues and their communities. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3),
through publicly subsidized facilities. Despite these rev- 95–114.
Szymanski, S. (2003). The economic design of sporting contests. The
enue increases, team owners still claim that they are Journal of Economic Literature, 41(4), 1137–1187.
losing money and are placing increasing pressure on Vrooman, J. (1995). A general theory of professional sports leagues.
player unions to reduce wages and on politicians to in- Southern Economic Journal, 61, 971–990.
Zimbalist, A. (1994). Baseball and billions. New York: Basic Books.
crease subsidies. Unsurprisingly, both strategies are
being met with increasing resistance, making some peo-
ple question the ability of these strategies to restore
profitability.
Ian Hudson
Egypt
See also Franchise Relocation; Sport Politics; Unionism
E gypt, with a population of 76 million, is located in
the northeastern corner of Africa at the crossroads
of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Egyptian culture has been
influenced by developments in all three continents. In
Further Reading particular, because England controlled Egypt during the
Cairns, J., Jennett, N., & Sloane, P. (1986). The economics of profes-
sional team sports: A survey of theory and evidence. Journal of Eco- nineteenth and twentieth centuries, sports in Egypt were
nomic Studies, 13, 3–80. influenced, primarily as men played traditional Euro-
Danielson, M. (1997). Home team: Professional sports and the Ameri-
can metropolis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
pean sports such as soccer (association football).
Dobson, S., & Goddard, J. (2001). The economics of football. Cam- Centuries ago, as Egypt declined and came under
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Roman rule, sports were mainly limited to large
El-Hodiri, M., & Quirk, J. (1971). An economic model of a professional
sports league. Journal of Political Economy, 79, 1302–1319. Roman-style public tournaments. During the seventh
Fort, R., & Quirk, J. (1995). Cross subsidization, incentives and out- century Muslims from Arabia conquered Egypt, and
comes in professional team sports leagues. The Journal of Economic
Literature, 33(3), 1265–1299.
Egypt became an Islamic society. In Islam physical fit-
Hudson, I. (2002). Sabotage versus public choice: Sports as a case ness is important in maintaining health and strength.
study for interest group theory. Journal of Economic Issues, 36(4), The ulamas, the scholars of Islam, affirmed that fitness
1079–1096.
Jones, J., & Walsh, W. (1987). The World Hockey Association and helps create an integrated, well-rounded personality
player exploitation in the National Hockey League. Quarterly Re- and that a person should become physically fit through
view of Economics and Business, 27(2), 87–101.
Leeds, M., & von Allmen, P. (2002). The economics of professional
sports, socially fit through social service, morally fit
sports. Boston: Addison Wesley. through virtue, spiritually fit through worship, mentally
EGYPT 497
A view from a hotel looking at the Red Sea. Source: istockphoto/HTOUDY.
fit through culture, and politically fit through commu- rulers, both men and women, valued physical fitness.
nity involvement. Some activities of Islamic life pro- For example, statues of Queen Hatshepsut (1490–
mote fitness. For example, prayer involves physical 1468 BCE) and Queen Nefertiti (1364–1306 BCE)
movements and helps to strengthen muscles; pilgrimage show them both as physically active. However, most
often requires physical activity and hardship; and fast- Egyptians, male or female, probably did not participate
ing develops several traits necessary for success in in sports because sports were the domain of the ruling
sports, including self-control, patience, and discipline. and priestly classes.
Islamic beliefs about women and about appropriate
Women in Sports sports activity have had a major influence on sports par-
Ancient Egypt provides some of the oldest evidence of ticipation in Egyptian society. Physical education pro-
physical fitness activity and sports participation by grams for girls were begun during the Ottoman rule of
women in human history. This evidence comes from the Egypt during the nineteenth century and also were en-
archaeological record, which includes writings, carv- couraged during British control from 1882 to 1920.
ings, drawings, sculpture, and paintings of women in- However, women’s sports programs developed slowly,
volved in gymnastics, archery, swimming, horseback and not until 1937 did the Ministry of Education es-
riding, and dance. An Eighteenth Dynasty illustration tablish training programs for physical education teach-
from the Luxor tomb of Nub Amon, for example, shows ers and more women become involved as instructors. In
two women dancing, and from the Eleventh Dynasty keeping with Islamic beliefs, men teachers and women
the walls of the temple of Bani Hassan show women ex- teachers had separate departments at the Princess
ercising and playing with balls stuffed with hay and Fawzeya School for Girls. To be accepted, applicants
thread and covered with animal hide. Ancient Egyptian had to have a high school diploma, be between eight-
Egypt Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics: 1 Gold, 1 Silver, 3 Bronze
een and twenty-four years of age, show good behavior, soccer teams, as well as other sports teams; only fifteen
be physically fit, and pass an exam. The ministry in women’s soccer teams existed. Men hold the most po-
1939 established two physical education departments sitions on the EAWF board of directors, and fathers still
—one for men that remained a part of the Educational have a say in whether their daughters may participate.
Institute for Teachers and one for women that became Parental attitudes about the appropriate role of
part of the Institute for Art Teachers. young women in Egyptian society have been perhaps
The revolution of 1952, which ended the monarchy the major problem facing women’s soccer. Some fami-
and created a republic, significantly changed Egypt. The lies, according to Ashraf Shafik, trainer of the national
new government emphasized education, especially women’s team, “didn’t want their girls to look mascu-
women’s education. Two physical education institutes line or stay away from home too long.” Other families
were established in 1955 in Alexandria—one for men, were relieved to learn that the audiences at most
one for women—and a four-year course of study led to women’s matches were families, and some progress has
a bachelor’s degree in physical education. In 1974 mas- been achieved.
ter’s and doctoral programs were developed.
Sports had become important in African and Muslim Competition at the Top
nations by the 1990s. In 1993 the physical education At the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece, Egypt
program established at Tanta University became the won five medals. Karam Ibrahim won a gold medal for
first coed physical education faculty in Egypt. The El men’s Greco-Roman wrestling (96 kilograms); Mo-
Minya University physical education program became hamed Aly won a silver medal for men’s boxing, super
coed in 1994, as did the program at Monofaya Uni- heavy (more than 91 kilograms); Ahmed Ismail won a
versity in 1995 and at Assuit University in 1996. Boys bronze medal for men’s boxing, light heavy (81 kilo-
and girls and men and women would share classrooms grams); Mohamed Elsayed won a bronze medal for
for their academic studies but would participate sepa- men’s boxing, heavy (91 kilograms); and Tamer Bay-
rately in sports and other physical activities. oumi won a bronze medal for men’s taekwondo (less
Although since the 1950s Egyptian women have had than 58 kilograms).
more opportunities to participate in sports (soccer,
Nabila Ahmed Abdel Rahman (with Mickey Friedman)
basketball) and physical fitness activities at the school
level, not until 1994 did an Egyptian woman, Sahar al-
Hawari, form a women’s soccer team. Despite opposi- Further Reading
tion from some in the sports establishment and some Rahman, N. A. A. (1998). Physical education in Egypt: From past to fu-
parents who did not want their daughters to participate ture. Paper presented at the Second World Conference on Women
and Sport, Windhoek, Namibia.
in public or in a rough sport, she founded the Egyptian Reuters. (1998, September 26). Soccer: Egyptian women break barri-
Association for Women’s Football (EAWF), and in ers on soccer field.
1998 Egyptian women competed in the Africa Cup for
Women. According to al-Hawari, “I suffered a lot. This
is a dream that came true. I knew it was not a miracle.
I believed in the sport.” Soccer had been a male-only
sport until establishment of Egypt’s first national team
Eiger North Face
for women and creation of the EAWF. Nevertheless,
women’s participation remained low compared with
that of men. Although women represented more than
T he Eiger North Face of the Swiss Alps is at once a
place of myth and of collective remembrance, veiled
by the aura of danger, death, and heroism. It is a dream
half of the population, men participated in hundreds of or a nightmare, a challenge and a trial. Those who have
EIGER NORTH FACE 499
Eiger North Face

Catherine Destivelle,
First Woman to Climb Eiger
mastered the Eiger North Face belong without doubt to
the small community of elite alpinists. In 1992, at age 22, the French climber Catherine
The Eiger, nearly four thousand meters high, forms Destivelle became the first woman to ascend Eiger
together with its neighbors Moench and Jungfrau an im- North Face. As the extract below (from of profile
pressing triangle called Dreigestirn in the Bernese Ober- of Destivelle on her website) attests, her success
land. In the wake of the Eroberungsalpinismus, the top on Eiger came as a result of a childhood dream
of the Eiger was reached in 1858. and a decade of hard work:
Until early modern times, mountains have been un-
tamed nature or vast wilderness. Only at the end of the She remembers the pleasure of reading books
eighteenth century did artists and scientists begin to be such as “Heidi” and “Belle et Sebastien” when she
interested in the secrets of the mountains. The starting was young. “One day, I dreamed of being Heidi,
point and first highlight of mountain climbing was the looking after cows in alpine meadows.” This ro-
conquest of Mont Blanc in 1786; with much time in be- mantic ideal has seen her through the years to
tween, the Grossglockner (1800), the Zugspitze (1820), this day.
and the Grossvenediger (1841) were climbed for the Her climbing is deeply rooted in the traditions
first time. In the middle of the nineteenth century, sud- of this sport, at one with mountains and adven-
denly the Alpine fever erupted, coming from Great ture. She began climbing at the age of 13:
Britain, the fatherland of sport. Now, mountains were “When I tried rock-climbing, I was good at it
looked upon as a sporting challenge and the run on the straight away, so I liked it.” By the age of 15, she
highest mountains began. After the conquest of most was picked up every Sunday by a group of more
summits, the mountaineers turned to difficult walls and experienced climbers and whisked off to
routes. Detailerschliessung was the motto that opened Fontainebleau for the day. By the age of 16, she
the way for numerous first climbs. had climbed the Couzy-Desmaison route on the
In the years between World War I and World War II, Olan and the Devies-Gervasutti route on the
most routes had already been climbed and the top Ailefroide, followed the year after by an ascent of
alpinists searched for new challenges, such as, for ex- the American Direct on the Petit Dru.
ample, climbing alone or in winter or the conquest of Source: Catherine Destivelle. (2005). Retrieved March 1, 2005, from http://
www.destivelle.com/A/BVFrame.html
walls that were looked upon as impossible to climb.
North Face—Wall of Death

The dark and concave North Face of the Eiger was be observed by a sensation-prone audience with tele-
looked upon as insurmountable, not only because of its scopes from a hotel terrace. The German climbers es-
steep incline and its overhang, its great height difference pecially showed a contempt for death or maybe even a
of 1,800 meters, and the numerous difficult passages, longing for death and were willing to take greatest risks
but also because of the weather conditions and the in order to triumph over the seemingly undefeatable
danger of falling rocks and avalanches. The Eiger North wall.
Face was the last big challenge of the Alps after the Until 1936, only one team had tried to climb the
north face of the Matterhorn had been climbed in 1931 North Face and both mountain climbers froze to death
and the north face of the Grandes Jorasses in 1935. in the “bivouac of death” at 3,300 meters after a dra-
Now the interest of the elite alpinists but also of the matic change of weather. The Olympic Games of 1936
general public concentrated on the Eiger, whose North and the challenge of an Olympic medal heightened
Face and the dramatic events of a climbing attempt can Eiger fever even more. In 1924, an Olympic medal was
The Eiger North Face. Source: istockphoto.com/trevboyd.
handed out for achievements in alpinism, and the op- tunnel leading to the Jungfrau. But Kurz was unreach-
portunity to gain this award in the Olympic Games in able from this place. Whereas the president of the
their own country was a special incentive for the Ger- British Alpine Club named the Eiger North Face an
man mountain climbers. In 1936, a German-Austrian obsession for crazy people, the four dead mountain
team (Willy Angerer and Edi Rainer from Germany climbers were glorified in Germany as heroes who had
and Andreas Hinterstoisser and Toni Kurz from Austria) given their lives and were lost in action for the father-
were the most promising aspirants for the victory over land.
the Eiger North Face. After three bivouacs they had to In 1938, again two teams prepared themselves for
give up, and they lost their lives in a dramatic way dur- climbing the wall. The two Germans, Andreas Heckmair
ing their attempt to escape the wall. Hinterstoisser and und Ludwig Vôrg, were unemployed Bergvagabunden.
Rainer fell to their deaths, Angerer was strangled by the They let themselves be employed in the Ordensburgen
rope, and Kurz died after he had survived a night hang- of the Nazi Party in Sonthofen, Germany, in order to
ing onto the rope, only a few meters away from rescuers earn enough money to buy the newly invented cram-
who had come to the hole in the wall that led to a train pons with twelve spikes. In the Ordensburgen, Nazi
EIGER NORTH FACE 501
The best climber in the world is the one

who’s having fun. ■ ALEX LOWE
leaders were educated and military exercises, sport In spite of improved equipment, climbing the wall is
training, and political indoctrination were obligatory. now as then incredibly difficult, exhausting, and dan-
On the wall, Andreas Heckmair and Ludwig Vôrg gerous. This is especially true for the new routes. In
met the Austrian climbers Heinrich Harrer and Fritz 1966, a direttissima was opened that was named after
Kasparek, and after some consideration they joined John Harlin, who died through an accident on the
forces. The ascent took place in an arena visible to the mountain. In 1969, six Japanese climbers, five men and
public as a show for the audience. Spectators, eager for one woman, climbed the wall in the Japanese direttis-
sensational events, and also journalists, observed the ac- sima. More routes followed, and today there are around
tions in the wall with telescopes. In addition, pictures twenty-five routes, some of them free climbing routes.
were taken from an airplane. Adolf Hitler had asked to
be informed continuously about the progress of the Rescue Operations
climbers. Andreas (Anderl) Heckmair, the best climber Until today, the wall was the arena of great sport per-
of the four, took the lead and the success of the team formances, but also of dramatic rescue operations. In
was mainly his achievement. With much luck, the four 1957, an international team of top-level mountaineers
climbers reached the summit in three days in spite of managed to save the Italian climber Claudio Corti with
bad weather. In Germany, the conquest of the last the help of a cable winch from the summit. Like the
fortress of the Alps was interpreted as a symbol of Ger- tragedy of 1936, this action caused incredible public at-
man superiority and frenetically celebrated: “A people tention, not least because the attempt failed to also res-
that has such sons cannot be destroyed” (Amstadter cue the team comrade of Corti, Stefano Longhi. On the
1996, 468). seventh day in the wall, he fell and had to be left on a
After a pause caused by World War II, in the 1950s ledge. There he stayed hungry and freezing for three
there was a run to the Eiger North Face and to the days. Members of the rescue team could only try to
route of the first climbers, which was named the Heck- cheer him up and to feed him with hopes for the next
mair Route. This route was and is a challenge that was day. But on the next day Longhi’s dead body hung on
taken up by the best climbers, but also by adventurers the rope after a storm had swept him out of his stand.
and reckless people. All in all, around fifty individuals His body dangled on the wall for two years before the
have lost their lives trying to climb the Eiger North corpse could be recovered in 1959. Since the 1970s,
Face. climbers in trouble have been able to be rescued by a
Soon it was not enough just to climb the wall. In helicopter. However, in the words of the climber Uli
1961, a German-Austrian team conducted the first as- Auffermann, the wall is still a legend and a “masterpiece
cent in wintertime. In 1963, the Swiss Michel Darbel- of mountaineering.”
lay climbed the wall alone. In 1964, the first woman,
Gertrud Pfister
the German Daisy Voog, was able to conquer the North
Face of the Eiger, and in 1992 Catherine Destivelle
managed to climb the wall alone in wintertime. Further Reading
Not only the difficulty but also the speed was in- Amstadter, R. (1996). Der Alpinismus: Kultur—Organisation—Politik
creased continuously. Today, the record of climbing the [Alpinism: Culture—Organization—politics]. Vienna: WUV-Uni-
wall is 4 1⁄2 hours, set by Christoph Hainz in 2003. In versitatsverlag.
Anker, D. (Ed.). (1998). Eiger: Der vertikale Arena [Eiger: The vertical
1985, Christophe Profit climbed with the help of a hel- arena]. Zurich, Switzerland: AS Verlag.
icopter, as a means of transportation between the Auffermann, U. (2002). Was zaehlt ist das Erlebnis: Anderl Heckmair,
Alpinist und Lebensk¸nstler [What counts is the experience: Anderl
mountains, the north faces of the Eiger, the Matterhorn, Heckmair, mountain climber and life-artist]. Bochum, Germany: Se-
and the Grandes Jorasses in 22 1⁄2 hours. mann Verlag.
Auffermann, U. (n.d.). Die Wand: Meisterpr¸fung der Bergsteigergilde thousand every fifteen minutes. The elite skaters are in
[The wall]. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://bergnews.com/ the dark for much of the race. In 1997 local farmers
service/Eiger-Nordwand/65 Jahre Eiger-Nordwand.htm
Harrer, H. (1989). Die weisse Spinne: Die Geschichte der Eiger- helped illuminate the course with lights from their
Nordwand [The white spider: The history of the Eiger North Face]. tractors.
Frankfurt, Germany: Ullstein.
Heckmair, A., Vorg, L., Kasparek, F., & Harrer, H. (1938). Um die
Eiger-Nordwand [On the Eiger North Face]. Munich, Germany: Eher. Origin
Elfstedentocht originated during the eighteenth century
when local people attempted to skate through all eleven
towns of Friesland in one day. In 1890 the sports jour-
Elfstedentocht nalist Willem “Pim” Mulier organized a tour. The first or-
ganized race was held in 1909, and the Vereniging De
A lso known as the “Eleven-Town Race” and the

“Eleven-City Tour,” Elfstedentocht is a one-day ice
skating race in which competitors skate to eleven towns
Friesche Elfsteden was created later that year to manage
the race. The association is made up of a ten-member
executive committee and a larger group of area super-
in Friesland Province of the northern Netherlands. Elf- visors. The association controls the number of people
stedentocht is only held on years when the bodies of who can compete, when the race can be held, measures
water that connect the towns freeze over so that the rac- the ice throughout the course, and creates klunen where
ers can skate from town to town. The race covers almost the ice is not thick enough.
200 kilometers, visiting the towns of Leeuwarden,
Sneek, Ijlst, Sloten, Stavoren, Hindeloopen, Workum, Importance
Bolsward, Harlingen, Franeker, Dokkum, and back to The Dutch have other long-distance ice skating races,
Leeuwarden. The race is usually held in January or Feb- but Elfstedentocht is the longest and the most famous.
ruary, the coldest months of the year. The ice must be a People who can’t wait for the course to freeze over can
minimum of 15 centimeters thick across most of the in-line skate along roughly the same route. Ice skating
course, with “ice transplants” and facilities (klunen) for is an important part of the Dutch identity, and the race
walking across non-icy areas on skates added to fill out takes the nation back to a timeless Holland for a day.
the course. The winner has always been Dutch. More than one-
third of the competitors in the 1997 race were older
Short Notice than fifty.
Elfstedentocht is announced by the Vereniging De Fri-
esche Elfsteden (Fresian Eleven Cities Association), only Rules
a few days before it is held, with the declaration, “It sil Only members of the Vereniging De Friesche Elfsteden
hewe” (“It is on”). Because the timing of the race cannot can compete in the race. Membership is limited to peo-
be predicted, one cannot train specifically for it, al- ple who are eighteen or older who can prove they are
though two people have won it twice. Elfstedentocht competent skaters and are vouched for by two members
captures the imagination and interest of an entire coun- of the association. Members will either have a “start
try when it is held, and most activity ceases so people right” or will enter a lottery to obtain a start place after
can watch the racers come through their towns or watch all the members with start rights have elected to race. A
on television. The race has been held only four times maximum of sixteen thousand people start the race. The
during the last forty years. percentage that finishes the race varies because of the
Typically the race starts at 5:30 A.M., with nonelite weather; only 1.3 percent of the starters finished in
skaters starting directly after elite skaters at a rate of one 1963. Elite competitors must finish within a percentage
ELITE SPORTS PARENTS 503
of the winning time (20 percent for men, 30 percent for long time between races, much pressure exists to stage
women), and other competitors must finish by mid- the race even if the weather is not cooperating.
night (other town checkpoints close earlier).
Christina L. Hennessey
Shared wins (created when race winners cross the fin-
ish line together) were outlawed after the race had
shared winners in 1933 and 1940. Women, previously Further Reading
able to compete only with the amateurs, were added to Bates, S. (1997, January 6). Skating: Ultimate endurance test on ice.
the elite competition in 1985. Women have not re- Guardian, p. 17.
Bernstein, R. (1985, February 22). Dutch wait 22 years for marathon
ceived a separate award in past races, but they will the on ice. New York Times, p. A17.
next time the race is held. To ensure that shortcuts are Blom, G. (2003). Kleine encyclopedie van de Elfstedentocht [Small en-
not taken on the course, all racers have cards hand- cyclopedia of the Friesian Eleven Cities Ice Skating Marathon]. Hin-
deloopen, Netherlands: Eerste Friese Schaatsmuseum.
stamped in each town to prove they came through. All Couwenhoven, R., & Snoep, H. (2001). Negentig jaar elfstedentocht
finishers receive the Elfstedenkruisje (Eleven Cities 1909–1999 [90th anniversary of the Friesian Eleven Cities Ice Skat-
ing Marathon 1909–1999]. Haarlem, Netherlands: De Vrieseborch.
Cross). The top eleven men and top three women re- De Groot, P., van der Meulen, H., & Stegenga, W. (1997). De Elfste-
ceive medals, with the top male winner receiving a large dentocht 1909–1997, de complete Elfstedengeschiedenis [Friesian
silver plate, and the top female winner receiving a silver Eleven Cities Ice Skating Marathon 1909–1997, the entire history
of the marathon]. Leeuwarden, Netherlands: Friese Pers Boekerij.
cup and bowl. Kuper, S. (2003, January 18). Global warming sends skiing on a down-
hill run. Financial Times, p. 24.
Winners Van Stegeren, T. (1991). The land and people of the Netherlands. New
York: HarperCollins.
The race has been held only fifteen times. The years,
winners, and times (in hours and minutes): 1909,
Minne Hoekstra, 13:50; 1912, Coen de Koning, 11:40;
1917, Coen de Koning, 9:53; 1929, Karst Leemburg,
11:09; 1933, Abe de Vries, Sipke Castelein, 9:53;
1940, Piet Keizer, Auke Adema, Cor Jongert, Dirk van
Duim, Sjouke Westra, 11:30; 1941, Auke Adema, 9:19;
1942, Sietze de Groot, 8:44; 1947, Jan van der Hoorn,
10:51; 1954, Jeen van den Berg, 7:35; 1956, no win-
F amilies play a pivotal role in the development of
children’s sports talent. Parents are the most influ-
ential in initially exposing their children to sports and
ner declared because of a shared win disqualification; provide the greatest encouragement concerning their
1963, Reinier Paping, 10:59; 1985, Evert van Ben- participation. Elite sports parents are those whose re-
them, 6:47; 1986, Evert van Benthem, 6:55; and 1997, sources support the development of a child’s talent in
Henk Angenent, 6:49. becoming an elite athlete.
The Future Family Situations

Today Elfstedentocht has become more commercial, There can be worlds of difference between an American
and amateurs have more difficulty winning as corpora- middle-class family with a thirteen-year-old male bas-
tions support the training of elite skaters, sometimes ketball player and a Chinese low-income family with an
including world and Olympic champions. Global eight-year-old female gymnast. Yet, some general as-
warming is also affecting the viability of the race. The pects can be stressed. Certain types of families seem to
Dutch meteorological institute predicts weather suit- be more likely to nurture sports talents. Social and eco-
able for only four to ten races during this century. Be- nomic conditions play a central role because children
cause of the international popularity of the race and the from a family in a higher socioeconomic group are

Earl Woods on
His Son, Tiger
port, as supportive in times of problems such as in-
At the Fred Haskins Award dinner in honor Amer- juries, and in their presence at practice and games.
ica’s outstanding college golfer of 1996, Earl However, parental roles differ, and research concerning
Woods spoke eloquently about the honoree—his elite performers has revealed different stages in the de-
son, Tiger Woods. velopment of talent, including shifting demands on the
parents.
Please forgive me . . . but sometimes I get very Research suggests that in the early years, the sam-
emotional when I talk about my son. . . . My pling years (ages 6–12), optimum parental support is
heart fills with so much joy when I realize that given to encouraging their child’s participation, having
this young man is going to be able to help so fun, and enjoying the learning. In programs for the de-
many people. . . . He will transcend this game . . . velopment of talent, it is recommended that parents
and bring to the world . . . a humanitarianism provide the child with access to varied programs of
which has never been known before. The world physical education and sport from an early age. Rather
will be a better place to live in by virtue of his ex- than additional advice, the children require under-
istence and his presence—I acknowledge only a standing and emotional support from their parents.
small part in that—in that I know that I was per- The middle years, the specializing years (ages 13–15),
sonally selected by God himself . . . to nurture are characterized by a greater commitment of the child as
this young man . . . and bring him to the point well as the parents to a particular sport. More accom-
where he can make his contribution to human- plished coaches are sought, and the parents often devote
ity. . . . This is my treasure . . . Please accept it and more resources to the activity. They are providing the
use it wisely. Thank you. child with financial support and transportation needed
Source: Smith, G. (1996). The chosen one. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved March 1, for training and competition. Often, the family’s routine
2005, from http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1996/sportsman/1996.
html can be dominated by the child’s talent development.
During the later years, the investment years, parental
involvement might decrease. Parents provide support in
a background role and can be essential in providing fi-
more likely to achieve high levels of performance. This nancial as well as emotional support. During the in-
is also the case if children come from a family that is vestment years, athletes often need help in overcoming
headed by two parents. Moreover, children are more setbacks, such as major sporting defeats, injuries, pres-
likely to become elite sports performers in families in sure, and fatigue. Also, the departure of a trainer or the
which the parents have competed at a high level in breaking up of a training team can be a stressful event
sports. implicated in competition sport. Of great importance is
Few studies concern the way in which elite sports that parents provide an understanding environment to
parents and their families function in supporting chil- which their children can retreat, if necessary.
dren’s sports talent and the factors that can limit the
parents’ capacity to do so. The emphasis among sports Complex Families
researchers has been on the impact that parents have on Young athletes are commuters between school and
their children’s sports careers. sport. One of the major tasks for the parents in elite
sports is to enable their children to gain school qualifi-
Parental Support cations without having to neglect their commitment to
Parents appear to be important as financial supporters, top-level sport. Sometimes the parents are involved in
as organizers of transportation, in providing moral sup- teaching their children.
ELITE SPORTS PARENTS 505
Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred,
jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing
violence. In other words, it is war minus the shooting. ■ GEORGE ORWELL
In all research findings, parents and coaches are con- terns of parenting have been changing as well. Thus, the
sidered to be the most important people in the ath- social conditions of nurturing sports talents have
lete’s career. However, their roles are differentiated, and changed, in particular since the 1970s. The number of
it should be the coach who makes the athlete aware of elite parents has increased, and their role has expanded
the reasons for his or her failures and successes. Parents for the following reasons: (1) the stakes associated with
are encouraged to remember that they should not place the success of athletes has increased, and (2) the decline
more importance on their child’s performance than the of public support for skills development has forced fam-
child does himself or herself. ilies to seek elite training in private clubs and with pri-
Families that were defined as being integrated as well vately hired coaches. This means that parents are now
as differentiated have been found to be the best stimu- faced with monitoring development outside of the in-
lus for the development of the teenager’s talent. Inte- stitutional supports that in the past often were pro-
grated families are families with stable conditions vided by public and community-based agencies and
among their members and those families that provide schools.
their children with a sense of support and consistency. The availability of parental support will significantly
Differentiated families refer to those families in which influence the ability of a child to engage in the required
members are encouraged to develop their individuality amounts and quality of training in the future. How-
by seeking out new challenges and opportunities. ever, social circumstances, such as a high incidence of
divorce, might limit families’ capacities to do so. Social
Variety of Life Stories change and constraints in providing support for young
Different sports have various demands, and the re- performers may further actualize policy interventions or
sources that are made available to young athletes and could enhance the sponsorship of activities that would
their parents vary among national and federal states make parents’ practical and economic support of less
and schools. Moreover, gendered as well as subjective decisive importance.
strategies used by young athletes, not to mention their Parents influence a child’s initial participation, his or
parents’ wide variety of strategies, are not to be ignored. her persistence, and his or her socialization into sport.
Being talented means being different, and every talent is Children’s enjoyment is paramount, and supportive
a unique individual and has his or her own life story. elite sports parents seem to induce minimal amounts of
The stages in the development of talent refer to ob- pressure by being encouraging and by not becoming
jective demands and social circumstances. However, over-involved.
the perceived pressure is not simply the sum of these de-
Inge Kryger Pedersen
mands. Athletes and their parents must have both social
and personal resources at their disposal to cope with See also Academies and Camps, Sport; Family Involve-
the pressure imposed on them. ment; Youth Sports
A Time of Family Change

Increased sports participation, seen specifically as a re- Further Reading
sult of increased social acceptance of sports women in Baker, J., Horton, S., Robertson-Wilson, J., & Wall, M. (2003). Nur-
turing sport expertise: Factors influencing the development of elite
the twentieth century, means that more families than
athlete. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 2, 1–9.
ever before have become involved in sports. Moreover, Bloom, B. S. (Ed.) (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York:
young athletes are involved in an increasing number of Ballantine Books.
Brettschneider, W.-D. (1999). Risks and opportunities: Adolescents in
competitions and hours of training. Patterns of parental top-level sport—growing up with the pressures of school and train-
employment and family situations and therefore pating. European Physical Education Review, 5(2), 121–133.
Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of tal- ball shoe market in eight years and in 2003 bought
ent in sports. Sport Psychologist, 13, 395–417. Converse, the company that had been its chief rival in
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented
teenagers: The roots of success and failure. New York: Cambridge 1984, out of bankruptcy.
University Press.
Hellstedt, J. C. (1995). Invisible players: A family systems model. In
S. M. Murphy (Ed.), Sport psychology interventions (pp.117–147). Historical Development
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Endorsements in sports date as far back as the ancient
Kay, T. (2000). Sporting excellence: A family affair. European Physical
Olympic Games. Although no record exists of the first
Education Review, 6(2), 151–169.
Rowley, S. (1992). TOYA (Training of Young Athletes Study): Identifica- athlete to secure endorsement money, competitors from
tion of talent. London: Sports Council. Greek city-states were often provided with free housing,
van Rossum, J. H. A. (1995). Talent in sport: Significant others in the
career of top-level Dutch athletes. In M. W. Katzko & F. J. Mönks meals, and training support in preparation for the
(Eds.), Nurturing talent: Individual needs and social ability. Assen: games. One can only imagine that the return of suc-
Van Gorcum. cessful athletes to their hometowns also brought many
Yang, X., Telama, R., & Laasko, L. (1996). Parents’ physical activity, so-
cioeconomic status and education as predictors of physical activity opportunities to associate with local business people
and sport among children and youths: A 12-year follow-up study. and their wares. However, as modern sports began to
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 31(3), 273–287.
develop at the turn of the twentieth century, so did the
practice of athlete endorsements. In Europe race drivers
for the likes of Mercedes, Fiat, and Peugeot served as
representatives for their respective companies. In the
Endorsements United States professional baseball players granted the
right to their name and likeness for tobacco companies
H iring sports celebrities to endorse both sports and

nonsports products is firmly embedded as an in-
ternational business practice. Companies use the pop-
to include on baseball cards with their cigarette packs.
In 1918 a seventeen-year-old basketball player named
Chuck Taylor joined a rubber shoe company named
ularity of athletes to sell more products or services. Converse and redesigned a shoe specifically for basket-
That is the bottom line for companies: “How can this ball. That shoe, bearing his name, appeared in the 1936
athlete help me sell more [beer, shoes, balls, or what- Olympics and is still in production today.
ever]?” The underlying principle is that if the consumer The true proliferation of athlete endorsements came
feels an affinity for a popular and successful athlete, that during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily through tennis
affinity can transfer to the products or services that he and golf and ostensibly because of television. In these
or she endorses. sports the viewing audience could easily recognize the
Research supports both sides of the practice. On the athletes’ faces, and the nature of these sports was “upper
one hand, one study showed that only 4 percent of class” and “civil.” Golfers, including Sam Snead, Ben
consumers said it is important for a famous person to Hogan, Byron Nelson, Patty Berg, Arnold Palmer, Jack
endorse a product and that more than 50 percent of Nicklaus, and Gary Player, endorsed clubs. In tennis
consumers said athletes endorse products just for the Doris Hart, Billie Jean King, Margaret Smith, Jack
money. On the other hand, the most successful sports Kramer, Rod Laver, and Stan Smith, among others,
product endorsers clearly have generated millions of were under contract with racquet producers for auto-
dollars for the companies they represent. Nike did not graphed models.
sell a basketball shoe prior to signing U.S. basketball Athletes also endorsed nonsports products during
player Michael Jordan in 1984. Jordan received an un- the 1960s and 1970s, primarily on television. Wheaties
precedented contract for $2.5 million for five years. cereal was a staple for U.S. athletes, and the men’s
Nike went from 0 percent to 70 percent of the basket- razor company Gillette also secured various athletes
ENDORSEMENTS 507
I’ve got a theory that if you give 100% all of the time,
somehow things will work out in the end. ■ LARRY BIRD
for endorsements. From the Brazilian soccer player Pele created problems for some athletes. Race drivers and
to the U.S. football star Joe Namath, the most popular U.S. football players often have theirs face obscured by
athletes were sought by consumer product companies a helmet. Thus, many consumers recognize the athlete
to lend their image to products. Even tennis “bad boy” only when the athlete is presented in a specific context
Ilie Nastase secured endorsement opportunities. In with his or her race car or team uniform. Recognition
1972 the endorsement world was shocked when seven- also has its geographical limits. The German Formula
time Olympic gold medal swimmer Mark Spitz priced 1 driver Michael Schumacher reportedly likes shopping
his endorsement fee so high that few companies actu- in the United States, where he can stroll the avenues
ally signed him to contracts. with little distraction because few people recognize
Endorsement opportunities can also transcend an him. Similarly, U.S. Hall of Fame football player John
athlete’s playing career. The U.S. golfer Arnold Palmer Elway enjoyed the same anonymity when shopping in
signed a twelve-year endorsement contract with Cal- Europe.
away golf clubs at age seventy, long after he had placed If some question exists about the ease with which the
in a championship event. George Foreman, 1968 heavy- consumer would recognize the athlete, commercials
weight boxing Olympic gold medalist and world should include a graphic with the athlete’s name or in-
heavyweight boxing champion, was still active in the en- clude it on the jersey. The athlete also must be afford-
dorsement field in 2004 with $27.5 million per year for able to the sponsoring company. Some athletes and
endorsements of his burger-cooking machine in addi- their agents demand prices that companies cannot
tion to an automobile parts and service promotion. meet. As one Reebok executive said, one has to sell a
lot of additional pairs of shoes to pay an athlete $10
Business Strategies million. However, the U.S. golfer Tiger Woods’s vic-
Contemporary thinking has produced a paradigm tory in the 1997 Masters golf tournament pushed sales
(framework) that depicts how athletes have been used of Nike golf equipment up 100 percent—from $100
in endorsements. At the primary level an athlete can million to $200 million. When he switched to a Nike
merely be shown with the product in the advertisement. golf ball the Nike market share went from 1 percent to
The association between the two is left completely to 3 percent in three months. Trek’s sponsorship of the
the mind of the consumer. At a higher level the athlete U.S. bicyclist Lance Armstrong resulted in a 100 per-
can directly encourage the consumer to use the product cent increase in sales of its $4,000 tour model bike
(“Buy Wilson tennis balls!”). On a more implicit level after Armstrong’s fourth Tour de France win. A similar
the athlete can proclaim that he or she uses the product scenario exists with nonsports products. The British
(“I wear only Adidas”). Finally the athlete can proclaim soccer star David Beckham’s endorsement of Voda-
his or her endorsement of the product either through phone was credited with selling more than fifty thou-
spoken words or the use of his or her name on the sand cell phones during the first three weeks of the ad
product (official “Sammy Sosa” baseball glove). campaign.
In order for the endorsement to be effective, several Another key element is matching the personality and
criteria must be met. The consumer must consider the image of the athlete with the product and audience.
athlete trustworthy. This trust, of course, varies from Most successful endorsement deals exhibit strong, direct
product to product and across age groups. Whereas connections between the product and the athlete. Tiger
one age group may find the U.S. golfer Jack Nicklaus Woods’s success on the golf course obviously relates to
trustworthy, a younger group may trust the U.S. skate- his equipment. However, what is it about his image
boarder Tony Hawk. The athlete must also be readily that relates to American Express credit cards? Perhaps
recognizable by the audience. This recognizability has it is the affluence of golf and his charming personality.
Endorsements
The Big-Time Endorsers in the Late 1990s
Most Influential/ Most
Most Appealing1 Most Recognized Trusted2 Controversial2 Highest Total Endorsements3
Tiger Woods O.J. Simpson Michael Jordan Dennis Rodman Michael Jordan ($40 million)
Michael Jordan Magic Johnson Shaquille O’Neil Michael Irvin Tiger Woods ($25 million)
Grant Hill Michael Jordan Joe Montana John Daly Shaquille O’Neil ($23 million)
Dennis Rodman Muhammed Ali Tiger Woods Darryl Strawberry Arnold Palmer ($19.2 million)
Ken Griffey, Jr. Mike Tyson Cal Ripken, Jr. Mike Tyson Andre Agassi ($17 million)
Troy Aikman Joe Montana Troy Aikman Jennifer Capriati Jack Nicholaus ($16 million)
Scottie Pippen Nancy Kerrigan Steve Young Albert Belle Grant Hill ($7 million)4
George Foreman Tonya Harding Ken Griffey, Jr. Pete Rose Joe Montana ($12 million)
Bonnie Blair Joe Namath Dan Marino Derrick Coleman Ken Griffey, Jr. ($6 million)
Joe Montana Hank Aaron Wayne Gretzky O.J. Simpson Deon Sanders ($6 million)
1. Burns Sports Celebrity Services, April 1997
2. Sports Media Index, American Sports Data, February 1997
3. The ten most wanted spokesperson survey, Sports Marketing Newsletter, August 1997
4. According to Sports Marketing Newsletter, Grant Hill signed a new endorsement contract with Fila in October, 1997, worth at least $80 million over the next 7 years. This new
deal would now place Hill significantly higher on the SMN survey list.
Source: Brooks, C. M. (1998). Celebrity athlete endorsement: An overview of the key theoretical issues. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(2), 35.
Current Practice dorsement earnings. The leading endorser in motor

Top endorsers in golf include Woods, Ernie Els, Sergio sports is Michael Schumacher. The six-time Formula 1
Garcia, and Vijay Singh. The Swede Annika Sorenstam champion reportedly earns a salary of $48 million from
and the South Korean Se Ri Pak head up the women’s Ferrari and another $96 million from endorsements
list. All of these venerable golfers have substantial en- and merchandising. Formula 1 drivers own the spon-
dorsement earnings. Tiger Woods reportedly made $78 sorship rights to their helmet, whereas the team owner
million in 2004 for his endorsement earnings alone. He owns the rights to signage on the car and on the driver’s
has secured endorsements from a variety of companies, uniform. Several Formula 1 drivers earn as much as
including Nike, Buick automobiles, Tag Heuer watches, $300,000 from their helmet sponsorships.
and American Express credit cards. In the shadow of Endorsement opportunities are not limited to tradi-
NBA legend Michael Jordan, rising star LeBron James tional sports. Lance Armstrong’s endorsement earnings
earns more than $100 million per year in endorse- have totaled $16 million annually and have ranged
ments, most notably from his seven-year $90 million from Trek bicycles and Coke to Subaru automobiles. So-
contract with Nike. The most lucrative women’s en- called extreme sports such as snowboarding and mo-
dorsement contract to date was secured by the U.S. tocross also present athletes with endorsements. Tony
tennis player Venus Williams, who signed a five-year, Hawk is reported to have earnings of more than $10
$40 million deal with Reebok in 2000. Her sister, Ser- million from his products but most significantly from
ena, signed an agreement with Nike in 2003 for a total his Pro Skater video game. In 2003 it was the number-
of $60 million during eight years. Annika Sorenstam re- one sports video game and number-three video game
portedly made more than $10 million in 2003 en- overall. Hawk obtained his fame principally through the
ENDORSEMENTS 509
X-Games, an event developed by U.S. sports cable TV Issues of control have also emerged between players
channel ESPN and broadcast in 145 countries. and the league or organizing body for which they play.
In 2003 the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP)
Controversies modified its long-standing restrictions on nonapparel
The question of who has control over endorsements logos. The previous restrictions had prohibited nonap-
raises significant issues in the world of sport. The most parel logos on the front of a player’s shirt (i.e., Visa). If
blatant fight over control came during the 1992 Sum- the player had a Nike logo on the front, the ATP re-
mer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. Members of the quired the logo on the back of the shirt. The new re-
U.S. basketball team had individual endorsement con- strictions allowed nonapparel logos and apparel logos
tracts with a variety of shoe companies. However, the and dropped the requirement for use of the ATP logo.
U.S. Olympic Committee had a podium apparel agree- However, some Grand Slam tournaments continued to
ment with Reebok, conflicting with several players’ con- prohibit nonapparel logos on player shirts. Several years
tracts. The conflict was addressed by allowing players to ago Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) players
use the lapels of their sweat suits to cover the Reebok (Tiger Woods, Davis Love III, David Duval, and others)
logo, thus pacifying their primary sponsor. At the 1998 fought the PGA because the player agreement (required
U.S. Open Venus Williams was fined $100 by the to get a PGA card) gave sponsors of tournaments the
Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) for refusing to rights to use the winning player’s image in one adver-
wear the Corel WTA Tour patch on her clothing. The tisement after a tournament. Mercedes was a sponsor
WTA had signed an agreement with the software com- and after a Tiger Woods victory used his photo in a Mer-
pany Corel that required all players on the WTA circuit cedes ad. One of Tiger’s primary sponsors, Buick, was
to wear their patch on apparel during tournament not happy.
matches. However, Williams had signed a contract with Issues of control also extend to the U.S. professional
Reebok that included language that “prohibited any sports leagues—National Basketball Association
other logo” on her clothing. The issue was eventually re- (NBA), Major League Baseball (MLB), and National
solved without serious incident. Reebok remained neu- Football League (NFL). All of the leagues have rules
tral, saying that Venus could do whatever she wanted. governing the endorsement rights of players. Whereas
Such controversy, however, has not disappeared. individual players have the right to endorse products
Shortly before the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, Australia, and services, the leagues require the company to pay a
a controversy enveloped the Brazilian tennis player Gus- rights fee if a player appears in a trademarked team
tavo Kuerten. The Brazil Olympic Committee had uniform. In addition, the leagues have a players associ-
signed a deal for all players to wear clothing from the ation (union) that typically secures the rights to “group”
local outfitter Olympikus, but Kuerten had an apparel licensing. Each league defines “group” differently but
agreement with the Italian manufacturer Diadora. Kuer- often equates it to the use of five or more players jointly
ten offered to wear the Olympikus shirt but without the or collectively promoted. The profits from these agree-
logo. The Olympic committee rejected his offer. He ments (i.e., player trading cards) are then divided
scheduled a news conference to announce why he equally among the association members. In light of
would not being representing Brazil in the games. On these limits, some star players have retracted the right to
the morning of the news conference, Diadora agreed to their name from the association, opting instead for total
let Kuerten wear the Olympikus logo, and Olympikus control over their name and likeness. The Chinese NBA
said he could also wear Diadora’s logo. Perhaps the set- star Yao Ming filed a lawsuit against Coke because it
tlement was motivated by the risk that both companies used his image in advertising based on an arrangement
would suffer retaliation from consumers. that Coke had with the Chinese basketball national
I can accept failure. Everyone fails at something.

But I can’t accept not trying. ■ MICHAEL JORDAN
team. Again, the issue was whether Coke had the right LeBron James signed an endorsement contract with Nike
to Yao as an individual player or could use his likeness for $13 million per year, slightly more than his annual
only as a group member of the entire Chinese national player salary of $12.96 million. To further illustrate the
team. The case was eventually settled out of court. point, Nike’s 2004 commitment to player endorsements
Some athlete endorsers have run into trouble with was $1.64 billion. This trend began to emerge during
the law. The negative publicity associated with an en- the last five years, with the list of endorsers growing
dorser then transfers to the products that he or she en- smaller each year as the value of contracts increased.
dorses. One of the more notorious examples is boxer Companies are also looking for athletes who present lit-
Mike Tyson. Tyson, once heavyweight champion of the tle risk for negative publicity. With the recurrent prob-
world, was arrested and imprisoned for a variety of lems and well-documented misdeeds of star athletes,
charges, including assault and rape. In the NBA Los An- companies are increasing their quest for “squeaky clean”
geles Lakers star Kobe Bryant, on the heels of signing a athletes. In some cases they have looked back to histor-
new contract with Nike and Coca-Cola brand Sprite, ical sports figures, both dead and alive, who have proven
lost many of his endorsement deals when he was ar- themselves and are trusted by consumers.
rested for sexual assault. The enormity of such problems Companies also are seeking women athletes as en-
has led many companies to include termination clauses dorsers. According to many executives, women athletes
in athlete endorsement contracts. These clauses allow a are far less likely to generate negative publicity and are
company to sever its ties with an athlete if the athlete more accessible and personable with consumers. They
engages in any activities that produce negative public- will actually sign autographs and spend time with fans.
ity for the company. Leading women endorsers are Venus and Serena
When is an athlete too young to enter into an en- Williams, Women’s National Basketball Association
dorsement agreement? In recent years many teenaged (WNBA) standout Lisa Leslie, golfer Annika Sorenstam,
basketball standouts have entered the NBA directly and the Russian tennis player Anna Kournikova, who
from high school and have signed lucrative shoe en- earns $14 million from her endorsement deals even
dorsements; however, Nike’s $1 million sponsorship though she has never won a WTA tournament. Most
of then-thirteen-year-old U.S. soccer player Freddie Adu companies play down the “sex sells” controversy sur-
in 2003 stunned the sports community. Although Adu rounding some women endorsers and instead portray
opted to play professional soccer, forgoing an amateur their women endorsers as role models and athletically
career, many people believed that he was too young to talented representatives of the company who can con-
enter the professional game. After Nike signed Adu, nect with consumers.
Reebok signed three-year-old basketball show-off Mark Product placement will most certainly increase
Walker to an endorsement deal. Many people believe through in-the-market marketing. Companies will make
that signing was a parody of endorsements, but Reebok sure that their products are both closely associated with
did use Walker in its advertising. Some people noted the endorser and used authentically in the sport. A Nike
that Walker was the first player to sign an endorsement official once commented that Nike did not have to
deal for basketball shoes without being able to tie them. prove that its shoes are great because Michael Jordan
proved it everyday on the basketball court. Skiers at
Outlook the end of an event dash to the victory podium gleefully
“Fewer, bigger, better” seems to be the slogan of many raising their skis overhead in celebration (unfortunately,
product companies. That is, they are decreasing the often the latest product, not the actual skis used in
number of endorsers but increasing the amount of event). At the 2002 Winter Olympic Games, event per-
money paid to them. In 2003 first-year NBA player sonnel were instructed to allow Coca-Cola staff to place
ENDURANCE 511
Coca-Cola’s Dasani brand water bottles on the podium Janoff, B. (2004, January 12). The world not according to Kobe.
for the postrace news conferences. The athletes were, of Brandweek, 45(2), 20–24.
Stevens, J., Lathrop, A., & Bradish, C. (2003). Who is your hero: Im-
course, not supposed to drink the water from these bot- plications for athlete endorsement strategies. Sport Marketing Quar-
tles because the International Olympic Committee med- terly, 12(2), 103–110.
Stotlar. D. K. (2001). Developing successful sport sponsorship plans.
ical commission had not screened the water to be free Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information.
of banned substances. Regardless, Coke wanted to have
its product associated with the winning athletes.
Experts contend that conflicts over control will con-
tinue between athletes, agents, leagues, and event own-
ers. The National Thoroughbred Racing Association
began talks with jockeys about the issue of sponsor
Endurance
logos on their pants.These talks came about after a con-
troversy at the 2003 Belmont Stakes where three jock-
eys displayed logos for Wrangler jeans and Budweiser
E ndurance is a key concept of fitness that involves the
cardiorespiratory, muscular, and skeletal systems of
the human body. The objective of endurance training is
beer. Although no rules prohibiting logos had existed to develop the energy-production systems necessary to
prior to the race, the controversy had never arisen be- meet the demands of tasks.
fore. Issues are sure to arise when a company (e.g., the
International Management Group) that owns the event, Endurance Fitness and
produces the TV content, and represents the athlete Cardiovascular Endurance
controls which athletes appear in an event, which im- Dr. Kenneth Cooper of the Cooper Fitness Institute in
ages are broadcast on TV, and who can or must pur- Texas has been studying the effects of exercise on the
chase advertising during the broadcast. body since the 1960s. When he began his study, al-
Athlete endorsements are projected to grow in step though the medical community acknowledged that reg-
with the popularity of sports. The fluctuations in the ular exercise promotes general health, the ideal amount
popularity of specific sports will also dictate the popu- of exercise and the ideal type of exercise were not
larity of athletes with consumers. As noted, the primary known. Cooper felt that the right kind of exercise can
rationale for athlete endorsements will remain the improve and maintain all-around health. He believed in
same: How does this arrangement sell the product? As exercise not only as preventive medicine but also as
the world becomes a global marketplace, multinational therapy for people with heart and lung ailments,
companies will continue to search for ways to make a overeaters, smokers, overanxious people, and people
connection with their consumers. History has shown with diabetes and arthritis. In his book Aerobics Cooper
that athlete celebrities can make that connection. detailed the type and amount of exercise needed to
benefit the human body. In early studies with the U.S.
David K. Stotlar
Air Force, he found that exercising the heart and the
See also Athletes as Celebrities; Sponsorship lungs (cardiovascular system) improves what he called
“endurance fitness” or one’s working capacity. This im-
provement can be realized by performing prolonged
Further Reading exercise without undue fatigue. Cooper’s research on
Drury, J. & Elliot, C. (1998). The Athlete’s guide to sponsorship: the connection between exercise and health motivated
How to find an individual, team, or event sponsor. Boulder, CO: Velo millions of people to exercise.
Press.
Gray, R. (2003, November 27). Brand athletes. Marketing (UK)
Cardiovascular endurance (or cardiorespiratory en-
p. 27. durance) is a critical component of fitness because the
A lone runner endures with focus and concentration. Source: istockphoto.com/ P_Wei.
functioning of the heart and the lungs is essential for Aerobic Endurance
overall wellness. In 1996 the U.S. surgeon general re- The oxygen system (or the “aerobic system,” as it is
ported that both males and females of all ages can ben- more commonly known) is developed through contin-
efit by performing a moderate amount of physical uous submaximal exercise and activities that require
activity (at least thirty minutes) such as brisk walking on performance times of three minutes or longer. Whereas
most days of the week. Experts also reported that ad- intense bursts of energy (lifting weights or running up
ditional benefits can be gained by maintaining a regu- a flight of stairs) benefit anaerobic energy systems, a de-
lar exercise program of more vigorous intensity or veloped aerobic system helps improve the body’s oxy-
longer duration. The American College of Sports Med- gen transport system (heart, lungs, and blood vessels).
icine (ACSM) also said exercising more intensely for a The cardiovascular system keeps the body supplied
longer duration can lead to greater health benefits. with the oxygen it needs twenty-four hours a day. The
Energy for exercise can be produced either anaerobi- cardiorespiratory changes induced by this type of train-
cally (without oxygen) or aerobically (with oxygen). ing benefit the oxygen transport system. The ability of
When one starts exercising a series of chemical reactions the heart and lungs to take in and transport adequate
takes place in the body to convert food energy into amounts of oxygen to working muscles increases when
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical one engages in activities such as running, walking or
compound that supplies energy for muscular contrac- hiking, swimming, cycling, cross-country skiing, danc-
tion. Because ATP is stored in only small amounts in the ing, and endurance games and activities that are per-
muscles, for continuous exercise to occur ATP must be formed over long periods of time at a certain heart
synthesized in the body at the same rate of utilization. rate.
ENDURANCE 513
Champions keep playing until

they get it right. ■ BILLIE JEAN KING
The key to developing the fitness component of car- levels of lipids such as cholesterol and triglycerides are
diovascular endurance and aerobic endurance is oxygen linked to heart disease because they contribute to the
consumption (VO2 ). The amount of oxygen the body buildup of fatty deposits on the linings of arteries. Low
can take in and then deliver to working cells is the best levels of cardiovascular endurance are linked with heart
measure of one’s aerobic fitness.VO2 max is the body’s disease, the leading cause of death in the United States.
capacity to extract oxygen from the air and then deliver Exercise can also minimize the risk factors for high
it to the body tissues. Scientists have measured VO2 blood pressure, obesity, stroke, and diabetes. The Amer-
max in the amount of oxygen a person extracts from the ican Heart Association (AHA) has identified physical
air during intense exercise on a treadmill or stationary inactivity as one of the six major risk factors for car-
bicycle. The highest maximal oxygen uptake (absorbing diovascular disease. A healthy heart can better with-
and incorporating, especially into a living organism, stand the strains of everyday life and can also adapt to
tissue, or cell) is generally recorded in men and women occasional emergencies and the wear and tear of time.
who compete in distance running, swimming, cycling,
and cross-country skiing. Many of these athletes have Target Heart Rate Zone
doubled their aerobic capacity in comparison with that The ACSM has reported significant improvements in
of sedentary people. aerobic endurance capacity when people train above 50
percent of their maximal capacity (VO2 ). Beginners can
Benefits of Aerobic Exercise make progress by initially training at 40–50 percent of
Numerous laboratory studies have quantified the many their VO2 max. This intensity stresses one’s body
health and fitness benefits of endurance training. To de- enough to produce positive changes in the cardiorespi-
velop and maintain cardiorespiratory (CR) endurance a ratory system, fostering improvement in its overall abil-
person can perform any activity that uses large muscle ity to transport oxygen. An exercise heart rate can be
groups, can be maintained continuously, and is rhyth- used to measure one’s exercise intensity.
mical and aerobic in nature. When fitness levels of CR In order to use the heart rate to determine exercise in-
endurance are low the heart is forced to work hard dur- tensity, one must first determine his or her maximum
ing normal daily activities and may not be able to sus- heart rate. A rough estimate of maximum heart rate is
tain the work intensity required in an emergency. As CR determined by subtracting age from 220. For example,
endurance improves certain adaptations are made in a twenty-year-old college student would have a maxi-
order for the heart to work more efficiently. One’s stroke mum heart rate of two hundred beats per minute. Max-
volume (amount of blood pumped each beat) increases, imum heart rate is most accurately measured by a
and the resting heart rate decreases. This adaptation treadmill test conducted in an exercise laboratory, usu-
means the heart does not have to work as hard at rest ally at a clinic or hospital.
or during low levels of exercise. Other adaptations that After a maximum heart rate is established one can de-
enhance efficiency are an increased blood volume, an termine the target heart rate zone. One’s target heart
improvement in blood supply to tissues, and a decrease rate zone is the rate at which one should exercise to ex-
in resting blood pressure. Cardiovascular endurance perience cardiorespiratory benefits. According to the
training also improves the body’s ability to use energy ACSM, a significant endurance training effect will occur
supplied by food and to perform more exercise with less when one’s exercise heart rate reaches 65 percent (low
effort from the aerobic system. end) to 90 percent (high end) of one’s maximum heart
Many studies have shown that moderate levels of ac- rate. Experts suggest that one use 55 percent as the low
tivity benefit the balance of lipids (one of the principal end value if one is extremely unfit or a beginner. To cal-
structural components of living cells) in the blood. High culate one’s target heart rate zone, one should multiply
the maximum heart rate first by either .55 or .65 (de- help determine exercising intensity and minimizes the
pending on fitness level) and then by .90. These two risk of injury.
heart rates represent the upper and lower limits of the
target heart rate zone. Heart rates can be taken while ex- Tests of Aerobic Endurance
ercising by purchasing a heart rate monitor or by sim- Aerobic endurance capacity is determined by trained
ply taking one’s own pulse at the carotid artery in the personnel in sophisticated laboratories. This fact makes
neck or the radial pulse at the wrist. People should determining such capacity impractical for most exercise
know their prescribed heart rate zone when they be- situations. However, participants in aerobic condition-
come involved in an exercise program and exercise ing programs can measure progress in cardiovascular
within that zone to receive the benefits of aerobic endurance by field tests. Dr. Cooper developed several
endurance. such field tests. The twelve-minute walk/run test and the
twelve-minute swimming tests are appropriate for per-
Relative Perceived Exertion sons of all aerobic ability levels. The 2.4-kilometer run
Scale and Talk Test test and the 4.8-kilometer walk test are reserved for
Other simple techniques to determine proper exercising well-conditioned people. Normative data from these
intensity suggested by the ASCM are the relative per- tests provide a reasonably accurate estimate of a per-
ceived exertion (RPE) scale and the talk test. The RPE son’s aerobic fitness.
scale helps one associate a given exercise intensity with
how one feels during exercise. The level of perceived ex- Muscular Endurance
ertion is often measured with a fifteen-category scale Although cardiorespiratory endurance is essential for a
that was developed by the Swedish psychologist Gun- healthy heart and is a critical part of one’s total fitness,
nar Borg. Studies have shown a linear relationship be- other factors contribute to total body wellness. Another
tween heart rate and oxygen consumption during factor that helps maintain muscle mass and contributes
aerobic exercise. An increase in oxygen demands will to healthy joints is muscular endurance. Muscular en-
bring an increased feeling of exertion. Moderate- durance is the ability to sustain a given level of muscu-
intensity physical activities should feel somewhat diffi- lar tension or force, that is, to hold a muscle contraction
cult. Self-monitoring how hard one works can help one for a long period of time or to contract a muscle re-
adjust the intensity of the activity by speeding or slow- peatedly. This ability is important when performing
ing movements. Offering a subjective reflection of phys- tasks such as standing or sitting properly over long pe-
iological responses during exercise, the RPE can be riods of time. If the muscles of the back and stomach
most helpful to people on medications that would alter are not strong enough or do not have the endurance to
normal heart rate. The rate of perceived exertion is rec- hold the spine in a correct position the chances of low
ommended by experts to rate the intensity of a given back pain and injury are increased. Muscles that have
activity. good muscle endurance are more resistant to fatigue
The talk test has also been adopted to assess the in- and to injury.
tensity of a workout. In this test one should exercise at Muscular endurance depends on a combination of
the fastest pace one can while still being able to engage muscle strength (the ability to exert force) and the abil-
in conversation. The Journal of Medicine & Science in ity of the muscle to sustain exercise over a period of
Sport & Exercise reported that studies showed that if time. Muscular strength and muscular endurance can be
people struggled with speaking while exercising, their enhanced through resistance training. Although resist-
heart rate and peak oxygen consumption had begun to ance training is not effective in increasing maximum
exceed the threshold for safe exercise. The talk test can oxygen uptake, it can improve the heart, lungs, and cir-
ENDURANCE 515
Endurance
Guidelines for Aerobic Exercise
American College of Sports Medicine offers the following guidelines for aerobic exercise programs:
EXERCISE
CHARACTERISTICS RECOMMENDATIONS
Mode Continuous, rhythmic activities using the large muscle groups of the arms and/or legs
Intensity Range of 55%–90% of maximal heart rate or RPE of 12–16 (somewhat hard to hard)
Duration Minimum of 20–60 minutes of continuous aerobic activity to improve fitness and
endurance capacity
Frequency Minimum of 3–5 days per week, with frequency determined by exercise duration and
intensity.
Resistance-type and flexibility training are recommended 2–3 days per week.
Source: Colberg, S. R. & Swain, D. P. (2000). Exercise and diabetes control: A winning combination. The Physician in Sports Medicine, 28(4), 71.
culatory system to function under conditions of high principle dictates increasing resistance against muscles.
pressure and increased workloads. Muscular endurance To develop muscular endurance, the overload principle
is important when performing activities that require dictates increasing the number of repetitions performed
sustained muscular contractions, such as shoveling or decreasing the rest between activities. Progression is
snow and raking leaves or sporting and fitness activities the way a person increases that overload to minimize in-
such as playing basketball or rock climbing. As with jury to the muscles. Gradual progression in overload
muscular strength, muscular endurance is enhanced by will improve muscular strength and muscular en-
stressing the muscles with a greater work load (weight) durance in a safe manner. According to the Strength
than that to which they are accustomed. The degree to and Conditioning Association, a 5–10 percent increase
which muscular strength or muscular endurance devel- is a good target in progression. All muscles respond to
ops depends on the type and the amount of stress that the overload principle. The American Orthopedic Soci-
is applied. Low-resistance and high-repetition exercises ety for Sports Medicine and the Strength and Condi-
can lead to improvements in muscular endurance. In tioning Association say children as well as adults can
contrast, heavy resistance exercises promote an increase benefit from a resistance-training program.
in strength with no or little change in muscular en-
durance. Experts agree that people engaged in proper Circuit Training
resistance training can enhance physical performance, People circuit train when they move from one exercise
increase self-confidence, and benefit their health. to the next with little or no rest intervals. Circuits can be
designed to enhance any of the components of fitness
Overload and Progression (muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespira-
Overload is the key component of all conditioning pro- tory endurance, flexibility, body composition). Circuit
grams. Providing greater stress on a muscle will train training usually emphasizes muscular endurance but
the muscle to adapt to the new workload. Overload is can also provide aerobic benefits. If a person is using
the amount of resistance applied for each exercise or weight machines, circuit training is relatively quick and
repetition. To develop muscular strength, the overload easy to perform. Usually eight to fifteen repetitions are
I don’t know if I practiced more than anybody, but I sure practiced enough.
I still wonder if somebody—somewhere—was practicing more than me. ■ LARRY BIRD
performed in fifteen to thirty seconds at each station. A people who show a high-risk profile for heart disease,
circuit can also be used with free weights, calisthenics, such as smoking, or a history of heart disease in their
or a variety of skill-oriented activities. The number of family. To reduce the incidence of muscular-skeletal and
repetitions, sets, and periods of rest between stations is cardiovascular complications during exercise, the ACSM
based on a person’s goal. The ACSM recommends that recommends a medical clearance for older adults (men
the average healthy adult perform eight to ten exercises forty-five years or older, women fifty-five years or older)
involving the major muscle groups a minimum of two and people at risk for cardiovascular events who display
days a week. two or more risk factors or one or more symptoms of
coronary artery disease.
Muscular Endurance Field Tests
People can perform simple field tests such as a curl-up National State of Health
test for the abdominal muscles or a push-up test for the Coronary artery disease, diabetes, hypertension, ele-
upper body to evaluate the endurance of specific mus- vated cholesterol levels, and obesity are widespread in
cle groups. Assessment of strength and endurance is the United States. Researchers in endurance continue to
specific to the muscle groups being exercised. Norms by study the type and amount of exercise that people need
age group and by gender can be evaluated. The data ob- to promote fitness. Experts say five fitness components
tained from these field tests can then be used as a (cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular
benchmark for evaluating the effectiveness of one’s ex- endurance, flexibility, and body composition) are vital
ercise program. No single test can be used to evaluate to good health and physical performance. As people age
total body muscular strength and muscular endurance. their decline in physical abilities can be offset if they
continue to exercise. Research shows that increased en-
Cross-Training durance can reduce the loss that age brings to each
Incorporating a variety of activities in an exercise pro- component. Exercise physiologists continue to study
gram can be an excellent way to increase the compo- how exercise helps the body achieve youthful energy
nents of physical fitness. A reduced risk of injury, weight and limits the effects of debilitating diseases.
loss, improved total fitness, and enhanced exercise ad-
Lisa Toscano
herence are among the benefits of cross-training pro-
grams. Cross-training may involve running on one day,
swimming on another day, and cycling on yet another
day. It can also involve alternating activities within a sin- Further Reading
American College of Sports Medicine. (2000). ACSM’s guidelines for ex-
gle workout, for example, walking ten minutes on a ercise testing and prescription. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams &
treadmill, cycling ten minutes, and exercising ten min- Williams.
utes on an elliptical trainer. Baechle, T. R., Hoffman, S. J., & Earle, R. W. (2000). Essentials of
strength training and conditioning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Bryant, D. X., Franklin, B. A., & Conviser, J. M. (2002). Exercise test-
Medical Clearance ing and program design: A fitness professional’s handbook. Monterey,
CA: Exercise Science Publishers.
Although exercise programs are safe for healthy people, Brzycki, M. (1997). Cross training for fitness. Indianapolis, IN: Masters
evidence suggests that the increased demands of the Press.
Colberg, S. R., & Swain, D. P. (2000). Exercise and diabetes control:
heart during vigorous exercise may precipitate cardio-
A winning combination. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 28(4),
vascular events in persons with heart disease. People 63–81.
who are predisposed to cardiovascular complications Cooper, K. H. (1968). Aerobics. New York: Bantam Books.
Cooper, K. H. (1970). The new aerobics. New York: Bantam Books.
can be difficult to identify. In general the risk is lowest Cooper, K. H. (1983). The aerobics program for total well-being. New
in healthy young adults and highest in older adults or York: Bantam Books.
ENVIRONMENT 517
Delavier, F. (2001). Strength training anatomy:Your illustrated guide to at all. An obvious example is sailing; without wind the
muscles at work. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. sport would not exist. Skiing would not have devel-
Fahey, T. D. (2000). Super fitness: For sports, conditioning and health.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon. oped were it not for the existence of snow and hills;
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. J. (1997). Designing resistance training pro- surfing owes its origins to the presence of waves and
grams. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Insel, P. M., & Walton, T. R. (2004). Core concepts in health. New York:
beaches. However, as noted later, sports that may ap-
McGraw Hill. pear benign in terms of their impact on the environ-
Kraemer, W. J., & Fleck, S. J. (2005). Strength training for young ath- ment can directly, or indirectly, have negative effects.
letes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Powers, S. K., & Dodd, S. L. (1999). Total fitness: Exercise, nutrition More commonly, however, people think of the envi-
and wellness. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. ronmental effect on sports less in terms of its being
Sharkey, B. J. (1997). Fitness and health. Champaign, IL: Human Ki-
netics.
the basis for particular sports and more in terms of its
Vincent, S. D., Pangrazi, R. P., Raustorp, A., Tomson, L. M., & Cuddihy, having effects on particular events. Environmental-
T. F. (2003). Activity levels and body mass of children in the United interference sports (i.e., sports in which the physical en-
States, Sweden, and Australia. Journal of Medicine & Science in
Sports & Exercise, 35(8), 1367–1373. vironment interferes in some way with the outcome
and performance) are best suited to “environmentless”
days. This means that ideally the ground should be flat
and dry, the weather warm and dry, the sky bright but
overcast, the wind light or nonexistent; and the visibil-
Environment ity excellent. Unfortunately, these are the conditions in
which most specialized-environment sports could not
T he term environment cannot in itself be easily de-

fined. Human activity has affected virtually all of
the “natural” environment, leaving little of the natural
take place. Physical effects such as the weather may af-
fect the playing surface and the comfort of players and
spectators. These factors may, in turn, affect the athletes’
world as it once was. For convenience environment is performances, the attendance, and the economics of
defined here as the phenomenon of the physical world the sports event.
in general.
The relationships between sports and the environ- Environmental-Advantage Sports
ment are varied and complex. The environment un- In environmental-advantage sports changeable envi-
doubtedly influences sports in numerous ways. Those ronmental conditions may influence some competitors
people responsible for the organization of sports have, but not others. In golf, for example, players starting on
in many cases, attempted to neutralize the impact of the a clear morning would have an obvious advantage over
physical environment—that is, weather, climate, slope, those struggling over a windswept course later in the
soil, and water—by creating artificial environments in day. In a long-jump competition, the wind may assist
which sports are played. People have increasingly rec- one jumper to a leading position but blow against a fel-
ognized, however, that sports also affect the environ- low competitor and hinder performance. Any sport tak-
ment. Often the artificial environments that have been ing place in an arena too small to allow all participants
designed to neutralize nature have had a negative effect to take part at the same time is open to the possibility
on nature. of a change in the weather affecting the participants un-
equally. Indeed, the microclimate differs from place to
Effect of the Natural Environment place within most stadiums at any time. The effect of an
Sports can be categorized on the basis of environmen- apparently constant environmental condition during
tal interference. Specialized-environment sports require the course of an event can be highly misleading. Take,
certain environmental conditions for them to take place for example, a 100-meter sprint race. An anemometer
may record that the wind speed was above the permit- sprints and jumps, however, performances were greatly
ted level for a record to be recognized. However, even enhanced. The world long-jump record set by Bob Bea-
within a 100-meter distance, the wind swirls in several mon (b. 1945) typified such altitude assistance.
directions, affecting to various degrees athletes in dif- As far as participant comfort is concerned, the tem-
ferent lanes. In a soccer game a strong wind may exist perature is important because different sports have dif-
during the first half, hence affecting one of the teams ei- ferent activity levels. For example, in swimming, the
ther positively or negatively, but die away during the sec- warmer the pool temperature, the less heat is dissi-
ond half and affect neither side. pated. No heat would be lost at all if the water tem-
The unpredictability of the environment may bring perature was 37°C but considerable discomfort would
unexpected outcomes to a game. In baseball the ball result from swimming in such conditions. As far as per-
may strike a pebble and glance off in an unexpected di- formance is concerned, the optimum water tempera-
rection. The type of soil making up baseball fields and ture is between 20 and 34.5° C for short races and
cricket pitches varies from place to place. To some ex- between 23 and 26° C for 1,500-meter races.
tent this variation may constitute a home field advan- High temperatures can be extremely hazardous in
tage, the opposing team being less familiar with the long-distance cycling and running events. The 1908
texture of the field. The degree of bounce, registered by Olympic marathon in London and the 1954 Empire
using a standard test of dropping a cricket ball onto the Games marathon in Vancouver, Canada, provide exam-
field from a height of 5 meters, varies directly with the ples of races in which several runners collapsed because
clay content of the soil. Likewise, place-to-place differ- of excessively high temperatures. Low temperatures can
ences in altitude affect performance. be a hazard in sports in which the hands play an im-
portant role, such as rugby, football, or field hockey. In
PLAYING SURFACE cold conditions the flow of blood to the hands and toes
Traditionally, most playing surfaces have been made of is reduced in greater proportion than to the rest of the
natural or seminatural materials such as grass, clay, body. Also, athletes tend to perform speed and power
water, or snow. Changes during the course of an event events poorly in cold conditions because human muscle
or differences from place to place in such surfaces can functions best at 40 to 41° C.
affect the outcome of a sports event. Soil can become
saturated during heavy rain, hence leading to the post- Spectator Comfort
ponement or cancellation of an event. Snow-covered Many of the effects of the environment on players also
fields lead to soccer (association football) postpone- affect spectators. The anticipation of spectator discom-
ment; rain-outs are common in cricket and baseball; fort at sports events may affect attendance and hence
unseasonably mild weather has often led to the cancel- economics. In general, adverse environmental condi-
lation of ski events. tions tend to lure spectators away from sports events to
the perceived comfort of the indoors and television sets.
PLAYER COMFORT Attendance at sports events can be related to climatic
A number of environmental considerations contribute to factors because frequently the spectator has to put up
player comfort during a sports event. Player discomfort with exactly the same weather conditions as the players,
may impact performance. During the 1968 Olympic yet the activity level of the spectator is much lower.
Games in Mexico City, many long-distance runners felt Another aspect of environmental economics on
physically distressed as a result of a relative lack of oxy- sports is that sports-related marketing often has to take
gen at high altitudes.Times in events higher than 1,500 potential attendance into account when planning the
meters were slower than expected. In the case of the amount of food, programs, and other concessions to be
ENVIRONMENT 519
Bags promoting
environmental awareness
were given away at the
2004 Olympics in
Athens, Greece.
sold at a particular event. For ex-

ample, during a rugby match in
New Zealand, the weather was so
bad that ten thousand meat pies
went unsold because only half the
expected sixty thousand specta-
tors turned up to watch.
One of the problems inherent
in this discussion is that of isolat-
ing the effect of the weather or
other environmental factors from
other factors that may contribute
to any of the possible outcomes.
Take, for example, the effect of an
assisting wind in the case of
sprinters. Not all sprinters achieve
their best times in wind-assisted races. Hence, wind is to their smaller body size and total body water. Women
not the only factor influencing performance, and as- athletes should consume up to 500 milliliters of fluid
suming cause and effect in such situations is dangerous. before exercising to reduce the amount of dehydration.
In recent years scientists have recognized that an en- In cold environments women’s relatively greater sub-
vironmental effect on sports may be taking place as a re- cutaneous fat thickness is advantageous because it pro-
sult of global warming. Such an occurrence threatens to vides more insulation and reduces the rate of heat loss
limit the geographic area over which certain sports can from the body. During cold water immersion, women
take place. Skiing is the best-researched example. The ef- skin divers have thicker tissue insulation and thus can
fect of oxygen-induced warming may raise winter tem- tolerate colder water temperatures before they begin to
peratures, leading to a reduction in snowfall and hence shiver than can males. Similar responses have been ob-
a shortening of the skiing seasons in particular parts of served during exercise in cold water.
Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and Michigan.
Neutralizing the Environment
Women and the Environment The interference caused by the physical environment, its
The environment can affect women players differently unpredictability, and the risk to comfort, performance,
than men players. For example, hot, dry environments and economics have led the sports business to neutral-
cause high sweat and evaporative rates during physical ize environmental interference. This neutralization has
activity. Because the sweat rate is elevated, dehydration assumed two basic forms: the decision not to recognize
is a common problem during physical activity and can environment-assisted performances and the attempt to
lead to serious heat illnesses. Adequate fluid replace- eliminate the natural environment by making it artificial.
ment (150–300 milliliters) must occur every fifteen In track and field, performances in certain events are
minutes to reduce the risk of heat illness. Evaporative not recognized for record purposes if the wind is greater
heat loss is similar in well-trained men and women ex- than a certain strength. Wind readings are taken by an
ercising in hot, dry environments. In women, however, anemometer, and despite the inadequacies of such
a slightly greater degree of dehydration will occur due measurements (as noted earlier), critical readings of
and soccer (association football) took place in natural

environments; as the desire grew for improved per-
formances and less unpredictable environments, grass
playing surfaces were rolled and cut. Nature was tamed
and manicured. Later, grass was replaced by plastic so
that games could continue to be played in adverse
weather conditions. The situation in track and field has
been similar—from grass to cinder to synthetic tracks.
The first synthetic running track appeared during the
early 1960s; Astroturf was introduced in the United
States in 1966. Other artificial environments include
those produced by human-induced weather. Artificial
snow is commonly found on ski slopes where natural
snowfall cannot be guaranteed.
Moving sports indoors serves to nullify many envi-
ronmental effects. Indoor sports arenas are now large
enough to satisfy the needs of football, soccer, track and
field, swimming, skating, and, in modified form, golf,
sailing, wind surfing, climbing, show jumping, and
rodeo. Even in the case of indoor sports, however, mi-
croclimatic effects can be significant. Indoor environ-
ments for sports range from the high school gymnasium
to the fully domed super stadium. Such latter facilities
have grown dramatically during recent decades. In
Toronto, Canada, the distinction between an indoor
Rock and mountain climbing are two sports and an outdoor sports facility is blurred by the presence
where the goal is not to win but rather to of the SkyDome with its retractable roof.
test one’s limits against nature. In outdoor sports the effects of the environment
could be reduced by establishing the climatically opti-
mal season. In baseball, for example, from a purely cli-
wind speeds are used to determine whether sprint times matic viewpoint it would be appropriate to shift the
or long- and triple-jump distances are recognized. Wind season to a later date, although climate is not the only
speeds of more than 2 meters per second are deemed variable to be taken into account in such scheduling.
sufficient to nullify a performance for record purposes.
On the other hand, this rule applies only to the sprints The Effect of Sports on the
and the horizontal jumps; wind-aided javelin perform- Natural Environment
ances are not rejected; nor are performances achieved at Only in recent decades have people turned their atten-
high altitudes. tion to the effect of sports on the natural environment.
People also overcome environmental interference by The growing application of technology to sports has
providing artificial environments where a sport takes been a major contributor to this attention, although
place. The history of sports has been one of attempts to some observers believe that sports are intrinsically anti-
make its environment artificial. Early baseball, cricket, nature. One can argue that sports have a number of
ENVIRONMENT 521
Leadership is getting someone to do what they don’t want to do,

to achieve what they want to achieve. ■ TOM LANDRY
positive effects on the environment. A golf course in the than crowds, noise, or fan hooliganism. Few sports are
Arizona desert brings a splash of greenery to an other- completely free of environmental impact. Stadium- and
wise arid area. In Britain the construction of golf arena-based sports involve the removal of the entire
courses has been said to increase the number of botan- natural ecosystem and the creation of an artificial envi-
ical and zoological species in the course area. On the ronment. Motor sports create lead pollution and noise
other hand, the same sport, and a large number of oth- pollution. Even wind surfing can produce some damage
ers, has been shown to have a negative effect on the to water courses; nesting birds can be driven away from
environment. sites where the sport takes place. Orienteering lies at the
So widespread are the negative effects of sports that other end of the spectrum, and its effects are (almost)
we can now conceive of sports pollution. Such pollution undetectable.
has been well researched in the case of golf. Among the Sports are not independent of broader global con-
nations experiencing the most rapid rate of increase in cerns. As environmental concern grows during the
golf courses is Japan. In 1956 the country had seventy- decades ahead, people will need to carefully monitor its
two golf courses; today the figure is nearing three thou- effect on sports and the effects of sports themselves. At-
sand. With limited open space available for the con- tempts to ban environmentally unfriendly sports may
struction of such courses, forests, usually near the foot grow in significance; at the same time, sports may,
of mountains, have been felled to satisfy the demand. through their “need” to eliminate many environmental
Herbicides, germicides, pesticides, coloring agents, or- effects, unwittingly contribute to the very degradation
ganic chlorine, and other chemical fertilizers that are that threatens the environment.
carcinogenic or may cause health problems are among
John Bale
the risks associated with golf course construction. Wide-
spread damage to plant and animal life has been re- See also Community
ported. In Korea pesticides spread on golf courses can
be absorbed into the human body through inhalation
or skin contact. Pesticide abuse is now seen as a prob- Further Reading
lem requiring serious regulation. Golf is one sport that Bale, J. (1994). Landscapes of modern sport. Leicester, UK: Leicester
has spawned opposing ecological movements. The University Press.
Global Anti-Golf Movement is a network of ecological Digel, H. (1992). Sports in a risk society. International Review for the
Sociology of Sport, 26(2), 257–273.
organizations that is fighting against golf as a sport Eichberg, H. (1988).Leistungsraume [Achievement Space]. Munster,
that destroys the natural environment. Germany: Lit Forlag.
Galtung, J. (1984). Sport and international understanding: Sport as a
Detailed studies also document the effect of ski fa- carrier of deep culture and structure. In M. Illmarinen (Ed.), Sport
cilities in mountain areas. During ski piste (downhill ski and international understanding (pp. 12–19). Berlin, Germany:
trail) construction the natural terrain is modified to Springer-Verlag.
Hong, S., Rennie, D., & Park, Y. (1986). Cold acclimatization and
such an extent that soil erosion occurs, which in turn in- deacclimatization of Korean women divers. In K. Pandolf (Ed.), Ex-
hibits the regeneration of vegetation. The artificial mod- ercise and sport sciences reviews (Vol. 14, pp. 231–268). New York:
Macmillan.
ification of mountain slopes for improved skiing covers Lipski, S., & McBoyle, G. (1991). The impact of global warming on
substantial areas of many alpine zones. downhill skiing in Michigan. East Lakes Geographer, 26(2), 37–51.
Spectator sports in urban areas also create pollution McCormack, G. (1991). The price of affluence: The political economy
of Japanese leisure. New Left Review, 188, 121–134.
of various kinds. The development of urban stadium Moon, Y., & Shin, D. (1990). Health risks to golfers from pesticide use
complexes increases traffic and pollution. Traffic con- on golf courses in Korea. In A. Cochran (Ed.), Science and golf (pp.
358–363). London: Spon.
gestion around older, inner-city stadiums is often per- Mossiman, T. (1985). Geo-ecological impacts of ski-piste construction
ceived by local residents as being a greater nuisance in the Swiss Alps. Applied Geography, 5(1), 29–38.
Skeeter, B. (1988). The climatically optimal Major League Baseball sea- tion has expanded into a multimedia empire providing
son in North America. Geographical Bulletin, 30(2), 97–102.
sports reporting, programming, and network-licensed
Thornes, J. (1977). The effect of weather on sport. Weather, 32, 258–
269. content through seven domestic and thirty international
cable networks, the Internet, radio, electronic games,
print and online magazines, and sports bars known as
“ESPN Sports Zones.”
ESPN began as a revolutionary—and, to many, ludi-
ESPN crous—idea in television programming: an all-sports,
all-the-time network. Most prominent observers in the
P rior to the debut of the Entertainment and Sports

Network (ESPN), U.S. network television sports
programming, with the exception of ABC’s Monday
television industry believed that the demand for sports
programming would not be sufficient to support such
fare and thus were caught off guard by the success of
Night Football, was available to fans only on weekends. the network. In addition, the major networks argued
Outside of newspapers and radio, the media paid little that the network would fail because of the sparse num-
attention to sports during the week. Local television ber of households wired to receive cable television.
stations devoted less than ten minutes per evening to ESPN originally was available to fewer than 2 million
sports coverage and often ignored all but the most pop- households. However, the increasing popularity of the
ular teams and sports. ESPN changed all that, and in technology allowed the network to penetrate more
doing so, changed U.S. viewing habits, added words homes every year. ESPN, the original network, now
and phrases to everyday language, and played a key role reaches more than 89 million households in the United
in transforming the role of sports in the national States plus a global audience in 192 countries served by
consciousness. thirty international networks.
The ESPN cable network debuted in 1979, offering The idea behind ESPN originated with Bill Ras-
a blend of sports news, live and taped National Colle- mussen, who had been fired as communications direc-
giate Athletic Association (NCAA) events, and sports tor of the New England Whalers of the World Hockey
traditionally outside the mainstream. “Sports junkies,” as League. Rasmussen, who had been a sports broadcaster
they were dubbed by network founder Bill Rasmussen’s for WWLP-TV, an NBC affiliate in North Carolina, and
son Scott, could now tune in at nearly any hour and remembered that small college athletic directors were
view a sporting event. During the early years of ESPN continually clamoring for more television exposure,
that sporting event might be hurling (an Irish game originally envisioned a television network utilizing satel-
similar to field hockey), professional miniature golf, or lite technology to feature sports programming from the
Australian rules football. Connecticut area.
ESPN now provides twenty-four-hour coverage of all As communications director of the Whalers, Ras-
major sports, including live programming of National mussen had experience working with small cable oper-
Football League (NFL), National Basketball Associa- ations to increase the team’s fan base and also was
tion (NBA), Major League Baseball (MLB), and Na- friends with men who were working along the edges of
tional Hockey League (NHL) games. Sports Center, the the new medium. One, Ed Eagan, was working with
nightly one-hour sports news program watched by 88 Bob Beyus on a series of videotaped programs on Con-
million viewers monthly, is the most popular sports necticut sports. With Scott Rasmussen these men be-
news programs in the United States and has made stars came the group who backed the idea that would
of its anchors and reporters. The once-chancy proposi- become ESPN.
ESPN 523
I learned that if you want to make it bad enough,

no matter how bad it is, you can make it. ■ GALE SAYERS
“Football All Day?” vided liaison between the Rasmussen group and its
As the idea advanced, the issue of what sort of pro- new backers. Evey initiated the search for a well-known
gramming should fill air time around the nightly sports talent to lead the operation and also provided the clout
report led to an argument between Bill and Scott Ras- that allowed the Rasmussen group to hire Chester Sim-
mussen while they were stranded in a traffic jam. Scott mons away from his position as president of NBC
reportedly snapped: “Dad, play football all day for all I Sports. Simmons served as the organizing force behind
care!” The elder Rasmussen responded: “What’s wrong the fledgling ESP-TV network, as it was then known,
with football all day?” Instead of featuring just Con- and in turn raided the networks, especially his former
necticut sports, the new network could fill all of its air employer, to flesh out the new organization.
time with sports programming rather than old movies, Rasmussen, Evey, and Simmons had differing styles
as Ted Turner’s WTBS network was doing. Thus, the and differing visions for the new network that led to
idea of regional sports programming expanded to a na- early clashes. Eagan was forced out as part of Getty
tional and international scope that included football Oil’s conditions for providing backing, and Simmons
and any other sporting event that the group could find. and Rasmussen particularly clashed over how the new
To translate his dream into reality, Bill Rasmussen network would be run. In order for the network to sur-
needed money, and Getty Oil provided it. Rasmussen vive and thrive, one man needed to be in control, and
and his group initially secured $75,000 from the K. S. that man turned out to be Simmons. Evey and Simmons
Sweet investment group and brought in Stuart Evey, first forced out Scott and then his father from positions
vice president of Getty Oil’s diversified operations di- of authority, and the two consolidated their control of
vision. Getty Oil came through with an initial invest- the organization.
ment of $10 million, which arrived just in time for
Rasmussen to meet his first installment payment for ac- ESPN Is on the Air
cess to the signal from RCA’s Satcom 1, a communica- On 7 September 1979, with the headquarters complex
tion satellite launched in 1975. The money also paid for still under construction, ESPN broadcast its initial
purchase of the site and construction of the embryonic Sports Center program, with anchors Lee Leonard and
network’s headquarters in Bristol, Connecticut. George Grand delivering the day’s sporting news. The
Even after securing capital, many obstacles, including debut was the culmination of months of effort to be
cost overruns, kept Rasmussen and his partners on edge ready in time, and tension remained until the program
until the station made its first broadcast. Fortunately, actually went on the air. The first broadcast went well,
the influence that backing from Getty Oil lent the proj- despite a bulldozer knocking over one of the trailers
ect convinced the NCAA to enter into contract negoti- that housed staff while construction continued.
ations on the same day when Rasmussen learned of the The largest hurdle that Simmons and staff had to
oil company’s tentative approval of funding. clear during the first years on the air was locating ma-
The good news continued when Anheuser Busch terial to fill air time. The producers were coached to
signed a $1.38 million contract to advertise on the net- look for unusual events, and in 1980 ESPN scored a
work. This was the largest contract in the history of coup by convincing National Football League commis-
cable television and signaled that the concept behind sioner Pete Rozelle to allow the network to televise the
the new network was attractive enough to attract major entire NFL draft live. The network continued to build its
sponsors. fan base by televising sporting events ignored by ABC,
However, Getty Oil’s money also gave Getty Oil con- CBS, and NBC. Some of these events were odd, such as
trol over the operation in the form of Evey, who pro- mud wrestling or the running of the bulls in Pamplona
Spain, but they also included the early rounds of the Here’s to the Sports Bar
NCAA basketball championships, college baseball, and Disney and ESPN also melded Disney’s experience with
Canadian Football League games. When NFL Films ESPN’s sports content to provide the latest iteration of
signed a contract with the network, late night sports an institution they helped to expand: the sports bar. The
junkies now could watch more mainstream sports ac- rising volume of sports programming available on tele-
tion on ESPN. vision helped the rapid spread of the now-ubiquitous
Changes at the top continued, and ESPN became a sports bar, which features multiple television sets tuned
valuable commodity for corporations seeking to diver- to various games or sports. ESPN also staked out a
sify and for older networks seeking to catch up. In 1984 piece of this turf in 1992 when it opened its first ESPN
Getty Oil sold its interest in ESPN to ABC, which later Sports Zone, a sports-themed restaurant and bar in Bal-
sold a 20 percent interest to Nabisco, which was in timore designed to immerse fans in sports. In such bars
turn purchased by Hearst. In 1996 the Walt Disney patrons can sit in recliners and watch the action on in-
Company purchased ABC’s parent company, Capital dividual screens or join the crowd in watching big-
Cities, and remains the majority stockholder in the screen televisions. Television monitors are also placed in
company. restrooms so that fans will not miss one crucial play.
Under ABC’s leadership ESPN won the first cable Under Disney’s control ESPN also began producing
contract to televise NFL games in 1987 and MLB original sport films and has dabbled in series televi-
games in 1989. To expand its audience outside of the sion. In 2002 the network premiered A Season on the
English-speaking world, ESPN debuted its international Brink, a dramatization of the career of legendary bas-
network in South and Central America in 1988. It also ketball coach Bobby Knight, and The Junction Boys,
expanded into different broadcast mediums with the which depicted the grueling training camp that Paul
launch of ESPN radio in 1992 and launched a second “Bear” Bryant put his Texas A&M Aggies players
network, ESPN2, in 1993. The network group contin- through in 1954. The latest additions to the network’s
ued to expand its reach in 1994 by acquiring Creative film library are Hustle and 3: The Dale Earnhardt Story,
Sports, which it renamed “ESPN Regional Sports,” and biographies of baseball legend Pete Rose and National
Sports Ticker, a service that provides statistics from the Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) icon
major professional leagues to subscribers through a va- Dale Earnhardt. ESPN’s first television series, Play-
riety of electronic outlets. After providing content for makers, went inside the locker room with a fictional
other online services, the network launched its own NFL team. The series was a popular and critical success,
website (www.ESPN.com) in 1995. but the NFL took a dim view of the show’s dramatiza-
Disney continued the aggressive diversification of the tion of the abuses of professional football players, and
network’s content and expansion of its reach by ac- ESPN, mindful of its contractual relationship with the
quiring the Classic Sports Network, which was renamed league, pulled the plug after one season. Tilt, a second
“ESPN Classic” in 1997. The network went into the television series that debuted in 2005, depicts the lives
publishing business by launching ESPN the Magazine in of professional poker players in Las Vegas.
1998 and further expanded its reach into new tech- ESPN is now, in short, everywhere that has either
nologies, including high-definition television and pay- electricity or mail service.
per-view events. ESPN Deportes, a Spanish-language In addition to filling the electronic media with sports
network that began as a Sunday night feature, became content, the personalities and styles of the network have
the latest twenty-four-hour network in the ESPN group had a transformative effect on U.S. culture, creating or
in 2004, and in 2005 ESPN plans to start a wireless abetting spin-off institutions and even creating new
phone service. sporting events such as the X Games, which highlight
ESPN 525
Success is how high you bounce when you

hit bottom. ■ GENERAL GEORGE PATTON
“extreme” sports such as snow boarding or BASE (an fifty-one hundred hours of live sports or original pro-
acronym for “building, antenna, span, earth”) jumping, gramming in addition to its news programs. By 2005,
in which participants parachute off of fixed structures. the NFL could safely move Monday Night Football to
On-air personalities have driven ESPN’s entry into ESPN, knowing the viewers would follow. ESPN2
popular culture by contributing phrases such as “en added another forty-eight hundred hours. ESPN’s suc-
fuego,” which means an athlete or anyone else who is cess in sports programming has also led to several other
hot, and “boo-yah,” which is an exuberant expression networks, such as the Golf Channel and NFLTV, which
that celebrates an exceptional feat. now make up the sports niche market of the cable tele-
Quirky advertisements featuring well-known athletes vision world.
and team mascots mixing with anchors in the ESPN of- The popularity of ESPN’s programming has inspired
fices or anchors teaching at the mythical Bristol Uni- two prime-time situation comedies: Sports Night, a
versity have further inserted the network into the public short-lived but critically acclaimed program that looked
consciousness. Live, on-location programming such as inside the production of live sports news broadcasts,
College Gameday has become a spectacle in itself as pro- was a close copy of Sports Center, and Listen Up, star-
grams are broadcast from a different college campus ring Jason Alexander and Malcolm-Jamal Warner, was
each week. based on Pardon the Interruption, an ESPN program
featuring Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon.
The Nickname Game From the original conception as an all-sports, all-
Keith Olberman and Dan Patrick, the most famous of the-time cable network to the current multimedia em-
the new breed of ESPN sports newsmen, created a sar- pire, ESPN has dramatically increased the visibility of
castic, ad-libbing style of presentation that helped make sports, if not their importance, in U.S. culture. In the
Sports Center a cultural icon. Chris Berman, anchoring process the network has deeply penetrated U.S. popu-
the late night sports recap program during the net- lar culture during the past two-plus decades, trans-
work’s first year, spontaneously added “R.F.D.” to base- forming the way we watch, think about, and talk about
ball player John Mayberry’s name and so began his sports.
practice of modifying players’ names to include pop
Russ Crawford
culture references (Mayberry R.F.D. was a popular sit-
com during the 1970s). Stuart Scott brought African-
American vernacular and a hip hop sensibility to Sports
Center, and ESPN also provided opportunities for Further Reading
Ballard, C. (2005, February 2). Finding the perfect sports bar. Sports Il-
women to assume a more visible role with anchors lustrated, 67.
such as Robin Roberts and Linda Cohn, who have Boo-yah or just boo? Scott has fans and detractors. (2003, December
added their own catch phrases to the mix, such as 3). Retrieved March 2, 2005, from http://www.usatoday.com/
sports/2003-11-25-sportscenter-scott-responses _ x.htm
Cohn’s ironic use of the old breakup line, “It’s not you, Evey, S., & Broughton, I. (2004). ESPN: The no-holds-barred story of
it’s me.” power, ego, and money that transformed the culture. Chicago: Tri-
umph Books.
ESPN’s impact can also be seen in the number of Freeman, M. (2000). ESPN: The uncensored history. New York: Taylor
sports programs that U.S. viewers can watch each week. Trade Publishing.
In 1980 ABC, NBC, and CBS provided 787 hours of Hirschberg, C., & Berman, C. (2004). ESPN 25: 25 mind bending, eye
popping, culture morphing years of highlights. Bristol, CT: ESPN
live sports programming for the entire year. In 1989, Books.
with the addition of ESPN and later arrivals CNN, Olberman, K., & Patrick, D. (1997). The big show: Inside ESPN’s Sports
Center. New York: Pocket Books.
WTBS, and others, sports programming increased to Rasmussen, B. (1983). Sports junkies rejoice: The birth of ESPN. Harts-
7,341 hours. In 2004 ESPN alone provided more than dale, NY: QV Publishing.
Since the 1990s the European Football Champi-

Euro 2004 onship has been called “UEFA Euro.” It is the third-
largest sporting event in the world and the largest in
T he secretary-general of the French Football Federa-

tion, Henry Delauney, first suggested staging a
competition among the national soccer teams of Europe
Europe, followed by the European Champions’ Cup
since 1955–1956 (now called the “European Champi-
ons League”) and the UEFA Cup since 1972.
in 1927 at a meeting of the Federation Internationale All of these competitions occupy a special place in
de Football Association (FIFA—the world governing the world of sports because they offer a stage for play-
body of soccer), arguing that a similar competition had ers, trainers, and referees in the wider market of pro-
existed in South America since 1916. fessional soccer, which in itself justifies the increased
However, only after the founding of the Union of Eu- efforts of sports agents and the greater competitiveness
ropean Football Association (UEFA) in 1954 was a Eu- of the competitions, as well as the club and national
ropean soccer competition established. The European spirit with which the competitions are suffused. The in-
Nations’ Cup competition, whose trophy was named tensified commercialization of the competitions and
after Delauney, was established in 1957 and first played the enormous media coverage that surrounds them
in 1960. In 1966 the name was changed to the “Euro- have also contributed to their importance, especially
pean Football Championship.” Since then the final UEFA Euro, because they are played by national
phase of the competition, which is preceded by an elim- teams.
ination tournament the previous season, is played every Despite the considerable costs of such events, Euro-
four years. Years, venues, opposing teams, and scores pean nations and sports organizations increasingly ten-
have been: der their applications in the hope that they will be
approved. In the case of UEFA Euro 2004 in Portugal,
■ 1960; Paris, France; USSR-Yugoslavia; 2–1 the public investment in the construction of seven sta-
■ 1964; Madrid, Spain; Spain-USSR; 2–1 diums and the remodeling of three totaled about 75
■ 1968; Rome, Italy; Italy-Yugoslavia; 1–1; replay 2–0 percent, of which 21 percent came from government
■ 1972; Brussels, Belgium; Federal Republic of funds. The cost of providing security, with about twenty
Germany-USSR; 3–0 thousand police officers, was enormous.
■ 1976; Belgrade, Yugoslavia; Czechoslovakia-Federal
Republic of Germany; 2–2; on penalties 5–3 Global Coverage
■ 1980; Rome, Italy; Federal Republic of Germany- In fact, aside from the millions of Portuguese who par-
Belgium; 2–1 ticipated in the great party of European soccer, about 1
■ 1984; Paris, France; France-Spain; 2–0 million spectators (half of them foreign) watched the
■ 1988; Munich, Federal Republic of Germany; games in stadiums, while almost two hundred television
Netherlands-USSR; 2–0 stations and hundreds of journalists and photographers
■ 1992; Gothenburg, Sweden; Denmark-Germany; transmitted news and images from UEFA Euro 2004 to
2–0 millions of spectators and readers around the world
■ 1996; Wembley, England; Germany-Czech Republic; during the twenty-three-day championship.
2–1 The public interest in UEFA Euro goes beyond a
■ 2000; Rotterdam, Netherlands, and Belgium; France- sporting interest in the competition. In addition to the
Italy; 2–1 economic dimension of professional sports, especially
■ 2004; Lisbon, Portugal; Portugal-Greece, 0–1 in relation to soccer, the national teams, as well as the
EURO 2004 527
Rugby is a beastly game played by gentlemen; soccer is a gentlemen’s game

played by beasts; football is a beastly game played by beasts. ■ HENRY BLAHA
public in general and soccer fans in particular, have events develops into a complex sociological reality
compelling reasons to defend their national colors. where behavior is unpredictable, and for this reason
Sporting events are venues for the display of nations on police are mobilized to ensure public order and the
a global scale, and a nation’s participation therefore ac- safety of fans.
quires great symbolic significance. In this context one Since the 1990s public authorities and sports or-
can easily understand the large national investments ganizations have acted to prevent violence and occa-
and the scramble by sports organizations to host such sional xenophobic behavior at such international soccer
a large event. As countries invest in a venue to present competitions, namely by offering fan projects and fan
their image in a global framework, communities also embassies that encourage hospitality.
participate in an affirmation of their national identity, The teams of sixteen countries competed in the final
transposing strong emotions into the fervor with which phase of UEFA Euro 2004 in Portugal. The next cham-
their soccer teams are supported. pionship is planned for 2008 in Austria and Switzer-
UEFA Euro has grown into a social venue par excel- land.
lence for the affirmation of the national cultures of Eu-
Salomé Marivoet
rope, with the final phase of the competition being a
moment of keen celebration for fans of the teams se-
lected and sorted into four groups. From each group,
the teams that win first and second place pass to the Further Reading
quarterfinals, which are followed by the semifinals, Armstrong, G. (1998). Football hooligans: Knowing the score. Oxford,
UK: Berg.
which are played by the four winners of the quarterfi- Brimson, D. (2003). EURO trashed: The rise and rise of Europe’s foot-
nals. In the finals the winners of the semifinals compete ball hooligans. London: Headline Book Publishing.
to be the champion. Comeron, M., & Vanbellingen, P. (2002). Prevention of violence in foot-
ball stadiums in Europe. Liege, Belgium: Eurofan.
Dunning, E. (1999). Sport matters: Sociological studies of sport, violence
“Us” versus “Others” and civilization. London: Routledge.
Dunning, E., Maguire, J., & Pearton, R. (Eds.). (1993). The sports
Even if what is played for is only a trophy in a sports process: A comparative and developmental approach. Champaign, IL:
competition, fans’ support of their teams strengthens Human Kinetics.
identity ties and a sense of cohesion in favor of “us” as Dunning, E., Murphy, P., Waddington, I., & Astrinakis, A. (Eds.).
(2002). Fighting fans: Football hooliganism as a world phenome-
opposed to “others,” the adversaries, which in some non. Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin Press.
soccer subcultures becomes a motive for acts of intol- Elias, N., & Dunning, E. (1986). Quest for excitement, sport and leisure
in the civilising process. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
erance and violence. Despite the acts of intolerance and Finn, G., & Giullianotti, R. (Eds.). (2000). Football culture: Local con-
violence and xenophobic behavior manifested on oc- tests, global visions. London: Frank Cass.
casion, a large part of the confrontation is transposed Giullianotti, R. (1999). Football: A sociology of the global game. Cam-
bridge, UK: Blackwell.
into a symbolic domain, where verbal hostilities com- Hargreaves, J. (1986). Sport, power and culture. Oxford, UK: Polity
prise the usual course of action. Press.
Marivoet, S. (2002). The public at football stadiums. In M. Comeron
Fans from different countries use different ways to & P. Vanbellingen (Eds.), Prevention of violence in football stadiums
re-create their image and reassert their identity— in Europe (pp. 24–30). Liege, Belgium: Eurofan.
through carnival parties, historical symbols, or the re- Marivoet, S. (2002). Violent disturbances in Portuguese football. In E.
Dunning, P. Murphy, I. Waddington, & A. Astrinakis (Eds.), Fight-
production of soccer subcultures, such as the so-called ing fans: Football hooliganism as a world phenomenon (pp. 158–
hooligans as “casuals” or “ultras,” although the latter 173). Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin Press.
Miller, T., Lawrence, G., McKay, J., & Rowe, D. (2001). Globalization
have been less involved in championships between na- and sport. London: Sage.
tional teams. The cultural mix observed at UEFA Euro Rousmestan, N. (1998). Les supporters de football. Paris: Anthropos.
ble European nations entered. A home-and-away match

European Football between Ireland and Czechoslovakia brought the num-
ber of entrants down to sixteen, and the first true match
Championship of the tournament was held 28 September 1958, in
Moscow’s Lenin Stadium, with 100,572 people watch-
T he European Football Championship, also known

the “UEFA Football Championship,” is a quadren-
nial soccer tournament of men’s teams representing
ing the USSR beat Hungary, 3–1. The format of the first
round was home-and-away games for each assigned
pair, with aggregate winners reaching the quarterfinals
each nation in Europe. The qualifying rounds start two for home-and-away games and those winners making
years ahead of time, and the final rounds are played the semifinals. One of the semifinal nations would be
in years divisible by four. The tournament is run by chosen as the host nation of the semifinal and final. The
the Union des Associations Europeennes de Football final was played on 10 July 1960, won by the USSR
(UEFA), the governing body of European soccer, es- over Yugoslavia, 2–1, in extra time in front of only
tablished in 1954. 17,966 fans at the Parc des Princes stadium in Paris.
The second series of the European Nations Cup, held
Origin 1962–1964, had fewer problems getting nations to
International soccer matches and tournaments have a compete as twenty-nine of the thirty-three eligible na-
long history. The first international soccer match was tions participated. The final was played on 21 June
England versus Scotland in 1872, the Olympics first fea- 1964, in Chamatin Stadium in Madrid, Spain, in front
tured soccer in 1900, and the FIFA (Federation Inter- of 120,000 people. Spain’s defeat of the USSR, 2–1,
nationale de Football Associations) World Cup was was the first defeat for the USSR in any match in the
started in 1930. tournament’s history.
Soccer was experiencing a “cup fever” during the With the third series, held 1966–1968, the name of
1950s. Many European nations already had regular the tournament was changed to the “European Football
tournaments, including the British Championship and Championship.” Thirty-one countries entered; thus, the
the Scandinavian (Nordic) Championship. International tournament changed to a group format. Eight groups
championships that began in Europe during the 1950s would play home-and-away matches against the other
were the UEFA Cup, the annual European Cup (con- nations in the group, and Group 8, comprised of Eng-
sisting of the first-place finishers in each major Euro- land, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, also served simul-
pean league), the annual World Club Cup, and the taneously as the British home championship for 1966–
annual European Cup-Winner’s Cup. 1967 and 1967–1968. The eight group winners would
The European Football Championship started as the advance to quarterfinals of home-and-away matches,
“European Nations Cup” in 1958 as the idea of Henri then to a single semifinal and a final in Italy. The final
Delauney, secretary of the French Football Federation. was held in Rome’s Olympic Stadium on 8 June 1968,
The trophy given to the winner of the tournament still with Italy tying Yugoslavia, 1–1. A “final replay” was set
bears his name. for 10 June 1968, and Italy prevailed, 2–0.
The fourth series, held 1970–1972, involved thirty-
History two countries divided into eight groups. In the final,
Organizers had difficulty getting nations to compete in held in Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium, on 28
the first European Nations Cup series, held 1958– June 1972, the upcoming 1974 World Cup champion
1960, but eventually seventeen of the thirty-three eligi- West Germany beat the USSR, 3–0.
EUROPEAN FOOTBALL CHAMPIONSHIP 529
The fifth series, held 1974–1976, also included

thirty-two countries. The final, held in Belgrade, Yu-
goslavia, on 20 June 1976, ended in regulation time
with Czechoslovakia tied with West Germany, 2–2. The
Czechs won, 5–3, on penalties.
For the sixth series, held 1978–1980, the host coun-
try for the final was chosen before the tournament. The
host country (Italy) automatically received a berth to the
quarterfinal eight and did not compete in the group
rounds. Seven groups competed for the other seven
quarterfinal spots, where they moved into two new
groups of four teams. No semifinal games were played
in this series. It was also the last series to have the
pointless third-place match. The final was held in
Rome’s Olympic Stadium on 22 June 1980, with West
Germany winning its second title against Belgium, 2–1.
For the seventh series, held 1982–1984, semifinal
straight knockout rounds were reintroduced for the top
two nations from each final group. France was the final
host and champion, defeating Spain, 2–0, in Parc des
Princes stadium on 27 June 1984.
In the eighth series, held 1986–1988, West Germany
was the final host when the Netherlands defeated the
USSR, 2–0, in front of 72,308 fans at Olympic Sta-
dium in Munich on 25 June 1988.
An Englishman wearing an England jersey
For the ninth series, held 1990–1992, Denmark de-
on a car ferry going to a football match.
feated Germany in the final, 2–0, on 26 June 1992, in
Source: istockphoto/urbancow.
Gothenburg, Sweden. The final that year had lower at-
tendance than in previous years but less of the soccer
hooliganism that had marred earlier tournaments. ever. In London’s Wembley Stadium on 30 June 1996,
Because of the creation of many new European na- Germany defeated the Czech Republic, 2–1, on a
tions, forty-eight teams entered the tenth series, held golden goal by Oliver Bierhoff.
1994–1996, and the tournament was modified to its In the eleventh series, held 1998–2000, forty-nine
current format. Eight groups of six teams each made up teams were divided into nine qualifying groups, with
the qualifying rounds, with all group winners, seven group winners, five runners-up, and host countries Bel-
group runners-up, and the host country for the final gium and the Netherlands making the final tournament.
making the final tournament. These sixteen teams are In the final, reigning World Cup champion France beat
divided into four groups that play home-and-aways, Italy, 2–1, in Rotterdam, Netherlands, on 2 July 2000,
with the winner and runner-up of these four groups with a golden goal by David Trezeguet.
making the quarterfinals. With sixteen teams in the final For the twelfth series, held 2002–2004, a record fifty
tournament, the tournament was more popular than teams were divided into ten groups for qualifying, with
sixteen teams making the final round. Greece was a multinational sport network, and Eurosport mobile of-
surprise winner over host country Portugal, 1–0, on 4 fers a mobile sport service. The philosophy of this fully
July 2004, in Lisbon. integrated information service is “Don’t Watch Sport . . .
Feel Sport!”
The Future
The 2004 European Football Championship garnered History
an estimated television audience of 10 billion people Eurosport was founded in 1989 by the European
and was one of the most popular sporting events world- Broadcasting Union and is owned by two companies.
wide. Qualifying for the European Football Champi- The 100-percent owner is TF1, a commercial French TV
onship in 2008 will start with matches in 2006, station, and 41.5 percent of TF1 is owned by a con-
culminating in a final round in host countries Austria glomerate called Bouygues, which deals globally in
and Switzerland. The parallel event for women, the property and the building and service industry. The
UEFA Women’s Championship, has been held since headquarters of Eurosport are in Issy-les-Moulineaux,
1982 and is also becoming more popular. France.
Eurosport gradually developed into a fully integrated
information system. The unique multimedia platform
consists of the TV channel Eurosport, the first interna-
Further Reading tional TV sport news channel; Eurosportnews; the
Foer, F. (2004). How soccer explains the world: An unlikely theory of multinational online service network eurosport.com;
globalization. New York: HarperCollins. and Eurosport mobile.
Ionescu, R. (2004). The complete results and line-ups of the European
Football Championships 1958–2004. Cleethorpes, UK: Soccer
The strategic vision of Eurosport is to cater to the in-
Books. terests of every customer, and therefore it covers more
Lynch, T. (1992). Official book of the European Football Championships. than a hundred disciplines. Respected experts, com-
London: Boxtree.
Pettiford, L. (2004). Euro 2004 Portugal: The total guide. London: Arc- mentators, and media professionals who share a pas-
turus Foulsham. sion for sport work together to present an informed
Robinson, J. (1996). The European Championship, 1958–1996.
Cleethorpes, UK: Soccer Books.
sports coverage for the various media subsumed in the
Stewart, M. (1998). Soccer: A history of the world’s most popular game. multimedia platform of Eurosport. Furthermore, the ed-
New York: Franklin Watts. itors seek to establish partnerships with top athletes,
UEFA (2004). Retrieved July 26, 2004, from http:uefa.com/index.html
UEFA EURO 2004 (2004). Retrieved July 25, 2004, from http://www. sport clubs, and the International Olympic Committee
euro2004.com/index.html (IOC). The use of cutting-edge technology, another key
characteristic of Eurosport, also supports its main mis-
sion: the promotion of sport.
Eurosport Eurosport
The TV channel Eurosport has become the leading
T he company Eurosport was founded by the Euro-

pean Broadcasting Union (EBU) in 1989 and
subsequently developed into a unique multimedia plat-
sport channel in Europe and is distributed in fifty-four
countries in nineteen different languages. It is received
in 98 million European homes, and 95 percent of Euro-
form. In Europe, the TV station Eurosport occupies a peans can watch it in their native language. Every day,
leading position among TV sport providers. Eurosport- 21 million viewers make use of this opportunity.
news is the first sport news station to operate on an in- The TV channel Eurosport presents the most exten-
ternational basis. Online, eurosport.com is the only sive sport coverage in Europe. Although it focuses on
EUROSPORT 531
It is a noteworthy fact that kicking and beating have played so considerable a

part in the habits which necessity has imposed on mankind in past ages that the
only way of preventing civilized men from beating and kicking their wives is to
organize games in which they can kick and beat balls. ■ GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
top international sport events, Eurosport also supports editors continually strive to optimize program struc-
promising newcomers among the disciplines, such as tures. For example, using the ReLive-concept, sports
youth football and beach volleyball. It rediscovered tra- events can be shown a second time in full length, so
ditional TV-friendly disciplines like tennis and it has those who missed out on the first transmission get a
even created its own events, like the Olympic SportStar chance to view it again in the familiar format.
Awards. Additional value is provided by two supplementary
Most of the channel’s airtime is taken up by football services: Eurosport Interactive and Sportext. Eurosport
(20 percent), winter sports (17 percent), tennis (15 per- Interactive allows the viewer to access news, results,
cent), and motor sport (12 percent). Disciplines like program information, and games without having to
cycling, combat sports, martial arts, track and field ath- switch away from the event they are watching. This new
letics, and water sports constitute another 4 to 6 percent digital application is now available in France, Greece,
of the coverage. Modern, action-laden fun sports and ex- and Sweden. Sportext, the well-established information
treme sports are also shown on a regular basis. format, transmits sports news such as results, updates,
To maintain its leading position among TV sport statistics, and schedules.
channels, Eurosport has purchased the rights to televise Eurosport targets audiences of all ages, starting with
top sport events on a long-term basis. This purchase in- fourteen-year-olds. Covering a large variety of disci-
cludes the Olympics as well as a variety of football plines in accessible formats, it caters to specialists and
events such as the qualifications for the World Cup and lay fans alike, to women as well as to men. The average
the European Cup, UEFA U-17, UEFA U-19, UEFA viewer is well educated, of an above-average income,
Champions League, African Nations Cup, and the tour- and has a family.
nament in Toulon, France. It also covers major tennis
tournaments: the French Open in Roland Garros, the Eurosportnews
Australian Open, the U.S. Open, the WTA Tour, the Anybody living on a tight schedule can get a daily fix
Masters Cup, and the ATP Tour. Eurosport also owns of updates via the international sport news station Eu-
the TV rights for cycling events such as the Tour de rosportnews, which has transmitted real-time and
France, Giro d’Italia, Vuelta, Cycling World Cup and around-the-clock sport news since 1 September 2000.
World Championships, and Track World Champi- Eurosportnews, a digital sport news station, incorpo-
onships; for the motor sports events Moto GP, 24h of rates elements such as videos, texts, and graphics. Every
Le Mans, Nascar, Indy Racing League, Superbike, Ral- fifteen minutes, viewers receive the latest sport news.
lye World Championships, and LG Super Racing Furthermore, the station sends out live commentary,
Weekend; for golf events such as the US PGA and real-time results, and the latest headlines. Eurosport-
the European PGA Tour; and finally, for the rights for news is currently accessible to 18 million households
X-Games and Quiksilver Events. in over seventy countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia,
The editorial representation of Eurosport centers on and Eurosport is planning to expand its network glob-
results when doing behind-the-scenes and live coverage. ally in order to fully encompass Asia, Australia, and
In effect, 41 percent of the program will be live broad- Africa.
casts, and another 51 percent will consist of reports
and documentaries. Six percent of its airtime is taken up Eurosport.com
by reports on a variety of themes, 4 percent by magazine Eurosport.com is the international website of Eu-
programs, and 3 percent by sports news. Eurosport does rosport. Five national versions have been added to the
not, however, send any entertainment formats. original pan-European version in English, and there are
To guarantee the successful reception of Eurosport, its plans to extend this service. The website provides
in-depth, wide-scale sport coverage, including news, engaged in strenuous physical activities such as hunting,
live commentary, and results. Eurosport.com receives up gathering, foraging for food in addition to recreational
to 85 million hits per month and has 1.7 million users. physical activities. Physical activity and proper diet were
linked to prolonged health and longevity in ancient
Eurosport Mobile China and India as early as 3000 BCE. Ancient Greece
Eurosport is transmitted to mobile phones via SMS, with its physical ideals and Olympic games has served
WAP, i-mode, and PDA. The WAP and i-mode services as a model for physical fitness and health in the mod-
are offered in five languages and can be accessed in ern Western culture. Health benefits of physical activity
Italy, Spain, Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain, and exercise were first linked to three Greek physicians:
and the Netherlands. The SMS service is available in Herodicus (c. 480 BCE), Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE),
three languages. and Galen (129–c. 199 CE). Herodicus studied “gym-
nastic medicine,” which was the forerunner of the study
Expanding Eurosport of health benefits of physical activity. His work greatly
In January 2005 Eurosport 2 was introduced to provide influenced Hippocrates in his studies of health, exercise,
more live event coverage, additional news broadcasts, and diet. (It was Hippocrates who gave the sage advice,
and magazine-type shows that are targeted to a younger “If we could give every individual the right amount of
audience. The new service is initially available in 13 mil- nourishment and exercise, not too little and not too
lion European households, with programming pre- much, we would have found the safest way to health.”)
sented in English, Polish, Turkish, and Greek. Galen, influenced by Hippocrates, was one of the great-
est physicians who studied and researched the benefits
Stefanie Birkholz
of health on physical activity and exercise.
Translated by Jennifer Hirte
What Are Physical
Activity and Exercise?
Further Reading Physical activity and exercise are often used inter-
Burk, V. (2002). Entwicklung, Funktion, Präsentationsform und Text- changeably, but they are defined differently. Physical
typen der Sportsendungen. Berlin & New York.
Burk, V., & Digel, H. (2001). Sport und Medien. Entwicklungstenden- activity is defined as “bodily movement that is produced
zen und Probleme einer lukrativen Beziehung. Baden-Baden. by contraction of skeletal muscle and that substantially
Gerhards, M., Klinger, W., & Roters, G. Sport und sportrezeption, 15–
32. Eurosport Corporate Design brochure.
increases energy expenditure” (CDCP 1996, 21). Exer-
Leonard, J.-F., Ludwig, H.-W., Schwarze, D., Straßner, E. (Hrsg.). Me- cise is “a planned, structured and repetitive bodily move-
dienwissenschaft. Ein Handbuch zur Entwicklung der Medien und ment done to improve or maintain one or more
Kommunikationsformen. Band 3. 2388-2405.
Richter, Nic. (2001). Olympia aus dem Off. Horizont sport business, 10, components of physical fitness” (CDCP 1996, 21). Sci-
64–65. entific studies show that regular physical activity and ex-
ercise along with a proper diet improve health by
reducing risks of developing chronic diseases (e.g., heart
disease, cancer, diabetes, hypertension); reduce obesity
Exercise and Health and help control weight; help build strong bones, mus-
cles, and joints; reduce anxiety and depression, pro-
T hroughout history, dating back to prehistoric times,

physical activity and exercise have been shown
to impact health physically, psychologically, socially,
mote psychological well-being; and increase life span.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
an unhealthy diet and physical inactivity contribute to
and spiritually among all populations. Our ancestors the rise in noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as
EXERCISE AND HEALTH 533
A young woman exercising

outdoors. Source: istockphoto/barsik.
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obe-

sity, and cancers. Health-care costs
are associated with lack of physical
activity. In the United States, for ex-
ample, WHO estimated health-care
costs in 2000 alone rose to $75 bil-
lion dollars as a result of physical in-
activity. NCDs now account for 60
percent of global deaths and 47 per-
cent of global disease. Furthermore,
WHO reports an estimated average
of 2 million deaths annually from
physical inactivity throughout the
world. Men, women, and children of
all ages are at risk: a person who is
sedentary as opposed to one who is
physically active will be more sus-
ceptible to health problems.
Relationship of Exercise
RECOMMENDED LEVELS AND T YPES OF EXERCISE to Overall Health
Physical activity and exercise do not need to be strenu- Research studies show that people who are active phys-
ous. WHO recommends thirty minutes of physical ac- ically tend to be healthier. Exercise can help prevent or
tivity/exercise at a moderate intensity daily. Physical delay some diseases and disabilities, improve one’s
activity and exercise are measured by frequency, inten- mood, and enhance one’s lifestyle. Life expectancy may
sity (mild, moderate, strenuous), and duration (time/ also be increased. The effects of exercise on health in-
length). They can be aerobic and/or anaerobic in na- clude changes in cardiovascular system, muscle mass,
ture. This also includes weight-bearing exercises (e.g., respiratory system, metabolism, bone mass, and mood.
free weights, machine weights, body weight). Endurance With regular physical activity, there is an increase in the
activities (e.g., cycling, walking, running, swimming) in- heart’s work capacity, aerobic capacity, and HDL (good)
crease heart rate and breathing and strengthen the cholesterol and a decrease in resting heart rate, total
heart, lungs, and circulatory system. Strength exercises cholesterol, and blood pressure. There is an increase in
(e.g., free weights, machine weights, body weight, re- muscular strength, muscular endurance, metabolism,
sistant bands) strengthen the body overall. Flexibility lean body mass, joint flexibility, and bone-mineral con-
exercises, commonly known as stretching (with or with- tent. The effects of exercise on the nervous system in-
out a partner), affect various body parts that are clude a decrease in the speed of reaction and movement
stretched slowly without bouncing. These exercises im- time and an improvement in response time, visual or-
prove the body’s overall flexibility and keep the body ganization, memory, and mental flexibility. The respira-
limber. Exercise is a way to stay active and physically fit tory system increases in function, vital capacity, decrease
and to meet other individuals with the same interests. in minute ventilation and respiratory ratio. Exercise re-
Participating in a daily regimen of physical activity and/ duces depression and anxiety, increases self-esteem, and
or exercise improves physical and psychological health improves overall psychological well-being. Economic
and reduces the risks of chronic diseases. benefits include reduction in health-care costs, increased
Exercise and Health

The Power of Exercise, 1707
From the preface to Medicina Gymnastica or a Trea- of Health, which in some cases can’t be effected by a
tise Concerning the Power of Exercise. with Respect to private and simple attempt upon the Blood only.
the Annual Oeconomy; and the Great Necessity of it in As for the Exercise of the Body, which is the sub-
the Cure of Several Distempers, 1707. ject of this ensuing Discourse, if people would not
think so superficially of it, if they would but abstract
Though some People have supposed a Warm Bath to
the Benefit got by it, from the Means by which it is
be only a last Resort, yet it is quite otherwise, it being
got, they would set a great Value upon it; if some of
impossible to remove some Diseases of the Limbs
the Advantages occurring from Exercise were to be
without an universal equal Relaxation. Again, quite
procured by any one Medicine, nothing in the World
different from this is the equal Distribution of a
would be in more Esteem than that Medicine would
greater Degree of Heat throughout the whole Body,
be; but as those advantages are to be obtained an-
which is procured by Habitual Exercise; in the former
other way, and by taking some Pains, Men’s Heads
Method the Parts are relaxed, in this they are
are turned to overlook and slight them. The habitual
strengthened, and in every Respect the Effects are
increase of the Natural Heat of the Body, as I took
widely different, though in both ways there is a con-
notice above is not to be despised.
siderable Encrease of the Heat.
If any Drug could cause such an effect as the Mo-
It is one thing to dispose Nature to collect her
tion of the Body does, in this respect it would be of
own Strength and throw off her Enemy; and it is an-
singular Use in some tender Cases upon this very Ac-
other to assist her by the Corpuscula, the Minute
count; but then add to this the great Strength which
parts of a Medicine given inwardly; the first way has
the Muscular and Nervous parts acquire by Exer-
Regard to the whole Animal Oeconomy; the second
cises, if that could be adequately obtained likewise by
respects the Blood and Juices chiefly; the first may
the same Internal Means, what a Value, what an Ex-
succeed, where the second cannot, because here the
travagant Esteem would Mankind have for that Rem-
Laws of Motion, and the rules of the Oeconomy are
edy which could produce such wonderful Effects!
enforced, and brought to be assisting to a Recovery
physical and psychological fitness, and increased affects all ages, cultures, men, women, and children, in
productivity. both developed and undeveloped countries. Lack of ex-
ercise and poor diet are among the major reasons for
OBESITY this alarming epidemic.
According to WHO, obesity has reached epidemic pro-
portions throughout the world. Statistics show there CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE
are over 1 billion people who are overweight (i.e., they Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a leading cause of
have a body mass index [BMI] greater than 25 kg/m2) death in the world today. The narrowing of the coronary
and 300 million people defined as obese (BMI greater arteries, which supply blood and oxygen to the heart,
than 30 kg/m2) (WHO 2004, 2). Obesity and being is called atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis in turn causes
overweight are related to chronic disease and disability CAD, which can lead to heart attack, stroke, and
problems (e.g., coronary artery disease, diabetes, hyper- angina. Research shows that regular physical activity
tension, and hyperlipidemia, as well as musculoskeletal helps reduce CAD. Exercise increases the functional ca-
and pulmonary disease). Obesity and being overweight pabilities of the heart and reduces oxygen demands. For
I get my exercise acting as a pallbearer to

my friends who exercise. ■ CHAUNCEY DEPEW
those individuals with CAD, those who resume physi- blood pressure (low- to moderate-intensity exercise: aer-
cal activity and exercise as prescribed by their doctors obic endurance and strength-training activities). For
recover at a faster rate with fewer clinical problems those individuals being treated with hypertension med-
compared with patients who remain immobile follow- ication (e.g., ACE-receptor blockers, beta-blockers), the
ing medical treatment. Individuals who undergo cardiac effects of the drug(s) on blood pressure should be taken
surgery most often benefit from a supervised cardiac re- into account when devising a physician-approved exer-
habilitation program in which specific exercise is precise regimen.
scribed and monitored. Once the individual graduates Hypertension is a major risk factor for strokes. A
from rehabilitation, regular exercise (i.e., low-intensity stroke occurs when there is a blood clot within a blood
endurance exercise: walking, stationary cycling, and vessel (thrombosis). It affects the arteries of the nervous
swimming) tailored to his or her physical condition on system, resulting in reduced or lack of oxygen to the
a gradual schedule is beneficial. brain. Similar guidelines and recommendations of reg-
ular exercise prescribed to reduce hypertension are also
HYPERLIPIDEMIA used to reduce the risk of stroke and in treatment of in-
Hyperlipidemia, or high cholesterol as it is commonly dividuals who have suffered a stroke.
called, is diagnosed when total blood plasma choles-
terol levels rise above 240 mg/dl. High blood choles- PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE
terol can lead to elevated blood plasma, which can Peripheral vascular disease (PVD) is a painful disease
cause CAD and other chronic medical problems. Cho- often occurring in the legs, especially in the older adult
lesterol consists of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high- population. It is caused by atherosclerotic narrowing of
density lipoproteins (HDL), and triglycerides. HDL the peripheral arterial and/or venous blood vessels. As
cholesterol, the “good” cholesterol, should measure 65 a result of reduced blood flow to the lower extremities,
mg/dl or more. LDL, the “bad” cholesterol, should spasms and blockages (claudication) can cause various
measure less than 100 mg/dl. A measurement of 182– degrees of muscle pain. Exercise should be tailored to
200 mg/dl (HDL and LDL) is the average recommen- the individual’s comfort level (measured by subjective
dation for total cholesterol. Regular exercise helps re- grades I–IV of claudication discomfort). Regular exer-
duce LDL levels and increase HDL levels. cise improves blood flow, tolerance to pain, muscle me-
tabolism, and oxygen utilization. It also reduces the
HYPERTENSION/STROKE risk of CAD and improves overall physical health.
Hypertension, known as the silent killer as it can occur
without symptoms, kills five million people each year DIABETES MELLITUS
globally (WHO 2002). Blood pressure is measured by Diabetes mellitus is characterized by glucose intolerance
two numbers–systolic (top number) and diastolic pres- —the body is not able to utilize food appropriately.
sure. Systolic measures the arteries when the heart con- Diabetes left untreated can lead to a variety of health
tracts. Diastolic is the pressure in the arteries when the problems such as CAD, vision impairment, kidney dis-
heart rests between beats. Hypertension (high blood ease, and vascular and nerve disorders. There are two
pressure) occurs when a person’s blood pressure is types of diabetes: Type I is called insulin-dependent
greater than 140/90 mmHg. It is a leading cause of car- mellitus (IDM); Type II is called noninsulin-dependent
diovascular disease (i.e., stroke, peripheral arterial dis- diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). IDM usually occurs in
ease, heart and kidney failures). Regular exercise helps childhood or adolescence and is also known as juvenile
reduce the risk of hypertension. It also helps lower diabetes. Regular insulin injections are used to regulate
blood-glucose levels for IDM. Overweight and obese in- taining bone density; weight-bearing exercises (i.e.,
dividuals often develop NIDDM, but the disease is not weight-bearing, aerobic, and strength training) on a reg-
limited to this population. NIDDM is caused by the ular basis help build bone-mineral mass and reduce the
body’s reduced ability to regulate blood-glucose levels. risk of osteoporosis for both men and women.
Both types of diabetes can occur at any age. Regular ex-
ercise, especially of an aerobic nature designed specifi- CANCER
cally for the diabetic, helps increase good cholesterol Scientific research studies have shown that regular phys-
and improves insulin tolerance, cardiovascular fitness, ical activity and exercise (in addition to a healthy diet
and weight control. and not smoking) can prevent many forms of cancer. In-
dividuals who are physically inactive are more likely to
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE develop cancer than those who engage in regular exer-
Bronchitis and emphysema are known as chronic ob- cise on a daily basis. For those individuals with cancer,
structive pulmonary diseases (COPD). Bronchitis is an exercise program should be cleared by a medical
characterized by the obstruction of the airways, mainly doctor and developed specifically for the individual’s
inflammation of the bronchial tubes and mucous mem- special needs.
branes, making it hard to breathe. Emphysema develops
when the alveoli are enlarged as a result of damage to MENTAL HEALTH
the alveolar walls, which causes an obstruction of air- Stress, anger, anxiety, and depression contribute to a
flow and difficulty in breathing. wide variety of health conditions, such as CAD, cancer,
Asthma is another form of pulmonary disease that re- migraines, headaches, and insomnia. Research studies
sults in obstruction of airways. However, unlike COPD, show that regular exercise reduces stress, anxiety, ten-
asthma can be reversed, either spontaneously or by sion, anger, and depression. Physical activity and exer-
medication). Asthma is characterized by wheezing, cise have proven beneficial for both psychiatric and
swelling, and obstruction in the tracheobronchial tree. nonpsychiatric populations; severe mental-health prob-
Exercise can induce an asthma attack (known as lems are often treated with medication and psychother-
exercise-induced asthma or EIA), but this can be allevi- apy, with exercise as an adjunct treatment. Furthermore,
ated with medication and/or adjustment of exercise ac- exercise is known to increase self-esteem, confidence,
tivity. Depending on the severity of COPD, exercise and overall psychological well-being.
may or may not benefit persons with pulmonary disor-
ders. These individuals must have a medical doctor’s Adverse Effects of Exercise on Health
clearance and a prescription for specific types of exer- While benefits of exercise on health and mental health
cise and physical activity. far outweigh the adverse effects, one must be aware of
potential problems. Most common of these are injuries
OSTEOPOROSIS to the musculoskeletal system. These include broken
As we age, we begin to lose bone-mineral mass. For bones, bruises, strains, and sprains while one is engaged
women, this loss begins around age 30 and for men, at in physical activity or exercise. Repetitive motion (e.g.,
50 years old. Osteoporosis is the loss of bone as a result swimming, running, cycling, strength training) can cause
of less density and tensile strength. This also increases a variety of muscle pulls and tears. Doing too much too
our susceptibility for falls and fractures. Osteoporosis is soon or adhering to the “no pain, no gain” mentality can
more common in women than men after the age of 45. lead to serious injuries and even sudden death.
Regular exercise and physical activity assist in main- Exercising for long duration without proper fluid
Upper extremity exercises for girls

in the 1850s.
Special Populations
A number of subgroups within the genera-
tion population have special needs in terms
of exercise programs.
PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

People with disabilities need exercise as
much as the general population. More often
than not exercise programs are not accessi-
ble. People with disabilities tend to be more
socially isolated and less likely to engage in
physical activities than those who are not
disabled. Health and mental-health benefits
of physical activity and exercise are similar
and food intake in hot or cold weather can lead to heat to those for the nondisabled population. Moreover,
stroke, hypothermia, dehydration, amenorrhea (in fe- people with chronic, disabling conditions benefit from
males), and other endocrine and metabolic disorders. an increase in stamina and overall body strength.
Strenuous exertion can lead to tears in muscles and
blood cells, kidney failure, and other organ dysfunction. OLDER ADULTS
Individuals who become addicted to exercise or over- Those 50 years of age and older are the fastest-growing
train risk depressing their immune systems, which can population in the world today. WHO reports show
lead to an increase in infections and illnesses (including there will be a growth of 223 percent in this older pop-
irritability, insomnia, and depression). Exercise can also ulation during the period 1970–2025. As people age,
induce asthma attacks in certain individuals. many tend to view the process in negative terms. Phys-
Specific physical activity, exercise, and sports expose ical activity and exercise offer older adults a fun way to
one to collisions and injuries; these activities include stay active and physically fit and to meet other seniors
contact sports such as football, boxing, and hockey. with the same interests. Research studies show that
Such equipment as baseball bats, balls, tennis racquets, older people who are active physically tend to be health-
and skis can seriously hurt an individual when thrown, ier. Exercise can help prevent or delay some diseases
swung, or broken during the activity. and disabilities, improve one’s mood, and enhance
Many of these adverse effects are preventable if peo- one’s lifestyle. Life expectancy is increased as well. With
ple work up to the level of exercise to which they aspire. respect to the aging process, there are many benefits de-
A sound and smart regimen of regular exercise is pro- rived from participation in regular physical activities
gressive in nature (in frequency, duration, and intensity). including cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, nervous and
A personal trainer is valuable in devising exercise pro- pulmonary system improvements.
grams tailored to the individual’s needs and goals. Peo-
ple with a high risk of cardiovascular disease, men over ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG ADULTS
40 years old, women over 50 years old, and those with Adolescents and young adults are not getting regular ex-
health problems or disability should consult with their ercise as a result of physical-education courses and ex-
medical doctor before beginning any course of exercise tracurricular activities being cut from many school
or physical activity. programs. Technological advances including televisions,
Exercise is a modern superstition invented by people who ate

too much, and had nothing to think about. Athletics don’t make
anybody either long-lived or useful. ■ GEORGE SANTAYANA
computers, pagers, and multimedia programs often lead and delivery and improve the overall health of the
to physical inactivity for long hours on a daily basis. mother and child.
The CDC reports that nearly half of American youths
12–21 years old are not involved in vigorous exercise, The Future
and 14 percent of this population does not engage in Physical inactivity increases the risk of chronic diseases
any physical activity at all. Adolescents and young and health or mental-health conditions. People who
adults need programs that emphasis movement and fun are physically active are healthier and more productive
physical activities that will motivate them to lose or than those who are not. Medical costs rise to epic pro-
maintain weight, build strong bones and muscle portions due to sedentary lifestyles. The World Health
strength, and increase overall psychological well-being Organization has developed a “global strategy on diet,
and physical fitness. Parents should plan family physi- physical activity and health that provides member states
cal activities together and encourage participation on a with a range of global policy options to address two of
regular basis. Schools and other community programs the major risks responsible for the heavy and growing
need to include physical education in their curriculums burden of NCDs: unhealthy diet and physical inactivity”
and offer extracurricular activities. (WHO 2004, 1). These NCDs include the growing epi-
demic of obesity, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and
PREGNANT WOMEN diabetes mellitus. An alarming 60 percent of the world’s
Scientific research studies show that women can bene- population fails to exercise the recommended minimum
fit from specific regular exercise or physical activity dur- of 30 minutes of moderate physical activity per day.
ing pregnancy. Exercise programs can vary among Everyone can benefit from physical activity and exercise.
pregnant women depending upon their needs. Aerobic Many NCDs are preventable through healthy diet and
exercise is the most common exercise for conditioning exercise. Physical activity does not need to be strenuous.
for this population. However, certain exercises should It should be fun and motivating. The benefits of exercise
not be performed, depending on the woman’s limita- far outweigh the risks. It’s the best preventive measure
tions, needs, and trimester of pregnancy (for example, against poor health that the world can afford and that
no supine exercises after the fourth month and basic each of us can give to ourselves.
strength exercises that tax the body excessively). Exer-
Becky Clark
cise can reduce the risk of pregnancy-related medical
conditions (e.g., eclampsia, diabetes) and enhance labor See also Diet and Weight Loss; Fitness; Nutrition;
Performance
Further Reading
Brodie, D. A. (1992). Exercise, health and fitness. International Exercise
and Health Conference, Gdansk, Poland, April 1992.
Brown, K., Thomas, D., & Kotecki, J. (2002). Physical activity and
health: An interactive approach. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1996). Surgeon general’s
report on physical activity and health. (DHHS publication S/N 017-
023-00196-5). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Hatfield, F. (Ed.) (n.d.). Fitness: The complete guide (revised 5th ed.).
Santa Barbara, CA: International Sports Sciences Association.
Hays, K. (2002). Move your body, tone your mood. Oakland, CA: New
Exercise equipment for home use. Harbinger Publications.
EXTREME SPORTS 539
Jackson, A., Morrow, J., Hill, D., & Dishman, R. (2004). Physical ac- the counterculture of the 1960s that was reflected in
tivity for health and fitness—updated edition. Champaign, IL:
lifestyle, art, music, and literature. Extreme sports were
Human Kinetics.
Katch, F., & McArdle, W. (1993). Introduction to nutrition, exercise and seen as play rather than competition and an expression
health (4th ed.). Philadelphia/London: Lea & Febiger. of individual freedom and creativity.
Leith, L. (2002). Foundations of exercise and mental health. Morganton,
WV: Fitness Information Technology, Inc.
Neiman, D. C. (1998). The exercise-health connection. Champaign, IL: Culture and Psychology
Human Kinetics.
World Health Organization. (2004). Global strategy on diet, physical
of Extreme Sport
activity and health. [Electronic version]. Geneva, Switzerland: World Extreme sports differ from both so-called traditional
Health Organization. and modern sports in several ways. First, extreme sports
World Health Organization. (2002). World health report. [Electronic
version]. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. are about experience and process, not about outcomes.
World Health Organization. (1993). Controlling the global obesity epi- Second, most extreme sports are noncompetitive. The
demic. [Electronic version]. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health goal is individual achievement and risk-taking, not win-
Organization.
ning. Third, extreme sports are expressions of individu-
ality. Fourth, many extreme sports are cross-over sports
in that athletes come to extreme sports from other
sports such as rock climbing, surfing, parachuting,
Extreme Sports and triathlon. Thus, extreme sports reverse the trend
in sports in general toward specialization. Finally, ex-
E xtreme sports is a relatively new sports genre. Sports

are considered extreme when participants engage in
the sport in a way that creates great personal risk. Sen-
treme sports are closed linked to youth culture. Many
sation seeking and pushing one’s personal boundaries

of risk are the primary reason people participate in ex-
treme sports. They are sometimes referred to as “adren-
aline sports” and participants speak of seeking to reach
the “zone” or “flow.” In some of the sports, participants
seek also to achieve a closer relationship with the envi-
ronment. Some extreme sports are recent inventions
such as canopy climbing or cave diving while others are
extensions of established sports such as rock climbing or
skydiving. Some extreme sports such as sky surfing com-
bine elements from two other sports; in this case surfing
and parachuting. Most extreme sports athletes are men
but the number of female participants is increasing.
While most extreme participants are recreational ath-
letes, extreme sports as a genre has received a boost
from television coverage and especially the X Games
first televised on ESPN in 1995. There is now an entire
extreme-sports industry that markets the sports, extreme-
sport tourism, equipment, clothing, and training. A young man plays in a water hole on his
Some experts believe that extreme sports grew out of ATV. Source: istockphoto/Area Photography.
Free climber traversing rock face at full stretch. Source: istockphoto.com/gough.

EXTREME SPORTS 541
The highest reward for a person’s toil is not what they

get for it, but what they become by it. ■ JOHN RUSKIN
participants are young men and women who value in- Canopying is traveling through tree tops (usually in
dependence, pushing the limits, personal growth, and rainforests) using climbing equipment and cables.
risk-taking. Canyoning is a combination of swimming, sliding,
Research suggests that those who participate in ex- climbing down mountain streams which are reached by
treme sports have a greater need than others to engage climbing down via rope and harness from the canyon
in high-risk behaviors. These people seem to have a walls above.
high tolerance for risk and can continue to function at Cave diving is diving and exploring underground,
high physical and mental levels in dangerous situations. water-filled caves.
There is also evidence that such people often feel in con- Extreme skiing is skiing off of cliffs and down steep
trol in situations where most people would feel out of and dangerous terrain. In addition to skis, extreme
control. They also tend to minimize their personal risk skiers use snowshoes and climbing gear and safety
by preparing well for the activity and by objectively an- equipment.
alyzing their own skills, the environment, and the task. Free climbing means climbing rock or ice with a min-
imum of equipment. The most extreme free climbers use
A Roster of Extreme Sports only their hands, chalks, and special shoes. How ex-
The list of sports classified as extreme is large and grow- treme is also defined by how high one climbs. Free
ing. The following list covers the major ones. climbing is probably the most physically and mentally
Adventure racing is a competitive extreme sport in rigorous of all extreme sports.
which teams of “adventurers” race hundreds of miles In-line skating classified as extreme differs from recre-
nonstop using orienteering skills and canoes, kayaks, ational or competitive in-line skating and is more like
mountain bikes, white-water rafts, horses, their feet, skateboarding. Skaters go as fast as possible, jump over
and ropes. The first team to finish wins. Eco-Challenge or grind across whatever obstacles they encounter, skate
is a specific form of adventure racing.
ATV is riding and/or racing
over rough, wet, muddy or
other dangerous terrain in all-
terrain vehicles.
BASE jumping stands for
Building, Antennae, Span,
Earth—an acronym that indi-
cates the type of objects BASE
jumpers jump off of, with a
parachute on their back.
Bungee jumping is jumping
from a tower, bridge or other
high spot while attached to an
elastic cord by a harness. Part
of the thrill comes from the
feeling of weightless that
come from bouncing several
times when the cord reaches it
maximum extension. A woman climbing a steep rock face. Source: istockphoto/bankok.
A street luge race. Source: istockphoto/Photo-Dave.
on vertical (vert) planes and perform their own “big-air” Sky surfing is jumping out of an airplane standing on
twists, turns, and flips. a small surfboard that is attached to ones feet with
Kite surfing (kite skiing, kite boarding, kite flying) is snowboard bindings. Once airborne, the surfer per-
surfing on a modified surf board while being pulled by forms twists and spins before parachuting to land. Sky
a kite across open water. surfing is often competitive, with a free-falling camera-
Mountain boarding is a combination of skateboard- man filming the surfer in action so the judges can grade
ing and snowboarding using a board with wheels on the performance.
grass or dirt. Speed biking is biking down steep terrain (usually
Parkour is an urban extreme sport in which individu- two-mile, 60-degree slopes) as fast as possible and then
als run and jump in a smooth, gliding continuous motion stopping at the end. Speed bikers go faster than any
over whatever comes in their path.The goal is not speed, other human-powered athletes other than speed skiers.
but smoothness of the journey to achieve inner serenity. Street luge is one of the first extreme sports and was
Paragliding is cross-country gliding in which the started by teenage boys in California who lay face up on
paraglider uses a special parachute designed to allow their skateboards and sped down steep roads at up to
him or her to use wind currents to stay aloft. The goal 60 miles per hour. Street luge boards are now modified
is to stay aloft as long and to travel as far as possible. skateboards designed to fit the luger.
Running with bulls is running in the streets and try- Supermoto (Supermotard) is a form of motorcycle
ing to avoid being gorged or crushed by wild bulls let racing involving both on-track and off-raid courses that
lose in the streets. Many extreme athletes would ques- favors skill and agility over motor power.
tion whether this is really an extreme sport. Tough Man Competitions are fights in which the com-
Skijoring (skidriving) is a Norwegian sport in which petitors seek to injure one another by hitting, kicking,
a person on cross-country skis is pulled by a dog team gouging, punching, etc. Many extreme athletes would
of dogs. The challenge is to control both the skis and question whether this is really an extreme sport.
the dogs at the same time. Wakeboarding is performing stunts while standing
EXTREME SURFING 543
on a modified board and being pulled across the wake December 1994 appeared in the New York Times;
by a powerboat. Wakeboarders also grind off of ob- NBC’s Nightly News showed film of the wipeout. Laird
jects such as rocks and buoys. Hamilton’s ride across a 5.4-meter wall at Teahupoo in
Tahiti in August 2000 received front-page coverage in
The Future the Los Angeles Times and won the Action Sports Feat
The future of extreme sports looks bright. New extreme of 2000 at the annual ESPN Action Sports Awards. The
sports appear each year, the X Games and other com- international media reported the shark attack on
petitions remain popular, and more people participate thirteen-year-old surfer Bethany Hamilton at Ha‘ena,
each year. In addition, oldtimers and newcomers both Hawaii, in October 2003. Hamilton, who lost her left
are always ready to push the limit further and further to arm just below the shoulder, subsequently appeared on
encounter new risk. the Oprah Winfrey Show and gave interviews to Glam-
our magazine and Entertainment Tonight.
David Levinson
Contrary to these images and stories, surfing is a rel-
See also Adventure Education; Youth Culture and Sports; atively safe sport. The average surfer incurs four injuries
X Games (deep cuts, sprains, fractures, etc.) every one thousand
days of riding. Death from shark attacks or drowning is
rare. Of course, this rarity, paradoxically, draws media
Further Reading attention that fuels the popular imagination of a wildly
Humphreys, D. (1997, June). Shredheads go mainstream? Snow- dangerous pastime. Such media attention was drawn
boarding and alternative youth.” International Review for the Soci-
ology of Sport, 32(2), 147–160. during the mid-1990s when a spate of accidents caused
Le Breton, D. (1991). Passions du risque. Paris: Metailie. the deaths of three experienced big-wave riders. Mark
Le Breton D. (2003). Conduites à risque. Des jeux de mort au jeu de
vivre. Paris: PUF.
Foo drowned in December 1994 at Maverick’s. A few
Lyng, S. (1990). Edgework: A social psychological analysis of voluntary years earlier he had prophetically warned that “the ulti-
risk taking. American Journal of Sociology, 95(4). mate thrill” could extract “the ultimate price.” Donnie
McMillen, R. (1998). Xtreme Sports. Houston, TX: Gulf.
Mitchell, R. G., Jr. (1983). Mountain experience. The psychology and so- Solomon died at the shrine of big-wave riding at
ciology of adventure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Waimea Bay, Hawaii, in December 1995. Todd Chesser
Rinehart, R. E., & Sydnor, S. (Eds.) (2003). To the extreme. Alternative
sports, inside and out. New York: State University of New York
drowned at Outside Alligators, a reef west of Waimea
Press. Bay, in February 1997.
Todhunter, A. (1998). Fall of the phantom lord: Climbing and the face Although surfing’s safety record may belie the ap-
of fear. New York: Doubleday.
Tomlinson, J. (1996) Extreme sports; the illustrated guide to maximum pellation “extreme,” both surfing and mainstream cul-
adrenaline thrills. New York: Smithmark. ture bestow the highest prestige on those who ride the
biggest and thickest waves and who risk smashed
bones, torn ligaments, burst ear drums, and torn flesh.
Indeed, these surfers undoubtedly do play in an ex-
Extreme Surfing treme realm.
Wipeout
I n the popular imagination every surfer confronts
danger: collapsing mountains of water, violent tur-
bulence, razor-sharp coral heads, boulder-strewn reefs,
All surfers intrinsically know that, in the words of surf-
film cinematographer Bruce Brown, “it takes a lot of
frenzied sharks. News items reinforce these images. A guts to go out there when the waves are breaking big-
photo of Jay Moriarty free-falling down the face of a ger than a house.” Yet many of the dangers are not im-
6-meter wave at Maverick’s off northern California in mediately apparent, especially from the shore. The most
Ingenuity, plus courage, plus work,

equals miracles. ■ BOB RICHARDS
dangerous waves break on reefs, the depth of which is mistake—catching an edge of the board, losing bal-
not always easy to decipher. Former world champion ance, hesitating—means being catapulted into the im-
Nat Young points to the acute sense of alertness and pact zone.
skill needed in this environment. The surfer must focus When riding at a new location, a surfer must care-
well ahead and look for shallow water: “Sometimes it’s fully establish the precise points where the waves break,
a boil in the face of the wave, at others there’s no sign the take-off zones, and the areas where one can sit
at all, the wave just sucks out revealing dry reef.” safely. In 1964 Greg Noll and Mike Strange spent eight
Deep holes formed by coral polyps also pose dan- hours in the water establishing the take-off location at
gers, as pioneer big-wave rider Jose Angel can testify. Outside (third reef) Pipeline. Regardless of what hap-
Surfing at the famed Pipeline, Hawaii, in 1967, Angel pens in the surf, getting to where the waves break and
wiped out and was “blasted” into a pitch-black vertical returning to shore can be hazardous. Noll and Strange
cavern with an overhanging lip. Disoriented, he spent an hour just to get through the shorebreak and
searched in vain for the exit. Angel escaped only when lateral current on the day they ventured to Outside
a subsequent wave broke with particular ferocity and Pipeline. They were dumped back on the sand four
unleashed a burst of energy that literally ejected him times before making it to safety. Returning to the shore
from a potential coral coffin. after wiping out in 7.6-meter surf at Makaha, Hawaii,
Being caught in the impact zone of a powerful wave in December 1969 was a life-threatening journey for
and churned by its turbulence are no less hazardous Noll. After a battering in the impact zone, the exhausted
than being pitched into a serrated coral head. Big-wave Noll had to swim to shore across a raging lateral current
rider Greg Noll compares entanglement in a collapsing and through a horrendous shorebreak.
7.6-meter wall of water with “going off Niagara Falls Tow-in surfing has radically redefined big-wave rid-
without the barrel.” He estimates the chances of drowning. Using finely tuned jet skis, devotees tow each other,
ing at “about 80 percent.” After wiping out at Maverick’s like water skiers, into ocean waves that jack up and
in 1994, Moriarty spoke of having his “skin ripped from produce 12-, 15-, and 18-meter faces. As well as narrow
my bones.” However, Moriarty also considered himself surfboards with cushioned straps for the feet, tow-in
fortunate: “Luckily the force of the wave pushed me so equipment includes rescue sleds, life vests, and hospital-
deep that I struck the reef and realized which way was grade oxygen. Partnerships and assistance are key in-
up. Otherwise I don’t think I would have made it to the gredients in tow-in surfing. Surfers in the impact zones
surface to get a suck of air before the next wave hit.” of 12-meter-plus waves depend on partners risking their
Briece Taerea was not so fortunate. Confronted by a own lives and equipment to drag them clear. Of course,
7.6-meter wall of water at Teahupoo in April 2000 he sometimes partners magnify the danger. When Michael
tried to push through its face. However, the wave at the Willis’s partner arrived to pluck him from the shadow
world’s most challenging and dangerous reef was too of a dark horizon at Pe’ahi, Hawaii, the ski stalled. As
thick. It sucked him backward and rammed him into the the thunder descended upon the pair, the drifting tow
marine floor, breaking his neck and back. Taerea died rope wrapped around Willis’s leg. The wave crashed
two days later. over the pair, and Willis, now “tied” to the ski, was
dragged 400 meters with the rope progressively tight-
Impact Zone ening and cutting deeper into his leg muscle. Willis
Surfers dance in the jaws of the impact zone. Catching spent two weeks on crutches.
a wave requires the surfer to paddle in front, and some- Nearly all surf conditions incorporate some element
times directly underneath, the breaking lip; the slightest of the extreme by virtue of the dynamic nature of the
EXTREME SURFING 545
environment. However, in their quest for prestige, surf- Jarratt, P. (1997). Mr. Sunset: The Jeff Hakman story. London: Gen X
ing’s warrior caste ventures further into the extreme of Publishing.
Jenkins, B. (1997). Laird Hamilton: 20th century man. Australian
bigger and thicker waves. Surfer’s Journal, 1(1), 84–121.
Kirsop, R. (1991). Sunset Beach. In N. Carroll (Ed.), The next wave: A
Douglas Booth survey of world surfing (pp. 130–131). Sydney, Australia: Angus &
Robertson.
Long, R., & Doherty, S. (2004, March). Code brown. Tracks, 18–35.
Noll, G., & Gabbard, A. (1989). Da bull: Life over the edge. Berkeley,
CA: North Atlantic Books.
Further Reading Renneker, M., Star, K., & Booth, G. (1993). Sick surfers ask the surf
Aeder, K. L. (2000, September). Harsh realm. Tracks, 63–64. docs & Dr. Geoff. Palo Alto, CA: Bull Publishing.
Duane, D. (2004). The ride of his life. Men’s Journal, 13(6), 64–70. Warshaw, M. (2000). Maverick’s: The story of big-wave surfing. San
Foo, M. (1991). Waimea Bay. In N. Carroll (Ed.), The next wave: A sur- Francisco: Chronicle Books.
vey of world surfing (pp. 144–145). Sydney, Australia: Angus & Warshaw, M. (2004). The encyclopedia of surfing. Camberwell, Aus-
Robertson. tralia: Penguin Books.
Grigg, R. (1998). Big surf, deep dives and the islands. Honolulu, HI: Young, N. (1998). Nat’s Nat and that’s that. Angourie, Australia:
Editions Limited. Nymboida Press.
Facility Management
Facility Naming Rights
Falconry
Family Involvement
Fan Loyalty
Fantasy Sports
Facility Management
Fashion
Feminist Perspective S ports facilities are not a new phenomenon; they
existed in some of the earliest civilizations: The
Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, and Romans used sports
Fencing facilities to benefit the well-being of citizens and to
Fenway Park maintain military readiness. These facilities were the
forerunner of today’s sports facilities.
Finland
As sports are becoming more popular throughout
Fishing the world facilities are constantly being constructed and
Fitness renovated to cater to increased demand. During the
past three decades in the United States more than one
Fitness Industry
hundred large stadiums have been built to accommo-
Floorball date the increasing attendance at college and profes-
Flying sional sporting events. Throughout the world stadiums
and other sports facilities have been built, including
Folk Sports
Wembley Stadium (England, 126,000 capacity), Soldier
Footbag Field (United States, 102,000), Hamden Park (Scot-
Football land, 149,500), Melbourne Cricket Ground (Australia,
116,000), Maracana Municipal Stadium (Brazil,
Football, Canadian 200,000), and the world’s largest stadium, Strahov Sta-
Football, Flag dium (Czech Republic, 240,000).
Football, Gaelic The Olympic Games have played a major role in the
growth of sports facilities. Every four years since the re-
Foro Italico vival of the modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, with
Foxhunting the exception of World War I (1914–1918) and World
War II (1939–1945), host countries have constructed
France
and renovated sports facilities to stage this major sport-
Franchise Relocation ing event. In 2004 the Olympic Games returned to
Free Agency Greece. Thirty-eight venues were used for the games;
sixteen were new venues, and twenty-two were reno-
vated or improved venues.
The trend in sports facility construction is to offer
F
private management is one way to help facilities be-
come profit centers.
Private management companies such as SMG, Cen-
quality and safety as opposed to quantity. Facilities are tre Management, and Leisure Management Interna-
being designed to hold fewer spectators and to provide tional usually are contracted to provide services for the
more amenities. An example of this trend is the new entire facility. The largest facility management company,
soccer stadiums built in Portugal to host the 2004 Eu- SMG, manages 156 facilities for both public and private
ropean Soccer Championships. Ten world-class stadi- clients throughout the world. Unless a facility is booked
ums were built or renovated, including the Stadium of for more than two hundred days per year, hiring full-
Light (Lisbon, capacity 65,647), the Stadium of the time event labor is not cost effective. Cost effectiveness
Dragon (Porto, 50,948), the Dom Afonso Henriques is also subject to such factors as facility size, occupancy,
Stadium (Guimaraes, 29,865), and the Jose Alvalade event type, and concessionaires’ capital investment in
Stadium (Lisbon, 50,466, with a cinema multiplex, equipment (IAAM 1997). When the facility owner uses
bowling alley, health club, and shopping mall). Many of in-house management, outside contractual agreements
the other stadiums have capacities ranging from twenty- are usually arranged for many services. Three basic areas
five thousand to fifty thousand people. of contracted services are service, equipment, and sup-
No longer do sports facilities operate in isolation; plies; these areas may include services such as crowd
what happens in one country can directly affect the op- management, security, maintenance, and concessions.
erations of a facility in another. Facility managers every- Regardless of the operational methods used, facility
where have to address acts of violence, terrorism, and management can determine the success or failure of a
other issues. They also must maximize revenue while sports facility (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon 1996).
providing patrons with a positive experience and en-
suring their safety. Patrons expect safety, comfort, and Facility Manager or Team
excellent service, and facility management must deliver. Sports facilities are normally operated by a manage-
ment team headed by a general manager, chief executive
Management Options officer, or executive director. Other members of the
Sports facilities can be operated by their owners, by pri- team are responsible for marketing, public relations,
mary or anchor tenants, by not-for-profit organizations, advertising, and operations. The size and function of
or by private management companies. Private manage- the facility determine the size of the management team
ment is a growing trend. Many publicly owned and (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon 1996). Tradition-
managed sports facilities have been losing money, and ally a facility manager has four functions: planning,
547
organizing, leading, and evaluating. These functions sponsible for booking and scheduling must have sales
give rise to the overall strategic management process. and marketing skills. The trend is to develop multipur-
Therefore, the facility manager or facility management pose rather than single-purpose facilities. Multipurpose
team must be competent in the many areas involved in facilities are cost effective because they can be used for
operating a sports facility. a variety of activities. However, most facilities cannot
survive financially if only the dates played by the home
Operational Procedures team are booked. The facility must be marketed and
Regardless of the type or size of a facility, operational sold for the remainder of the open dates. The facility
procedures guide the facility staff and employees and manager must establish long-term relationships and a
can reduce confusion. However, before an organization sound reputation to bring new business and return
establishes procedures it must be aware of the factors business to the facility. In addition, booking and sched-
that influence the operations of the facility, such as na- uling multiple events require close attention to move-in
tional, state, and local codes and regulations; if these and move-out times and dates, especially with back-to-
are not complied with the facility could face legal ac- back events. Great consideration must be given to the
tion. Each organization establishes its own procedures time required to prepare the facility for different types
regarding personnel and management, and most or- of events, such as the time required to change the floor
ganizations create procedures regarding signage, equip- from basketball use to ice hockey use (IAAM 1997).
ment, safety, animals, food and beverage, and services.
All operational procedures should be in writing and Financial Management
communicated clearly to all personnel. Financial management is the process of planning, or-
The facility manager or team also must update oper- ganizing, directing, controlling, and analyzing all as-
ational procedures. In reviewing and revising contractual pects that affect the financial performance of a facility.
agreements and policy manuals, the manager or team Although a facility manager may not be directly in-
must use input gathered from support staff, patrons, volved in the accounting process of the facility, he or she
customers, promoters, and clients through regular feed- is responsible for the day-to-day decisions that depend
back or evaluation mechanisms. At the 2004 North on accuracy and an understanding of financial infor-
American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) an- mation. A facility manager needs a basic knowledge of
nual conference in Atlanta, Georgia, Jamie Rootes, sen- the tools involved (computer software) and an ability to
ior vice president of the Houston Texans, described how accurately interpret financial information. A facility
he and his staff use digital cameras on the day of an manager must be competent in budgeting, cost con-
event to document changes that should be made to any trol, methodology, and negotiation skills.
operations and how these changes are discussed the fol-
lowing day and implemented immediately. Housekeeping and Maintenance
Housekeeping and maintenance are two of the most im-
Booking and Scheduling portant responsibilities of the facility manager. They
Booking and scheduling play an integral role in the op- keep a facility in a clean and safe condition so that cus-
eration of a sports facility. A thorough knowledge of the tomers have a positive experience. The appearance of a
client’s requirements and the facility and an under- sports facility greatly affects the public’s image of the fa-
standing of the physical constraints of the facility are es- cility. A housekeeping and maintenance operation can
sential to the economic success of a facility. Therefore, keep a facility looking like new and assist in maintain-
booking and scheduling are far more complex than ing its competitiveness with newer and more expensive
merely logging an event in an open date. The person re- facilities. The facility manager must implement a com-
FACILITY MANAGEMENT 549
One job of the modern

facilities manager is to
arrange for product
advertising throughout
the facility as shown
here in Fenway Park
in 2004.
prehensive plan for house-

keeping and maintenance, tak-
ing into consideration facility
type, location, usage level,
types of groups using the fa-
cility, available labor, and rev-
enue availability. This plan
should include guidelines con-
cerning purpose, operation,
storage, staffing, inventory, repair, and safety (Mul- operating procedures to decrease and deal with risk
rooney and Styles 2004). An aggressive housekeeping (Mulrooney and Styles 2004).
and maintenance plan creates a positive public image of After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 in
the facility, which in turn increases usage of the facility. the United States, facilities, regardless of size and usage,
must have comprehensive risk-management procedures
Concessions and Merchandise for emergencies. Security has become a major priority
Food and beverages are concessions, whereas licensed for sports facilities. Sporting events such as the
goods and novelties are merchandise. These products Olympics and world championships are global events
can create a tremendous amount of revenue for a facil- and have become targets of terrorist groups.
ity. The facility manager has many options in attending In addition, managers should have procedures to
to these products: outside full-contract service food, manage alcohol use, violence, and crowds. Most prob-
novelty, and merchandising companies; an in-house lems with violence and crowds at sports facilities in-
service; or a combination of the two. Regardless of the volve the excessive consumption of alcohol. At a
choice, the facility manager must have adequate knowl- sportsmanship and fan behavior summit in Dallas,
edge of sales projections, labor costs, and insurance Texas, in 2003, academics and professionals discussed
costs and the ability to compute total expenditures. the problems and issues of alcohol consumption and its
Most patrons know that they will pay more for food and effect on fan behavior, particularly relating to postgame
other products at a sporting event; therefore, the prod- activities. However, the problems are not unique to the
ucts and the sales staff must be of the highest quality. United States. Recently at the European soccer cham-
Patrons are becoming more demanding of concessions pionships in Portugal, many fans were arrested and de-
and other products, and the facility management team ported for being violent and staging riots; in all cases
must ensure that its services and sales meet demands. alcohol was a major factor. Professionals recommend
that all sports facilities implement TEAM (techniques
Risk Management and for effective alcohol management) recommendations
Crowd Management for the training of staff and the sales of alcohol.
Risk management limits exposure to harm in a facility. The world has witnessed many acts of violence at
The most common risk that a facility manager tries to sports events. A terrorist attack on Israeli Olympians at
limit is injuries to patrons. The facility manager should the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics left six dead. More
implement a risk-management plan to include identifi- than one hundred people were injured when a bomb
cation, assessment, treatment, and creation of standard exploded at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. In
The arched entrance to the ancient Olympic Stadium in Greece, 2003.
1993 the tennis star Monica Seles was stabbed by a fan Customer Service
at a tournament. In May 2001 at a soccer stadium in Customer service is probably the most important re-
Ghana, fighting broke out among opposing fans. The sponsibility of facility management, encompassing all
police responded by firing tear gas into the crowd; the the services and operations provided by the facility.
crowd panicked; 126 fans died. More than seventy Providing good customer service can be the difference
thousand fans had been admitted into a stadium built between mediocre management and exceptional man-
to hold forty-five thousand. agement and can affect the return rate of patrons. To
One of the worst sports crowd disasters in Europe oc- provide good customer service a facility must have pro-
curred in 1989 on a soccer field in Hillsborough, Eng- cedures for staff training, recruitment, customer com-
land. At the time, many stadiums, to prevent fans from plaints, employee motivation, internal and external
running onto the field or throwing objects onto the communication, and chain of command. Research has
field, had high chain-link fences between the seats and shown that the most important element in delivering
their playing field. However, to admit the large crowd good customer service is a positive working environ-
outside, Hillsborough police opened a second set of ad- ment for employees. Employees who feel good about
mittance gates that did not have turnstiles. The entrance their working environment and have a positive attitude
of the fans at the rear caused the fans at the front to be are more likely to pass that attitude on to customers.
crushed against the fence with no means of escape.
Ninety-six people were killed. Grim Realities
Violence, other crowd problems, and terrorist acts The 2002 National Football League Super Bowl was
can occur at any event. The facility manager must make classified as a “national security event,” which meant the
patrons feel safe; therefore, the manager must create and federal government took control of security. The Secret
implement risk-management and crowd-management Service, along with the FBI and other elements of the
procedures. federal government, devised a comprehensive security
FACILITY NAMING RIGHTS 551
plan. Since then each year the Super Bowl has been
staged using high level security, with Homeland Secu-
rity assisting local and regional security forces. Security
Facility Naming
for the 2005 Super Bowl involved local, state, and fed-
eral agencies, including the FBI, Coast Guard, and U.S
Rights
Navy. Because of the high-tech security technology that
has been put in place since September 11th, 2001, the
Homeland Security Department was able to observe
T he typical professional sport facility is no longer
named after a geographic area, prominent individ-
uals, or the local team. Facility naming rights refers to
and monitor the event through the department’s Home- the relatively recent trend in sport of naming, for a fee,
land Security Operations Center. an established or new athletic facility after a corporate
At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens the nation sponsor.
of Greece was placed on the highest state of alert, with Every sport organization has seen an increase in the
more than seventy thousand Athens city police (ten se- need to generate revenues. Expenses such as player and
curity personnel for each athlete), sixteen thousand mil- coaching salaries, scholarships, travel, insurance, and
itary police officers, U.S. special forces, North Atlantic equipment have in many cases increased dramatically
Treaty Organization (NATO) personnel, and a com- over the past ten years. Traditional revenue sources such
plex security network that cost $312 million, including as ticket sales, fund raising, media rights, and licensed
an airship with the latest security technology to spy on merchandise often have not kept pace with escalating
the people of an ancient city in modern times. Greece expenses. Given this financial climate, some sport or-
is one of the safest countries in Europe. However, it sud- ganizations are “forced” to sell the name of their facility
denly had a security bill of $1.5 billion. These are the to the highest bidder in order to maintain financial
times we live in, and facility management has to be solvency.
able to adapt. Whether the event is a high school bas- A corporation invests in a sport naming-rights agree-
ketball game, a Friday night football game, a commu- ment in an attempt to link its name with a sport enter-
nity tennis tournament, or a national or international prise and avoid advertising clutter. Rather than simply
event, management plays a major role in the success of placing a sign in a sport facility or purchasing advertis-
the event and the facility. ing during a media broadcast of the event, a naming-
rights partnership gives the sponsoring company a
Alvy Styles and Aaron Mulrooney
platform to increase its visibility in the local, and po-
tentially national, market. The naming-rights holder
Further Reading ideally is viewed not only as a sponsor of the team or
Ammon, R., Jr., Southall, R. M., & Blair, D. A. (2004). Sport facility
sporting event, but also as an integral component of the
management: Organizing events and mitigating risks. Morgantown, community.
WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Berlonghi, A. (1990). The special event risk management manual. Dana
Point, CA: Author. Naming Rights History
Farmer, P. J., Mulrooney, A. L., & Ammon, R. (1996). Sport facility Prior to 1990 the only facilities in major North Ameri-
planning and management. Morgantown, WV: Pepper Press.
International Association of Auditorium Managers (IAAM). (1997).
can professional sport named after a corporation or
Course materials from the unpublished proceedings of the School product were Arco Arena (Sacramento Kings), Busch
for Public Assembly Facility Management, Irving, TX: Stadium (St. Louis Cardinals), Great Western Forum
Mulrooney, A., & Styles, A. (2004). Managing the facility. In B. L.
Parkhouse (Ed.), The management of sport: Its foundation and ap- (Los Angeles Lakers/Los Angeles Kings), Rich Stadium
plication (pp. 137–163). New York: McGraw Hill. (Buffalo Bills), and Wrigley Field (Chicago Cubs). The
Van Dalen, D., & Bennett, B. (1971). A world history of physical edu-
cation: Cultural, philosophical, & comparative. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
remaining teams in Major League Baseball (MLB), Na-
Prentice Hall. tional Basketball League (NBA), National Football
As a nation we are dedicated to keeping physically fit–and

parking as close to the stadium as possible. ■ BILL VAUGHAN
League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL) dition broadcasters often would ignore the name
played in facilities named after individuals (Brendan change and refer to the previous name of the facility or
Byrne Arena, RFK Stadium, etc.), geographic areas simply not mention the facility name when describing
(Texas Stadium, Three Rivers Stadium, etc.), or the local the location of an event. For many corporations naming
team (Dodger Stadium, Yankee Stadium). a new facility became a better public relations option
In 1995 a variety of MLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL than eliciting negative community reactions associated
teams decided to sell the naming rights to their existing with renaming an older building.
facilities or to attach corporate monikers to facilities Teams receiving money in naming-rights deals also
under construction or about to be opened. Although the experienced occasional hardship from their corporate
Buffalo Bills had sold a twenty-five-year naming-rights partners. Occasionally, naming-rights partners were
deal to Rich Products Corporation in 1973 for $1.5 purchased by other companies (e.g., in Philadelphia,
million, most of the 1995 deals were for at least $1 mil- CoreStates was purchased by First Union), which cre-
lion a year. Facilities in Boston (Fleet Center, 15 years, ated confusion for the team, fans, and media. In Buf-
$30 million), Indianapolis (RCA Dome, 10 years, $10 falo, when HSBC Holdings purchased Marine Midland
million), San Francisco (3Com Park, 5 years, $4 mil- Bank, the name of the Buffalo Sabres arena was not im-
lion), and Seattle (Key Arena, 15 years, $15 million) mediately changed to reflect the sale, resulting in liti-
were all signed in 1995. After 1995 terms of facility gation. Worse than confusion or litigation was the
naming-rights deals rapidly increased, with facilities backlash that occurred when a corporate partner be-
such as Phillips Arena in Atlanta (1999 opening, 20 haved poorly. In Houston the Enron financial scandal
years, $168 million), PSINet Stadium in Baltimore reflected poorly on MLB’s Astros as Enron was the
(1999 opening, 20 years, $105 million), and the Sta- naming-rights partner for their new stadium. The Astros
bles Center in Los Angeles (1999 opening, 20 years, eventually had to replace Enron with Minute Maid as a
$100 million) exceeding the $5 million per year mark. corporate naming partner.
As the economy of the United States slowed during the
early part of the twenty-first century, new naming rights Future of Naming Rights Agreements
deals continued to be consummated, but typically they Despite the occasional concerns of teams and partici-
averaged from $2 million to $3 million a year for pating companies, naming-rights agreements will likely
twenty-year to thirty-year year periods. Despite the de- remain a part of sport in the near future. Sport organ-
crease in the value of some naming-rights agreements, izations are constantly in search of revenue, and cor-
the popularity of sponsoring facilities continues to porations are looking for ways to reach potential
grow, and as the economy improves, the financial terms consumers, creating a situation from which both parties
of agreements should again approach and then exceed can benefit.
the $5 million per year. As the majority of American professional teams have
had their facilities named after a corporation, the future
Concerns in the Marketplace will likely see intercollegiate, recreational, and, in some
Despite the rapid increase in naming rights prices and cases, interscholastic sport organizations selling the
popularity in American professional sport after 1995, rights to the name of their facilities to the highest bid-
many concerns still exist. Corporations changing the der. As schools and municipal recreational programs are
names of established facilities occasionally experienced primarily operated for education and community serv-
a backlash as fans resented the renaming of places such ice, initial reaction to widespread use of corporate
as Candlestick Park (3Com), Anaheim Stadium (Edison names on these types of sport buildings may be nega-
Field), and Riverfront Stadium (Cinergy Field). In ad- tive. However, given the financial needs of these sport
FALCONRY 553
enterprises, and the strong desire of companies to in- thousand years old, falconry is one of the oldest of field
crease sales and profits, these agreements are likely to or hunting sports. Using birds of prey as an aid to hunt-
be inevitable. ing probably developed simultaneously in a number of
ancient cultures in Asia. Early in its evolution it became
Mark S. Nagel
an important cultural practice and recreation, becoming
See also Sponsorship far more significant than an aid to the provision of food.
Falconry was introduced to Europe by the nomadic
tribes from the steppes (usually level and treeless tracts
Further Reading in southeastern Europe or Asia) of Russia, and Attila the
Friedman, A. (1997). Naming rights deals. Chicago: Team Marketing Hun was a keen falconer, bringing his falcons, hawks,
Report.
Greenberg, M. J., & Gray, J. T. (1996). The stadium game. Milwaukee, and eagles with him on his military conquests. The
WI: National Sport Law Institute of Marquette Law School. practice spread throughout Christendom after it had be-
Howard, D. R., & Crompton, J. L. (2004). Financing sport (2nd ed.).
Morgantown, WV: FIT.
come important in the Islamic world and became cod-
Kaydo, C., & Trusdell, B. (1997). Stadiums “r” us: Visibility is the key ified and formalized into both a sport and mark of
reason that companies are clamoring to sponsor stadiums. Sales and social status.
Marketing Management, 149(1), 74–75.
Kovatch, K. (1998, April 27). What’s in a name? Publicity for compa- In Britain, France, the Low Countries (Belgium,
nies, big bucks for owners. SportBusiness Journal, 1(1), 22. Netherlands, Luxembourg), the Germanic states, Spain,
McCarthy, L. M., & Irwin, R. (1998). Names in lights: Corporate pur-
chase of sport facility naming rights. The Cyber Journal of Sport Mar-
and Italy from the sixth until the seventeenth century
keting, 2(3). Retrieved November 26, 2004, from http://www. the social significance of falconry is difficult to overes-
ausport.gov.au/fulltext/1998/cjsm/v2n3/mccarthyirwin23.htm timate. Laws protecting birds of prey were enacted, con-
Mitchell, E. (1999, March 1–7). For sale: Yanks’ naming rights. Sport-
Business Journal, 1(45), 1, 43. ventions on ownership enforced, taxes and ransoms
Noll, R. G., & Zimbalist, A. (1997). Sports, jobs, and taxes. Washing- were paid with falcons and hawks. Indeed, a falconer
ton, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
and his boy were important members of any aristo-
crat’s retinue. The Bayeux Tapestry of France depicts
the Saxon king Harold with a hawk and certain Nor-
man noblemen with hawks and falcons departing for
Falconry the invasion of Britain under William the Conqueror.
Nor was the practice confined to landowners; the use of
F alconry is the sport of using trained birds of prey to

hunt wild quarry in its natural habitat. In the Eng-
lish language falconry has also been known as “hawk-
hawks was not an uncommon method of obtaining
food for the pot for all classes.
Two distinct cultures and traditions of falconry met
ing.” Historically people practiced falconry throughout during the Euro-Christian crusades to wrest control of
the Old World from the Orient and the Indian subcon- the Holy Land from the Saracens. King Richard I of
tinent through central Asia and the Middle East to north England halted one of his campaigns to fly his falcons
Africa and Europe. People now practice falconry on all near Jaffa in modern Israel. Moreover, Richard sent an
continents except Antarctica. North America has a emissary to Melik el Aadile (a military commander
strong tradition of falconry that developed during the under the Muslim leader Saladin) to request a supply of
twentieth century. food for his hawks. That Richard and Melik had been
involved in several long and bloody battles seems to
History have been unimportant in this respect.
First recorded in early Chinese literature four thousand Legislation under King Henry VII of England for-
years ago and in Syrian bas-relief thought to be three bade the taking of eggs from the nests of hawks and
falcons or of any bird that may be used for hunting. This bers so as to render it too rare a quarry. In the manner
decree was followed by King Henry VIII’s decree pro- of former times a group of men and women on horse-
hibiting the taking of any species of bird that may be the back followed the flight of the falcon, an undertaking
quarry of hawks or falcons from the land that was set that demanded open unfenced countryside that was in-
aside for royal hunting. The penalties for conviction of creasingly difficult to find in Europe of the late eigh-
such offenses were terms of imprisonment. During the teenth and nineteenth centuries.
reign of King James I of England (James IV of Scotland) Falconry survived into the industrial age, carried in
restrictions forbade the use of longbows, crossbows, Britain by Colonel Thomas Thornton, a wealthy eccen-
and firearms to kill game. These restrictions were to tric and self-publicist. Thornton of Thornville Royal in
preserve stocks for trained hawks and falcons. Falcon- Yorkshire was born during the mid-eighteenth century
ers were given dispensation, however, to shoot small and educated at the historic English public school Char-
birds to obtain hawk food. The preceding illustrates terhouse. He was a fanatical devotee of all field sports,
that falconry was significant enough to feature in late including falconry, fox and stag hunting, coursing (the
medieval legislation. pursuit of running game with dogs that follow by sight
Some scholars have claimed that the advent of the instead of by scent), and shooting. He followed the ex-
firearm pushed falconry from the center of the hunting ample set by the medieval aristocracy and kept birds of
scene. Although this advent was evidently contributory, prey, mainly falcons, on a considerable scale. Thornton
as was the enclosure of open countryside, far greater in 1772 was instrumental in the formation of the Con-
changes actually spelled out the sport’s fall from popu- federate Hawks of Great Britain, a club for subscription-
larity. Having become so closely linked with social sta- paying falconers. The notion of clubs was developing at
tus—falconry was truly the sport of kings and the the time in numerous sports and recreations. The Con-
nobility—when the social and religious upheavals of federate Hawks of Great Britain soon became known as
the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries occurred in the “Falconer’s Club” and was initially managed by
Europe the sport was rejected because of its social con- Thornton.
notations. King Charles II was the last British monarch The Falconer’s Club lost its most influential land-
to actively participate in falconry. In 1688 he conferred owner when Lord Berners died in 1838, and his death
the office of hereditary grand falconer upon the duke of brought the club close to closure. However, the re-
St. Albans. This title survives today merely as a sinecure maining enthusiasts took their sport abroad. The heath
(an office or position that requires little or no work); no and downland of southern Netherlands were chosen.
duke of St. Albans has practiced falconry since the early The open and unfenced countryside was ideal for flights
nineteenth century, although a token mews (enclosures) at the relatively plentiful heron. The Falconer’s Club
of a few falcons were kept until 1867. After Charles’s was renamed the “Loo Hawking Club” in 1839. The
death the British monarchy ceased to practice falconry, sport in the Netherlands was of high quality, and the
and it lost its already diminished popularity in court so- club enjoyed considerable success.
ciety and the landed nobility. By the middle of the sev- In an echo of days long past the club was to receive
enteenth century the golden age of falconry was over. royal patronage from members of the Dutch royal fam-
However, falconry did not die out completely. Within ily: The Prince of Orange, Prince Alexander, and Prince
a hundred years or so sport falconry began to take on Henry were all to become members. Indeed, the name
the form that we recognize today, with branches of the of the club was altered to the “Royal Loo Club.” Despite
sport hunting specific quarries in a specialized man- providing outstanding sport throughout the 1840s the
ner. Rook and heron hawking became popular after club was short-lived, and when its royal patronage was
the traditionally hunted red kite had declined in num- withdrawn in 1853, it was closed.
FALCONRY 555
A bird of prey. Source: istockphoto.com/RMAX.
During the 1850s and 1860s none of the traditional then well established, and the OHC, as it came to be
grand hawking establishments and few active falconers known, met in March and April on Salisbury Plain for
existed in the British Isles. A small number, such as rook hawking, in August in Perthshire or Caithness for
Francis Salvin and Lt. Col. E. Delme-Radcliffe, kept a grouse, and in Norfolk in October for partridges.
professional to train and manage their hawks and fal- Game hawking became the pinnacle of the sport.
cons. Falconry continued on a more limited scale than Game preservation for shooting actually facilitated this
had been seen for many years. During the mid- branch of falconry by providing the raw material of the
nineteenth century amateur falconers took over the flight: the partridge and pheasant.
mantle of the sport. The notion of the amateur as it Lark hawking with merlins and blackbird hawking
came to be understood at this time fit the manifestation with sparrowhawks survived the transformation from
of contemporary Victorian falconry. medieval to modern society almost unaltered. The
In 1864 another British club was formed along much goshawk continued to provide valued sport and addi-
the same lines as previous ones, with club-owned fal- tions to the larder with flights at rabbit and pheasant.
cons, a professional falconer, and other such regalia. The OHC maintained its control of the sport in the
The Old Hawking Club began with a membership of United Kingdom. All hawking was suspended during
seven, the majority of whom were titled or held military World War I, and the club’s hawks were distributed
rank. The notion of seasons for specific quarry was by among its members, with some going to Regents Park
Zoo. This break in continuity signaled the end for the dominantly bird hunters with long, pointed wings and
OHC. Many of its older members were too infirm to comparatively short tails. They are trained to fly, either
continue hawking after the war, and many younger to a pitch high above the falconer’s head from which
ones had been killed in the trenches. The war was a wa- they stoop at quarry flushed by the falconer or by
tershed for British society, and previous ways of living trained dogs below them, or at the bolt, straight off the
were difficult to resurrect after 1918. With a reduced falconer’s fist at fleeing quarry. These falcons require
membership the OHC could not afford to rent good considerable open spaces unrestricted by trees, hedges,
quality ground over which to hawk, and in any event fences, or buildings. The second discipline is training
game hawking was not an activity that lent itself to and flying of the true hawks and some members of the
club demands, rook hawking was all but discontinued, buzzard family. These birds are raptors with shorter,
and the club folded. For sixty-two years the Old Hawk- more rounded wings and often quite long tails; they are
ing Club had been the mainstay of British falconry, but far more catholic in their quarries and will catch mam-
it was essentially a Victorian institution and could not mals as well as some bird species. These hawks are
adapt to the change in circumstances that the first quar- flown straight off the fist at quarry after it is located, and
ter of the twentieth century had brought about. they can be used in rather more enclosed country than
In 1927, at the invitation of George Blackall- can the true falcons.
Simonds, a falconers’ feast was held in London. At this Falconers also use some species of eagle and a few
meeting of twelve gentlemen falconers the British Fal- species of owl; however, these are comparative rarities
coners’ Club was formed. Blackall-Simonds was elected in the sport, with the exception of some central Euro-
president and Sir Theodore Cook was elected honorary pean countries and some areas in Asia where large ea-
secretary. The tradition of organized falconry in Britain gles are the traditional raptor used.
had continued unbroken, except for ten years during the Trained birds of prey wear straps known as “jesses”
mid-nineteenth century, since 1772. The British Fal- on their legs to which a swivel and leash are attached.
coner’s Club is the oldest and largest of the current Eu- This gear enables falconers to maintain control of the
ropean clubs and second only in size to the North raptor prior to its release after quarry. Some species are
American Falconers Association. also hooded while being either carried or transported;
North America has developed a modern tradition of the leather hood restricts the raptor’s sight until it is to
falconry that has become the envy of falconers through- be flown or returned to its place of keeping.
out the world. This tradition has largely taken place Birds of prey can be trained only with positive rein-
since 1945, and since then U.S. falconry husbandry, forcement. No chastisement or punishment can be
training methods, and conservation have been at the used. The falconer, through skill and patience, develops
forefront of the sport. The Arab states in the Middle East a bond with the raptor that is based upon acceptance
have retained a strong tradition in flying large falcons at and reward. Hawks and falcons used in falconry are not
houbara bustards (large Old World and Australian game pets and never become such.
birds), but even this form of falconry does not match the Hunting strategies and tactics vary with the species of
excellence and opportunity found in North America raptor used and the type of quarry sought. The essence
during the early years of the twenty-first century. of the sport, however, is for the falconer to witness the
capabilities of the trained bird of prey being tested in re-
What Is Falconry? lation to a fit, wild, and natural quarry. Professor Tom
Broadly falconry falls into two distinct disciplines. The Cade of the Peregrine Fund referred to falconry as “a
first is training and flying of the true falcons: gyr, pere- specialised form of bird watching,” and this under-
grine, saker, prairie, lanner, and merlin. These are pre- standing of the sport has probably not been bettered.
FAMILY INVOLVEMENT 557
Competition ables the practitioner to encounter nature at an intimate

Although people hold competitions in various coun- and fundamental level.
tries, such competitions are not central to the sport.
Gordon T. Mellor
Being a hunting activity falconry is predominantly a
small-scale and private activity carried out by the fal-
coner, occasionally accompanied by a few friends. The Further Reading
measure of quality of the sport is in a personal assess- Cox, H., & Lascelles, G. (1892). Coursing and falconry. London: Long-
ment of the trained raptor’s performance and not in mans, Green.
Fox, H. (1995). Understanding the bird of prey. Surrey, UK: Hancock
numbers of quarry taken. The force that motivates fal- House.
coners is generally the potential that the sport provides Robinson, G. (2003). The sinews of falconry. Devon, UK: Author.
both to bond with the raptor and to witness natural pre- Salvin, F., & Brodrick, W. (1855). Falconry in the British Isles. London:
Beech House.
dation at close hand. In essence the falconer becomes, Upton, R. (1980). A bird in the hand: Celebrated falconers of the past.
for all of the training and conditioning that is inherent London: Debrettes.
in the sport, a mere spectator.
Demonstrations of flying trained birds of prey are
often given at zoos and wildlife parks. Although the
training methods used are those of falconry, these are
not demonstrations of the sport. Falconry proper is a
Family Involvement
hunting activity and does not lend itself to demonstra-
tion for paying customers. S ince the 1970s increased family involvement in
adult-organized and adult-supervised youth sports
has been accompanied by a growth in the rates of
Governing Body youngsters engaging in such sports. The family plays
Falconry is subject to national legislation wherever it is an important role in children’s introduction to and
practiced. Most countries have a club or clubs that have involvement in sports. In particular, a family’s child-
codes of conduct for falconers. Some aspects of the rearing and sporting practices, structure and socioeco-
sport may be permissible in certain parts of the world nomic status, and values and beliefs concerning youth
but not in others because of animal welfare or conser- sports influence the sports participation of youngsters.
vation legislation. The International Association of Fal- Family relations also may be affected by members’ in-
conry (IAF) represents falconry clubs from more than volvement in youth sports.
forty countries and operates throughout the world.
People wishing to take up the sport must be ac- Family Child-Rearing
quainted with their national legislation with regards to and Sports Practices
obtaining, keeping, and hunting with a bird of prey. Parents’ child-rearing practices and sporting-physical
activity practices are thought to play roles in chil-
Perspective dren’s ultimate choices of whether to become involved
Recent years have brought great changes in the nature in sports. Child-rearing practices have much to do
of the countryside and attitudes to wildlife, but falconry with what parents think about gender—what it means
has steadily increased in popularity. Now practiced by to be masculine and feminine and if and how girls
a wide range of people from differing classes and back- and boys and women and men should differ from
grounds, from both town and country, in developed as one another. Although most parents expect their sons
well as undeveloped countries, falconry is a flourishing to develop and display physical power, strength, and
field sport. This specialized form of bird watching en- skill and to become involved in sports—all hallmarks
A family snowshoeing together at Glacier Point Road, Yosemite. Source: istockphoto/Paigefalk.
of masculinity—they may not hold the same expec- As boys and girls play with these differing toys, they
tations for their daughters. receive differing feedback from family members. Because
Gender-based child-rearing practices begin at a boys more often play with toys that help develop phys-
child’s birth and are thought to set the stage for the de- ical skills or are related to sports, boys are likely to re-
velopment of sporting-physical activity interests and ceive more positive encouragement and evaluation of
skills in childhood. In many families girl infants are their physical skills. Girls, because of the nature of their
handled more carefully and delicately, whereas boy in- play, are more likely to receive positive encouragement
fants are more often moved through space and physi- and evaluation of their play with dolls and homemaking-
cally stimulated. Parents often provide their sons and related toys.The positive feedback that boys and girls re-
daughters with differing toys based on ideas about mas- ceive is rewarding and reinforces their continued play
culinity and femininity. Sons are most often given and with these differing toys. Researchers suggest that, in
expected to play with toys that aid in the development contrast to the play of girls, boys’ continued play with
of gross motor skills, such as riding toys, balls, bats, and toys that build their physical skills leads them to de-
other sports equipment. Daughters are most often given velop a greater interest in and ability with respect to
and expected to play with dolls and homemaking- sports. These gender-based child-rearing practices are
related toys, such as dollhouses, ovens, and tea sets. believed to ultimately help explain the lower rate of
These toys tend to aid in the development of fine motor sports participation among girls.
skills rather than gross motor skills. Research indicates that boys and girls who are in-
volved in sports tend to be raised in families who, at the terest in sports participation among younger siblings.
least, do not discourage physical activity. Most often Older brothers and sisters often play with their younger
youth sports participants are raised by parents who siblings, teach them sports skills, and generally serve as
value and encourage physical play and interest in athletic role models.
sports. Young athletes tend to grow up in families in
which their parents and siblings play with them, teach Family Structure and
them physical skills, and provide them with the neces- Socioeconomic Status
sary sporting equipment, instruction, and access to Family structure and socioeconomic status also influ-
sporting facilities. Research findings are mixed with re- ence youth sports involvement. The amount of time, at-
spect to which parent initiates a child’s involvement in tention, and resources that a family has to develop and
sports. Some studies indicate that the mother most support its children’s physical skills and sports interests
often plays with and provides physical skill instruction is largely dependent upon family structure and socioe-
to daughters, whereas others indicate that the father’s conomic status. Family structure consists of size, the
involvement is greater. Studies also report that fathers, presence of one or both parents, and the presence and
rather than mothers, most often play with and teach number of children. Family structure ranges from two-
physical skills to their sons. After youngsters are in- to single-parent families and from families without chil-
volved in sports, mothers, rather than fathers, provide dren or a single child to families with ten or more chil-
the consistent emotional and material support for children. A family’s socioeconomic status is based on
dren’s long-term participation. parental-guardian income, occupation, and education
Young athletes report that mothers are emotionally and generally indicates the quantity and quality of ma-
more positive and supportive than fathers. Fathers are terial resources, life experiences, and opportunities that
more often reported critically to evaluate the sports per- a family can provide to its children.
formances of their children. Mothers not only provide Little is known about how particular family struc-
more emotional support but also commit time and ef- tures may influence youth sports participation. Re-
fort to support their children’s sports involvement. searchers suggest, however, that in contrast to parents
Mothers expend considerable time transporting their of two-parent families, single working parents have
daughters and sons to and from practices and compe- more difficulty devoting the time, energy, and material
titions, attending practices and competitions, launder- resources necessary for the development of a child’s
ing uniforms, shopping for equipment and uniforms, sports interests and skills. Older children of single work-
and preparing meals for their young athletes. ing parents, particularly girls, are often relied upon to
A family’s sports practices also influence children’s supervise their younger brothers and sisters after school
sports participation.Young athletes tend to be raised in and weekends while their parent works. As a conse-
families in which one or both parents have been or are quence, these children’s opportunities for involvement
active sports participants, attend sports events, and in organized sports are often diminished.
watch televised sports. As a consequence, children often More is understood about how family socioeconomic
are provided with opportunities to learn about and par- status influences youth sports participation. Generally,
ticipate in the sports that their families are engaged in, the higher a family’s socioeconomic status, the greater
attend sports events, and watch televised sports with its leisure time and discretionary income. Parents/
their families. Some studies also report that young ath- guardians who have more time and money have the
letes are more likely than their nonathlete counterparts ability to expend considerable time and energy trans-
to have older siblings who participate in sports. These porting their children to and from practices and com-
studies report that older brothers’ and sisters’ sports petitions, serving as coaches or referees, organizing
participation often serves as a catalyst for generating in- youth sports leagues and competitions, and investing
substantial sums of money in their children’s sports ac- and accepted by their peers, become star athletes, ob-
tivities. Parents with higher socioeconomic status are tain college scholarships, and perhaps even play at the
able to purchase sports equipment, instruction, and fa- professional level.
cility usage time and to finance travel to competitions. Research suggests that parents who place a great
Thus, organized youth sports participants tend to come deal of importance on their youngsters’ success in youth
from families with higher socioeconomic status. sports may become overly involved. Overinvolvement is
often indicated when parents place too much impor-
Family Values and Beliefs tance on winning; experience guilt, embarrassment, or
about Youth Sports stress especially after poor performances or losses; or
Families of higher socioeconomic status also tend to place unreasonable pressure on their youngsters to be
more often value and believe in organized youth sports. successful athletes.
Adult-organized and adult-supervised youth sports are Research has identified two types of overinvolved
particularly valued and often considered to be “serious parents.The first type are excitable parents.They tend to
business” in wealthier communities where families can yell instructions and encouragement to players, coaches,
afford the time and money to support their children’s and referees during competitions and practices.The sec-
sports participation. In such communities parents- ond type are fanatical parents. Fanatical parents have
guardians often value youth sports as a way to ensure unrealistic expectations about their children’s ability,
that their children are supervised by adults, remain safe often believing that their children can become world-
and out of trouble, and acquire valuable social skills class athletes. Such parents often fail to listen to and un-
and cultural values, including teamwork, dedication, derstand their children’s sports participation concerns.
hard work, and responsibility. Families also value youth They may be overly controlling of their children, con-
sports as a way for their children to develop superior frontational, and preoccupied with winning and losing.
sports skills, become successful athletes, and earn col- They may see their sons’ and daughters’ sporting expe-
lege scholarships and perhaps professional sports ca- riences as a financial investment in the future.They also
reers. Organized youth sports participation is often may live vicariously through their children.
valued so greatly in neighborhoods of wealthier families Parents who live vicariously through their children
with children that it becomes not only an expectation begin to view their children as extensions of their own
and a basis for peer acceptance among the children but egos. With this view parents become dependent upon
also an indication of “appropriate” parenting among their children’s sporting success for feelings of self-
the adults. worth. When the children perform well and win, the
Generally speaking, the behavior of children is most parents feel good about themselves. When the children
often attributed to parents, and this inclination is cer- perform poorly or lose, the parents feel bad about them-
tainly true with respect to youth sports. When young- selves. This dependency upon their children’s sporting
sters are successful athletes, their parents are viewed as success for feelings of self-worth can lead parents to
good parents who have done the “right things” for their place undue pressure on themselves and their children.
children. When children fail in sports, parents are often Studies indicate that, in general, young athletes who
blamed. Thus, youth sports can serve as an arena where perceive pressure from their parents to engage in and
the worth of parents is judged, and this fact helps to ex- succeed at sports tend to be less motivated to continue
plain why many parents take youth sports so seriously. participating. Young athletes who perceive that they,
In addition, many parents may take their children’s suc- rather than their parents, are in control of sports par-
cess in youth sports so seriously because of the hopes ticipation decisions tend to enjoy, be more interested in,
they may hold that their children will be popular with and less prone to drop out of sports.
Family Involvement
Champion Woman Bronco Buster of the World (1909)
Her parents were riders, her mother being a noted Rocking Chair (well know bucking horses) when it
relay rider, and the children were given the run of the came to bucking. . . . As time went by they began to
range. Mrs. Goldie St. Clair and one of her brothers have bucking contests every Sunday afternoon. The
herded cattle on barebacked horses as soon as they exhibition ground was a wheat field, and the specta-
were able to toddle. As they grew older the children tors were neighbors . . . It was in this wheat field that
rode horses to and from school and were such daring Mrs. St. Clair got the training which was afterward to
little experts that they nearly wore them out. At last make her the champion of the world.
the father restricted the children to some mules. They Source: Cheyenne State Leader (1909, August 21).
were small mules but could match with Steamboat or
Finally, within organized youth sports a growing swimming, and tennis require extensive time, resource,
number of overly involved parents engage in violent, and energy demands.
abusive, or dishonest behavior. Officials, coaches, ath- In such sports young athletes and parents may devote
letes, spectators, and other parents often bear the brunt twenty to thirty hours per week, ten to eleven months
of this unacceptable behavior. During competition par- a year for eight to ten years. Family schedules are de-
ents may scream criticisms at coaches, referees, and signed to accommodate these time demands, and par-
even their own or other young athletes. In some cases ents and other family members are often involved in
parents physically attack others, and in the worst case transporting children to and from practices and com-
one parent was attacked and killed by another. Parents petitions, servings as coaches and officials, organizing
also have lowered the age of children on birth records leagues, and spending considerable sums of money for
to give them an age advantage in athletic competition. instruction, equipment, and travel. The cumulative effect
Behavior such as this has led some parents to reconsider of these demands can result in spousal, parent–child,
the value of having their children engage in organized and sibling conflicts over the central importance of
youth sports, and some parents prefer that their children youngsters’ sports involvement versus other family re-
participate in youth sports programs that focus on chil- sponsibilities, activities, and commitments.
dren’s overall development rather than on winning.
The Future
Family Relations As adult-organized and adult-supervised youth sports
Whereas research clearly indicates the importance of continue to grow, they are also likely to continue to be-
the family in initial and continued involvement of their come increasingly privatized. Families who desire that
children in youth sports, relatively little is known about their children participate in such sports will likely con-
how such involvement may affect family relations. “The tinue to pay increasing participation fees and expenses
family that plays together stays together” is a generally and to devote more time and energy to facilitating their
accepted North American belief. However, little, if any, youngsters’ participation. As parents devote more time,
research supports this belief with respect to family money, and energy to supporting their children’s sports
sports involvement leading to a more secure and stable participation, the prevalence of overinvolved parents
family. In fact, some evidence suggests that involvement and the pressure they place on themselves and their chil-
in highly competitive, elite youth sports may strain fam- dren to succeed may increase. The strain on family re-
ily relations. For example, elite youth sports programs lations that may occur with such increases in the time,
such as gymnastics, figure skating, ice hockey, soccer, money, and energy required to support youth sports
will be important to investigate. Lower-income families Woolger, C., & Power, T. G. (2000). Parenting and children’s intrinsic
with less discretionary income and leisure time will motivation in age group swimming. Journal of Applied Develop-
mental Psychology, 21(6), 595–607.
likely have increasing difficulty in involving and sup- Wuerth, S., Lee, M. J., & Alfermann, D. (2004). Parental involvement
porting their children in organized youth sports. Future and athletes’ career in youth sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,
5(1), 21–33.
research exploring this likely trend will be important.
Cynthia A. Hasbrook
See also Elite Sports Parents

Fan Loyalty
Further Reading
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine and
Fitness. (2000). Intensive training and sports specialization in young
athletes. Pediatrics, 106(1), 154–157.
T he phrase “sports fan” may evoke a variety of dif-
ferent images or ideas. Some may think of a sport-
ing event with thousands of cheering fans, or specific
Babkes, M. L., & Weiss, M. R. (1999). Parental influence on children’s
cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer. Pediatric Ex- individuals who paint their faces and/or bodies with the
ercise Science, 11(1), 44–62. colors of a favorite team, or people who dress in a
Coakley, J. (2004). Sport in society: Issues & controversies (8th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
team’s uniform to demonstrate their allegiance. Others
Coakley, J., & Donnelly, P. (Eds.). (1999). Inside sports. London: Rout- may conjure images of individuals who engage in vio-
ledge. lence and destructive behavior when their favorite team
Deflandre, A., Lorant, J., Gavarry, O., & Falgairette, G. (2001). Deter-
minants of physical activity and physical and sports activities in wins or loses (Berkowitz 1982, Mann 1989).
French school children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92(2), 399–
414.
DeKnop, P., Skirstad, B., Engstrom, L. M., & Weiss, M. (Eds.). (1996). Who Is a Loyal Fan?
Worldwide trends in youth sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. The difference between a loyal fan and others who
Green, B. C., & Chalip, L. (1997). Enduring involvement in youth soc- merely follow sports, a spectator, is the strong personal
cer: The socialization of parent and child. Journal of Leisure Re-
search, 29(1), 61–77. connection to or relationship with a sports team that an
Hasbrook, C. A. (2000). Family involvement. In K. Christensen, A. individual feels. Funk and James (2001) describe in
Guttmann, & G. Pfister (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women
& sport (pp. 286–389). New York: Macmillan.
their Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) four dif-
Hasbrook, C. A., & Harris, O. (1999). Wrestling with gender: Physi- ferent relationships that individuals may have with a
cality and masculinity(ies) among inner-city first and second graders. sports team: Awareness, Attraction, Attachment, or Al-
Men and Masculinities, 1(3), 302–318.
Hoyle, R. H., & Leff, S. S. (1997). The role of parental involvement in legiance. Knowledge of sports teams with no distinct
youth sport participation and performance. Adolescence, 32(125), preference is representative of Awareness; an individual
233–243.
Kirk, D., O’Connor, A., Carlson, T., Burke, P., Davis, K., & Glover, S.
knows that sports teams exist but she or he is not in-
(1997). Time commitments in junior sport: Social consequences terested in following a particular team. An individual’s
for participants and their families. European Journal of Physical Ed- relationship with a sports team is characterized as At-
ucation, 2(1), 51–73.
Lee, M., & MacLean, S. (1997). Sources of parental pressure among age traction when she or he acknowledges an interest in
group swimmers. European Journal of Physical Education, 2(2), watching or following a particular team. This interest is
167–177.
Leff, S. S., & Hoyle, R. H. (1995). Young athletes’ perceptions of based on social situational features or hedonic motives
parental support and pressure. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, (e.g., star player, team success, nostalgia) (Baade and
24(2), 187–203.
Tiehen 1990; Funk, Ridinger, and Moorman 2003; Trail
Murphy, S. (1999). The cheers and the tears: A healthy alternative to the
dark side of youth sports today. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. and James 2001). A relationship characterized by At-
Raudsepp, L., & Viira, R. (2000). Sociocultural correlates of physical ac- tachment involves forming a meaningful psychological
tivity in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12(1), 51–60.
Thompson, S. M. (1999). Mother’s taxi. Albany: State University of connection with a sports team. The team becomes per-
New York Press. sonally important to an individual, leading to identifi-
FAN LOYALTY 563
Fans are the only ones who really care.

There are no free-agent fans. ■ DICK YOUNG
cation (Wann and Branscombe 1993), internalization dressed, even cultivated and intellectual mass of hu-
(James and Ross 2002), and a close link to core values manity; and numerous social scientists consider fan
(Kahle, Duncan, Dalakas, and Aiken 2001). Allegiance loyalty to be positive (Guttman 1986; Melnick 1993;
(or loyalty) represents the strongest relationship with a Zillman, Bryant, and Sapolsky 1989). Criticisms of
sports team; it is characterized by durability, persistent loyal fans from an individual (psychological) level
thoughts about a team and resistance to counterper- seem to focus on four points: (1) fans are lazy, (2)
suasive attempts, and it impacts biases in cognitive fans are aggressive, (3) fans adopt negative values (e.g.,
thoughts about a team and consistent behavior. violence is okay) and maladaptive behaviors (e.g., al-
The place of fan loyalty in sport is open to debate. cohol and tobacco consumption), and (4) fans have
Some believe that following sports is absurd (cf. poor interpersonal relationships. In response to the
Beisser 1967, Howard 1912, Meier 1989) and that criticisms Wann, Melnick, Russell, and Pease (2001) re-
“no human being on this Earth either has to or needs viewed a number of different writings and research
to attend” sporting events (Reese 1994, 12A). Others studies. They concluded that the criticisms of loyal fans
have a more positive view of fan loyalty. Roosa (1898, can be supported anecdotally. Some loyal fans do con-
642) described football crowds as “an orderly, well- sume large amounts of alcohol (maladaptive behavior),
Fan Loyalty
“The Fan Responds” by Grantland Rice
Legendary American sportswriter Grantland Rice All that we ask is the Walloping Eye.
wrote sports-themed poetry to chronicle the events of Drama? It’s there where the Bambino rages.
his time. In the 1924 poem below, he express the mood Art? I abounds where the Speakers may flit.
of the sports fan waiting for baseball season to begin. Here comes the lyrical gift of the ages—
Give us the song of the game-winning hit!
Temples of Art—you can take ’em or lose
Here is the quiver where pulses are jumping
’em—
In the first dash for the far-away wire;
Writers of novels that lead to romance—
We haven’t time at the moment to use ‘em- Here is the fever where red blood is
What do we care for the gods of finance? pumping,
Out of young April a new thrill is coming, Thrills through the channels were veins are
Born of the struggle that graces the pit. on fire.
Greatest of melodies—roaring and Start back with Homer and leap to to-
strumming— morrow,
Give us the song of the game-winning hit! What do we care where the masters may sit?
Here is the melody drowning our sorrow—
Artists and writers and famous physicians,
Give us the song of the game-winning hit!
Owners of trusts, will you kindly stand by,
Source: Rice, G. (1924). The fan responds. Badminton, p. 113 & 114.
While you are chanting of world-saving
missions,
True Colors: Lisbon sports fans make their presence felt. Source: EMPICS.
and some do become violent when watching their fa- enhance personal and collective self-esteem and con-
vorite teams. The data currently available, however, tribute to psychological health by providing an outlet
suggest that the problems are the exception and not for expressing one’s emotions (e.g., yelling and cheer-
the rule. Loyal fans by and large do not have drinking ing for a favorite team).
problems, marital strife, or violent tendencies. Going
further, Wann et al. report that being a loyal fan may Fan Loyalty—Good or Bad?
Another approach to discussing the place of fan loyalty
in sport is to consider the topic from a societal level.
Critics may raise a variety of arguments as to why fan
Fan Loyalty loyalty is bad for society. One suggestion is that sports
maintain the interests of the power elite in society
Be a Fan or Get a Life (Danielson 1997). The idea here is that the elite in so-
Baseball is not necessarily an obsessive- ciety encourage fan loyalty because of the belief that
compulsive disorder, like washing your hands loyal fans are more interested in following their favorite
100 times a day, but it’s beginning to seem that team than participating in other civic activities. Re-
way. We’re reaching the point where you can be search has shown, however, that loyal fans have broader
a truly dedicated, state-of-the-art fan or you can general interests and more active lifestyles than nonfans
have a life. Take your pick. (Lieberman 1991). Another critic may argue that fan
Source: Boswell, T. (1990, April 13). Washington Post.
loyalty perpetuates gender discrimination (Bryson
1987) and suppresses the rights of women. Given the
large numbers of loyal fans who are females and the op-
FAN LOYALTY 565
Fan Loyalty
The Importance
of Being a Fan
portunities for women to participate in sports, this ar-
gument becomes less and less viable. An elitist critique The psychological satisfaction that people gain
would argue that loyal fans lack taste and refinement from [sporting] victories, related media cover-
(Wann et al. 2001), that they lack intellectual challenge age, social events, wearing the respective team
and stimulation. Considering that loyal fans are cogni- colours and identifying with the emblems and
tively engaged—they analyze team and individual per- symbols, which represent hundreds of years of
formances, mull over game strategies, and critique history as well as everyday realities, is immense.
decisions by coaches—it would seem more likely that
Source: Bradley, J. (1995) Football in Scotland: A history of political and ethnic
loyal fans express creative and critical thinking skills. identity. International Journal for the History of Sport, 12(1), 96.
The place of fan loyalty in sport may be debated

from different perspectives. What seems to bear out,
however, is that fan loyalty provides an expression of consumer support: Extending the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) to
both individual (psychological) and societal health. A examine individual differences among women’s professional sport
consumers. Sport Management Review, 6, 1–32.
strong personal relationship with a sports team pro-
Guttman, A. (1986). The erotic in sports. New York: Columbia Uni-
vides a means of enhancing personal and collective self- versity Press.
esteem. A loyal fan shares the excitement and euphoria Howard, G. E. (1912). Social psychology of the spectator. American
Journal of Sociology, 18, 33–50.
of a team win and must deal with the disappointment James, J. D., & Ross, S. D. (2002). The motives of sport consumers: A
of a frustrating loss. While episodes of individual and comparison of Major and Minor League Baseball. International
Journal of Sport Management, 3(3), 180–198.
collective violence occur, the frequency of such inci-
Kahle, L. R., Duncan, M., Dalakas, V., & Aiken, D. (2001). The social
dents relative to the thousands of sporting events that values of fans for men’s versus women’s university basketball. Sport
take place suggests that loyal fans are well adjusted psy- Marketing Quarterly, 10(3), 156–162.
Lieberman, S. (1991, September/October). The popular culture: Sport
chologically and socially. Far from being a negative in- in America—A look at the avid sports fan. The Public Perspective:
fluence, fan loyalty gives people opportunities to escape A Roper Center Review of Public Opinion and Polling, 2(6), 28–29.
Mann, L. (1989). Sports crowds and the collective behavior perspective.
from their daily routine, to enjoy the excitement of com-
In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psy-
petition, and to appreciate the skills of athletes, and it chological viewpoints (2nd ed.; pp. 299–331). Hillsdale, NJ: Erl-
offers an outlet for individual and group identification baum.
Meier, K. V. (1989). The ignoble sports fan. Journal of Sport and Social
that many in society seek. Issues, 13, 111–119.
Melnick, M. J. (1993). Searching for sociability in the stands. A theory
Jeffrey D. James of sports spectating. Journal of Sport Management, 7, 44–60.
Pooley, J. C. (1978). The sport fan: A social psychology of misbehav-
ior. CAPHER Sociology of Sport Monograph Series. Calgary, Canada:
University of Calgary.
Further Reading Reese, C. (1994, November 5). Game’s over if sports fans stop playing
Baade, R. A., & Tiehan, L. J. (1990). An analysis of major league base- the fools. Democrat and Chronicle, p. 12A.
ball attendance, 1969–1987. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Roosa, D. B. S. (1898). Are football games educative or brutalizing?
14(1), 14–32. Forum, 16, 634–642.
Beisser, A. R. (1967). The madness in sports: Psychological observations Trail, G. T., & James, J. D. (2001). The motivation scale for sport con-
on sports. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. sumption: A comparison of psychometric properties with other
Berkowitz, L. (1982). Aversive conditions as stimuli to aggression. Ad- sport motivation scales. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24(1), 108–127.
vances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 249–288. Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Die hard and fair weather
Bryson, L. (1987). Sport and the maintenance of masculine hegemony. fans: Effects of identification on BIRGing and CORFing tendencies.
Women’s Studies International Forum, 10, 340–361. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 14(2), 103–117.
Danielson, M. N. (1997). Home team: Professional sports and the Amer- Wann, D. L., Melnick, M. J., Russell, G. W., & Pease, D. G. (2001).
ican metropolis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sport fans: The psychology and social impact of spectators. New
Funk, D. C., & James, J. D. (2001). The psychological continuum York: Routledge.
model: A conceptual framework for understanding an individual’s Zillman, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. S. (1989). Enjoyment from
psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review, 4(2), sports spectatorship. In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and
119–150. play: Social and psychological viewpoints (2nd ed.; pp. 241–278).
Funk, D. C., Ridinger, L. L., & Moorman, A. J. (2003). Understanding Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Auto Racing). In other parts of the world fantasy soc-

Fantasy Camps cer (England), cricket (India), and horse racing (Hong
Kong) are growing in popularity. In fact, fantasy com-
See Academies and Camps, Sport petition is spreading to arenas outside of sports in
games such as fantasy Supreme Court and fantasy
movie producer.
According to one avid fantasy sports player and suc-
Fantasy Sports cessful prognosticator, Ron Shandler, fantasy sports
players tend to be sports fans, game players, statistical
F antasy sports, also known as “rotisserie,” “fanalyt-

ics,” or “fantasy leisure,” are sports in which fans
compete with one another based on statistics gener-
purists, or some hybrid of the three. Players cite an in-
creased ability to appreciate their favorite sports, com-
petition, camaraderie, and excitement as motivations for
ated on an ongoing basis by real athletes. involvement. Whereas during the 1980s fantasy sports
players had to compile statistics and standings by hand
History or wait for updates in the mail, today the Internet pro-
Fantasy sports trace their roots to the early 1980s, when vides an endless array of easily accessible data and a
Daniel Okrent, then an editor at Sports Illustrated, growing platform for leagues and intrafan communica-
wrote the rules of rotisserie baseball, so named for the tion. In fact, fantasy sports are one of the few financially
restaurant that served as the first league’s home. Okrent lucrative Internet businesses and have attracted signifi-
gave fans a simple and flexible structure; baseball pro- cant investments from giants including Yahoo!, ESPN,
vided the data. Fantasy sports have progressed from a and Comcast. These companies as well as smaller ones
baseball-only phenomenon played in face-to-face set- have discovered that the average fantasy owner spends
tings by friends and acquaintances in the United States three hours a week online monitoring his team and
to a pastime that includes most sports and is played by that much of that time is spent while the owner is at
millions around the world, supported by the Internet. work.
Today, according to a survey commissioned by the Fan- Although most participants see the benefits of fantasy
tasy Sports Trade Association (FSTA), more than 15 sports, some observers note not only potential prob-
million people in the United States play fantasy sports. lems with workplace productivity but also other prob-
This survey, as well as one conducted by Donald Levy lems, including a fanship that focuses on individuals
of the University of Connecticut, finds that more than rather than real teams, a socially isolated and consum-
90 percent of North American fantasy players are men, ing form of fanship, and the potential incorporation of
most of whom identify as white, college educated, mar- gambling into fantasy sports. To this point fantasy
ried, with a mean age of forty-one and a median yearly sports have been categorized as games of skill rather
income of $90,000. Although about two-thirds of fans than chance, but many people do play for money, and
continue to play fantasy baseball, football has become in the fantasy sports industry people debate the incor-
the most popular game, perhaps because of the popu- poration of gambling advertisers.
larity of football itself or, as some players say, because
of fantasy football’s ease of play as compared with that Nature of the Sport
of fantasy baseball. In addition to the big two, football Fantasy sports are played by assembling or joining a
and baseball, players in North America play fantasy league of competitors, selecting a commissioner and a
basketball, hockey, golf, fishing, and the fastest growing set of rules (a constitution), organizing a player selection
game, NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car process (a draft), agreeing on transaction procedures,
FANTASY SPORTS 567
Every sport pretends to a literature, but people don’t

believe it of any other sport but their own. ■ ALISTAIR COOKE
and arranging for a mechanism to compile statistics understanding and quantifying their favorite sports.
and keep score. Players in fantasy sports are consid- Still, most player-owners agree that luck, intuition, and
ered owners, and part of the appeal is to simultaneously deal making remain attractions of fantasy sports.
be both the on-the-field manager or coach and the gen-
eral manager or owner who makes personnel and fi- Competition at the Top
nancial decisions. Team success is based on the statistics Whereas the early fantasy sports players most often
generated by actual players. In most cases owners select were friends of one another or friends of friends, today,
players through either a draft or an auction format. In through the Internet, players join leagues and play with
the typical format an actual player in baseball, football, others across the country or even internationally without
or soccer can be selected or owned by only one fantasy ever meeting or even speaking by phone. Leagues form,
player in each fantasy league. One variation uses a operate, communicate, and continue entirely online.
salary cap mechanism to allow multiple owners of the Communities of owners have Internet message boards.
same player. Still, the standard version of fantasy sports Fantasy sports information is now marketed through
mirrors real sports in that a player plays for only one magazines, radio and television shows, and most often
team. Leagues that use the auction format incorporate through a myriad of websites. Experts have emerged
salaries by providing each team with an identical start- and gained notoriety through their publications and
ing budget within which all owners must acquire a spec- seminars and through well-publicized “expert leagues”
ified number of players by position. in which winning carries status beyond just bragging
After assembling their team, owners track the rights. In addition, players who may not be commer-
progress of their team by watching the statistics that cially involved in the business of fantasy sports can
their players assemble in an agreed-upon set of cate- compete in high-stakes games in which the opening
gories. For example, baseball may include batting av- draft may take place in convention halls or casinos and
erage, home runs, runs batted in, runs scored, bases look much like the National Football League or Na-
stolen, pitching wins, saves, strikeouts, earned run av- tional Basketball Association drafts. Still, as the FSTA
erage, and walks plus hits divided by innings pitched. indicates, the future of fantasy sports is the average
Similarly, a group of categories is created and tracked in player who joins a league with friends or with strangers
every other sport. For each fantasy sport the season over the Internet, spends time at home and at work on
lasts as long as the mirrored real sports season, and like “his” computer, and vicariously experiences the on-field
the real owners and general managers, fantasy owners sport and the manipulations of ownership while testing
research, plan, barter, and sometimes negotiate rule his skills against other players.
changes during the off-season.
Fantasy owners, of course, have no direct control over The Future
the actual games in which the statistics are generated. Al- Fantasy sports combine the love of sports, statistics,
though luck plays a part given the difficulty of forecast- competition, and the growth of technology. They are a
ing injuries or other unforeseeable events, successful low-cost, enjoyable hobby that has drawn advertisers. As
fantasy players value the work of sabermetricians (ana- such, their growth, especially in the near future, seems as-
lysts of baseball data) such as Bill James or their adher- sured. Fantasy sports attract the casual fan, not just the
ents such as baseball’s Billy Beane, who not only pore game player or statistical purist. Although more women
over statistics but also constantly attempt to identify are beginning to play, fantasy sports remain over-
the most crucial variables that lead to success, whether whelmingly practiced by men. Additionally, in the United
success is winning the real game or the fantasy compe- States fantasy sports remain a white, middle-class activ-
tition. In this way fantasy players are actively engaged in ity. No one knows if fantasy sports will become popular
among other populations or whether they speak, as now, ion can also be a protest against fashion—a refusal to
to a limited audience. participate can itself become a fashion. Fashion is a
As a game, fantasy sports continues to grow and to paradox—it strives for broad acceptance, but in the
attract attention from advertisers and sports-related very moment when it has reached its goal, fashion
media. In addition, professional sports teams have ceases to be fashionable.
begun to pay attention to fantasy sports. As Michael Long-term changes in clothing styles and behavior
Lewis demonstrates in his result book, Money Ball patterns can be observed in all cultures. In hierarchically
(2003), teams have begun to incorporate sabermetric structured societies, clothes were signs of power and so-
analytical techniques familiar to fantasy owners in their cial status—the higher classes were the agents of fash-
assessment of talent and strategy decisions. In fact, ion and fashion changed very slowly from antiquity to
some fantasy enthusiasts have been hired as consultants medieval times. Fashion has also always served to dif-
by major league teams. The line between fantasy and re- ferentiate and dramatize masculinity and femininity.
ality has blurred.
Donald P. Levy
History
A decisive change of body ideals and clothing styles oc-
curred at the end of the eighteenth century. Nature and
Further Reading naturalness became the new ideals, not only in
Coover, R. (1968). The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry lifestyles, but also in fashion. Along with men’s wigs
Waugh, Prop. New York: Penguin. and pantaloons, the French Revolution swept away
Fine, G. A. (1983). Shared fantasy: Role-playing games as social worlds.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
hoops and voluminous skirts, ruffles, silk stockings,
James, B. (2003). The 2004 Bill James handbook. Chicago: ACTA Pub- high heels, powder, and make up. A slender line, light
lications. and flowing dresses “a la Greque,” and cropped hair be-
Lee, H. (2004). Fantasy baseball strategy: Advanced methods for win-
ning your league. London: Squeaky Press. came popular for women, while long trousers became
Lewis, M. (2003). Moneyball. New York: W. W. Norton. modish for men. For a short period of time women
Okrent, D., & Lewine, H. (1979). The ultimate baseball book. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
even survived without corsets. However, whereas the
Schwarz, A. (2004). The numbers game: Baseball’s lifelong fascination functional clothes and the uniform look of the men be-
with statistics. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. came the standard until today, women were soon forced
St. Amant, M. (2004). Committed: Confessions of a fantasy football
junkie. New York: Scribner. back into corsets to shape the fashionable big breasts,
Zimmerman, M. (2000). The complete idiot’s guide to fantasy baseball. broad hips, and small waists.
Indianapolis, IN: Alpha Books.
Another revolution in women’s fashion took place
after World War I. Long hair was cropped, corsets and
long skirts were thrown away, and women dared for
the first time in European history to show their legs.
Fashion After World War II, driven by the economic interests of
the clothing industry, fashion became a mass phe-
T he permanent change of taste called “fashion” does

not apply only to clothes and body type, but to all
human activities, from art to language to consumption
nomenon. Industrialization had made the mass pro-
duction of clothes possible and every year new trends
emerged to encourage conspicuous consumption.
preferences. Fashion is a way of self-presentation and Today new fashion styles are mostly initiated by young
communication. On the one hand, it promises individ- people, but because youthfulness is the ideal of West-
uality, uniqueness, and distinction, and on the other ern societies, all generations try to follow the trend-
hand, it represents sameness and demonstrates an af- setters. As always, women are in many ways more
filiation to a certain culture, subculture, or group. Fash- affected by fashion; they are not only the protagonists
FASHION 569
European men’s and women’s

gymnastic clothing in the 1860s.
but also the victims of new trends. Contempo-

rary stylishness demands not only the right
clothes and outfits, but also the right body,
which requires a sophisticated body manage-
ment that reaches from body styling to tattoos
and piercing.
Theories
Fashion as a social phenomenon has always in-
stigated fierce arguments among scholars from
various disciplines. Explanations for fashion and
its effects have been offered by scholars of cul-
tural studies and gender studies as well as by his-
torians, anthropologists, linguists, psychologists,
and sociologists like Thorstein Veblen (1857–
1929), Werner Sombart (1863–1941), Georg Simmel At the end of the nineteenth century, women’s clothes
(1858–1918), and Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2001). In illustrated the ambivalent trends of the sexualization of
these discourses, the following topics played a more or the female body along with an increasing prudishness.
less important role: human drives and instincts like cu- Legs were taboo, but bosom, butt, and hips were em-
riosity or sexuality; the human desire for decoration; so- phasized. A small waist, signalizing delicacy and frailty,
cial distinctions, identifications, and imitations; and was a must that could only be reached by the violent
marking out differences. Scholars have often empha- harnessing of the body with the help of a corset. Al-
sized the ambiguity of fashion, which embodies both though after the turn of the century various reform
the need for conformity and the striving for individual- movements tried to popularize freeing the female body,
ity. The role of fashion in highlighting gender differ- although without a broad public acceptance. The most
ences and enacting gender has also been a frequent successful “reform movement” was modern sport of
focus of scholarly attention. In addition, economic in- British descent.
terests and the huge market behind fashion have also Because of its orientation toward performance and
been studied. competition, participation in sports was commonly
Not only the reasons, but also the effects of fashion looked upon as utterly unfeminine, but this did not pre-
are questioned. Is fashion responsible for increasing vent women from participating in various sports from
consumption, or does it contribute to the democratiza- hockey to ski jumping, but very few women partici-
tion and the aesthetics of everyday life? pated in competitions and sport remained to a high de-
gree a male domain.
Sporting Outfits
In the wake of modernization at the end of the nine- THE STREET COSTUME AS SPORT DRESS
teenth century, body ideals, body management, and be- The street clothes of men did not reduce their freedom
havior patterns changed decisively. Modern sport was, of movement, and thus they could also be used for doing
on the one hand, the expression of these changes; on sports with few changes. Until the beginning of the
the other hand, it also served as an instigator of them. twentieth century women also wore sport costumes that
Gender myths and gender roles, the development of were very similar to the clothes they wore on the street.
sport, and changing sport clothes and fashions are in- However, there were slight differences that symbolized
extricably intertwined. their social status and emphasized their distinction from
Fashion
Highland Dress for Ladies, 1931
As far back as we can trace the records of our past, domestic usages. Queen Victoria, to whom Highland
Scottish women—Highland and Lowland—gave customs owe much, delighted to speak and write
much attention to their garments. In the higher walks about the costumes of the Highland women, and did
of Clan life the ladies were noted for the style and el- much to encourage the wearing of the distinctive
egance of their wearing apparel. The tartan skirt, Highland Dress by them on suitable occasions. Her
sometimes flounced; the well-fitted bodice or firmly own daughters and granddaughters, too, with her
flanged middy, the colours of which varied from the warm approval, set a fine example.
crotul-brown to the deep-hued saffron; the pliant A Highland Gathering is not a vaudeville show,
cuaran; the tilted cap and feather, make up an attire and responsible committees are moving for a gradual
beautiful and becoming. The ladies of the Clan were return to correct girls’ dresses at their annual com-
the peers of their sisters in France in the matter of petitions. Already such outstanding places as Bal-
dress design, and were but slightly affected by foreign moral and Braemar have ruled out the incorrect dress
modes. As a rule they had an instinctive feeling for altogether; Cowal is more or less in line; so are
the fitness of things. A native garb was to them a garb Toronto and other centres of Caledonian Games.
which adapted itself to native conditions, such as cli- Source: Fraser, J. A. (1931). Booklet from the Banff Highland Gathering and Scottish
Music Festival.
mate, and the seasonal changes consequent on dif-
ferent avocations, pastimes, social functions or
the lower classes. Thus, clothes for hiking in the moun- However, while female tennis players eventually
tains had to be made from special cloth, ice skating cos- found social acceptance, public opinion toward swim-
tumes were decorated with fur, and riding costumes had ming remained ambivalent. On the one hand, swim-
to have a certain elegance. ming was believed to have positive influences on health
Fashionable ideals of femininity also determined and well-being, but on the other hand, female swim-
which sports women played. For instance, women were mers were thought to endanger morality and propriety.
not supposed to participate in exercises that could not In the nineteenth century, this dilemma was solved with
be done in corsets and long skirts. However, social a strict segregation of the sexes. Although women swam
changes and changes in women’s roles eventually led among themselves, they wore voluminous bathing cos-
dresses to be adapted to the demands of different tumes that revealed much less of the female body than
sports, which in turn changed the ideals of beauty and ball dresses. Bathing suits gradually changed from long
femininity. These changes can be seen in lawn tennis, dresses to knee-length trousers, but all bathing cos-
which was looked upon as an appropriate leisure-time tumes were designed to hide the female form. They
activity for young ladies, not least because the tennis were always wide and made of nontransparent fabrics
court was an important place in the marriage market. that created strong water resistance. However, shortly
Before World War I, women wore their street clothes, before World War I, the first competitive female swim-
which meant skirts to the floor, starched petticoats, a mers adopted a tight swimming suit made of a thin
corset, long and narrow sleeves, a stiff collar, a hat with black tricot fabric.
a broad brim, and high-heeled shoes. Initiatives to All other sports, from skiing to land hockey and gym-
shorten the skirts and to allow women to participate in nastics, had to be done in long skirts. Female rowers
tennis competitions met the fierce, but finally vain, re- wore sailor suits, women sailing with their husbands
sistance of tennis officials. wore floor-length yachting dresses, and horseback rid-
FASHION 571
Soccer shirts in a souvenir kiosk.

Source: istockphoto/lcsdesign.
ers, who had to sit sidesaddle, wore riding cos-

tumes designed to hide the fact that women
have legs.
An especially hot issue was the dress ques-
tion with regard to cycling. Cycling gained
more and more adherents at the end of the
nineteenth century, not only among men, but
also among women, for whom the bicycle
meant freedom, mobility, and self-reliance. In
fact, cycling was looked upon as a symbol of
emancipation. However, cycling in street
clothes was not only impractical, but also dan-
gerous. Because long and voluminous skirts
tended to get caught in the wheels and narrow
skirts raised problems in getting on and off
the bike, a practical cycling costume was ur-
gently needed. Conservative women preferred
an ankle-length skirt under which there would
be trousers. A compromise was the divided
skirt, which consisted of two very wide pant
legs. The most progressive cyclists chose
bloomers, full loose trousers named after their
inventor, the American Amelia Bloomer.
Women who cycled with trousers were con-
fronted with verbal or even physical aggression. SPORTS BECOME FASHION
After the turn of the century, the fight about trousers, After World War I, sports became fashionable, athletes
which guaranteed the necessary freedom of movement, were worshipped as idols, and newspapers, movies,
also erupted in other sports. Trousers met forceful re- and advertisements brought sports into the center of
sistance with the public, even among women, because public attention. In gymnastic halls and sports grounds
they were perceived as a symbol of emancipation. In ad- a uniform look became popular—in many sports both
dition, men and women were both afraid of masculin- men and women wore short black trousers and a blouse
izing the female sex; the arguments of many men also or sweater. Both the style and the material were ori-
clearly showed their determination to defend their priv- ented to functionality.
ileged position. The female cyclists, the first track and Eventually the functionality of sport clothes was
field athletes, and the first female pilots with their fly- transferred to street clothes, and “sporting” became an
ing costumes represented a new type of woman who adjective applied to summer dresses as well as to win-
adopted not only the trousers, but also the power and ter coats. Sportiness signaled a new attitude toward
position they symbolized. body and movement, and new ideals and expectations
At the beginning of the twentieth century, men’s that women could interpret as liberating, although there
sport clothes were adapted to the norm of functionality, was also an internalization of pressures. The fashionable
which meant that trousers got shorter and shirts were slim body ideal could not be reached with the help of
exchanged for sweaters. corsets, but needed both sports and diet.
In the 1950s and 1960s, male and female sport taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work
clothes remained functional. Not until the 1970s and published 1979)
Bovenschen, S. (Ed.). (1986). Die Listen der Mode. Frankfurt, Ger-
1980s were sporting outfits influenced by fashion many: Suhrkamp.
trends. The collections of the sporting good companies Lehnert, G. (2000). Geschichte der Mode des 20. Jahrhunderts. Cologne,
Germany: Könemann.
grew larger, and clothes and equipment became more Lehnert, G. (Ed.). (1998). Mode, Weiblichkeit und Modernität. Dort-
differentiated and specialized. Technological progress mund, Germany: Ebersbach.
also helped to revolutionize sport clothes and equip- Miah, A., & Eassom, S. B. (Eds.). (2002). Sport technology: Philosophy,
history and policy. Special Edition of Research in Philosophy and
ment. Sport clothes made from new materials like Gore- Technology, Vol.21. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.
Tex were performance-enhancing and contributed O’Mahony, M., & Braddock, S. (2002). Sportstech: Revolutionary fab-
rics, fashion and design. New York: Thames & Hudson.
decisively to comfort. Another example of the increasing Simmel, G. (1905). Philosophie der Mode. Berlin: Pan-Verlag.
influence of science and technology on sport fashion Sombart, W. (1902). Wirtschaft und Mode. Wiesbaden, Germany:
was sport shoes, which were adapted to the demands of Bergmann.
Splett, G. (1993). Sport und Mode. Muenster, Germany: Lit.
different sports, and also to the specific needs of men Textilmuseum, K. (Ed.). (1992). Sportswear. Krefeld, Germany: van
and women. Acken.
Veblen, T. (1994). The theory of the leisure class. Mineola, NY: Dover
In addition to increasing functionality, specific brands Publications. (Original work published 1899)
like Lacoste T-shirts or Nike shoes signified social dis-
tinctions and conspicuous consumption. Today men
and women use sportswear to project a certain image.
Whereas in former times female athletes had to chose
between top-level performances and femininity, many
contemporary sport stars embody eroticism and sexual
Feminist Perspectives
attractiveness.
The Future
O rganized sports with the sorts of rules for compe-
tition that we recognize today were first estab-
lished in schools, colleges, and clubs during the late
Today sports are an essential ingredient of modern life, eighteenth century and spread rapidly during the nine-
closely connected with ideals and values like slimness, teenth and twentieth centuries in England, North Amer-
fitness, and health, as well as with adventure, luxury, ica, and other parts of the Western and colonized
and fun. Sports embody the modern approach to life, worlds. The “cult of athleticism” describes the images of
including the belief that everybody earns what he or she male physical power, aggression, and competitiveness
deserves. Sport has left the sporting grounds: Men and associated with the exaggerated status given to games
women dream of a trained and muscular body and playing and other sports in the British boys’ public
wear sporty outfits, from jogging shoes to baseball caps, schools during the Victorian period.
which at least convey a sporting image. Sports have be-
come fashionable, but this may not actually lead to an Establishing Gendered Sport
increase in sport activity. The early organized sports that developed in countries
throughout the West and then in countries colonized by
Gertrud Pfister
Western immigrants, such as horse racing, cricket, row-
See also Beauty ing, soccer, rugby, field hockey and American football
were specifically male sports, establishing the idea that
Further Reading men were naturally suited to the rigors of the games
Barthes, R. (1983). The fashion system. New York: Hill and Wang.
field. In contrast, women were symbolically aligned to
Bourdieu, P. (1996). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of “nature” and to their roles as wives and mothers and
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES 573
considered to be unsuited to vigorous physical activities Role of First-Wave Feminism

such as competitive sports. Although this was an es- All forms of feminism in Western societies have been as-
sentially middle-class construction of womanhood, dur- sociated with the subordination of women to men. First-
ing the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it was wave feminism describes the struggles of middle-class
used to generalize about all women as if they were a ho- Western women during the nineteenth century to get
mogeneous group. the vote and gain access to education and the profes-
sions. Although there was no organized sport-feminist
VICTORIAN INFLUENCES movement at the time, some women were struggling for
The Victorians maximized cultural differences between equality with men in the specific contexts of sport and
men and women in sport and used biological explana- physical education. Most notably, women struggled to
tion to justify them. The outcome was that sport became get into the Olympic Games. They challenged the role
a thoroughly gendered institution. Although women of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which,
were never completely excluded from participation, for almost a century from the time of its foundation in
only “feminine-appropriate” activities such as calisthen- 1894, was an undemocratic, self-regulating and exclu-
ics, dancing and Swedish gymnastics were actively en- sively male institution, opposed to women’s participa-
couraged for reasons of health, whereas games and tion in Olympic competition. The IOC’s founder and
sports such as tennis, badminton, cycling, field hockey first president, Pierre de Coubertin, declared that, “The
and basketball were opposed unless they were played in Olympic Games must be reserved for men and the
“ladylike” fashion, on the grounds that they would oth-
erwise damage the reproductive potential of the “gentle
sex.” This was known as the theory of constitutional
overstrain and was popularly applied to middle-class
women in Northern Europe, North America, and the
Antipodes. In contrast, sports requiring speed, strength,
aggression, and physical contact were characterized as
“masculine-appropriate” activities. The scene was set for
the future of modern sports divided along gender lines
and dominated by men.
From the start, women participated in far fewer num-
bers than men, they had access to fewer facilities, there
was far less resourcing of women’s sport than of men’s
sport, and women had less control over how sport was
financed and organized. Women had some autonomy
in sport but only when they played in separate spheres
from the men, ran their own organizations, made their
own rules, and played according to acceptable images
of femininity. But in public sport contexts there were
stark divisions between the sexes and in many cases out-
right discrimination against women, providing the trig-
ger for a sport feminist movement.
“Miss Wicket” from an 1770 English print.

Feminist Perspective
Muscles and Femininity,
Circa 1890
sport feminism took root. In spite of the fact that
And, ladies, when some jealous and false women were setting up their own organizations in
prophet arises to decry your noble efforts by countries from the continents of the world and were par-
drawing a forbidding picture of your great-great- ticipating in greater numbers in more and more events,
grandchildren as huge, muscular amazons di- it was never without struggles and negotiations and
vested of sweet womanly charms by too steady disappointments. Opposition to full and equal partici-
encroachment on the field where men alone are pation in all sports continued into the future and is still
fitted to excel, believe him not! By some happy apparent in the present day.
provision of kind Nature, no matter if the
woman’s biceps grow as firm as steel, the mem- Second-Wave Feminism
ber remains as softly rounded, as tenderly Sport feminism is usually associated with the 1970s on-
curved, as though no greater strain than the ward, when women from North America, Western Eu-
weight of jeweled ornaments had been laid upon rope, Australia, and New Zealand started to articulate
them. This is a comforting assurance, and one their demands for sexual equality in sport in books and
that may induce many hitherto prudent ladies to articles. This was a feature of second-wave feminism,
lay aside old fashioned prejudice and join the which had focused since the 1960s on issues such as
growing host of womankind in the bowling women’s legal status, social welfare and health for
alley. women and children, equal opportunities in education,
and conditions of work. The particular focus in sport
Bisland, M. (1890, April 16). Bowling for women. Outing.
was on equality of opportunity between men and
women. Women wanted to take part in all sports, in-
cluding traditional male sports, such as soccer, rugby,
solemn and periodic exaltation of male athleticism with boxing, and snooker; or to have “equivalent” (but not
female applause as reward.” necessarily identical) resources including access to fa-
cilities, funding, good-quality coaching, and represen-
STRUGGLE FOR OLYMPIC PARTICIPATION tation in key administrative positions. The quest for
Women’s struggles for Olympic recognition centered equal opportunities has been associated with the strug-
on their demands (initially in 1917), advanced by a gles of feminists in liberal democracies—a perspective
French woman, Alice Milliat, to have women’s track- characterized as liberal sport feminism.
and-field athletics put on the Olympic program. In de- Liberal sport feminists have worked within the frame-
fiance of the IOC’s refusal, women created their own works of sex-equality legislation in their respective coun-
organization—the Federation Sportive Feminine Inter- tries—for example, the 1972 Title IX of the Education
nationale—and every four years, from 1922 until 1934, Amendments (to the Civil Rights Act of 1964) in the
they organized their own highly successful competitions USA and the 1975 UK Sex Discrimination Act provided
—the Women’s World Games, with eleven events. How- legitimation for removing discrimination against women
ever, controversy still raged about women’s participa- in sport in public and educational contexts. There are
tion in the Olympic Games until in 1928 they were also government-led initiatives intended specifically to
grudgingly allowed to compete in five track-and-field improve the position of women in sport vis-a-vis men—
events. Women’s early Olympic struggles over equal for example, the Canadian Association for the Advance-
participation and equal representation on decision- ment of Women and Sport (CAAWS) and Womensport
making bodies exemplifies the practical ways in which Australia. Development programs for girls and women
Before I was ever in my teens, I knew exactly what I wanted to be when I grew up.
My goal was to be the greatest athlete that ever lived. ■ BABE DIDRIKSON ZAHARIAS
in sport are also typical of the work of sport organiza- modification of sports. In brief, the major critique of the
tions and governing bodies throughout the developed liberal perspective is that it fails systematically to relate
world and increasingly in countries in the developing the concept of equality to wider social, economic, polit-
world as well. In addition, voluntary organizations run ical, and moral issues.
by women for women have liberal feminist approaches; Liberalism tends also to treat women as a homoge-
for example, the Women’s Sports Foundations of the neous group and misleadingly to imply that an overall
USA and Britain, founded in 1974 and 1985, respec- increase in participation is an improvement for women
tively. There are also international organizations that in general. Radical and cultural sport feminisms, posited
focus on the global development of women’s sport; for as alternatives, both argue that liberal sport feminism
example, the International Association of Physical Edu- does not go far enough or adequately take into account
cation and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), one or more of the following: a) the gendered social
WomenSport International (WSI), and the International structures that remain in place; b) the huge resistance to
Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG). changes in the gender relations of power that still exist;
The advances that have been made by women or c) the complexities that relate to social changes re-
through national and international initiatives represent flecting global and postmodern developments.
a powerful challenge to historically based inequalities in
sport between men and women. Many of the liberal Radical Separatism
sport feminists who have been involved in these practi- During the 1980s, the limitations of equal-opportunity
cal struggles have also been feminist theorists who have programs and philosophies were recognized, and the
set out to analyze the gendered nature of sport, carefully more critical radical and cultural sport-feminist ap-
documenting the history of sex-based inequalities, as proaches were maturing. Radical sport feminism fo-
well as suggesting ways in which emancipatory changes cuses on the global dominance of heterosexual men, the
in sport might come about. Sport feminists, in common resistently patriarchal character of sport, and, deriving
with mainstream feminists, have always linked theory to specifically from the standpoint of women, their em-
practice. powerment through separate development. Good ex-
amples of radical separatism are the Women’s World
CRITICISMS OF LIBERAL SPORT FEMINISM Games, mentioned above, and the Association of In-
Liberal sport feminism has been a powerful, very suc- tercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) in the United
cessful challenge to male-dominated sport. It remains the States after the turn of the century, the members of
most popular perspective. However, there are critiques which strongly advocated separate programs for men
of liberalism for being concerned more with quantitative and women because men’s sports were highly compet-
change than with qualitative change. Liberal sport fem- itive, overspecialized and corrupted by commercializa-
inism has been characterized as essentially conservative, tion. In more recent years, lesbians have argued that
tending to overlook the limitations of legal reform and sexuality, specifically in the form of compulsory het-
underestimate the extent to which the power of men erosexuality, lies at the heart of women’s oppression in
over women continues to permeate everyday life and cul- sport, and they have been one of the leading groups to
ture, including sport. Also, this approach has done little oppose discrimination (in particular, sexual discrimi-
to oppose the structures, values, and distinctly masculine nation) against women and to spearhead single-sex
modes of thought intrinsic to mainstream sport, such as participation.
aggressive competition, xenophobia, physical and psy- Radical sport feminists oppose men’s control of
chological abuse of athletes, violence, and the com- sport, arguing that in mixed-sex organizations women
are usually marginalized and have fewer resources, less heterosexual, able-bodied woman. They have brought to
convenient access to facilities, and inferior coaching light ways in which different groups of women experi-
and funding. In contrast, in their own organizations, ence prejudice in sport in specific ways.
even though they may have limited resources, women
have the power to decide how to develop their own OPPRESSION OF MINORITY WOMEN
sports. Separate development in sport is sensitive to Highlighting the problems of minority women in sport
the specific needs of women, providing spaces and op- and acting upon their specific oppressions follows in
portunities with no threat of male domination, sexism, the tradition of the human rights movement. Specific
or harassment of the sort experienced in other aspects groups of women have been targeted for development
of women’s lives. For religious or cultural reasons, programs in sport, linked to initiatives in mainstream
closed female spaces provide the only conditions under feminism. For example, sport feminists who have de-
which some women will participate in physical activi- rived inspiration from Marxism have drawn particular
ties. Separatism allows women to feel empowered attention to class differences and capitalist structures
through exercise without feeling inhibited, as they may that prevent working-class women from participating in
do in mixed environments. In single-sex organizations sport in equal numbers to their middle-class counter-
there are also better prospects for getting into leader- parts. Although this approach has been criticized for
ship and decision-making positions. By placing women privileging class over gender, cultural feminists also op-
at the center of both theory and practice, radical femi- pose the reductionism in radical feminism that priori-
nism values and celebrates the ideal of a specifically tizes patriarchal relations of power as the determining
feminine characteristic. cause of gender discrimination. Further, in cultural fem-
inism the concept of hegemony is used to explain that
Culture and Difference women are active agents struggling creatively for better
In common with liberal feminism, there is a tendency in opportunities in sport; that male domination and other
radical feminism to treat women as a homogeneous forms of discrimination are incomplete; and that there
group, prioritizing gender as the primary cause of op- is a dialectical relationship between agency (freedom)
pression and failing to take account adequately of other and determination (constraint).
social variables such as age, class, disability, ethnicity,
nationhood, religion, politics, or sexuality. The demands PROBLEMS OF DIFFERENCE
of marginalized groups—particularly in recent years— Lesbians have been integral to the sport-feminist move-
have highlighted the heterogeneity of women, not only ment and have played key roles throughout its devel-
within Western nations but also within developing na- opment. Because of the melding of sport with
tions and between women from the developed and de- compulsory heterosexuality and the rampant and dam-
veloping worlds. Sensitivity to difference is intrinsic aging expressions of homophobia intrinsic to sport at
within the cultural-studies tradition, and sport feminists all levels, lesbians have usually stayed closeted—
concerned with the heterogeneity of women’s experi- especially if they are elite athletes or women in presti-
ences and with the particular histories, problems, and gious coaching or administrative positions. But some
needs of marginalized groups have used “difference” as top-level athletes, such as Martina Navratilova, have ad-
both an organizing and a conceptual strategy. Cultural vanced the lesbian cause by “coming out” and speaking
sport feminists have been influential in disrupting the openly about the specific problems facing lesbians in
assumed homogeneity of women’s experiences and the sport. A large number of research projects—with in-
misleading tendency to generalize about all women creasingly sophisticated theoretical frameworks, in-
from the perspective of the white, Western, middle-class, cluding queer theory—have provided a clear analysis of
This illustration from the Sydney

Sportsman (13 March 1912)
provides a decidedly nonfeminist
view of women and sports.
the problematic links between sport partici-

pation and sexuality.
Sport feminism has also spawned critiques
based on the problems of other minority
groups. For example, during the late 1980s,
critical black feminists reacted to the ethno-
centrism of white Western sport feminism,
exposing the damaging nature of racial
stereotyping—notably of African-Americans
and Afro-Caribbeans for their supposed “nat-
ural” sporting abilities and of women with
South Asian origins for their supposed in-
nate lack of sporting ability. The various
forms of institutional discrimination based
on race and ethnicity were related to women
from other ethnic minority groups as well; for
example, aboriginal women in Australia and
Canada (known as First Nation women).
Attention has also been paid to issues of
difference, identity, and discrimination relat-
ing to gender and disability, and gender and
aging in particular. Focus has been placed on
the politics of disability and aging, institu-
tional discrimination, and the failure of
sports organizations and leisure providers to
take affirmative action and implement radical
policies around the needs of these minority
groups. Cultural feminists have exposed the
myths of “equality of opportunity” ideology
and practice and have pointed to the need for
discriminatory attitudes to be systematically
challenged and for sport environments to
cater to special needs. gendered nature of colonial rule, and its effect on con-
temporary postcolonial life. Third World feminists have
WOMEN FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD sought to avoid white Western Euroethnic influences
But issues of gender inequalities, exclusion, and dis- and to deconstruct the characterization of women from
crimination relate even more starkly to women from the the developing world as “other.”
developing world than to women in the west. Third However, there are very few sport feminists who are
World feminism has been used to characterize the work engaging in postcolonial discourses. As mentioned
of women who have engaged in political fights against above, there are organizations with a global philosophy
racism, sexism, colonialism, and monopoly capitalism that are working hard to improve opportunities in sport
and who have contributed to postcolonial theory, the for Third World women, but there are few feminist
theorists—either from the developed world or from the ticipation in sport. Although still in smaller numbers
developing world itself—who through their research than men, they take part in more sports than ever before,
are working to help girls and women in postcolonial including traditional male sports, such as soccer, rugby,
sport. An additional complication is that the hetero- and boxing and in the burgeoning numbers of “lifestyle”
geneity of women from the developing world also needs sports, high-risk sports, extreme sports, ironmen com-
to be taken into account; for example, lesbian and dis- petitions, and others. These women are proud of their
abled women in sport face exceptionally harsh oppres- bodies, their musculature, their athleticism and sense of
sions, which outweigh those of the majority of women raw health, their control, and their sense of empower-
in their countries. ment. They do not experience insurmountable barriers,
reveling instead in their own physical autonomy.
The Future Among this new stream of athletic women are a very
Cultural feminists have tried to avoid the relativism of few “third-wave” feminists who recognize that their op-
treating differences as if they are discrete and have in- portunities are in large part the result of the struggles of
vestigated the relations of power between them. For ex- first- and particularly second-wave sport feminists. But
ample, investigating the nexus of gender, class, and these developments have little relevance for the minor-
ethnicity or gender, disability, and sexuality highlights ity groups mentioned above, in particular for women
the changing and complex natures of difference and outside the West, in countries in Africa, Asia, and the
identity. But the contemporary interest in postmod- Middle East, where sport feminism is in its infancy.
ernism has led to a tendency in sport feminism— They are concerned only with very basic questions of
through looking at the intersections of class, gender, eth- exercise for health, access, facilities, and safety.
nic differences, and the other categories of difference— It is clear that there remains a need for sport femi-
to argue that differentiation is complex, identities are nism to continue to be concerned with social justice.
destabilized, and experience is fractured, so that the There are huge numbers of women across the world
supposedly overarching systems of power related to who need greater control over their lives and their bod-
capitalist relations or patriarchal relations or racial re- ies, and it is argued that sport feminism should be part
lations (the “grand narratives”) are no longer viable. of a more general feminist movement working at three
The problem of this approach is that concrete, every- levels to make this a reality—the personal, the politics
day experiences of, for example, social, religious, and of society, and global revolutionary politics.
political discrimination tend to get overlooked. The re-
Jennifer Hargreaves
sistantly harsh forms of exploitation that make it im-
possible for poor women to become sportswomen or See also Lesbiansim
the practical and ideological barriers preventing dis-
abled women from participating in sport are just two
examples of structures of power that are widespread
Further Reading
Ahmed, S. (2000). Strange encounters: Embodied others in post-
and very real for disadvantaged women throughout the coloniality. London: Routledge.
world. Aitchison, C. (2000). Poststructural feminist theories of representing
others: A response to the “crisis” in leisure studies discourse. Leisure
Studies, 19, 127-144.
UNAPOLOGETIC APPROACH Birrell, S. (2000). Feminist theories for sport. In J. Coakley and E.
Dunning (Eds.), Handbook of sports studies (pp. 61–76). London:
With postmodernism there has developed something of
Sage Publications.
a trend of sport feminism to loosen its links with the rad- Birrell, S., & Cole, C. (Eds.). (1994). Women, sport, and culture. Cham-
ical politics of gender oppression and interventionism. paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Cahn, S. (1994). Coming on strong. New York: Free Press.
There is no doubt that increasing numbers of young Hall, M. A. (1996). Feminism and sporting bodies. Champaign, IL:
Western women have an unapologetic approach to par- Human Kinetics.
FENCING 579
Hargreaves, J. (1994). Sporting females. London: Routledge. by ability. A person can initiate fencing at any age and
Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport. London: Routledge.
can continue to fence for the rest of one’s life. Fencing
Heywood, L., & Drake, J. (Eds.). (1997). Third wave agenda: Being fem-
inist, doing feminism. Minneapolis, MN; London: University of requires few players and a group may be large or small)
Minneapolis Press. and no purpose-built setting or expensive installation.
Heywood, L., & Dworkin, S. (2003). Built to win. Minneapolis: Uni-
versity of Minnesota Press. The nature of fencing is such that athletes with visual or
Lenskyj, H. (1986). Out of bounds. Toronto, Canada: Women’s Press. physical impairments that might prevent them from
Lenskyj, H. (2003). Out on the field. Toronto, Canada: Women’s Press.
taking an active role in other vigorous sports are not
McDonald, M., & Birrell, S. (1999). Reading sport critically. Sociology
of Sport Journal, 16, 283–300. only welcome, but also encounter no limit but that of
Messner, M., & Sabo, D. (Eds). (1990). Sport, Men, and the Gender their own talent. Successful fencers have been deaf,
Order. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Mohanty, C., Russo, A., & Lourdes, T. (Eds). (1991). Third world blind in one eye, or missing a limb.
women and the politics of feminism. Bloomington: Indiana Univer-
sity Press.
Nelson, M. B. (1994). The stronger women get, the more men love foot-
History
ball. New York: Harcourt Brace. Fencing has several millennia of tradition behind it.
Oglesby, C. (1990). Epilogue. In M. Messner & D. Sabo (Eds.), Sport, Perhaps the earliest reference to a fencing match ap-
men and the gender order: Critical feminist perspectives. Cham-
pears in a relief carving in the temple at Madinet-Habu
Scraton, S. (1994). The changing world of women and leisure: Femi- near Luxor in Upper Egypt, built about 1190 BCE by
nism, postfeminism and leisure. Leisure Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4: King Ramses III. The fencers depicted there are using
249–261.
Shaw, S., & Slack, T. (2002). It’s been like that for donkey’s years: The weapons with well-covered points and masks not unlike
construction of gender relations and the cultures of sports organi- those used today. A panel of officials and administrators
sations. Culture, Sport, and Society, 5(1), 86–106.
Smith, Y. (1992). Women of color in society and sport. Quest, 44,
is depicted and distinguished by the feathered wands
228–250. that they hold.
Sparkes, A. (1994).Writing people: Reflections on the dual crisis of rep- Every ancient civilization—Persian, Babylonian, Chi-
resentation and legitimation in qualitative inquiry. Quest, 47, 158–
195. nese, Japanese, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman—practiced
Sparkes, A., & Squires, S. (1996). Circles of silence: Sexual identity in swordsmanship as a sport as well as training for combat.
physical education and sport, Sport, Education and Society, I, 77–
101.
Curiously, European swordsmanship—the most imme-
Theberge, N. (1987). Sport and women’s empowerment. Women’s diate ancestor of modern fencing—did not develop until
Studies International Forum, Vol. 10, 387–393. after the advent of firearms (black weapons) during the
Young, M. (1990). Throwing like a girl and other essays in feminist phi-
losophy and social theory. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana fourteenth century. Until then men carried ever-heavier
University Press. swords to cleave through ever-more-ponderous armor.
Strength was more critical than skill. However, the de-
velopment of ballistic weapons rendered armor obso-
lete, enabling speed, skill, and mobility to prove a
Fencing greater influence than mere force.This development led
to lighter swords (white weapons), which were used
F encing is the sport and art of swordsmanship using

blunted weapons. Several features of fencing make
it distinctive, if not unique. For example, until recently,
with faster, more subtle handwork for better use in close
quarters. Thus arose the art of fencing. Learning to use
a sword was difficult. The wounds resulting from fenc-
fencing was the only combative sport open to both ing became infected. Threats to a fencer’s vision were a
men and women, although they complete separately. particular risk. Indeed, it was said that no competent
Fencing also is the only combative sport that has neither fencing master could expect to end his career with two
weight classes nor height restrictions. good eyes.
Fencing champions come in all sizes and shapes, and Three innovations, however, made fencing more ap-
competitors meet each other as equals, separated only pealing to students who were concerned for their safety.
The first innovation came during the seventeenth cen- Women’s participation until the twentieth century was
tury, when a light practice weapon was developed. It was largely restricted to salle fencing, that is, women fenced
called a “foil” because its point had been flattened— only with foils. The sport’s national governing body in
“foiled”—and padded to reduce the chance of injury to the United States, the Amateur Fencers League of Amer-
an opponent. The second innovation was the develop- ica (AFLA; founded 1891), held its first national cham-
ment of rules of engagement known as “conventions,” in pionships for men in 1892 but held no events for women
which the valid target was limited to the breast, and the until 1912. The first AFLA national women’s foil cham-
fencer who initiated the attack had precedence unless pion was Adelaide Baylis of the New York Fencers Club.
completely parried (warded off) by the defender. Fenc- The AFLA added a foil team event for women in 1928.
ing with foils thus became a “conversation of blades.” Fencers during the early years of the twentieth cen-
However, even with the advent of the foil and its con- tury were frequently three-weapon competitors. As time
ventions, fencing remained a stylized, slow sport be- passed, the duration of competitions and the size of the
cause of the chance of injury to the face and eyes. The starting fields, as well as the accompanying expenses,
third innovation—the invention of the quadrilled (hav- continued to increase. The quest for success led fencers
ing squares) wire-mesh fencing mask by the English to specialize in one weapon or at most two. Each
master Joseph Boulogne (c. 1739–1799) and the French weapon came to have its own aficionados. As noted,
master La Boiessiere during the closing decades of the women’s fencing had been restricted to the foil, but
eighteenth century—was the final step necessary to during the 1970s a group of women, particularly in the
make fencing a completely safe sport. United States and England, began campaigning to fence
More complex “phrases” (exchanges of blows) be- with the heavier weapons. Local events were staged,
came possible after the mask came into widespread eventually sectional championships were expanded, and
use, and foil fencing as it is now known was devel- finally national championships were staged. In the
oped. The conventions prevented fencing from deterio- United States épée events for women were added to the
rating into a brawl. These conventions form the basis of national championships in 1981. An épée is a sword
modern fencing. with a bowl-shaped guard and a blade of triangular
Few athletic activities were open to women during the cross-section with no cutting edge; it tapers to a sharp
nineteenth century. The exceptions were skating, lawn point blunted for fencing. Events for women were
tennis, gymnastics, and fencing. Fencing was offered at added to the national championships in 1998. Most
athletic and gymnastic clubs such as the New York Turn- women fencers today specialize in one weapon.
verein (founded 1851), which early on included women
in its activities. The New York Fencers Club (founded Competitions
1883) has had women members since the 1880s, al- The Olympic Games are connected with much of the
though during the early years women members had to history of modern fencing. Fencing was one of the eight
fence at different hours than men of the club. The sports on the program of the Olympic Games when
Fencers Club of Philadelphia (founded 1913) admitted they were revived in 1896 by Baron Pierre de Cou-
women from its inception. Not all clubs were as gra- bertin, himself a fencer. Fencing shares with only three
cious; the London Fencing Club (founded 1848) did not other sports (track and field, gymnastics, and swim-
admit its first woman member until 1946. The Boston ming) the distinction of having been on the program of
Fencing Club (founded 1840) passed the following res- every Olympic Games.
olution in 1858: “no females shall be admitted to the In 1900 an épée individual event was added at the
club-rooms under any pretext whatever, except by per- Olympic Games at Paris. Ramon Fonst of Cuba won.
mission of a member of the government of the club.” Other events for fencing masters were added on a short-
FENCING 581
A statue of fencer in Wroclaw, Poland. Source: istockphoto.com/simm18pl.
term basis. A foil team event was added at the games in The record for the most championships won by any
St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904. It was won by Cuba. Most fencer is seven: Aladar Gerevich (b. 1910) of Hungary
of the best European fencers did not attend those games won in saber individual and team between 1932 and
because of the great distance between Europe and St. 1960. He is also the only athlete in any sport to win an
Louis. At the Olympic Games at Athens, Greece, in Olympic championship at six different Olympics. The
1906 an épée team event was added, won by France; record for the most fencing medals of any types is thir-
and a saber team event was added, won by Germany. teen, held by Edoardo Mangiarotti (b. 1920) of Italy in
A saber is a light sword with an arched guard that cov- foil and épée, individual and team, between 1936 and
ers the back of the hand and a tapering, flexible blade 1960; he won five gold, five silver, and three bronze.
with a full cutting edge along one side and a partial cut- Women’s fencing champions in general have been far
ting edge on the back at the tip. A women’s foil indi- more dispersed than men’s champions, who have
vidual event was added at the Olympic Games in Paris largely been from France, Hungary, Italy, and Russia. In
in 1924. Ellen Osiier of Denmark won. A women’s foil addition to champions from those countries, Olympic
team event was added at the 1960 games in Rome and women’s champions have included Austrians, Germans,
was won by Russia. At the Olympic Games at Atlanta, English, Danes, and Chinese.
Georgia, in 1996 women’s épée individual events and Until the 1960 Olympics at Rome, when a foil team
women’s épée team events were held for the first time. event was added, the foil individual remained the only
The height of your accomplishment will equal the

depth of your convictions. ■ WILLIAM F. SCOLAVI
fencing event for women; the first winner was the Soviet women in the United States.Women’s collegiate fencing
Union. Epée events for women were added for the was years ahead of similar activity in most other U.S.
1996 Olympics at Atlanta, where the individual cham- sports for women. Bryn Mawr and the University of
pion was Laura Flessel of France; France also won the Pennsylvania established the earliest college teams dur-
team event. A world’s women’s foil championship (then ing the early 1920s. By 1929 those colleges joined with
known as the “European championship”) was initiated Cornell and New York University (NYU) to create the
in 1929; the first winner was Germany’s Helene Mayer. Intercollegiate Women’s Fencing Association (IWFA).
A women’s foil team event was added in 1932; the NYU won the first IWFA team title, and NYU’s Julia
first winner was Denmark. A world’s épée champi- Jones won the first individual title. IWFA, known since
onship was initiated in 1988; and the first Olympic 1971 as the “National Intercollegiate Women’s Fencing
saber event for women took place in the 2004 Summer Association” (NIWFA), grew to nearly eighty teams by
Olympics in Athens. 1980. However, by 2004 its membership stood at
Other successful women fencers have included Ellen twenty teams, and it has struggled to maintain itself be-
Mueller-Preiss of Austria, the 1932 Olympic champion cause of the centralization policies of the Intercollegiate
and two-time world champion, and Ilona Elek of Hun- Fencing Association (IFA), the U.S. Fencing Associa-
gary, the 1936 and 1948 Olympic champion and three- tion (USFA), the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
time world champion. for Women (AIAW), and the National Collegiate Ath-
At the 2004 Summer Olympics Mariel Zagunis won letic Association (NCAA).
the first fencing gold medal for the United States in A surge in secondary school fencing accompanied the
more than a century. Other successful U.S. women growth of collegiate fencing from the 1950s to the
fencers have been Maria Cerra Tishman, who was in a 1980s, but that surge has abated. New Jersey has the
three-way tie for second and finished fourth in the 1948 most highly developed program, followed by California
Olympics; Janice York Romary, who tied for third and and New England.
finished fourth in the 1952 Olympics and was fourth Women are increasingly involved in fencing as
again in the 1956 Olympics; and Maxine Mitchell, who coaches, administrators, and officials. Julia Jones be-
finished sixth in the 1952 Olympics. Marion Lloyd came the first woman to coach an intercollegiate cham-
Vince was the first U.S. woman to reach the Olympics pionship team in 1932. Maria Cerra Tishman in 1965
finals, placing ninth in 1932. The most successful U.S. was the first woman named to the U.S. Olympic fenc-
woman épée fencer is Donna Stone, who was fifth in ing committee. Julia Jones in 1970 was the first woman
the 1989 world championship. The most successful to coach a U.S. international squad, the World Univer-
British women fencers have been Gwen Neligan, the sity Games team. Harriet King in 1976 became the
1933 world champion, and Gillian Sheen Donaldson, first woman editor of American Fencing magazine.
the 1956 Olympic champion. Emily Johnson, a San Francisco jurist, in 1980 was the
Fencing offers athletes a much longer competitive ca- first woman elected president of the AFLA. She changed
reer than do many other sports. This fact is best shown the organization’s name, after ninety years, to the “U.S.
by the careers of Janice York Romary, who competed on Fencing Association” (USFA).
six U.S. Olympic teams between 1948 and 1968, and
Kerstin Palm of Sweden, who fenced in seven Olympics Rules and Play
between 1964 and 1988. Palm was the first woman in A fencer uses one of three types of weapons: the épée,
any sport to participate in that many Olympics. the foil, or the saber. Competitions for men or women
The creation of women’s collegiate fencing was the are conducted for all three weapons, although until the
factor most responsible for increased interest among 1970s women competed almost exclusively with the
FENCING 583
foil. Fencing events may be conducted as individual though before World War II it observed some rules
events or team events, although even in team events more characteristic of a combative weapon.
only two fencers meet each other at any one time. Team With all three types of weapons bouts in a round-
matches may be run in a “relay” fashion, in which robin pool last four minutes. Direct-elimination contests
touches (hits against an opponent) are added cumula- are encounters of ten or fifteen minutes, depending on
tively from one bout to the next. International teams are the maximum number of touches. Until 1976 women’s
usually composed of three or four on a side, with each bouts were of shorter duration than men’s.
competitor meeting each competitor on the opposing Fencing is conducted on a field of play called a “strip”
side. or “piste,” which is 2 meters wide and 14 meters long.
The foil has a flexible, slender blade, quadrangular in A fencer who exits the side of the piste is penalized 1
cross-section, and a small, circular guard that is centrally meter in distance. A fencer who exits the end of the
mounted. The maximum blade length is 90 centimeters. piste is penalized one touch.
A foil fencer tries to score, using only the point of his Fencers wear a heavy wire-mesh mask with a thick
weapon, by hitting his opponent on the torso. If the canvas bib to protect the head and neck. They also wear
fencer touches his opponent’s head, legs, or arms, no a padded glove on the weapon hand and thick canvas
point is scored, and the action resumes. If the fencer or nylon jackets and knickers. In competition fencers
touches his opponent on the torso, then a point (touch) wear additional equipment that permits electric scoring.
is scored. If both fencers touch each other, then the of- Until 1940 women fencers could wear dresses or skirts
ficial applies the conventions of right of way to assess instead of trousers or knickers. Women also wear breast
the situation and awards the touch, if any. Bouts usually protectors or plastic shields under their jackets.
are for five touches in elimination pools leading to a Until electric scoring devices were developed, fencing
final round-robin pool, ten or fifteen touches in direct- matches were adjudicated by a jury composed of a pres-
elimination ladders leading to the title bout, or a com- ident and four assistants. The president has also been
bination of both methods. Until 1976 women fenced called a “director” and, more recently, a “referee,” and the
four touch bouts in pools and eight touch bouts in di- assistants “judges.” At the end of the nineteenth century
rect elimination. foil fencers wore black uniforms, and chalk tips on foils
The épée has a wide blade, more rigid than that of a aided in the scoring; this system was not popular, par-
foil. The blade is no more than 90 centimeters long. ticularly in Europe and U.S. colleges, where form was
Epée fencing observes no conventions, and touches are also taken into account in scoring. About the time of
made with the point anywhere on an opponent. If both World War I and for the next thirty years, fencers wore
fencers hit together, then a double-touch is scored white uniforms and used red ink on the tips of épées to
against each, and both fencers are counted as having indicate a touch.
been hit. Epée bouts may be fenced to one touch or Since the invention of the mask, no innovation has had
multiple touch bouts, in pools or direct elimination, or more impact on fencing than electrified scoring. It has
a combination of both. Epée fencing for one touch is eliminated the need for assistants, leaving only the pres-
part of the five-event competition called the “modern ident to officiate. In 1935 épée was electrified in time for
pentathlon.” the world championships at Lausanne, Switzerland; in
The saber has a flexible blade with a maximum 1955 foil was electrified for the world championship in
length of 88 centimeters. In saber fencing touches made Rome; and in 1989 saber was electrified for the world
with either the point or one of the two cutting edges championships at Denver, Colorado. However, these
count if they land above the opponent’s hips. Saber advances have not been without complications. Electri-
fencing observes the conventions of foil fencing, al- fication has increased startup and maintenance costs
considerably and has had a steadily debilitating effect on the twentieth. But, believe or not, the opening of Fen-
the technique of competitors. Also, despite the objectiv- way was not the main headline of the day in Boston.
ity of the equipment, the individual bias of officials re- The tragedy of the sinking of the Titanic was the main
mains entrenched. Many observers feel that fencing has focus of attention of the nation’s papers, including
been changed from the simulation of a duel into a display Boston’s.
in which competitors simply turn on a light with flair and Although Fenway is primarily known as the home
that fencing’s truth and drama have been sacrificed to Major League Baseball’s Boston Red Sox and is the old-
speed and efficiency. est stadium in existence to hold a World Series game,
several other sports teams have called Fenway home. In
Jeffrey R. Tishman
1914 the National League’s “Miracle” Boston Braves
played their World Series games at Fenway while their
Further Reading new ballpark was being built. Three professional foot-
Bower, M. (1985). Foil fencing. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. ball teams have also called Fenway home. From 1933
Cass, E. B. (1930). The book of fencing. Boston: Lothrop, Lee & Shep- to 1936, the Boston Redskins played at Fenway, before
ard.
Castle, E. (1969). Schools and masters of fence: From the Middle Ages
moving to Washington; from 1944 to 1948 the Boston
to the eighteenth century. York, PA: George Shumway. (Original Yanks—today’s Indianapolis Colts—occupied the Fens;
work published 1888) and from 1963 to 1968, the Boston (now New Eng-
Curry, N. L. (1984). The fencing book. New York: Leisure Press.
De Beaumont, C. L. (1970). Fencing: Ancient art and modern sport. land) Patriots played their home games at Fenway be-
South Brunswick, NJ: A. S. Barnes. fore moving to Foxboro.
DeCapriles, J. R. (Ed.). (1965). AFLA rulebook. Worcester, MA: Hef-
fernan Press.
Fenway Park has significance beyond baseball and
DeCapriles, M. A. (Ed.). (1951). AFLA rulebook. New York: Amateur other sports to which it has been a home. In 1986 the
Fencers League of America. National Park Service’s National Historic Landmark
DeCapriles, M. A. (Ed.). (1957). AFLA rulebook. New York: Amateur
Fencers League of America. program undertook a nationwide thematic study of his-
Garret, M. R., & Poulson, M. H. (1981). Foil fencing. College Park, PA. toric recreational resources, and its advisory board rec-
Penn State University Press.
Shaff, J. M. (1982). Fencing. New York: Atheneum.
ommended that Fenway Park be designated a National
Thimm, C. A. (1968). A bibliography of fencing and duelling. New Historic Landmark. Unfortunately, however, the objec-
York: Benjamin Blom. (Original work published 1896) tions of the owners prevented the designation from be-
Tishman, J. R. (1990, Spring). Collegiate fencing at risk. American
Fencing, 42(1). coming official. But the design, charm, and mystique of
Tishman, J. R. (1990, Spring). College fencing damaged by NCAA and Fenway Park have not gone unnoticed or unappreci-
USFA policies. Swordmaster.
ated; elements of it have been incorporated into the lay-
outs of newer facility designs, such as those of Camden
Yards, Jacobs Field, Coors Field, Comerica Park, and Pa-
cific Bell Park.
Fenway Park Fenway History

Fenway Park has a rich history that has been in no
L ocated in Boston, Massachusetts, Fenway Park

opened on April 20, 1912, when the Boston Red
Sox beat the New York Highlanders (Yankees) 7 to 6
small part created by many of its unique design features,
as well as the feats of those who have played there.
The left-field wall, also known as the Green Monster,
in front of 27,000 fans. Fenway was originally sched- is 37 feet high, with the screen above the wall extend-
uled to open on April 18, but due to rain, there were ing another 23 feet. By way of comparison, the center-
two postponements that pushed opening day back to field wall is 17 feet high, the bull pen fences are 5 feet
FENWAY PARK 585
Fans arrive at Fenway Park for a game in the fall of 2004.
high, and the right-field fence is 3 to 5 feet high. This Fenway Park landed. Of course, the legendary Ted
configuration is much different than the more uniform Williams hit the home run, on 9 June 1946, against the
modern stadiums of today. Detroit Tigers. The blast was measured at 502 feet, and
From 1912 to 1933, there was a ten-foot-high legend has it that the ball crashed through the straw hat
mound that formed an incline in front of the left-field of the man sitting in section 42, row 37, seat 21.
wall, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center- Right field at Fenway has two other unique features.
field flagpole. As a result of the mound, a left fielder in First, no player has ever hit a home run over the park’s
Fenway had to play the entire territory running uphill. right-field roof. Second, there’s Pesky’s Pole, dubbed as
Boston’s first star left fielder, Duffy Lewis, mastered the such in the 1950s by Red Sox pitcher Mel Parnell, who
skill so well that the area became known as Duffy’s named the right-field pole after Johnny Pesky, when he
Cliff. In 1934 Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey arranged to hit a home run just inside the pole that won a game for
flatten the ground in left field so that Duffy’s Cliff no Parnell. That home run was one of only six home runs
longer existed, becoming instead part of the lore of ever hit by the Red Sox star.
Fenway Park. An innovation that first appeared at Fenway, now in
Another unique feature of Fenway is the seat in the use in all major league ballparks, is the screen behind
right-field bleachers that is painted red to mark the spot Fenway’s home plate that protects fans and allows foul
where the longest measurable home run ever inside balls to roll back down onto the field. This screen was
the first of its kind in the major leagues. Another safety Further Reading
feature added in the mid-1970s was the padding at the Fenway Park. (2005). Retrieved February 18, 2005, from http://www.
ballparks.com/baseball/american/fenway.htm
bottom of both left- and center-field walls. In Game 6 Shaughnessy, D. (1996). At Fenway: Dispatches from Red Sox. New
of the 1975 World Series, Red Sox outfielder Fred Lynn York: Crown.
crashed into the concrete wall in center trying to make Shaughnessy, D. (1999). Fenway: A biography in words and pictures.
(1999). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
a catch and lay stunned on the field for several minutes.
His near-injury prompted installation of protective
padding as seen in all stadiums today.
Venue Today Finland

Fenway Park seems to have a tradition like no other
ballpark in America. As part of its charm, Fenway still
has a hand-operated scoreboard in the left-field wall.
Green and red lights are used to signal balls, strikes, and
F inland is a republic of 5.5 million inhabitants situ-
ated in northern Europe, between Scandinavia and
Russia. The country became independent in 1917, hav-
outs, and each scoreboard number used to indicate ing previously been an autonomous Grand Duchy
runs and hits measures sixteen by sixteen inches and under the Russian Empire and before that (until 1809)
weighs three pounds. The numbers used for errors, in- a part of Sweden. The political history of the country
nings, and pitcher’s numbers measure twelve by six- has had its effects on the organization of sports, which
teen inches and weigh two pounds each. Behind this is based on a strong voluntary sports movement di-
scoreboard is a room whose walls are covered with sig- vided organizationally on the basis of class, language
natures of players who have played at Fenway Park over (Finnish/Swedish), and gender. From its early stages
the years. Although only scores from American League Finnish sporting life has emphasized a relatively few
games are posted there now, the use of this hand- male-oriented sports and top-level competitive events as
operated scoreboard adds to the park’s mystique. a way of gaining international success, which was seen
As ballparks continue to get larger and larger with to be of great political importance. Track and field and
more luxury boxes and suites, Fenway keeps its charm wrestling were the most important sports initially, fol-
as a backyard park, with a “backyard” capacity as well. lowed by cross-country skiing. Today, the most popular
The largest crowd ever at Fenway was 47,627, but due top-level sports are ice hockey and auto racing.
to fire codes that capacity has been reduced, and today Women’s group gymnastics is one of the most popular
Fenway can hold 36,298, which is the lowest capacity sports in terms of numbers of participants.
in the major leagues.
Finally, even the players get a taste of tradition at Fen- History of Finnish Sports
way. As other ballparks have state-of-the-art locker-room The main forms of traditional popular sports were de-
facilities and player amenities, Fenway’s clubhouses are veloped in the agrarian communities in the country-
still small and modest (cramped and uncomfortable side. Prominent among them were various strength
could describe them as well). The tunnels that lead to events (wrestling, stone lifting, pulling and throwing
the dugouts are usually wet, and the floorboards creak, competitions) and traditional throwing/hitting games.
which wasn’t unusual for the older ballparks of the Fen- Indoor sports practiced in wintertime tested agility and
way era. But, while those other old parks have disap- cleverness, for both genders of all ages. Skiing was at
peared, Fenway remains as a tribute to a storied past. first foremost a practical way of moving about, as were
horse carriage driving and rowing. They were turned
Aaron L. Mulrooney and Alvy Styles
into sports only during the nineteenth century.
FINLAND 587
Indigenous sports and forms of modern sport first competitive physical exercises. A “national front” against
met at the circus (from the early nineteenth century), “one-sided” competitive sports of foreign origin formed,
and since the 1860s at local folk festivals, where mod- centered at first around a Finnish-language gymnastics
ern shooting and running competitions and traditional and sports federation (1900). In 1906 a central Finnish
combat forms were exhibited. In the 1870s skating be- Gymnastics and Sports Federation (SVUL) was
came a part of social life in towns, and gymnastics clubs founded, with competitive sports as part of its program.
began to organize exercises for men and women. Be- Competitive sports won political and social acceptance
ginning in the 1880s, cross-country skiing, cycling, and especially after 1912, when the great success of Finnish
tourism won popularity among the middle class. All- athletes at the Stockholm Olympic Games was used to
embracing gymnastics and sports clubs became a basic procure sympathy for the cause of national struggle
form of organization of physical activity in the 1890s. against Russian oppression. Having won independence
The model for modern sports in Finland came from (1917), Finland kept on running (Paavo Nurmi being its
both West (England, Scandinavia, later from the United top runner), wrestling, and later on skiing to gain more
States) and East (Saint Petersburg, Russia) as well as international fame. Only athletes representing the SVUL
from Central Europe. A national form of men’s gym- could take part in the Olympic Games. The sportsmen
nastics was developed, emphasizing many-sided, non- and sportswomen of the Workers’ Sports Federation
Finland
Key Events in Finland Sports History
1842 Sports activities are made obligatory in the 1920s The Finnish government begins financing
school curriculum for boys. sports institutions and training facilities.
1872 Sports activities are made obligatory in the 1926 The world Nordic skiing championships are
school curriculum for girls. held for the first of six times at Lahti.
1890s Gymnastics and sports clubs became the 1952 The Olympics are held in Helsinki.
basic form for the organization of physical
activity. 1983 The first World Athletics Championships are
held in Helsinki.
1896 The Women’s Gymnastics Federation is
founded. 1987 The comprehensive “Young Finland” sports
program is established.
1900 A Finnish-language gymnastics and sports
federation is founded. 1993 The Finnish Sports Federation is founded.
1906 The Finnish Gymnastics and Sports Federa- 1995 The Finnish national hockey team wins the
tion (SVUL) is founded. world championship.
1906 Finland participates in the Olympics for the 2001 A doping scandal involving Nordic skiers
first time. leads to a reevaluation of sports in Finnish
society.
1919 The Workers’ Sports Federation is founded
and organizes Workers’ Olympiads and Spar-
takiads.
(TUL, founded in 1919) participated in Workers’ and international media exposure is the World Rally
Olympiads and Spartakiads. Championship race based in Jyväskylä in Central
The Finnish state began financing sports institutions Finland.
and training facilities in the 1920s. Private financing
took place on a very small scale. The sports movement Women and Sport
was seen as a part of ideological popular movements The first form that modern women’s physical training
based on voluntary work. Professional sports did not took in Finland was gymnastics, introduced in the cur-
gain structural footing in Finland until the 1990s. riculum of girls’ schools since the 1860s. The first fe-
male gymnastics teachers were schooled at a private
Participant and Spectator Sports institute, since 1894 at the Gymnastics Institute of
According to the most recent survey (2001–2002), the Helsinki University. Elin Kallio was the leading person
most popular sports in Finland in terms of numbers of in Finnish women’s gymnastics movement, which de-
participants in organized competitions are floorball, veloped simultaneously with, but separate from, men’s
football, volleyball, and golf. The most popular specta- gymnastics. The first Finnish women’s gymnastics club
tor sports are ice hockey, football, Nordic skiing, track was founded in 1876, the Women’s Gymnastics Feder-
and field, and auto racing. Pesäpallo, a Finnish variant ation in 1896. The basis for women’s gymnastics was
of baseball, is locally popular, especially in rural areas. the so-called Swedish (Lingian) gymnastics. Using it,
Elite sports have always been considered important Elli Björkstén developed a special system for women by
in Finland. In the 1920s and 1930s, Finland was the 1920s.
counted among the great powers of Olympic sports, es- Women’s competitive sports had an early start in
pecially in track and field, where Paavo Nurmi reigned Finland. In the first decades of the twentieth century, na-
supreme in long-distance running. Consequently, elite tional championships were held in ice-skating, swim-
sports became a vital ingredient in the build-up of the ming, skiing, and track and field. The 1920s saw a
Finnish national identity. After World War II, Finnish backlash, especially in track and field, during which
successes waned, but sports retained its place at the time women’s participation on national and interna-
center of national imagery. tional levels was strongly opposed by the leading male
Finland has taken part in every Olympic Games since organizations. At the same time, the women’s gymnas-
1906. In overall medal standings, Finland occupies tics movement grew enormously, implying a strict gen-
eleventh place in Summer Olympic Games medals and der division in the sports movement. After World War
fifth place in Winter Games medals. In 1952 Finland II, women’s committees for promoting women’s rights
very successfully hosted the Olympic Games in on all levels were founded in male-controlled sports or-
Helsinki. Finland also has a proud record in interna- ganizations. There was a new rise in women’s and girls’
tional track and field championships. The inaugural sports participation, especially in track and field, cross-
World Athletics Championships were held in Helsinki country skiing, and ball games. Football (soccer) was in-
in 1983, to be followed by the 2005 edition of the troduced as a women’s sport in the 1970s, followed by
event in the Olympic Stadium. Modern indoor arenas other former “male sports,” from weightlifting to box-
built in Turku (1991) and Helsinki (1997) have hosted ing.Yet the traditional women’s group gymnastics is still
world championship tournaments in ice hockey. Fin- the most popular form of women’s sport, challenged,
land has some of the best facilities in the world for however, by the growing number of private commercial
Nordic skiing, notably at Lahti, host city of six world fitness centers and enterprises. In the seventy-five na-
championships, beginning in 1926. The largest annual tional sports federations, 34 percent of the membership
sports event in Finland in terms of number of spectators but only 19 percent of the council members are women.
FINLAND 589
The great runner Paavo

Nurmi lighting Olympic flame
at the Opening Ceremony of
the Helsinki Olympic Games
(19 July 1952).
Youth Sports
Children and youth have long partic-
ipated in sports activities in obliga-
tory school curriculum (boys since
1842, girls since 1872). First associa-
tions for school sports were founded
in 1898; in the beginning girls could
participate. Sections for girls and boys
were founded in some voluntary
sports and gymnastics clubs. In 1931
a special federation for boys’ sports
was founded within the central sports
federation, SVUL; in the TUL a youth
section organized sports for children.
After World War II, a Sports Federa-
tion for Boys and Girls was founded
in the SVUL to recruit talented youth
and also to promote social youth
work; it was supported financially by
state. However, the first programs that
took into consideration children’s
own needs were initiated only in the
1980s, both in the SVUL and in the
TUL. Further, in 1987 a comprehen-
sive program, “Young Finland,” was
started as a joint effort of sports organizations. In ad- fi), ice hockey (www.finhockey.fi), and women’s gym-
dition the ethical and educational ideal of “fair play” in nastics (www.svoli.fi). The Swedish-language central or-
sport is promoted by a “green card” system, initiated by ganization, CIF (www.cif.fi), and the Workers’ Sports
the Football Association (1991). Currently, the dimin- Federation, TUL, (www.tul.fi) are also members of SLU.
ishing role of school sports is being discussed actively. The Finnish Olympic Committee (www.noc.fi) has a
prominent role in representation and coordination of
Organizations elite sports.
Finnish sports organizations were brought under the
umbrella of the Finnish Sports Federation (SLU; www. Sports in Society
slu.fi) in 1993. It has fifteen regional branch organiza- Sports and elite athletes have generally been highly
tions and seventy-five national sports associations as valued in Finland. Finns have always taken pride in
full members. On the local level, the SLU encompasses their glorious Olympic history. Success in interna-
7,800 sport clubs. The largest national sports associa- tional sport has traditionally been seen as an entry
tions are those in track and field (www.sul.fi), skiing card into the community of nations. This was evident
(www.hiihtoliitto.fi), football (soccer) (www.palloliitto. as late as in 1995, when the Finnish national ice
Finland Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 4 Gold, 2 Silver, 1 Bronze
2004 Summer Olympics: 2 Silver
hockey team won its first-ever world championship, a participation, Finland still ranks highly when meas-
victory that was wildly celebrated and seen in sym- ured against other nations.
bolic connection with Finland’s entry to the Euro-
Leena Laine and Vesa Tikander
pean Union, which took place in the same year. The
high esteem in which elite athletes are held is also re-
flected in political life: twelve Olympic athletes, most Further Reading
of whom medalists, have been elected to the Finnish Hannus, M. (1990). Flying Finns. Story of the great tradition of Finnish
Parliament. distance running and cross-country skiing. Helsinki, Finland: Tieto-
sanoma Oy.
In 2001 six top Finnish cross-country skiers were Häyrinen, R., & Laine, L. (1989). Suomi urheilun suurvaltana [Finland
caught for doping at the World Championships in as the great power of sport]. In E. Vasara (Ed.), Liikuntatieteellisen
Lahti, Finland. This high-profile case in a revered na- Seuran julkaisuja 115. Helsinki, Finland: Liikuntatieteellinen Seura.
Laine, L. (1984). Vapaaehtoisten järjestöjen kehitys ruumiinkulttuurin
tional sport, involving some of the most respected alueella Suomessa v. 1856–1917, I–II (The Development of vol-
Finnish sports heroes, dealt a severe blow to Finnish untary organizations in the area of physical culture in Finland in the
years 1856–1917). Liikuntatieteellisen Seuran julkaisu (pp. 93A–
elite sports in general. State support was reevaluated 93B). Helsinki: Liikuntatieteellinen Seura.
and tied to strict ethical guidelines, while private Laine, L. (1989). Historische entwicklung des frauensports in Finnland.
sponsorship plummeted and public opinion became In C. Peyton & G. Pfister (Eds.), Frauensport in Europa (pp 113–
129), Hamburg: Zwalina.,
cynical. Already curtailed by economic depression in Laine, L. (1996). TUL: The Finnish worker sports movement. In A.
the early 1990s, the funding of Finnish elite sports Krüger & J. Riordan (Eds.), The Story of worker sport (pp. 67–80).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
lags far behind that of neighboring countries. These Laine, L. (2003). Finland: The promised land of Olympic sports. In A.
domestic constraints do not apply to a handful of Krüger & B. Murray (Eds.), The Nazi Olympics: Sport, politics and
Finnish athletes who have been successful in major appeasement in the 1930s (pp. 145–161) (Sport and Society Series).
Urbana, Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
professional sports, such as Formula One and rally Meinander, H. (1994). Towards a bourgeois manhood: Boys’ physical
drivers, ice hockey players, and alpine skiers. education in Nordic secondary schools 1880–1940. Commenta-
tiones Scientiarum Socialium 47.
Nieminen, L. (Ed.). (1991). Physical education in Finnish schools.
The Future Helsinki: The Finnish Society for Research in Sport and Physical Ed-
The reputation of Finnish elite sports has suffered in ucation.
Palkama, M., & Nieminen, L. (1997). Sport and physical education in
the last few years. The doping cases in cross-country Finland. Helsinki: The Finnish Society for Research in Sport and
skiing were preceded by a match-fixing scandal in the Physical Education.
national sport pesäpallo. A rapid change of values has
taken place in elite sports, marked by their open com-
mercialization. There is turmoil on the grassroots level
as well, as traditional forms of voluntary club activity
are threatened by diminishing. municipal financial sup-
Fishing
port for the sports clubs, making them even more de-
pendent on the efforts of volunteers. On the other
hand, participation in sports is becoming more indi-
A lthough no one can accurately pinpoint the date
“fishing” as a survival strategy to provide food for
the stomach was transformed to sport as “food for the
vidualistic. As financial support from public authorities soul,” both practical and leisure fishing have been
diminishes, inequality of opportunity to participate in around as long as humankind. Angling, often used syn-
sports increases. State-supported gender equality pro- onymously with fishing, is the art and sport of casting
grams are also still far from meeting their targets. De- a line to a target, using artificial bait to lure and land
spite these trends, using the criteria of equality of fish, and often releasing the catch to provide sport for
opportunity to participate in sport and actual levels of another day. The angler considers fishing as catching
FISHING 591
fish without regard to method, to provide food for the than $570 million a year to the Australia’s economy
frying pan. Angling has become popular around the and supporting an estimated 7,000 jobs. Freshwater
world. Its venues include freshwater streams, lakes, and sea anglers in the United Kingdom were estimated
and saltwater seas and oceans. Competitors are male at more than 3.5 million in 1994 and are also believed
and female and span all age groups and all back- to be on the rise. Fishing seems to have a universal ap-
grounds. The excitement of a sudden strike arising from peal, combining the sporting challenge with outdoor
calm water, the thrill of the fish pulling on the line, and ambience and the accomplishment connected with
the ensuing challenge to land the fish creates an at- landing a prize fish.
traction for outdoors enthusiasts. Even when the fish
aren’t biting, the true “angler” finds sport in merely Early Methods and Equipment
making accurate casts, hitting a target that may be as Early historians established that fish were first caught
far as 375 feet (114 meters) away. Fishing is never a with bare hands and that early Persians included fish as
predictable sport—luck and the whims of the fish part of their national diet, about 3000 BCE. The fish
equalize expertise and modern equipment in all com- were caught most easily as tides receded, leaving fish
petitive tournaments. flailing on dry beaches or caught in pools of water. A re-
lated method known as “tickling” is still practiced in
Economic Impact many countries today, where the fisher leans over a
In the United States, the American Sportfishing Associ- pool of water, puts her hands under the fish and pro-
ation reported that forty-five million Americans over ceeds to tickle the belly of the fish. As the fish lazily re-
the age of six spent more than $42 billion on fishing laxes with the tickling motion, the fisher makes a
tackle, trips, and related services in 2001, with each an- sudden grab with spread fingers, and tosses the fish to
gler spending an average of $1,046 on fishing. The the riverbank or grassy area, where it can be collected
sportfishing industry is estimated to be a $116 billion for the evening dinner. Tickling is still popular, espe-
business in the United States alone. The National Sur- cially in the Rocky Mountain region of the United
vey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recre- States, in late summer when the waters are low and fish
ation estimated that Americans sixteen years and older have become trapped in pools near the sides of streams.
spent an average of sixteen days fishing in 2001, with Spear fishing is believed to be the next form of fish-
more than 9 million saltwater anglers and more than ing; however, the valuable spears were too often lost in
27.93 million freshwater participants. Of that number, waters, leaving the hungry fisher without a catch to
20 percent of women and 37 percent of men partici- show for work and without the spear to try again. Har-
pated. Members of minority groups in the United States pooning was developed as a form of spear fishing—it
participated at a lower rate than Caucasian partici- allowed the implement to be used repeatedly, saving the
pants did; however, participation rates among African- spear, and enabling the fish to be hauled in efficiently.
American and Hispanic populations are rising. Similar Today, harpooning, spear, and bow fishing are all prac-
reports from recreation and environmental agencies in ticed for sport.
countries around the world demonstrate recreational The Egyptians were the first people to use lines for
fishing to be on the rise. In Australia, for example, par- fishing and a burr as a crude form of bait. Early Egypt-
ticipation in recreational fishing of all kinds has more ian pictures from unearthed tombs depict men using a
than doubled from 284,000 people to about 600,000 rod or fish pole with a line attached to catch the fish
people each year with about 34 percent of the popula- and a club to render the catch motionless upon hauling
tion over five years old participating. Economically, it to shore. Their lines were made from a vine, and the
recreational fisheries are important, contributing more burr was attached to the end to attract the fish. Small
An English fishing stream in winter.
and beginning the commercial trade with the excess

fish hauled in.
The first written accounts on fly casting were by Mar-
tial, a Roman (10 BCE–20 CE), and Aelian, an Italian
(170–230 CE). Artificial bait (an imitation of a fly) is
substituted for live lures such as bait fish or worms or
grasshoppers. The first accounts of angling by a woman
—Dame Juliana Berners in Treatyse of Fysshynge with
an Angle—were published in 1496. Berners was an
English nun and noblewoman who described both fish-
ing and hunting techniques between 1420 and 1450,
as entries in The Booke of St. Albans (1486), the first
work published in the English language on hunting
and sport. The detailed use of a rod and techniques use-
ful in the sport of fly-casting were first included in a later
fish would swallow the burr and were drug into the edition (1496).
shore. Larger fish were often bludgeoned with a club as The seventeenth century was a highly developmental
they got close to the shore. The Egyptians eventually re- period for angling equipment. Thomas Barker’s The Art
placed the vine with lines made from braided animal of Angling (1651) included detailed drawings of a fish-
hair, and the burr with thornwood branches, increasing ing reel, descriptions of artificial flies, and rods 18- to
the range of the cast. They added hooks made from 22-feet long, with pleated horsehair tied to one end.
bone to keep the larger fish entangled and on the line. Izaak Walton and Charles Cotton, in The Compleat An-
Later, the bone hooks were replaced by ivory, then gler (1653), wrote about new tackle and methods of
bronze, iron, and eventually steel, as people from other fishing using wire loops or rings attached at the tip end
nations began sharing techniques and materials of the rod, to facilitate the untangled use of a running
through trade routes. In A History of the Fish Hook, line for both casting and playing a hooked fish. Barker
Hans Jorgen Hurum reported discoveries of bone fish- (1667) also refers to a salmon-fishing line of twenty-six
hooks as old as 20,000 years in Moravia and 8,000 yards and the refinement of the reel to manage the line
years in Nordic countries. European explorers of North without tangling. In response to the “ones that got
American found Native Americans using fishhooks away,” anglers began experimenting with material for
made from wood, stone, and bone. Hurum also re- the line, including gut string (Samuel Pepys, 1667) and
ported that early anglers used a gorge, a stick covered of lute string (Robert Venables, 1676). In 1667, Barker
by bait, attached to the end of a line. The fish swallowed also noted the use of a landing hook, called a gaff, for
the baited stick lengthwise, and when the line was lifting large hooked fish from the water. Charles Kirby,
jerked tightly, the stick lodged crosswise, allowing the a needle maker, began experimenting with shapes of the
fish to be hauled to shore. hook about 1650. He later invented the Kirby bend, a
The Chinese were known to have used braided silk hook with an offset point that is still in common use
for fishing lines by 900 BCE. India recorded using fish worldwide.
as food about 800 BCE, catching them chiefly with A rod with guides for the line along its length and a
spears attached to vines, but also with braided hair or reel emerged by 1770. The earliest rendition of the reel
silk lines. About 500 BCE, records report Jewish men was placed on the underside of the rod, and had gear-
fishing with woven nets, collecting fish in vast numbers ing that resulted in several revolutions of the spool with
FISHING 593
Fishing
The South Wind
each crank of the handle. Its popularity was immediate, A FISHERMAN’S BLESSINGS
and became the prototype of the bait-casting reel de-
O blessed drums of Aldershot!
veloped in Kentucky in the early 1800s. On the other
O blessed South-west train!
side of the Atlantic, the Nottingham reel, patterned after
O blessed, blessed Speaker’s clock,
the wooden lace bobbin, was commonly used in
All prophesying rain!
Britain. A wide-drummed, ungeared, and free-running
O blessed yaffil, laughing load!
reel, the Nottingham was better suited for letting the
O blessed falling glass!
line and lure float downstream with the current, or for
O blessed fan of cold gray cloud!
casting lures into waves in deep-sea fishing. The Not-
O blessed smelling grass!
tingham reel was the precursor design for today’s fly-
O bless’d South wind that toots his horn
fishing reels.
Through every hole and crack!
From 1880 onward, fishing equipment/tackle has
I’m off at eight to-morrow morn
been constantly evolving. Fishing line progressed from
To bring such fishes back!
horsehair, to greased or oiled silk, and today is com-
Source: Kingsley, C. (1901). A fisherman’s blessings. In H. Peek, (Ed.), Poetry of
prised of a variety of synthetic materials. Anglers found sport (p. 260). London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
that greased lines floated, and were desired for top-
water fishing. If grease or oil were not used on the
lines, they would sink and attract deepwater prey. The
changes in line composition allowed for greater dis- flipped open during casting, but that closes for reeling.
tance in casting, and increased the anglers’ ability to use The gears are positioned at angles, so that the line is
either wet or dry flies as bait for lures. In the Notting- wound perpendicularly to the crank of the handle.
ham reel, the wooden spool was replaced by spools of In the twentieth century, with the industrial advances
hard rubber (ebonite), or by metallic substances. Lighter in artificial materials, rods became shorter and lighter
and evenly tempered crafter spools created a more free- without sacrificing strength. Split bamboo was replaced
spinning effect, and resulted in the reels spinning so fast by fiberglass, and then by carbon fiber rods. By the
that the lines became tangled (referred to as an overrun 1930s, the fixed-spool reel was the tool of choice in Eu-
or backlash). To resolve this problem, governors were rope, and after World War II, in North America and the
created. The governor moves across the spool and rest of the world, it created a boom in spin casting.
evenly spreads the line as it is reeled. This fixed the tan- Nylon monofilament and braided synthetic lines were
gling during the uptake of line, but failed to resolve the developed in the late 1930s, and plastic coverings for
tangling during casting. In 1880, the Malloch Com- fly lines allowed them to float or sink without greasing.
pany (Scotland) introduced the first turntable reel. This Plastic also became the dominant material for artificial
reel left one side of the spool open, and turned 90 de- casting lures.
grees (hence the name turntable)—or parallel with the
rod—during casting, a position that allowed the line to Organizing Competitive Fishing
slip easily and rapidly off the spool during the casting Around the World
phase. For reeling line in, the spool was returned to its Freshwater fishing attracts most of the anglers in the
original position, perpendicular to the rod. Further reel United States and Canada; in other nations, saltwater
refinement by Holden Illingworth, an English textile fishing is the sport of choice—most likely because
magnate, led to the fixed spool or spinning reel used North America has more freshwater streams and lakes
today. The reel is positioned with the spool aligned than most other continents do, and most of its popu-
with the rod, and usually has a metal guard that is lous lives further from saltwater. In the United States,
Many men go fishing all of their lives without knowing

that it is not fish they are after. ■ HENRY DAVID THOREAU
official angling competitions began when the Schuylkill Stream magazine turned over the tracking of freshwater
Fishing Company was formed in Philadelphia, Penn- records to the IGFA.
sylvania (1732). Still in existence today as the Fish Today, the IGFA has many activities:
House Club, it is believed to be the oldest continuous
■ Supervises marine-fishing competitions
sporting body in the United States. A national tourna-
■ Establishes the weight categories for lines
ment was arranged in 1861, but details are sketchy
■ Keeps championship records
about results or competition rules. The American Rod
■ Promotes scientific study through the tagging of re-
and Reel Association was founded in 1874, and the
leased fish to explore fish habitat patterns and mon-
first U.S. national fly-casting tournament was staged in
itor endangered species
conjunction with the 1893 World’s Columbian Expo-
■ Sponsors both saltwater and freshwater competitive
sition in Chicago. The events were accuracy, accuracy
events
fly, delicacy fly, long-distance bait, and long-distance
■ Archives world fishing in the E. K. Harry Library of
fly-casting. In the early competitions, all casts were ac-
Fishes
tually made on a lawn, to accurately measure distances
because this measurement was not possible yet on The IGFA Fishing Hall of Fame and Museum in
water. After the fifth U.S. National Tournament, (1906), Dania Beach, Florida, contains more than 13,000
the National Association of Scientific Angling Clubs books and 150 outdoor and fishing magazines from
was formed (1906) and became the governing body of many countries and in many languages (some from as
the sport of fly-casting. This group later (1960) changed early as the 1930s), and numerous videos and scientific
its name to the American Casting Association. documents about the sport.
The years just before and during World War II were Halls of fame and museums are numerous, and con-
a boom for saltwater fishing. The growth of air travel tain facts and records about fishing and angling around
after World War II made many areas of the world ac- the world. Many are aligned with a specific type of fish
cessible to anglers and introduced them to new fish, or angling competition. For example, the National Bass
such as the dorado of Argentina and the tigerfish of Fishing Hall of Fame is located in Hot Springs,
Central Africa. The International Game Fish Association Arkansas (www.probassfishinghof.com), and has arti-
(IGFA) was established in 1939 to promote and regu- facts, statistics, equipment, and photos about bass fish-
late big-game fishing, in collaboration between sports- ing. The Internation Big Fish Network (www.ibfn.org)
men from England, Australia, and the United States. is comprised of 1,600 organizations around the world,
Within a year, membership included two scientific in- and links information on fishing associations and clubs,
stitutions, ten member clubs, and twelve overseas rep- tournament dates and locations, boat builders and
resentatives. Within ten years, it rose to ten scientific worldwide news, education, and advocacy actions in
institutions, eighty member clubs, and representatives in support of ocean fisheries. The Western Australia Mar-
forty-one areas of the world. The first overseas repre- itime Museum (www.museum.wa.gov.au) has a section
sentatives were Clive Firth of Australia, and others from entitled “Hooked on Fishing” that has exhibits related to
Nigeria, New Zealand, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Chile, cultural and historical facts of fishing and angling, and
Costa Rica, the Canal Zone, Cuba, Hawaii, Mexico, includes methods developed by Aboriginal fisherman.
and Puerto Rico. Notables among early IGFA members Granville Island, Vancouver, Canada, lists among its
and officers were authors Ernest Hemingway and Philip museum collection: “Hardy Brothers Reels, Rare art, Fry
Wylie, and Charles M. Breder, Jr., Chairman of the Plates, Salmon Fishing History, Ralph Wahl Pho-
Committee on Scientific Activities. In 1978, Field & tographs” (www.sportfishingmuseum.com). The Amer-
FISHING 595
A father and son

fishing on a lake.
Source: istockphoto/fullvalue.
ican Museum of Fly Fishing

(www.amff.com), in Manchester,
Vermont, is an education institu-
tion dedicated to fly fishing. The
National (US) Freshwater Fishing
Hall of Fame and Museum in
Hayward, Wisconsin, was organ-
ized (1960) to collect and display
freshwater angling. It is especially
attractive to children, with the
building shaped like a giant fish
(muskie). Visitors walk through
and learn about the history of
freshwater fishing, conservation
efforts, the catch and release pro-
gram, and other activities related ■ Wet-fly fishing places the fly beneath the surface and
to angling and fishing. The website also has educational requires less line management.
information for kids, including photos for fish recogni-
tion, conservation information, and tying knots. Artful anglers use the techniques according to the
natural environmental conditions and the development
Types of Fishing Today of the bait during the seasons. Similarly, both fly and
Bait fishing refers to fishing with live bait such as bait fishing require knowledge of the seasonal condi-
worms, grasshoppers, or small fish. Lures are fake bait tions and tastes of the prey, plus a wide array of flies,
such as plastic worms or flashy metal lures (jigs, plugs, lures, and bait in varied colors to attract the most elu-
or spoons) that attract fish by darting movements as sive prey.
they are pulled through the water. Coined by bass fish- Whether using bait, lures, or flies, anglers practice the
ermen in the 1960s, the term crankbait has been apart of casting, or getting the fishing line from the pole
plied to hard-bodied lures made out of wood, plastic, to the place where the fish lie. Techniques for casting are
foam, or other materials that simulate the wiggling, many and combine the skill of placing the line artfully
wobbling action of bait fish as it is cranked or reeled in. with an understanding of how fish swim, experiential
The avid bait angler has an assortment of lures in the knowledge of where they are likely to hide, and scien-
tackle box. tific knowledge of the flow of the waters in the stream
Fly-fishing uses a collection of strings, feathers, or or lake. Spin casting is considered the easier method,
other artificial materials, tied to resemble bugs that nat- using a reel that releases the line with the cast and the
urally inhabit lakes or streams and that provide food for weight of the lure or bait. Fly casting is considered the
fish in their environment. more difficult sport because of the light weight of the fly
and longer line, which is hand fed with each arm move-
■ Dry-fly fishing requires the angler to place the fly on ment. Fly-casting line is often heavy and colored at the
the surface momentarily—and to create movement reel end, and gradually slims and is colorless at the lure
similar to that of a live fly flitting across the top of the end, to allow the angler to see the flight pattern of the
water. line, while not alarming the fish near the fly.
Fishing
The Spirituality of Fishing, 1606
An extract from A Booke of Angling or Fishing. more good and we shall do indiscreetly, to deale
Wherein is shewed, by conference with Scriptures, roughly with such. For as the water of a spacious and
the agreement between the Fisherman, Fishes, Fish- deepe lake, being still and quiet by nature, by ruffling
ing of both natures, Temporall and Spirituall by windes is moued and disquieted; so a people
Samuel Gardiner, 1606. tractable by nature, by the rough behauiour of the
Minister may be as much turmoyled and altered from
Every Fisher-man hath his proper baytes, agreeable to
his nature.
the nature of those fishes that hee trowleth or angleth
The fisherman baiteth not his hook that the fish
for. For at a bare hooke no Fish will bite. The case-
might only take it, but be taken of it. The red-worme,
worme, the dewe-worme, the gentile, the flye, the
the case-worme, maggot-flies, small flie, small roche,
small Roache, and suche-like, are for their turnes ac-
or such like, are glorious in outward appearance to
cording to the nature of the waters, and the times,
the fish. So the riches, prioritie, authoritie, of the
and the kindes of fishes. Whoso fisheth not with a
world, are but pleasant bayts laid out for our de-
right bayte, shall neuer do good. Wee that are spritu-
struction. The fisherman’s bayte is a deadly deceite:
all fishermen, haue our seurall baites suitable to the
so are all the pleasures of the world. As all the waters
stomackes we angle for. If we obserue not the natures
of the riuers runne into the salt sea, so all worldly de-
of our auditors, and fit ourselves to them, we shall
lights, in the saltish sea of sorrows finish their course.
not do wisely. Let such as will not bee led by love bee
Wherefore mistrust worldly benefits as baites, and
drawne by feare. But with some the spirit of meeknes
feed not upon them in hungry wise.
will doe most, and loue rather than a rodde doth
In fly-casting tournaments, the target usually is a rub- those waters. Men’s records date back to the 1890s, and
ber circle about thirty inches in diameter. For accuracy women’s records begin in the early 1920s.
casting tests, five rings are placed about five feet apart,
and the competitor tries for a bull’s-eye in each. Nor- Freshwater Fishing
mally, the competitor is permitted two casts at each Freshwater fish come a variety of sizes and shapes.
ring and a total time limit of about eight minutes for all Most commonly known freshwater game fish include
the casts. In accuracy casting, ties are possible because bass, bluegill, trout, salmon, catfish, and crappies, com-
the winner is determined by an aggregate of points monly known as panfish. More hearty anglers seek out
scored. Distance events start with a target being placed trophy-sized species like pike, muskie, walleye, and stur-
at medium range, and then moved progressively with geon. Peter Dubuc’s 46-pound, 2-ounce pike caught in
each competitor’s successful cast. This is head-to-head 1940 in New York’s Sacandaga Lake is the North Amer-
competition, with the winner being the competitor who ican record. A fish mounted in Michigan’s tourism of-
successfully hits the furthest target. fice weighed 193 pounds and was speared through the
Categories are created based upon the weight and ice by Joe Maka in 1974. Such monster fish are rarely
type of bait, bug, fly, or plug in both distance and ac- caught, with habitats in the dark, deepest parts of the
curacy events. They are also divided by water—either Great Lakes. Canadian biologists have records of lake
saltwater (billfish, tuna, shark, or other ocean catch) or sturgeon reaching 212, 220, 236, and 275 pounds.
freshwater (trout, bass, catfish, stripers, pike, muskies, Improved electronics and sonar tracking may eventually
salmon, steelhead, and others)—and sometimes by the lead to new record catches in the Great Lakes regions
specific type of freshwater or saltwater fish found in of the United States and Canada.
FISHING 597
Fishing is much more than fish. It is the great occasion when we may
return to the fine simplicity of our forefathers. ■ HERBERT HOOVER
Freshwater angling is alluring, and both men and cludes massive rods with butts fitted into sockets
women have contributed to its rich history. Cornelia T. mounted on the chair of fighting seats, into which an-
Crosby (1854–1946), a guide in the Maine woods for glers can be strapped. Reels are large with Dacron or
almost seventy years, was credited with catching more Terylene line, and wire leader near the hook. Billfish
fish with a fly than anyone before her. She is credited as (including swordfish, marlin, spearfish, and sailfish) are
the pioneer of the short skirt (seven inches above the considered some of the most exciting species for ocean
ground) to avoid entangling her submerged feet, as well anglers. W. C. Boshen caught the first recorded broad-
as with starting the tradition of hooking flies around the bill swordfish in 1913, and only about 800 catches have
band of her hat. Known as “Fly Rod” Crosby from her been recorded catches since. The Sian Ka’an Biosphere
column The Maine Woods, she was commissioned to Reserve along the Caribbean coast of eastern Mexico
carry custom-made rods and write travel brochures for is renowned as a fly-fishing and light-tackle capital of
the railroads of the region. Today, the clothing and out- the world for bonefish, permit, and tarpon. Saltwater
fitting of anglers is a multibillion-dollar industry, which fishing also abounds around the Pacific Rim, Australia,
continues to develop new gear to make all types of fish- and New Zealand and in the Atlantic Ocean, south of
ing more comfortable and convenient. Crosby’s con- Bermuda.
temporary was Mary Orvis-Marbury, whose fly tying
and recording of the flies used by anglers in the United Record Catches
States (Favorite Flies and Their Histories, 1893) inspired As in freshwater fishing, both men and women are ac-
the founding of the Orvis Company, known for fishing tive competitors. Helen Lerner became the first woman
apparel, equipment, and tackle. The first Woman Fly- to haul a broadbill out of both the Atlantic and the Pa-
fisher’s Club (1932) formed by Julia Fairchild and Frank cific Oceans, with one being a 570-pounder, caught off
Connell is credited for modern conservation efforts. the coast of Peru, in 1936. She later received a gold
Angling is also a lifetime activity. For example, Joan medal from France’s Academie des Sports for catching
Salvato captured her first title at the age of eleven, held the first giant tuna on a rod and reel off the coast of
the women’s dry fly accuracy record from1943 to 1946, Brittany. Helen and her husband Michael Lerner are
and recaptured the title in 1951. By age thirty-four, she both known for their scientific contributions to the
had seventeen national and one international records, study and recording of the diet and migratory patterns
held a distance record of 161 feet and was the first of many of the ocean’s game fish—inviting scientists on
woman to win the distance event against all male com- their expeditions—and were instrumental in the for-
petitors. Salvato and her husband Lee Wulff established mation of the IGFA. Michael served as its president
the Joan and Lee Wulff Fishing School and wrote sev- from1941 to 1960.
eral books and a monthly feature for Fly Rod & Reel. The albacore tuna is prized by saltwater anglers for
its fighting spirit and tenacity against being landed once
Saltwater and Big-Game Fishing hooked. The women’s bluefin tuna record is 886
Big-game fishing emerged as competitive sport as the pounds, by Gertrude Collings (1970). The IGFA All-
motorized boat emerged as a recreational vehicle. Note- Tackle Record Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus) weighed
worthy to its development was C. F. Holder, who 1,496 pounds, caught by Ken Fraser of Prince Edward
hooked a 183-pound bluefin tuna near Santa Catalina Island, Aulds Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada in 1979.
Island, California in 1898. Saltwater big-game fish in- Another of the great saltwater catches is the marlin.
clude tuna, marlin, swordfish, and shark. Big-game com- Although not in the official IGFA records (sharks bit the
petitions include not just catching the biggest fish, but fish at the boat), Zane Grey, author and world traveler,
doing so on the lightest tackle and line. Equipment in- caught the first “grander,” a 1,040-pound blue marlin
There’s a fine line between fishing and just standing

on the shore like an idiot. ■ STEVEN WRIGHT
off Tahiti (1930). Another 1,000-plus pound marlin Further Reading

wasn’t landed for twenty-two years. The largest fish (by American Sportfishing Association. (2005). Retrieved March 30, 2005,
from http://www.asafishing.org/asa/statistics/index.html
weight) caught by a woman (Kimberly Wiss, 1954) was Australian Annual Fisheries Report. (2003). Retrieved March 30, 2005,
a black marlin weighing 1,525 pounds hooked off the from http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/annualreport/ar2003/oroutput/
coast of Peru. roprec01.html
Bignami, L. (2004). Fine fishing. Fine Fishing, Fine Travel Internet Mag-
Such accomplishments require hours of constant bat- azines. http://www.finefishing.com
tle between fish and fisher—the woman’s record for the Bucher, J. (1999). Joe Bucher’s crankbait secrets: The first complete guide
to fishing with crankbaits. Iola, WI: Krause.
longest single-handed fight with a tuna was 11.5 hours Foggia, L. (1995). Reel women: The world of women who fish. Hillsboro,
(Francis Low, Nova Scotia, 1936), and justifiably, fish- OR: Beyond Words.
ing competitions aren’t categorized just by size. Some- Griffin, S. A. (1996). The fishing sourcebook. Guilford, CT: Globe Pe-
quot Press.
times records amass over a year; for example, in 1936, Hurum, H. J. (1977). A history of the fish hook and the story of Mustad,
Georgia McCoy of Los Angeles set a record for the the hook maker. London: Adams and Charles Black.
International Game Fish Association (IGFA). Retrieved from http://
number and gross weight of tuna captured in one year www.igfa.org/history.asp
—fifteen fish for an aggregate weight of 5,284 pounds. Menke, F. G., & Treat, S. (1975). The encyclopedia of sports: 5th revised
Of a lighter nature, the bonefish is prized because of edition. Cranbury, NJ: A. S. Barnes.
Morris, H. (Ed.). (1998). Uncommon waters:Women write about fishing.
its skittish nature (record catches are only around 12 to Seattle, WA: Seal Press.
13 pounds) and is rarely caught with a cast less than 80 National Freshwater Fishing Hall of Fame and Museum. Retrieved
from http://www.freshwater-fishing.org/museum.html
feet. Bill Smith, of Florida was the first recorded person Rutter, M. & Card, D. (1997). Fly fishing made easy: A manual for be-
to catch a bonefish on a fly (1939), and his wife “Bone- ginners with tips for the experienced. Old Saybrook, CT: Globe Pe-
fish Bonnie” Smith, was the first woman to accomplish quot Press.
Sherman, B. (2004). History of fishing. Retrieved on August 30, 2004,
the same feat. Keeping the records in the family, Bon- from http://www.oldmaster85.com/history _ of _ fishing.htm
nie’s sister Frankee Albright set a record by catching a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and
Wildlife-Associated Recreation. Retrieved on August 30, 2004, from
48.5-pound tarpon on 12-pound test line and guided http://federalaid.fws.gov/surveys/surveys.html#survey _ highlights
others to bonefish, in the shadow of her sister’s feats. In Wellner, A. S. (1997). Americans at play: Demographics of outdoor
1993, Deborah Dunaway, of Texas, became the first an- recreation and travel. Ithaca, NY: New Strategist.
Wulff, J. S. (1991). Joan Wulff’s fly fishing: Expert advice from a
gler (male or female) in sport-fishing history to collect woman’s perspective. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole.
all IGFA billfish world records; by 1994, she held thirty Zepatos, T. (1994). Adventures in good company: The complete guide to
women’s tours and outdoor trips. Portland, OR: Eighth Mountain
world records. Press.
Finding Fishing Facts

For more angling records, contact the IGFA Hall of
Fame or, for female specific information, the Interna-
tional Women’s Fishing Association (IWFA) Hall of
Fame or Bass ’n Gal (founded in 1976) and its affiliated
Fitness
clubs throughout the United States and Canada. The
IGFA, the American Bass Association, the American
Casting Association, and the Billfish Foundation spon-
T he worlds of sport and fitness have been inter-
twined since the beginning of sport itself. From the
first competitive road race to the first game of basket-
sor competitive men’s events. National environmental ball, the concepts of sport and physical fitness have
agencies provide web links to statistics about types of played a major role in shaping human culture.
fish around the world. Although there is no definitive beginning in regard to
Debra Ann Ballinger the history of sports, there has been a growing partici-
See also Hunting pation in all aspects of sports and recreation since the
FITNESS 599
German schoolboys
exercising in the early
twentieth century.
gymnast would rely on his or her

flexibility as well as strength to
complete a strenuous tumbling
routine without injury.
Body composition is the fourth
and final component of fitness.
There are two distinct elements
with body composition: fat mass
and lean body mass. Fat mass, as
it implies, is the percentage of fat,
both essential and nonessential,
that makes up an individual’s
1970s. This trend toward the improvement of overall body. Essential fat can be found in bone marrow, nerve
health and fitness continues to grow. As the search for tissue and in various internal organs. Woman have a sig-
health expands, a debate as to what optimal fitness re- nificantly greater percentage of essential body fat,
ally is continues. around 12 percent, than men, around 4 percent, due to
the demands of child bearing. Nonessential fat can be
Components of Fitness found subcutaneously, or beneath the skin, and is pri-
Fitness, itself, is composed of four different elements: marily used for excess body fat storage. “Based on data
cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular fitness, flexibil- from physically active young adults, it would be desir-
ity, and body composition. able . . . to strive for a body fat content of 15% for men
Cardiorespiratory endurance, or aerobic fitness, relates (certainly less than 20%) and about 25% for women
to the body’s capacity to absorb, transport, and use oxy- (less than 30%)” (McArdle et. al. 1996, 570). Lean
gen during work or exercise. As the body is trained to en- mass, on the other hand, is comprised of everything in
dure a greater cardiovascular workload, the heart and the human body other than fat, such as muscle mass,
lungs become stronger thereby increasing an individual’s bone mass, and the weight of the internal organs. An
endurance. A marathon runner would be a prime exam- ideal body composition, therefore, would be an indi-
ple of an athlete with a high level of aerobic conditioning. vidual possessing a healthy body fat percentage: 15–20
Muscular fitness can be best described as a balance percent for men and 25–30 percent for women.
of strength and endurance. Muscular strength is the These four components are essential for maintaining
body’s ability to generate force at a given speed of optimal health and fitness while preventing injury and
movement. Muscular endurance refers to the ability of muscular imbalances. Imagine a long-distance runner who
the body to repeat movements and resist muscular fa- spends her training time running without any regard for
tigue. A better way to distinguish between muscular strengthening or stretching.While her cardiorespiratory en-
strength and endurance would to imagine lifting a fifty- durance and body composition are favorable, she neg-
pound weight just one time—strength—versus lifting a lects her muscular strength and flexibility and can possibly
five-pound weight ten times—endurance. set herself up for serious injury in the future. Along simi-
Flexibility is often the most overlooked component of lar lines, imagine an amateur bodybuilder who spends a
physical fitness. Flexibility is the range of motion large amount of time lifting weights and increasing mus-
around a joint or a group of joints. Range of motion is cle mass, but who neglects his cardiovascular health and
limited primarily by the amount of soft tissue, including flexibility. He, too, increases his chance of injury by ig-
muscle and the joint capsule, surrounding the joint. A noring two very important components of fitness.
The will to win is important, but the

will to prepare is vital. ■ JOE PATERNO
While it is ideal to have a balance of cardiorespira- their lives. Whereas a winning team today would receive
tory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flex- a trophy, the winning team in those times would be sac-
ibility, and a favorable body composition, it is not rificed as a tribute to the gods and would consider it an
something that is easily attainable. Good health takes honor to be sacrificed
work, but it does not have to resemble work. Each society and each period in history will interpret
the importance of sports and fitness differently. The
Sports and Influence on Culture post–Civil War era of the United States ushered in a
Sports have played a vital role in the development of time where sports and fitness were a primary source of
culture, both in present and ancient societies. Fitness, socializing. Gymnasiums and playing fields were capa-
however, did not come into mainstream culture as a ble of bringing people together when traditional meth-
way to improve health until the 1970s. The concept of ods may not have been able. Gymnastics, calisthenics,
fitness was abstract and was more a means to an end, baseball, football, track and field, rowing, boxing, ten-
or put more simply, fitness was a necessary component nis, and golf were not just seen as a way to improve an
to becoming a better athlete. Consider the ancient individual’s health and fitness, rather, and more im-
Mayan civilization in Central America. The Mayan sport portantly, these were seen as ways for people to gather
of choice was a precursor to basketball. One difference and exchange ideas. Similarly, the development of Ger-
between the modern version of basketball and the man society in the 1930s and 1940s used fitness and
Mayan version was that the winning team would lose athletics as one way for people to gather, socialize, and
Fitness
Bathing in Ancient Rome
In the days of Martial and Juvenal, under Domitian, darium, it is clear that this separation could not be
and still under Trajan, there was no formal prohibition achieved in space, but only in time, by assigning dif-
of mixed bathing. Women who objected to this ferent hours for the men’s and women’s baths. This
promiscuity could avoid the thermae and bathe in bal- was the solution enforced, at a great distance from
neae provided for their exclusive use. But many Rome, it is true, but also under the reign of Hadrian,
women were attracted by the sports which preceded by the regulations of the procurators of the imperial
the bath in the thermae, and rather than renounce mines at Vipasca in Lusitania. The instructions issued
this pleasure preferred to compromise their reputa- to the conductor or lessee of the balnea in this mining
tion and bathe at the same time as the men. As the district included the duty of heating the furnaces for
thermae grew in popularity, this custom produced an the women’s baths from the beginning of the first to
outcropping of scandals which could not leave the the end of the seventh hour, and for the men’s from
authorities undisturbed.To put an end to them, some- the beginning of the eight hour of day to the end of the
time between the years 117 and 138 Hadrian passed second hour of night. The dimension of the Roman
the decree mentioned in the Historia Augusta which thermae made impossible the lighting which an ex-
separated the sexes in the baths: “lavacra pro sexibus actly similar division of times would have required.
separavit.” But since the plan of the thermae included Caropino, J. (1940). Daily life in Ancient Rome; the people and the city at the height of
the Empire. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
only one frigidarium, one tepidarium, and one cal-
FITNESS 601
German school girls

exercising in the early
twentieth century.
share ideas. The Nazis used these

gatherings as a way of spreading
their idea throughout the country,
proving that sports and fitness—
when used for political ends—can
be a powerful force in society. The
long-reaching effects of both find
their way into the culture of a na-
tion and into their history.
The Modern
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games are the foremost sporting events in Olympic athlete. Most often, a young man or woman,
the world. They attract people from all countries to physically fit will come to mind. The Special Olympics
compete against each other in the spirit of competition have made it possible for athletes with varying physical
and fellowship. Because of this the Olympics have an and intellectual abilities to compete against each other
enormous impact on the continued development of so- with the same ideals as the traditional modern Olympic
ciety. For example, the first Olympic Games took a very Games. There are also games for master’s athletes, for
different shape from the present modern Games. The those over the age of forty. Gone is the traditional image
primary difference was that the first games were only for of the Olympic athlete. The ideals of the Olympic
men. Women were not allowed to witness the games, let Games are far reaching and do much to demolish the
alone compete, under penalty of death. Although much notion that athletes fit into one mold. With these ideals
has changed, the birth of the modern Olympic move- the world of health and fitness becomes more main-
ment in 1896 continued the tradition of only allowing stream, more accessible, and socially acceptable.
men to compete. The thought at the time was that ath-
letic competition was detrimental to a woman’s health. The Fitness Boom
Since then, that idea has been dispelled and as one of While the worlds of sports and fitness are intertwined,
the results of the women’s rights movement, women’s it was not until the 1970s that popular culture was
events gradually have been added to the Games. How- ready to accept fitness as eagerly as it had accepted
ever, it was not until 1984 that women were allowed to sports. Fitness had not yet taken on its importance for
run Olympic distances greater than 1,500 meters. Much improving health, and popular opinion likened fitness
has changed, but the ideals that gave birth to the Games to work and manual labor. In the 1940s and 1950s,
still prevail. Sportsmanship, athleticism, honor, and few participated in fitness willingly. Among those who
pride continue to form the backbone of the Olympics, did were Jack LaLanne, Victor Tanny, Joseph Gold,
and these traits translate into every language and into Joseph Weider, and Les and Abbye “Pudgy” Stockton.
every culture. These fitness pioneers, among others, drew people to
The modern Olympic Games have the unique op- the beach in Santa Monica, California—the original
portunity to showcase sports and fitness to the world. Muscle Beach. Visitors came to watch their feats of
Ideally, the athletes participating in the Games exhibit strength and acrobatic displays. More and more view-
the physical and moral excellence necessary to comers became participants, and these people, originally on
pete against the world’s best athletes. The Olympics the fringe, became a part of the cultural mainstream.
have become an inspiration to the young. They have Jack LaLanne, Vic Tanny, and Joe Gold all started gym
also encouraged the nontraditional athlete. Picture an chains with bodybuilding as their main focus. Due to
The winners in life treat their body as if it were a magnificent spacecraft that
gives them the finest transportation and endurance for their lives. ■ DENIS WAITLEY
the influence of Abbye “Pudgy” Stockton, women were nificant force in bringing health, fitness, and body-
introduced to the muscularity and strength that came building as close as the mailbox through his magazines
with bodybuilding. No longer reserved for just for and pamphlets. Because of fitness pioneers such as Wei-
“strongmen,” bodybuilding brought about a change in der, Gold, Fonda, and Simmons, fitness continues to
the mindsets of all those who visited Muscle Beach. play a significant role in modern society. The impor-
From the seeds planted at the Santa Monica came tance of being in good health and physically fit has
Venice Beach, the home to bodybuilding legends made and continues to have an impact.
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Frank Zane, and many, many
more. Venice Beach in the 1970s brought with it a fit- Current and Emerging
ness explosion across the globe. Not only did body- Trends in Fitness
building become mainstream, but the popular opinion Fitness is a constantly changing field. There are always
of fitness changed dramatically. Americans in the 1970s new machines, methods, and theories aimed at im-
would do anything to improve their health and fitness. proving the quality of life. Fitness fads may come and
Sports and athletics grew in the 1970s as well. go, but there have been several trends in fitness that
Women became increasingly more interest in partici- have lasted several decades and continue to grow in
pating in sports; however, very little funding was avail- popularity.
able for the development of woman’s athletics. A Aerobic exercise has always formed the backbone of
landmark law was passed in 1972. Part of a series of ed- the fitness industry. Running, step aerobics, dance-type
ucational amendments, “Title IX,” legislated gender eq- aerobics, boxing, kickboxing, and spinning, an indoor
uity in athletics. Not only were women becoming more cycling class set to music, have all emerged as mainstays
active and more physically fit, a law now existed that in health and fitness facilities. Their popularity contin-
called for equal funding and equal opportunity for fe- ues to grow.
male athletes. On 21 September 1973, female tennis Aquatic exercise has also increased in popularity.
star Billie Jean King defeated Bobby Riggs in the first- Water has the unique ability to allow cardiovascular
ever winner-take-all “Battle of the Sexes” tennis match. and muscular improvements with little stress on the
The hoopla surrounding this event—and its outcome— joints of the body. Aquatic exercise is no longer just
provided even more incentive for women to become in- swimming laps; almost every class that can be done on
volved with sports and fitness. By 1977, a record 87.5 land is now being done in the water. Running, spin-
million U.S. adults over the age of eighteen claimed to ning, step aerobics, and even strengthening can all be
be involved in some sort of athletic activity. done in the water.
The fitness industry continued its growth into the With the improvement of health care and longer life
1980s. Gym owners tailored their facilities to attract spans, older adult exercise has expanded and has also
customers and new gyms opened around the United become a necessity to maintain a positive quality of life.
States and around the world. A healthy lifestyle was be- Not only are older adults engaging in exercise to main-
coming a part of popular culture. No longer was it un- tain and improve health, they are taking part in com-
fashionable to be athletic, strong, or healthy. With the petitive road races, cycling races, and bodybuilding
development of new technology, health and fitness were competitions. Age barriers no longer exist and because
able to make their way into homes. Fitness tapes be- of this, fitness classes geared toward the older popula-
came available in the early 1980s and continue to en- tion are widespread.
courage those to whom a gym or health facility may not As grandparents and great-grandparents take part in
be accessible. Innovators such as Jane Fonda and sports and fitness, they set an example for younger gen-
Richard Simmons were able to bring their exercise pro- erations. These younger generations have the benefit of
grams to a new population. Joe Weider became a sig- improved technology and more abundant food, and
FITNESS 603
Fitness
Finding Motivation for Fitness
Many things motivate an individual to improve his or ticular sport. Chris Carmichael, Lance Armstrong’s
her fitness level. For some, it can be a personal best cycling coach since 1990, has marketed his training
time and for others, it can be the chance to emulate programs to encourage new and seasoned riders to
their favorite professional athlete. Whatever the case, improve themselves. Motivation for some can be to
finding the motivation to exercise is pivotal in ob- ride like Lance.
taining your desired fitness level. Setting a goal is one Motivation can also be a personal and private
easy way to find the motivation to improve your fit- thing. There are individuals who look at a sport and
ness. say, “I can do that.” This internal motivation has en-
Deciding to lose weight can be a very powerful couraged the growth of competitive, nonprofessional
motivator. This is evident in the amount of money athletes or, as they may be called, “Weekend War-
that is spent each year on weight loss products and riors.” These athletes have nothing to prove to anyone
fitness equipment. Upwards of $50 billion is spent else; they are proving over and over again to them-
each year on health and fitness. That is motivation. selves that they are capable and strong enough to do
Other forms of motivation can take the form of ad- their sport and to improve themselves. These athletes
miration and imitation of professional athletes. are the ones at the starting line of a marathon, of a
Whole advertising campaigns are built around them. triathlon, or of their own personal Tour de France.
Pictures of athletes are put on cereal boxes. Athletes These athletes are the ones who are motivating their
endorse clothing or product lines. More importantly, family and friends so that they can also say, “I can do
the training programs of these same athletes are used that.”
as the gold standard for physical fitness in their par- Annette C. Nack
with these things—and a more sedentary lifestyle— series of stretching and strengthening exercises. Both
come the increased chance that they will live a less yoga and pilates use an individual’s breath and self-
healthy lifestyle than their active older family members. awareness as the focus of exercise. Aside from the ob-
The fitness field combats this possibility of unhealthy vious strength and flexibility benefits, these mind and
living with sports and fitness programs geared toward body exercises are popular for their stress relieving
children and young adults. This fitness trend is now qualities.
faced with the challenge of improving the heath of fu-
ture generations and has the opportunity to encourage The Future
a lifetime of healthy habits. Sports and fitness have taken on many different forms
But the greatest transformation in the fitness field through the ages and will continue to do so until every
has been the growth of the mind-and-body exercises. human has reached his or her optimal health and fitness
There has been a shift toward gentler, more introspec- level. Until then, fitness will continue to evolve and
tive exercises that also contribute to improving cardio- will continue to exert its influence over society and cul-
vascular health while increasing flexibility and muscular ture. “Play”-specific fitness is becoming more common
strength. Yoga and pilates would fall into this category as people are putting more focus into their free time as
of exercise. Yoga has its roots in ancient India (from their work schedules become more hectic. For example,
around 2800 BCE) and focuses on breathing and mind- a man interested in tennis is getting involved with
fulness during a practice of held poses. Pilates, on the tennis-specific workouts along with playing tennis. Fit-
other hand, was developed by Joseph H. Pilates (1880– ness is becoming sport-specific and more common in an
1967) around 1926. Pilates’ method involved a unique everyday commercial gym.
There is also the dramatic increase in adults becoming Zinkin, H., & Hearn, B. (1999). Remembering Muscle Beach: Where
involved in marathons, triathlons, biathlons, and cen- hard bodies began. Santa Monica, CA: Angel City Press.
tury rides. Those sports that were once reserved for elite
athletes are now just one item on a list of lifetime goals.
Annette C. Nack
See also Diet and Weight Loss; Fitness Industry; Nutri-

Fitness Industry
tion; Performance
F itness means more than just being fit. Fitness has
become a huge and successful industry. Some of the
ideologies and promises that are attached to fitness
Further Reading have a long tradition, but it is still a growing market
Arnot, R., & Gaines, C. (1984). Sports selection: The first system that
shows you how to test, choose, train for the sport that’s right for you.
with an expanding variety of manifestations. What kind
NY: The Viking Press. of product is fitness, and how did some of the early
Bondi,V. (1995). American decades: 1970–1979. Detroit, MI: Gale Re- practices of aerobic and muscular fitness evolve?
search.
Bondi,V. (1996). American decades: 1980–1989. Detroit, MI: Gale Re-
search. Fitness: Commercial Product
Cotton, R. T., Ekeroth, C. J., & Yancy, H. (1998). Exercises for older
adults: The American Council on Exercise’s guide for fitness profes- or (“Induced”) Sport?
sionals. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. “Fitness” refers both to biological and social adaptive-
Feuerstein, G., & Wilber, K. (2001). Yoga tradition: History, religion, ness. Fitness usually means striving for and achieving a
philosophy and practice. New Delhi, India: Hohm Press.
Findling, J. E., & Pelle, K. D. (1996). Historical dictionary of the mod- good physical condition. Fitness means having enough
ern Olympic movement. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. energy. A person who is fit is able to carry out daily
Fraser, T. (2001). Total yoga: A step-by-step guide to yoga at home and
for everybody. London,: Duncan Baird Publishers. tasks without limitations; for example, being able to
Gaines, A. (2000). Female stars of physical fitness. Bear, DE: Mitchell walk the stairs without becoming exhausted. Fitness
Lane Publishers.
may refer to a variety of physical capacities, such as
Galloway, J. (2002). Galloway’s book on running. Bolinas, CA: Shelter
Publications. agility, balance, power, speed, a healthy heart and lungs,
Hoffmann, F. W., & Bailey, W. G. (1991). Sports and recreation fads. good flexibility, muscular strength, and endurance. It is
Binghamton, NY: The Hayworth Press.
Mangi, R., Jokl, P., & Dayton, O. W. (1987). Sports fitness and train-
about muscle size, body contour, body composition
ing. NY: Pantheon Books. (how much muscle and fat you have), and body sym-
McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., & Katch,V. L. (1996). Exercise physiology: metry. To summarize, we may distinguish three defini-
Energy, nutrition, & human performance. Baltimore, MD: Williams
and Wilkins. tions of fitness:
Miller, D. (2003). Athens to Athens: The official history of the Olympic
games and the IOC 1894–2004. Edinburgh, UK: Mainstream Pub- ■ Muscular fitness, generally by means of strength
lishing Company. training (weight lifting), mainly directed to enlarging,
Nesbitt, J. A., & Driscoll, J. (1995). Sports, everyone! Recreation and
sports for the physically challenged of all ages. Cleveland, OH: Con- building, and reinforcing the muscles
way Greene Publishing Company. ■ Aerobic fitness (or cardiovascular/respiratory fitness),
Powell, P. (2000). Trailblazers of physical fitness. Bear, DE: Mitchell
Lane Publishers.
primarily to develop the circulation of oxygen
Roitman, J. L. (1998). The American Council on Sports Medicine’s re- through the body, and which conditions the heart
source manual for guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. and lungs
Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins.
Rose, M. M. (2001). Muscle Beach: Where the best bodies in the world ■ Flexibility through gymnastics and stretching (calis-
started a fitness revolution. NY: St. Martin’s Press. thenics) to increase the suppleness of muscles and
Shephard, R. J. (1997). Aging, physical activity, and health. Cham-
joints
Siler, B. (2000). The pilates body. NY: Broadway Books.
Stanley, G. K. (1996). Rise and fall of the sportswoman:Woman’s health, These different types of fitness also correspond to the
fitness and athletics 1860–1940. NY: Lang, Peter Publishing. origin and emergence of different kinds of exercises.
FITNESS INDUSTRY 605
Later on we will discuss the specific origins and histo- countries. At the same time a slender body and a
ries of muscular and aerobic fitness. healthy, toned appearance have become assets in the
Several historians who have studied fitness dealt with competition for jobs and sexual partners. The social
their subject in a wide sense. Whorton (1982), Green pressure for self-control concerning food and physical
(1988), and Goldstein (1992) discuss in their books on activity has increased while the cultural tolerance for
the history of fitness such subjects as dieting, smoking, body fat has decreased.
alcohol use, vegetarianism, fletcherism (systematic These cultural changes have helped revolutionize the
chewing), nudism, tourism, spa resorts, massage, scout- fitness industry. Through a combination of sophisti-
ing, town development, and even furniture design. In cated marketing, its omnipresence in cities worldwide,
their work, fitness refers to the general individual quest and the use of highly technologized equipment (with
for physical and mental well-being. Around each of parameters that tell you how “fit” you are), the industry
these manifestations of fitness a whole branch of in- has transformed itself into a successful modern mar-
dustry has developed. In this article we discuss fitness keting product. With the flexibility and adaptability to
in a more narrow sense, primarily as physical exercises. be introduced into a variety of contexts, including work-
ing environments, fitness puts the individual partici-
“INDUCED SPORTS” pant into the position of a consumer in the market for
Physical education and fitness have been described as sport goods and services.
“induced sports.” In other words, they are generally or-
ganized by state organizations and are intended to re- Origins of “Muscular Fitness”
inforce the strength and health of the state’s population. Ancient Greeks used weights and resistance exercises to
Health policies are being developed to reduce diseases build the human body. Their equipment can be consid-
such as high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, ered the forerunners of modern halters and dumbbells.
and diabetes. These are considered typically modern In the early nineteenth century Johann Christoph
diseases of developed countries. This attention to lack Friedrich GutsMuths and “Turnvater” Friedrich Ludwig
of exercise and related health risks is, however, not just Jahn incorporated resistance training into physical-
a modern phenomenon. In 1725 the Scottish physi- education programs in school. In 1840 Hippolyte Triat
cian George Cheyne (1671–1743) published An Essay opened the largest gym in the world in Brussels and a
on Health and Long Life. According to Cheyne, the decade later opened an enormous gymnasium in Paris.
upper classes, in particular “the Rich, the Lazy, the Lux- Many of Paris’s most distinguished citizens signed up
urious, and the Unactive,” were threatened by a lack of for classes (Todd 1995). Other important fitness edu-
exercise, a surplus of food, intoxicating drinks, and cators of that time were Dudley Allen Sargent and Gus-
urban lifestyles. Cheyne may be considered a pioneer of tav Zander. They were pioneers in creating systematic
“induced sport,” using sport for purposes of health and methods for mechanized physical training. The ma-
weight loss. Cheyne (who at one time weighed more chines they built were also used as preventive measures
than 470 pounds himself) gave advice on a healthy diet against the threats of a sedentary life. At the same time,
and on the best way of keeping fit. these machines contributed to “a subtle redefinition of
masculinity” (Thomas de la Peña 2002).
A MODERN SUCCESS STORY
The quest for well-being through physical exercise has ADVENT OF STRONG MEN
increased dramatically since the 1970s. Ample available Bodybuilding became popular in the late nineteenth
food, a decrease in heavy physical labor, and the mo- century. From the second half of the nineteenth century
torization of transport have resulted in sedentary onward, “strong men” were able not only to promote
lifestyles and the fattening of the population in wealthy themselves on stage but also to market strength courses,
Shouda, coulda, and woulda won’t get it done. ■ PAT RILEY
sport institutes, food, clothing, and equipment that car- Sandow and Macfadden were also the organizers
ried their name. These strength courses and equipment and promoters of the first large-scale bodybuilding com-
had much in common with practices in the related fields petitions. In 1901 Sandow’s Great Competition took
of physical education and physiotherapy. Internation- place in the overcrowded Royal Albert Hall in London.
ally, the earliest successful “strong man” and founder This event was followed in 1903 by Macfadden’s con-
of a fitness business was Eugen Sandow (1867–1925). test for “The World’s Most Perfectly Developed Man” in
Other well-known people who succeeded him were New York, with a prize of $1,000 for the winner—won
Bernarr Macfadden (1868–1955), Charles Atlas (1893– by Charles Atlas. In talent for marketing, however,
1972) and Bob Hoffman (1898–1985). Sandow and Macfadden were surpassed by Atlas and
The promotion tour that Eugen Sandow made his business partner, Charles P. Roman. Atlas acquired
through Europe in the 1880s, for example, led to the fame after winning Macfadden’s “The World’s Most
founding of many clubs for strength sports. Sandow es- Handsome Man” contest twice, in 1921 and 1922, and
tablished a chain of Institutes of Physical Culture in went on to use these titles to market his Total Health
London and Boston and developed and marketed and Fitness Program, which still thrives today.
equipment for strength training, including a chest ex- Bob Hoffman is considered the most influential fig-
pander and a spring-grip dumbbell, a light halter to ure for the adoption of weight training in sports other
train the grip as well as the biceps. than weightlifting and bodybuilding. In 1935 Hoffman
Another typical story of the time concerns the bought the Milo Barbell Company that had been
method of muscle training called Maxalding. Max Sick, founded in 1902 by Allen Calvert. This company was
born in Germany in 1882, was also a pioneer in body- the first to develop adjustable barbell sets with plates of
building. Sick was a very small, sickly boy, who tried to different weights. With the help of his magazine
compensate for his physical insecurities by extreme at- Strength and Health, Hoffman was successful in selling
tention to his body. In 1909 he moved to London and barbells and “High-Proteen” tablets.
changed his name in Maxick. In 1911 he published the
book, How to become a Great Athlete, in which he put Striving for Respectability
down his methods for a “natural training of the body” Charles Atlas and other “strength seekers” strived for a
without the use of instruments. Sick was able to control respectable place in society. The association of body-
each muscle of his body independently and without the building and strength training with the Californian
use of equipment.The way in which these training meth- beach culture (“Muscle Beach”) was an important step
ods spread through Europe was typical for this period. in achieving social respectability. And respectability
Important also was the role of advertisements in jour- meant an enormous growth of the market for products
nals like Health & Strength, The Strand Magazine, and and services. The first modern fitness chains originated
Bernarr Macfadden’s journal Physical Culture. around Muscle Beach. The first founder of a major
Macfadden was Sandow’s most successful successor. chain was bodybuilder Vic Tanny, who opened his first
He became inspired to build his own body after having gym near Muscle Beach at the end of the 1930s. In
seen Sandow perform. His magazine Physical Culture 1950 he owned forty-five gyms in Southern California,
had more than 100,000 subscribers in 1900 (one year and by 1960 he had eighty-four gyms with 300,000
after its introduction) and more than 340,000 by the members. At that point he was spending $2 million a
1930s. Macfadden became one of the largest publishers year just for advertising.
in the United States; during his lifetime he wrote close The most well-known person in the milieu of Muscle
to 150 books. His magnum opus was Macfadden’s En- Beach was Jack La Lanne, also called “The Godfather of
cyclopedia of Physical Culture (1911). Fitness,” who was born in 1914 and turned 90 in 2004,
FITNESS INDUSTRY 607
Exercise equipment at a fitness club. Source: istockphoto/wolv.
still going strong. In 1936 he opened what he called the the same time, in the same place, and on identical ma-
nation’s first modern health studio and experimented chines. The work of the fitness trainer and physiothera-
with primitive forms of strength-training equipment. In pist is very much alike in terms of making schedules and
1951 he was offered an opportunity to do daily morn- explaining the technology of fitness machines.
ing gymnastics shows on local television in San Fran-
cisco, and from 1958 to 1985 this show was broadcast Origins of “Aerobic Fitness”
on national television. He used his name to establish a Running and “aerobic dancing” developed a little later
business empire of institutes, foods and drinks (with his as the propagation of “muscular fitness.” Dr. Kenneth
Jack La Lanne Power Juicer), and books. Cooper, the author of Aerobics (1968), can be consid-
ered one of the main catalysts of these forms of physi-
THE INFLUENCE OF EXERCISE MACHINES cal exercise. Before he published his best seller, running
Sport schools for strength training acquired their mod- was mainly practiced as a sport in track and field. Few
ern form with the introduction of innovative strength people ran on public roads, and those who did were
machines. One important breakthrough during the predominantly training for marathons, in which at that
1980s was the computerization of exercising machines. time were small-scale events, often with no more than
With these one can now monitor the intensity of the ex- a hundred participants.
ercises on computer screens and observe the effects on Cooper’s book had just been published when the ad-
the body and heart rate. In recent years the increasing verse effects of being overweight were defined as a gen-
popularity of exercise machines has contributed to a eral threat to the health of the population. Running
convergence of the profession of physiotherapy and the became a solution for “manager’s disease,” or the ad-
sport-school business. More people can be “treated” at verse effects of a sedentary white-collar worker’s lifestyle.
Durability is part of what makes a great athlete. ■ BILL RUSSELL
Cooper’s name is still connected to the famous “Cooper juries, and computerized measuring equipment for
test,” in which an individual’s fitness and endurance are heart rate. Runner’s World is one of the most prominent
evaluated based on a twelve-minute run, with distance of these magazines. Modern running has developed
covered and age factored in. largely outside the established sport organizations, so
Aerobics as a way to achieve fitness was success- the organization of long-distance races is often orches-
fully claimed by women entrepreneurs, who offered trated through these magazines. At the same time these
courses in the form of dance steps to the rhythm of magazines are also connected with organizations that
modern music. In this way they were able to create the offer travel and lodging arrangements for races all over
same aerobic effects as Cooper had associated with the globe.
running but in a more appealing way of exercising
than running along public roads. One of the first of Fitness as Ideology
these women entrepreneurs was Jacky Sorensen, who Many of the modern claims about health and exercise
in 1969 established an international franchise chain of actually have a long tradition. Quite new, however, is
aerobic classes. Others, such as Kathy Smith, Richard the huge scale of the industry and the moral imperatives
Simmons, and Jane Fonda soon followed her example. that are attached to the contemporary health-and-fitness
In 1972, Judi Sheppard Missett claimed the term “Jazz- movement. Fitness and slimness have become associ-
ercise” as an official trademark, and by 2002 she had ated not only with energy, drive, and vitality but also
5,300 instructors in thirty-eight countries active under with worthiness as a person; a fit and healthy body is
her trademark. In that year her company earned $63 taken as a sign of self-control. Being fit has become a
million. civic duty.
The ideology of “healthism” also places heavy em-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUNNING INDUSTRY phasis on personal responsibility. Fitness is not just a
The running and aerobics industry developed along two matter of individual health choices; it has become a
main lines: marketing of running shoes and publishing matter of social status. It is a tool for distinction and in-
of magazines devoted to running. One company that dividual comparison. Fitness helps to construct an iden-
played a major role in developing and marketing run- tity. Fitness represents a dream of absolute health. “The
ning shoes was Nike. During the 1970s and 1980s Nike body has become a system of differentiation. The body
associated itself with the famous middle-distance runner has become its own garment. The fashion is called fit-
Steve Prefontaine (1951–1975), who, because of his al- ness” (de Wachter 1984). The fitness industry has been
ternative looks and antisport-establishment activities, successful in combining elements of traditional sport
inspired many people to run and to buy Nike shoes. Of and cosmetic industries; it successfully blends the pur-
course, other shoe companies also entered the runners’ suit of flexibility and good health with moral, aesthetic,
market or, like Adidas and Puma, were forced to defend and commercial imperatives.
their place in that market. Gradually, these companies
Ivo van Hilvoorde and Ruud Stokvis
diversified from the shoe business into the general sport-
clothing business; they also supported the development
of running magazines with their advertising.
Commercially, magazines with a focus on the run-
Further Reading
Cooper, K. (1968). Aerobics. New York: Bantam Books.
ner’s world are able to exist and thrive because of the de Wachter, F. (1984). The symbolism of the healthy body: A philo-
abundance of advertisements by the sport-shoe industry sophical analysis of the sportive imagery of health. Journal of the Phi-
losophy of Sport, XI, 56–62.
and other sport-related businesses—for example, those Fair, J. (1999). Muscletown USA. Bob Hoffman and the manly culture of
who offer special drinks, clothing, treatments for in- York Barbell. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press.
FLOORBALL 609
Featherstone, M. (1991). The body in consumer culture. In M. Feath- hockey stick but was played on an indoor surface, usu-
erstone, M. Hepworth, & B. S. Turner (Eds.), The body: Social process
ally a basketball court. Floor hockey should not be con-
and cultural theory (pp.170–196). London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Glassner, B. (1989). Fitness and the postmodern self. Journal of Health fused with street hockey, which is played outdoors.
and Social Behavior, 30,180–192. Many schools incorporated floor hockey as a game for
Goldstein, M. (1992). The health movement: promoting fitness in Amer-
ica. New York: Macmillan. physical education classes at all levels in North Amer-
Green, H. (1988). Fit for America: Health, fitness and American society. ica and around the world. At the college level for the
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
past thirty years floor hockey has had a strong repre-
Mandell, R. (1984). Sport. A cultural history. New York: Columbia
University Press. sentation in the United States at the club level. In other
Park, R. J. (1994). A decade of the body: Researching and writing countries such as Canada a number of recreational
about the history of health, fitness, exercise and sport, 1983–1993.
Journal of Sport History, 21(1), 59–82. teams and clubs exist.
Perot, P. (1984). Le travail des apparences. Ou les transformations du Floor hockey was adapted for school children in the
corps feminine XVIII-XIX siècle. Paris: Editions du Seuil.
Netherlands during the 1960s. The Cosom Corpora-
Stearns, P. N. (1997). Fat history: Bodies and beauty in the modern West.
New York/London: New York University Press. tion, a U.S. stick manufacturer, marketed its product
Stein, H. F. (1982). Neo-Darwinism and survival through fitness in Rea- for children as an alternative to indoor field hockey
gan’s America. The Journal of Psychohistory, 10, 163–187.
Thomas de la Peña, C. (2002). Dudley Allen Sargent and Gustav Zan- sticks. This game, known as “innebandy,” did not
der: Health machines and the energized male body. In A. Miah & allow physical contact; the sticks and ball were
S. Eassom (Eds.), Sport technology: History, philosophy and policy
changed to lighter materials, and the focus was on
(pp. 9–47). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Todd, J. (1995). From Milo to Milo: A history of Barbells, dumbbells, skill building. The game was imported to Sweden
and Indian Clubs. Iron Game History, 3(6), 4–16. through Carl Ahlqvist’s brother, who sent Carl twelve
Tyrell, R. (2002). Marvelous Max—The Story of Maxick. Posted on Nat-
uralStrength.com on June 10, 2002. sticks as a present. Carl Ahlqvist brought the sticks to
White, P., Young, K., & Gillett, J. (1995). Bodywork as a moral imper- his handball club for a pickup game, and soon people
ative: Some critical notes on health and fitness. Society and Leisure, were more interested in playing this stick game than
19(1), 159–182.
Whorton, J. (1982). Crusaders for fitness: The history of American handball. Ahlqvist was so inspired by the enthusiasm
health reformers. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. that he contacted Cosom and bought one thousand
sticks, which he sent to teachers at other handball
clubs. He established a joint venture with a company,
and the game quickly spread in Sweden and neigh-
Floorball boring countries. In 1986 Sweden (unnebandy), Fin-
land (salibandy), and Switzerland (unihockey) agreed
F loorball—also called “unihockey,” “plasticbandy,”

“floorbandy,” “salibandy,” and “softbandy”—evolved
from a combination of floor hockey and innebandy (in-
that the sport should be called floorball and created
the International Floorball Federation. The popularity
and interest in the sport continued to spread through-
door bandy—a game similar to hockey). Each team out the world. Currently thirty-two countries are
has a maximum of twenty members, with five players represented in the IFF, with more than 215,000 reg-
on the floor with sticks and a goalie with no stick. The istered players.
game is played indoors.
Nature of the Sport
History Floorball combines the speed and skill of hockey with
The heyday of floor hockey was the late 1950s and influences from bandy, soccer, and field and ice hockey.
early 1960s, especially in the United States. Floor The IFF game regulations stipulate a five-on-five game,
hockey, adapted from the basic rules of ice hockey, in- but on smaller courts the game can be played as four on
cluded body checking and used a taped blade of a four or even three on three. Penalty benches are used
for each team, with a “secretariat” (scorekeeper-penalty Competition at the Top

keeper) between the benches. The secretariat is respon- The European Cup, begun in 1993, is played annually.
sible for keeping time and making announcements. In 1994 the first European Championships for Men
Holding, checking, blocking, or tripping an opponent is were played, with the first European Championships for
illegal. A player cannot hit, block, lift, push down, or Women played a year later. The World Championships,
kick an opponent’s stick, nor can a player lift the stick begun in 1996, are played on even years for men and
higher than the waist or touch the ball with a hand (the women under nineteen years of age, and on odd years
goalie is an exception), jump to reach the ball, kick the for women and men under nineteen years of age. By
ball twice, or hit the ball with the stick or foot when the 1997 nineteen countries belonged to the IFF. In 2000
ball is above knee level. At the youth level one cannot the General Association of International Sports Feder-
lift the stick higher than the knee. ations (GAISF) granted provisional membership to the
Two referees are responsible for inspecting the rink as IFF and in May of 2004 granted “ordinary” member-
well as enforcing the rules. ship, which provides voting status. Proponents hope
that this elevation in status will assist in the IFF’s peti-
Facilities and Equipment tion to the International Olympic Committee to be con-
The rink is rectangular with a minimum length and sidered on the Olympic program.
width of 36 meters by 18 meters and maximum length
Mila C. Su
and width of 44 meters by 2 meters. The rink is encir-
cled by a board about 50 centimeters in height with
rounded corners. Two rectangular goal creases—one Further Reading
measuring 1 by 2.5 meters and one measuring 1.6 me- Floorball. (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.
ters—are located in front; only the goalie can be in org/wiki/Floorball
International Floorball Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2004,
these, the goalie cannot leave the goalkeeper’s area, from www.floorball.org
which measures 4 by 5 meters. A substitution zone runs Short summary of floorball rules. (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2004, from
0.5 meters from the center line down 10 meters, in- http://perso.club-internet.fr/colparis/IFKParis/Short _ summary _ of _
floorball _ rules.htm
cluding in front of each bench. The width cannot exceed
3 meters from the board.
In 1999 the IFF established certification criteria for
all national and international league games that apply
to “sticks, balls, goals (goal cages), rinks and face mask
for goal keepers.” The Swedish National Testing and
Flying
Research Institute was contracted to “operate and man-
age the certification system” so that all equipment that
passes the subscribed tests will receive the IFF approval
P owered flight is not usually considered a competi-
tive sporting activity, but in its heyday, between
1909 and 1939, aviation exploits captured consider-
symbol. able media interest and public attention. This included
The goalie wears protective equipment that includes exhibitions of aeronautical maneuvers, air races be-
helmet, shinguards, protective trousers, or at least tween nominated locations, and efforts to fly over
kneepads. The goalie is not allowed to use a stick. All mountains, continents, and oceans. Pilots and naviga-
other players use a stick that is made of hollow plastic, tors pitted their skills against the forces of nature, but
must not be longer than 95 centimeters and not heav- many were tempted by a seemingly irresistible spirit of
ier than 350 grams. The ball weighs 23 grams, is made adventure—and by the lure of prize money and a hope
of white plastic, is hollow, and has twenty-six holes. of fame—to stretch aerial performances far beyond
FLYING 611
I owned the world that hour as I rode over it, free of the earth, free of the mountains,
free of the clouds, but how inseparably I was bound to them. ■ CHARLES LINDBERGH
previous limits. Although technical and mechanical in- Brussels–London–Amiens–Paris) of June–July 1911.
novations during World War I helped to improve the These public demonstrations of powered flight
practical performances of aircraft, these very advances seemed to suggest that aeronautical technology was at
prompted civilian “racing” pilots to fly faster, higher, and the apex of modernity, poised to play an inevitably
further. This was not simply about risk-taking in sport; progressive role in human society.
it was also an enterprise underpinned by technology However, thirty-two accidental deaths were recorded
and business. Pilots used new models of aircraft and the among pilots in 1910 alone—including several of the
latest engines in an effort to capture a performance famous pioneer aviators. Some aircraft crashes occurred
edge over race rivals. In these respects, then, flying be- because pilots were attempting to stretch aerial per-
came a sporting endeavor during the first half of the formances far beyond previous limits. Specifically, the
twentieth century. proposed length of some early long-distance flying
contests far exceeded the capacity of powered aircraft
Flights of Fancy to meet them. Thus, some of the early distance-flying
In 1903, the American brothers Orville and Wilbur events lacked credibility as sporting contests: Race rules
Wright were the first pilots to make an independ- were ad hoc, competition was not conducted under the
ently controlled, practical flight in a powered aircraft. auspices of a sports governing body, and the events
By this time, aeronautics had devotees in Britain and themselves were staged as publicity stunts for backers
Europe, so experiments with flying were an interna- and sponsors.
tional concern. But a key question remained: Could
aircraft maintain the speed, altitude, direction, and Technology and Tenacity
mechanical reliability to cover long distances effec- The pressing need to use airplanes for military pur-
tively? In 1909, the British newspaper Daily Mail poses in Britain and Europe propelled research and de-
stimulated public interest in this question by offering velopment in aviation as well as large-scale manufacture
a prize of £1000 to any pilot who successfully flew of aircraft. World War I transformed the dominion of
the English Channel—won by the Frenchman Louis powered flight from a curious pastime for pilots, known
Blériot who crossed the channel by air in late July colloquially as “birdmen,” to a more systematic and sci-
1909—a considerable feat given that powered flight entific enterprise under the auspices of various national
was barely six years old. Great excitement about avi- air forces and civilian aero clubs. By this time, the
ation followed this achievement, and one month later, broader social and economic implications of “depend-
an air meet was held at Reims, France, where enable” air travel were being pursued with earnest.
durance, altitude, and speed records were set. Similar In 1919, the first major intercontinental flights were
international air meets were held in 1910 at Los An- attempted. Two transatlantic crossings were achieved:
geles, Boston, and Long Island, New York—the last of the first in stages from New York to Plymouth, the sec-
which culminated in a race to the Statue of Liberty. ond a nonstop flight from Newfoundland to Ireland—
Air races were being organized in various parts of the both of which were accomplished by highly experienced
world: The first had been the London to Manchester former Royal Air Force pilots. These successes signaled
Air Race of April 1910, in which the winner— the beginning of an era of epic long-distance flights,
Frenchman Louis Paulhan—collected a prize of with airplanes reaching far-off destinations in a fraction
£10,000 offered by the Daily Mail. Further contests of the time taken by sea vessels. The aerial performance
were staged in Europe—increasingly over long dis- stakes had thus been raised again, with considerable
tances—including the Paris–Rome Air Race of May pressures and rewards for pilots to win air races or to
1911 and the International Circuit Race (Paris– break existing records. A result was that in the interwar
Courage is the price that life exacts for

granting peace. ■ AMELIA EARHART
period, every ocean in the world was traversed by air, distance aviation, during the first half of the twentieth
and several pilots had flown from one side of the globe century.
to the other. Some of these flyers captured international
Daryl Adair
attention and became household names:
■ The American Charles Lindbergh became the first

pilot to fly the Atlantic Ocean solo. Further Reading
Adair, D. (1995). Wings across the world: The heyday of competitive
■ The Australians Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles
long distance flying in Australia, Sporting Heritage, (1), 73–90.
Ulm became the first aviators to traverse the Pacific Gibbs-Smith, C. H. (1974). Flight through the ages. London: Crowell.
Ocean. Lovell, M. (1991). The sound of wings: The life of Amelia Earhart. New
York: St. Martin’s.
In contrast with to their marginal position in other Mackersey, I. (1992). Jean Batten: Garbo of the skies. London: Time
Warner Books.
sports, women were at the forefront of air racing: Pilotfriend Aviation Resources. Retrieved November 22, 2004, from
http://www.pilotfriend.com
■ The Englishwoman Amy Johnson and the New Ross, W. S. (1976). The last hero: Charles A. Lindbergh. New York:
Zealander Jean Batten each flew from England to Harper & Row.
Tennant, K. (1965). Trail blazers of the air. London: Macmillan/St. Mar-
Australia. tin’s Press.
■ The American Amelia Earhart flew the Atlantic and Thomas, J. (1988, April). Amy Johnson’s triumph, Australia 1930. Aus-
tralian Historical Studies, 23(90).
Pacific Oceans solo.
Several star pilots passed into aviation folklore all too

quickly, however, falling victim to fatal accidents or
incidents.
Folk Sports
End of an Era
The heyday of the competitive long-distance flyer was
ephemeral. By the late 1930s, practical aviation over
great distances was becoming more common, and jour-
F olk sports are a diverse group of sports and games
whose common element is being popular or related
to folk culture. Folk sports include traditional, ethnic, or
neys were completed in days rather than weeks. These indigenous sports and games but also new activities
flights no longer seemed “epic” or “marathon” achieve- that are based on traditional practices. Pub games, non-
ments, and they began to lose the financial support of competitive volkswalks (folk walks), mass gymnastics,
race sponsors. Without an element of suspense and im- spontaneous sports of the working classes, and games
minent danger, it was difficult for promoters to sell the and sports associated with festivals all may be termed
wonder of long-distance flying. Moreover, without reg- “folk.” Folk sports stand in opposition to specialized
ular air races, it was difficult to generate the kind of modern sports and are more related to recreational
competitive rivalries that sustained spectator enthusi- “sport for all.” They are based on festivity and commu-
asm in other sporting endeavors. Improvements in in- nity rather than disciplinary rules and the production of
ternational civil aviation thus spelled the demise of results and often occur at carnivals and other local pub-
long-distance flying as a sporting contest. For enthusi- lic events—contexts where the culture’s rules are tem-
asts, airplanes were still the subject of sport, such as in porarily challenged.
Formula 1 Racing of “midget” craft in America. There
was also a lingering fascination with aircraft speed and What Are Folk Sports?
altitude records. But none of this matched the promi- Folk sports are neither one sport nor a well-defined
nence and profile of air racing, and in particular long- group of sports, and thus they have no single, linear his-
FOLK SPORTS 613
tory. They are as distinct in different countries as the fairs, a saint’s day or church festival (kermis), marriages,
words for “folk” in different languages: volk (Flemish, revels, ale festivals, and wakes. Games brought sus-
German), narod (Russian), peuple (French), folk (Dan- pense and excitement into a world of routine and al-
ish, Swedish, English), and popolo (Italian). The concept lowed flirting and physical contact between men and
is European, but games around the world are often la- women. That is why the erotic and gender relations of
beled “folk sports.” Folk sports and the term folk may be traditional folk sports deserve special attention. Their di-
attached to a particular ideology, whether right-wing versity mirrors the inner tensions and distinctions
(volkisches Turnen—German folk gymnastics) or left- within the folk.
wing (sport popolare—popular sport), but in most cases Many premodern folk sports were reserved for men.
folk sports are neutral in relation to political ideas. When such sports were competitions based on strength,
such as wrestling, stone lifting, caber tossing, and finger
PREMODERN FOLK GAMES AND FESTIVITIES drawing, the “strong man,” not the “strong woman,”
Folk sports as a concept did not exist before the indus- was the admired image. In Scotland the “stone of man-
trial age because neither the notion of “sport” in the hood” (claich cuid fir), placed beside the house of a
modern sense nor the notion of “folk” with its modern chieftain, was used as a test of strength by the young
connotations of a collective cultural identity existed. In men who had to lift it to prove their masculinity. Games
earlier times “sport” meant pastimes (hunting, falconry, of skill such as the bat-and-ball game tsan, played in the
fishing) of the upper classes, mainly the nobility and valley of Aosta in Italy, were also traditionally reserved
gentry, who distinguished themselves for men. In tsan a batter hits the ball
from the “folk.” In addition, aristocratic as far as possible into a field where
tournaments and later noble exercises it is caught by the other team. Par-
were exclusive, both by gender and ticipation in tsan by women since
class. Meanwhile, the common people, the 1990s represents the recent
both rural and urban, had their own transformation of the game into a
culture of festivity and recreation. modern “traditional sport.”
Games and competitions of strength However, even such “typical
and agility were combined with male” sports as wrestling could be
dances, music, and ritual to form a rich practiced by women in premodern
array of activities at festivals and cele- times. Japanese women engaged in
brations. These events were connected sumo wrestling, onna-zumo, as early
with religious and seasonal events— as the eighteenth century, and al-
often Christianized forms of pagan cel- though they were forbidden from
ebrations—such as Christmas (Jul), taking part during the Meiji period
the May tree, Shrovetide (the period, (1868–1912), they began partici-
usually of three days, immediately pating again at the end of the nine-
preceding Ash Wednesday) and car- teenth century. In Brittany, France,
nival, midsummer dance (Valborg, women participated in belt wrestl-
St. John), harvest festivals, local ing (gouren).
Folk competitions especially for
Stilt racing, as shown here in women also were held. Women’s
eighteenth-century Britain, is a popular foot races or “smock races” were a
folk activity around the world. typical feature of local events in
England and Scotland from the seventeenth to the nine- DIFFERENCE, TOGETHERNESS, PARODY
teenth century. People held races for “respectable” A fundamental feature of folk sports was the marking of
women and races for women from the lower social differences. Just as folk competitions marked marital sta-
classes, including Gypsies, immigrant Irish women, and tus differences by placing teams of married men against
itinerant traders. The corresponding competitions for teams of bachelors, they also marked the status differ-
men were usually wrestling, cudgeling, stick matches, ences between men and women. For example, among
sack racing, and others rather than foot races. Despite the Sorbs of Germany men engaged in ritual riding (Stol-
the popularity of women’s races between 1790 and lenreiten), whereas women competed in egg races (Eier-
1830, they disappeared and did not become the fore- laufen) and other games of agility. Among the Inuit of
runners of modern women’s track and field. Women’s Greenland the drum dance (qilaatersorneq) of both
folk racing has survived in Wurttemberg, Germany, in women and men was an important ritual. Although men
the form of a race among shepherdesses that dates to and women danced to the same music, women and men
the fifteenth century. In this modern folk event the com- used different rhythms and movements.
petitors have maintained the tradition of preventing While marking differences inside the community, folk
each other from winning, thus causing much stumbling sports also contributed to social cohesion and a sense
and laughing, traits that were characteristic of Euro- of togetherness—among women and men, old and
pean folk culture. young, and different professions. However, consider-
Certain ball and pin games were also played by or able variation existed across cultures in the extent that
even reserved for women. For example, in England, men and women competed together. In Swedish folk
Shrovetide football pitted married women against sports women competed only against men, not against
unmarried women, and Shrovetide stoolball was a women. On the island of Gotland (off the coast of Swe-
women’s sport that resembled modern cricket or base- den) people held a special type of festival (vag) during
ball. In Aragon, Spain, women played and still play a which teams challenged each other from parish to
special form of skittle known as birlas de mulles, or parish, with both men’s sports and boys-and-girls com-
“women’s skittle.” petitions. In the latter girls were normally given certain
Native American men and women played many ball advantages. A girl could, for instance, use both hands in
games, which were similar to each other but had gender the pulling competition (dra hank), whereas a boy used
modifications. Women also held their own foot races one hand only. These Swedish folk sports contrasted
and even horse races. Pima and Papago women raced with the English smock races, where competitions be-
while tossing sticks ahead. Among the Tarahumara in tween women and men were rare.
Mexico women ran hoop races, and in eastern Brazil Some folk sports were invented to promote togeth-
women took part in log running, although this sport erness. In Shrovetide races in Denmark one boy had to
normally was regarded as young men’s test for marriage. compete against from four to twelve girls who used a
Whereas men’s folk sports could have connotations handkerchief in a sort of relay. The result of the race was
of warrior training, women’s folk sports were nearer to not important for participants because the prize (money
ritual practices—including female shamanism—on one or goods) would be given to the joint feast, regardless
hand and joking with the human dimension of bodily of whether the boy or the girls won. More important
prowess on the other hand. Anthropological inter- was the sexual joking that took place as the girls flirted
pretations of such activities as fertility rites should be with the boy to distract him and cause him to stumble.
regarded with critical reservation because such inter- Flirtation was an important element of folk festivals.
pretations mirror the one-sided view of women from the Along with dances, folk sports contributed to the play-
Western nineteenth century. ful encounter between boys and girls, between men
FOLK SPORTS 615
Folk Sports
Volkswalking as a Family Sport
In the extract below, Janet Sessions explains the joys evenings. I also pointed out the library, where I loved
of “volkswalking,” an ever-popular volkssport. to spend time, and the location of the 10 cent store.
The walk route did not go by the schools I had at-
Volkswalking in each of the 50 states and in 12 for-
tended, but we took a drive around town after the
eign countries has been an exciting experience, but a
walk and I showed them the school locations. The
walk I did this past August was a red letter volkswalk
kids found out that Grandma had a long way to walk
for me. I took two of my grandchildren, Erik, age 13,
to school with the snow “up to her knees.” It was a
and Karil, age 10, down “memory lane.” In the small
very special day for me to share my childhood scenes
town of Evanston, WY, where I grew up, there have
with my grandchildren and also to share the sport of
been many changes over the years since I have lived
volkswalking. I am now looking forward to taking my
there, but still enough of the familiar places that
younger grand children on this walk when they are
I could show them. For example the place where I
old enough.
went to a movie every Saturday afternoon, and the
Source: Sessions. J. (1998, June/July).Volkswalking across time: A family affair. The Amer-
park where band concerts were held on summer ican Wanderer, 22, 3.
and women. In societies where rigid segregation of the ing of the opposite sex and using body movements that
sexes was the norm, folk sports made flirtation possible fit the stereotype of the opposite sex appealed to the
by allowing participants to take a time-out from the spectators’ sense of humor. When the European ruling
norm and to run and capture, to touch, or even kiss classes of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries tried
members of the opposite sex. Many folk games and to suppress the popular games as part of the ruling
dances in northern Europe had a strong erotic compo- classes’ attack on folk culture in general, they used
nent, including Shrovetide pageants, Easter fire (which the games’ sexual content as moral arguments for the
included dancing around or jumping over a fire—often games’ elimination.
in couples—and flirtatious joking), Maypole festivals,
Sankt Hans (midsummer night bonfire), and New Year’s SEPARATION AND SAMENESS
fun. Folk sports were often arranged by so-called youth Modern sport, as it developed in the Western world be-
guilds or game rooms (Lichtstuben), which placed pos- ginning in the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
sible marriage partners together. Such activities also oc- turies, was to some extent based on folk sports but at
curred in central Asia, where Kazakh youths played the the same time marginalized them. Modern sport
white bone game (ak suiek) on warm summer nights. brought a new sense of discipline and a new set of
Two teams of young people—boys and girls—tried to rules for social relations. What were folk sports before
find a bone that a referee had thrown as far as possible now became highly organized in strictly separated dis-
into the darkness. While the two teams were searching ciplines that aimed at systemizing results and main-
and fighting for the bone, some pairs of boys and girls taining records. Festivity was replaced by specialization,
searched for erotic experiences and temporarily disap- and many folk sports were abandoned or relegated to
peared in the vast steppe (the vast, usually level and folklore.
treeless tracts in southeastern Europe or Asia). Alongside mainstream sports some folk sports per-
Folk sports, however, not only affirmed gender iden- sisted or reappeared in different forms. The circus and
tity, but also mocked it in the form of parody. In dance freak shows at fairs served as one arena for such sports.
and game, pantomime, and scene play, men could ap- Workers’ sport movements were another. In Danish
pear as women and women as men. Wearing the cloth- workers’ festivities domestic servants raced with buckets
Hungarian soldiers
dancing at a festival in
the early 1800s.
a literary, artistic, and philosoph-

ical movement originating during
the eighteenth century) revival
that emerged in early nineteenth-
century Europe. Whereas the term
folk had carried derogatory un-
dertones of plebs and Pobel—the
low and vulgar people—a new
positive understanding of the
term spread over Europe. Johann
Gottfried Herder (1774–1803),
a German literary and cultural
critic, inspired people to reevalu-
ate and reappropriate folk tradi-
tions. The new fascination with
“folk” and “popular” culture
merged with ideas of democracy,
the idea of people’s rights, and
the quest for national identities,
as in German Turnen, the Slavic
Sokol (Falcon) gymnastic move-
ments, and the Danish folkelig
gymnastics, which were based on
Swedish gymnastics. In some of
these patriotic gymnastic move-
ments, folk sports and games
(Volksturnen) were revived to con-
trast against English sport. In Ire-
and scrubbers, pottery workers walked with piles of land during the 1880s the Gaelic Athletic Association
plates on their heads, strongmen and strongwomen promoted folk hurling as a sport of liberation from
pulled the rope in the tug-of-war, and people ran ob- British rule and was closely connected with Irish re-
stacle races while eating cream puffs. publican nationalism. Icelandic glima wrestling gained
similar significance as “national sport.”
MODERN FOLK SPORTS: WALKING, The second stage in the development of modern folk
GAMES, AND FESTIVALS sports began about 1900 and involved “back-to-nature”
Modern folk sports emerged as a reaction against the movements and progressive youth movements, some of
specialization of sports and against the disappearance whose activities were labeled “folk.” Woodcraft Indians,
of the festival atmosphere from sporting events. In ad- originally from the United States, and groups of Wood-
dition, people sought to resist the anonymity of modern craft Folk turned to nature and used names, ceremonies,
life by engaging in physical activities in community. and practices of the Native Americans while also advo-
Modern folk sports developed in three main stages. cating peace and social community. The Boy Scouts
The first stage was linked to the Romantic (relating to contrasted with this approach by the use of a more
FOLK SPORTS 617
The essence of sports is that while you’re doing it, nothing else
matters, but after you stop, there is a place, generally not
very important, where you would put it. ■ ROGER BANNISTER
military model. The German Naturfreunde (friends of rior training and magic folk practices—are now prac-
nature) movement began as a workers’ tourist move- ticed worldwide. The Indonesian martial art pencak
ment, wandering and building shelters for volkswalkers silat became a Western sport, and even Japanese sumo
across the country. The German youth movement Wan- wrestling has appeared in Western countries. Immigrant
dervogel (hiker’s movement) developed outdoor activi- cultures (re)invented new movement forms such as the
ties in small, self-administered groups of boys and girls. bhangra dance of south Asians in Britain.
Their members walked, sang, folk danced, competed, On the one hand, by these diffusions folk sports were
and played in the outdoors. often transformed into Western specialized sports of
After 1945 German and Austrian Volkswandern (folk achievement with tournaments, bureaucratic organiza-
wandering) was discovered by soldiers of the occupation, and controlled production of results. On the other
tion forces, who took it back to the United States. The hand, the diffusions of “exotic” folk sports have also cre-
American Volkssport Association promotes noncom- ated new practices that are alternative to modern sports
petitive volkswalk, volksbike, volksski, and volksswim, in the Western world. In addition, new activities devel-
typically as family activities, under the umbrella of the oped that cannot be placed in traditional categories of
International Federation of Popular Sports. sport. Bungee jumping is one such activity, based on the
The third stage in the development of modern folk Melanesian (relating to the islands in the Pacific north-
sports began during the 1970s. It was initially linked to east of Australia and south of Micronesia) folk ritual of
New Games, consisting of newly invented play practice “land diving.”
and games festivals, and the “new movement culture,” Conversely, Western practices have given birth to new
which began in California. In connection with hippie folk practices in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Tro-
culture and the movement against the war in Vietnam, briand (relating to islands in the southwest Pacific)
young people engaged in noncompetitive play and cricket is the best-known example, transforming a colo-
game. nial sport into a Melanesian folk festivity of dance,
At about the same time in several European countries sport, carnival, and gift exchange. Disco dance ap-
an interest in reviving and preserving traditional folk peared in China as disike (old people’s disco), which be-
sports arose. From the 1970s onward folk sports were came especially popular among elderly women. Danish
organized in national and regional festivals. Among the sports development aid supported local folk culture of
first to organize was the Belgian Flemish volkssport dance and festivity (ngoma) in Tanzanian villages, while
(typically urban games organized by local clubs), Span- Tanzanian Sukuma drumming appeared in Danish
ish Basque competitions of force, and French Breton youth culture.
folk games. The Danish traditional games movement Some political implications of modern folk sports
began during the 1980s with links to the folkelig gym- showed when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989
nastics movement. The International Sport and Culture under the pressure of democratic movements and eth-
Association serves as an umbrella organization for folk nic nationalism. Folk sports, which had been repressed
sports, popular gymnastics, and festivals in about fifty during the Soviet era, were revived in many parts of the
countries. former empire. The Kazakh New Year’s festivity nauryz
Also new was the spread of folk sports from Third reappeared with its dances and games. Mongolians re-
World countries to Western metropolises—and influ- turned to ancient festivities with nomadic equestrian-
ences in the opposite direction. Capoeira, a traditional ism, belt wrestling, and bow-and-arrow events. Tatars
Afro-Brazilian sport, became popular among young again held their springtime holiday sabantuy, with belt
people in European cities such as Amsterdam, Berlin, wrestling (korash) in its center. The Baltic peoples as-
and Paris. Tai chi and wushu—based on Chinese war- sembled at large song festivals. Inuit people from
Folk Sports
Folk Sports and
New Games
folk sports highlight both the variations among groups
In the extract below, the Polish sociologist An- and the solidarity within groups. In contrast to the dis-
drzej Wohl notes similarities between folk sports play of sameness and hierarchy, folk sports make oth-
and “New Games”: erness visible.
However, modern folk sports are not independent
New trends have made their appearance in the from mainstream tendencies. They are often subjected
past few years in physical culture—New Games. to instrumental use, whether sporting, educational, folk-
. . . To some extent it resembles games and play loric, or touristic. Tendencies inside folk sports are work-
in small medieval towns when the townsfolk was ing for the integration of folk sports into systems of
not yet differentiated regarding wealth and pres- competitive sports. Among the so-called non-Olympic
tige. Such game and entertainment on holidays sports, which hold their own competitions, especially in
was noisy and merry and the entire urban pop- China and Russia, are many folk sports. Some of their
ulation took part in them. But this is only ap- organizations—such as the Tug of War International
parently a return to the past. It is rather a look Federation (TWIF)—strive for Olympic recognition by
at the future world, once again integrated, transforming classic folk sports such as tug-of-war into
though on a new and different basis than in the standardized sports of achievement. (Tug-of-war was, in
past. fact, on the Olympic program from 1900 to 1920.)
Source: Wohl, A. (1989). The scientific study of physical education and sport (p. The Olympic sports system also uses folk sports for
56). Slagelse, Denmark: Gerlev Idrætsforsk.
the cultural framing of competitive events.
On the margins of mainstream sport “sport-for-all”
movements use folk sports to promote a healthy
Siberia and Alaska met in drum dance and the winter lifestyle. Large folk sports festivals have been arranged
festivity kivgiq. by the Trim & Fitness International Sport for All Asso-
In Spain after the rule of General Francisco Franco, ciation.
folk sports accompanied the process of democratic fed- Other groups try to integrate folk sports into school
eralization. In Basque country, Catalonia, and the Canary education. Folk sports are regarded as a soft form of ed-
Islands, folk sports became factors in the marking of re- ucational sport or as tools for expressing regional iden-
gional identity. In 1992 the Olympic Games in Barce- tity in education. As educational instruments, however,
lona featured a festival of Spanish folk sports showing folk sports tend to lose their connection with people’s
forty activities of force, throwing, wrestling, and the ball lives and self-organization.
game pelota.The European Traditional Sport and Games Furthermore, people have incorporated aspects of
Association was founded in 2001 as an umbrella or- folklore into folk sports, turning living folk practices
ganization for folk sports with a regional perspective. into regulated, musical, and “original” presentations.
Folkloristic sports and demonstration folk sports are
Nature of Folk Sports exhibited in connection with music and festivals, as
Folk sports are based not on specialized disciplines and under the auspices of Conseil International des Organ-
bureaucratically defined rules, but rather on meeting in isations de Festivals de Folklore et d’Arts Traditionnels
an atmosphere of festivity. The aim of folk sports is not (The International Council of Organizations of Folklore
to produce winners but rather to foster togetherness Festivals and Folk Art). Folklore tends to transform folk
and to celebrate diversity and distinction. In contrast to sports into a sort of living museum.This transformation
the rigid standardization of modern Olympic sport, can favor the promotion of tourism but weakens the
FOOTBAG 619
connection with people’s social lives. Last but not least,

the media are more and more interested in showing
folkloristic games. Folk sports serve as colorful elements
Footbag
of “postmodern” event culture.
Henning Eichberg
F ootbag sports include cooperative and competitive
games played with a small round ball filled with
loose material, usually plastic pellets or sand. Also
known by the product name Hacky Sack®, footbags are
Further Reading made by many manufacturers and hand sewn by vari-
Bale, J. (2002). Imagined Olympians: Body culture and colonial repre- ous artisans. People of all ages and backgrounds play
sentation in Rwanda. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Bale, J., & Sang, S. (1996). Kenyan running: Movement culture, geog-
this modern sport throughout the world, both recre-
raphy and global change. London: Frank Cass. ationally and competitively. Due to the footbag’s small
Brownell, S. (1995). Training the body for China: Sports in the moral size and low cost, footbag is a sport that is accessible to
order of the People’s Republic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Burke, P. (1978). Popular culture in early modern Europe. London: Tem- everyone.
ple Smith.
Davis, R. (1994). The war of the fists: Popular culture and public vio-
lence in late Renaissance Venice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
History
Press. Footbag was invented in 1972 in Oregon City, Oregon,
Eichberg, H. (1995). Body culture and democratic nationalism: “Pop- when John Stalberger met Mike Marshall, who had
ular gymnastics” in 19th-century Denmark. International Journal of
the History of Sport, 12(2), 108–124. been kicking around a handmade beanbag. John joined
Eichberg, H. (2003). Three dimensions of playing the game: About Marshall in kicking the “sack” and they called the game
mouth pull, tug-of-war and sportization. In V. Møller & J. Nauright
(Eds.), The essence of sport (pp. 51–80). Odense: University Press
Hack the Sack. From this game they developed the
of Southern Denmark. trademarked product and created a generic term for the
Guttmann, A. (1994). Games and empires: Modern sports and cultural sport itself: footbag.
imperialism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Hellspong, M. (1989). Traditional sports on the island of Gotland. Tragically, Mike Marshall died of a heart attack in
Scandinavian Journal of Sports Sciences, 11(1), 29–34. 1975, at only twenty-eight years of age. Stalberger con-
Jarvie, G. (1991). Highland games: The making of the myth. Edinburgh,
UK: Edinburgh University Press.
tinued on with their vision. In 1979 a patent was
Laine, L. (Ed.). (1994). On the fringes of sport. Sankt Augustin, Ger- granted and Stalberger later sold the rights for the
many: Academia. Hacky Sack® footbag to Kransco (operating under the
Leach, J. W. (1976). Trobriand cricket—an ingenious response to colo-
nialism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Wham-O label). John continued to promote footbag in
Liponski, W. (2003). World sports encyclopedia. St. Paul, MN: MBI. both the United States and Europe and is known
Liponski, W., & Jaouen, G. (Eds.). (2003). Ethnology of Sport: Studies
in Physical Culture and Tourism, 10(1).
around the world as “Mr. Hacky Sack.”
Møller, J. (1984). Sports and old village games in Denmark. Canadian In the years following the creation of footbag, many
Journal of History of Sport, 15(2), 19–29. enthusiasts began sprouting up, and a sport was born.
Muller, K. (1970, December). Land diving with the Pentecost Islanders.
National Geographic, 138(6), 799–817. As the competitive forms of the sport grew, John Stal-
Nabokov, P. (1987). Indian running: Native American history and tra- berger formed the National Hacky Sack Association
dition. Santa Fe, NM: Ancient City.
Pfister, G. (Ed.). (1997). Traditional games. Journal of Comparative
(NHSA) in 1977. The NHSA promoted the sport with
Physical Education and Sport, 19(2). touring teams and held the first National Footbag
Redmond, G. (1971). The Caledonian games in 19th-century America. Championships in Portland, Oregon, in 1980.
Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses.
Renson, R., de Cramer, E., de Vroede, E. (1997). Local heroes: Beyond From the roots of the National Hacky Sack Associa-
the stereotype of the participants in traditional games. International tion, Bruce Guettich and Greg Cortopassi started the
Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32(1), 59–68.
Seton, E. T. (2002). The book of woodcraft and Indian lore. London:
World Footbag Association (WFA) in 1983. The World
Kegan Paul. Footbag Association was largely responsible for the
Athletes battle in Footbag Net at the 2004 IFPA World Footbag Championships in
Montreal, Canada. Source: Jamie Lepley.
growth of footbag through the 1980s and 1990s and www.footbag.org. The variety of footbag games is lim-
continues to promote the sport. As footbag grew, more ited only by the imagination of the players. The most
players, manufacturers, and artisans began sewing and popular competitive footbag sports are Footbag Net
marketing footbags of varying designs. and Footbag Freestyle.
The growth of footbag exploded in the 1990s with Footbag Net is a singles or doubles court game, like
the advent of the Internet. The Footbag WorldWide In- tennis or volleyball, where players use only their feet to
formation Service website (www.footbag.org) provided kick the footbag over a five-foot-high net. Footbag Net
the impetus for footbag’s growth throughout the world. is played on a badminton-sized court, usually outdoors.
Players and clubs register, post information, and com- The rules for doubles net are similar to volleyball; play-
municate with footbag players around the world ers are allowed three kicks per side, and must alternate
through the website. The increased availability and ex- kicks between players. In singles, players are only al-
change of videotapes has also contributed to the growth lowed two kicks per side. The footbag (usually a harder
of footbag. vinyl and/or leather ball) may not contact a player’s
body above the knee. Footbag Net players frequently
What Is Footbag? employ a varied arsenal of spikes and blocks. These
The cooperative “circle” game is perhaps the most often result in amazing airborne foot-to-foot battles
widely recognized form of footbag play. The object of over the net.
the circle game is for every player in the circle to kick the Footbag Freestyle is the artistic form of the sport. The
footbag at least once before it hits the ground. The of- number of various tricks and moves continues to grow.
ficial rules include Consecutives, Golf, Footbag Free- Credit for the creation of many freestyle moves belongs
style, and Footbag Net and can be found online at to Kenny Shults, a top player in both Footbag Freestyle
FOOTBAG 621
and Footbag Net. In traditional freestyle competition, Key Organizations

players choreograph routines to music and are judged In addition to the IFPA and the numerous websites,
on various elements. The difficulty and subjective nature clubs, and international organizations involved in foot-
of judging freestyle (similar to ice-skating or gymnas- bag, key organizations include the World Footbag As-
tics) led to the creation of additional freestyle “shred” sociation (WFA) and the Footbag Hall of Fame
events that emphasize difficulty of tricks. Each move or Historical Society.
trick has a determinable difficulty rating and the play- The World Footbag Association continues its educa-
ers are rated on the difficulty of tricks performed and tional and promotional efforts throughout the world
linked in a short period of time. Freestyle judging re- and remains a membership organization. The WFA’s lo-
mains one of the more controversial aspects of footbag cation in Steamboat Springs, Colorado, is also home to
competition. the Footbag Museum (housing the World’s largest foot-
bag collection).
Competition at the Top The Footbag Hall of Fame Historical Society recog-
There are many footbag tournaments and events held nizes the accomplishments of footbag pioneers, pro-
throughout the world. The most enduring and presti- moters, and outstanding footbag players. The first
gious is the World Footbag Championships. The first members were inducted into the Footbag Hall of Fame
National Championships were held by the NHSA in on 10 August 1997 in Portland, Oregon. The WFA is
Oregon in 1980–1983. The WFA held its first national currently the physical location of the Hall of Fame and
event in Portland, Oregon, in 1983. its cyber home is www.footbagcanada.com/hall _ of _
In 1984 the WFA National Footbag Championships fame.asp.
moved to Boulder, Colorado. The WFA then continued
the championships in Golden, Colorado, from 1985 to The Future
1993. The name was officially changed to the World As footbag continues to grow throughout the world it
Footbag Championships in 1986. The tournament is is expected that there will be more elite level competi-
now known as the IFPA (see below) World Footbag tion. At the same time footbag continues to be recog-
Championships and moves to a different host city each nized as a fun and recreational sport for all ages.
year. In recognition of the increased involvement of
Tina Lewis
footbag clubs worldwide, the first IFPA World Cham-
pionships outside of North America took place in
Prague, Czech Republic, in 2003.
Further Reading
Governing Body Brimner, L. D. (1988). Footbagging. New York: Franklin Watts.
Cassidy, J. (1982). The Hacky Sack® book. Palo Alto, CA: Klutz.
The governing body for the sport of footbag is the
Footbag Hall of Fame. (n.d.). Retrieved January 31, 2005, from http://
International Footbag Players’ Association (IFPA), a www.footbagcanada.com/hall _ of _ fame.asp.
501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, initially founded in Footbag WorldWide Information Service. (n.d.). Retrieved January 31,
2005, from http://www.footbag.org.
1994. The IFPA was granted nonprofit status in July of Harley, J. (2001). Performing sport: Freestyle footbag from circle to
2001 and has members across the globe. The IFPA stage. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas,
Austin.
funds the World Footbag Championships, maintains
Kennedy, L. F. (1985). The American Footbag Games (brochure). Van-
the WorldWide Footbag Information Service (www. couver, WA: Kenncorp International.
footbag.org), publishes the Rules of Footbag Sports, World Footbag Association. (1987). Footbag: An instructional manual.
Golden, CO: World Footbag Association.
and sanctions 20–30 major footbag competitions World Footbag Association. (n.d.). Retrieved January 31, 2005, from
around the world every year. http://www.worldfootbag.com.
forms of soccer, whereas Harvard students had created

Football a game more akin to English rugby than soccer.
On most U.S. campuses football, of the soccer type,
A merican football had its origins in English rugby

football. The game was adapted from rugby during
the period from the 1870s to the early 1900s, and the
had evolved as part of class battles. The sophomores
would challenge the freshmen to a kicking game in
which the kicking of opponents appeared to be as com-
game first became popular in the elite colleges of the mon as kicking the ball. These games were part of the
East after Harvard University refused to play soccer (as- traditional indoctrination process found on all college
sociation football). Led by Yale University’s Walter campuses where cocky sophomores initiated freshmen
Camp (1859–1925), players changed rugby football through hazing. At Harvard the first day of school in the
rules to reflect the desire in the United States for a more autumn was concluded annually with what was known
scientific, rational game. Only after football became the as “Bloody Monday,” when the sophomores generally
most prominent college sport, based on a desire for a beat the freshmen into submission. Other matches
manly game, did football become professionalized, and throughout the year might include the freshmen com-
the professional game did not challenge the dominance bining with the juniors to battle the sophomores and
of college football until the 1960s, when television cov- seniors. These matches became so brutal, especially the
erage of the National Football League (NFL) became Bloody Monday matches, that Harvard authorities
popular. By that time African American players had be- banned football in 1860.
come prominent in both college and professional foot- Most other colleges, however, continued to play foot-
ball. With increased revenues, professional players ball, including two New Jersey institutions—Princeton
formed a labor union and demanded a higher portion and Rutgers—which were located only about 32 kilo-
of the profits being made by team owners. By the be- meters apart. A year after the Civil War, when baseball
ginning of the twenty-first century, colleges continued to was expanding greatly throughout the United States,
be “feeders” for the professional leagues, and college Princeton had beaten Rutgers in their first intercolle-
and professional teams prospered. giate baseball contest 40–2. Three years later Rutgers
challenged Princeton to a two-out-of-three football con-
Origins test. On 6 November 1869, the first intercollegiate foot-
Rugby football evolved at Rugby School, one of Eng- ball game was played on the Rutgers campus with
land’s elite private secondary schools known as “public teams of twenty-five on a side. The agreed-upon rules re-
schools.” Two distinct forms of football had developed sembled those of soccer, but the players could bat the
in Britain: association football (soccer) and rugby, a inflated rubber ball with hands or fists as well as with
contest emphasizing running more than kicking. The feet. The goal posts were eight paces apart and were lo-
English Football Association codified the rules of soccer cated at the ends of a 69-meter field. Rutgers accumu-
in 1863, when it was founded by elite ex-public school lated six goals first and won 6–4 before a crowd that
and Oxford and Cambridge University players working included a small number of Princeton partisans, who
in London. The Football Association had hoped to cre- took the train to New Brunswick. They and the Rutgers
ate one game of the various school and college games fans saw a contest featuring “headlong running, wild
but was unable to convince the rugby players of the shouting, and frantic kicking” and a Princeton player
need for one unified game of football. The Rugby Foot- who forgot which end was his and sent the ball to his
ball Union was formed in 1871 to promote the running own goal. The game was followed by a gastronomic
game with one set of codified rules. During the 1860s and convivial evening that included a roast game din-
and early 1870s many U.S. collegians were playing ner, impromptu speeches, and the singing of college
FOOTBALL 623
Football combines two of the worst things in American life.

It is violence punctuated by committee meetings. ■ GEORGE WILL
songs. A week later Rutgers visited Princeton, playing United States. Soon Yale asked Harvard to play a foot-
under Princeton’s usual rules that allowed the free kick, ball game, but Harvard would agree only if rugby rules
whereby a player could catch the ball in the air or on were the basis. Yale, to save face, agreed to “conces-
first bounce and kick it without hindrance. Princeton’s sionary” rules, but they were really those of rugby. Some
8–0 victory called for a third and decisive game, but it Princeton men traveled to New England to see the
was not played, possibly because of institutional inter- game. Wanting to play the more prestigious Yale and
ference but more likely because the two institutions Harvard in the future, Princeton had to change to the
were not able to agree on common rules. rugby game.
Although most colleges were playing a variation of as- After Princeton accepted rugby, a convention was
sociation football, the soccer-like game was short-lived called in which the future “Big Three” and Columbia
despite the rules being codified on several campuses. met to adopt standard rugby rules and form the Inter-
Harvard was the only major school not playing a form collegiate Football Association (IFA) in the autumn of
of soccer. The Harvard men called their pastime “the 1876. Yale was reluctant to accept fifteen men on a
Boston game,” in which a player could catch or pick up team rather than its favored eleven. Nevertheless, the
the ball and then kick it or even run with it. The oppor- IFA decided to initiate a Thanksgiving Day champi-
tunity to run with the ball was key in the development onship contest between the two leading teams of the
of a nonsoccer game in the United States. The game re- previous year. Yale and Princeton were chosen for the
sembled rugby, not played by any other college. Yale, first of the traditional Thanksgiving Day games, and the
Harvard’s chief rival in crew and baseball during the two schools continued to dominate the game for the
early 1870s, played its first intercollegiate soccer contest next two decades. By the 1890s the contest kicked off
when it beat Columbia in 1872. The Yale victory began New York City elite’s social season, giving added social
what would become the most successful college pro- significance to the contest. As many as forty thousand
gram during the first century of intercollegiate football. viewed the contest in the Polo Grounds or at Manhat-
The next year, a “western” school, Michigan, challenged tan Field. The Thanksgiving Day tradition spread across
Cornell to a football game, but Cornell’s president, An- the United States; in 1893 the New York Herald called
drew D. White (1882–1918), banned it when he made it “a holiday granted by the State and the nation to see
his classic comment: I will not permit 30 men to travel a game of football.”
400 miles merely to agitate a bag of wind.” With inter-
est expanding, Yale called a convention to write com- Development
mon rules for league play in 1873 (Peckham 1967). The eastern elite schools Americanized the rugby rules
Harvard absented itself from the convention, protest- that the rest of the schools accepted as their own. Wal-
ing the soccer game as inferior to its own, and its action ter Camp, the “father” of U.S. football, had played for
drastically changed the history of American football. Yale in the first Thanksgiving Day championship game.
While Yale, Princeton, Columbia, and Rutgers agreed to Camp, more than any other person, created the U.S. ver-
common rules, Harvard kept its own. This stance led sion of football. Camp began attending football rules
Harvard to two matches in May 1874 with McGill Uni- meetings in 1877 as a sophomore and continued for the
versity from Montreal, Canada. The first game between next forty-eight years. In 1880 he suggested possibly the
the most elite institutions in each country was played most radical rule in football history, one giving contin-
under Harvard rules and the second under McGill’s uous possession of the ball to one team after a player
rugby rules. Harvard men enjoyed the rugby game and was tackled. In rugby, when a player was downed, the
in the spring of 1875 played nearby Tufts College in the ball would be placed in a “scrummage.” The ball might
first intercollegiate rugby game between colleges in the go forward or backward, with possession in doubt.
name for the game. The consequence of the short dis-

tance to be gained in three attempts created the need for
exacting plays, the development of signals for calling
the plays, and the introduction of players running in-
terference for the ball carrier, another modification of
rugby.
Mass plays led to the charge of brutality during the
late nineteenth century. The change from the more open
running of the original rugby game to tight line smashes
resulted from a rule to allow tackling below the waist in
1887. The low tackle did much to reduce the effective-
ness of open field running and contributed to the un-
folding of various wedge formations, including the
famous “flying wedge.” Wedges were V-shaped forma-
tions that “snowplowed” a particular position in the de-
fense. In the flying wedge players began about 25 yards
(23 meters) behind the scrimmage line and progressed
at full speed from two angles to form a “V” formation
just before the ball was passed to the runner behind the
“V.” The play was so brutal to the defensive player at
whom it was aimed that it existed for only one season
before it was outlawed. Plays such as the flying wedge
and other mass plays eventually led to the forward pass,
a radical change legislated in 1906 to open up the
game.
The game’s brutality was evidenced at a time when
U.S. society was urbanizing and thought to be losing
A muddy football player watches from the
manly qualities found on the frontier. College students
sideline. Source: istockphoto/nrtn.
had often been the symbol of the effete, pale, and dys-
peptic scholars, persons lacking the virile element con-
To Camp, this rule was not rational. Camp proposed a sidered to be an important aspect of U.S. society.
“scrimmage” in which the team in original possession Football could counteract this negative, demasculinized
would snap (center) the ball back to a quarterback who image and give college life the picture of vitality and
would hand it to another back in a logical play. One manliness. As the century waned, Theodore Roosevelt
team could control the ball for as much as an entire half (1858–1919), more than any other person, stood for
unless the ball was fumbled away or was kicked to the the strenuous life needed for U.S. leadership in the
opponents. Camp, by the early 1880s, suggested in- world. Roosevelt believed that football, if played fairly,
corporating the notion of “downs,” in which one team could add to the vigor of the nation. “Hit the line hard:
was given three attempts (downs) to advance 5 yards don’t foul and don’t shirk, but hit the line hard” was to
(4.5 meters) or lose possession of the ball. The 5-yard Roosevelt and many other people a metaphor worth
chalk lines created a “gridiron” effect and a new nick- pursuing in life as in football.
FOOTBALL 625
What’s the worst thing that can happen to a quarterback?

He loses his confidence. ■ TERRY BRADSHAW
College and Professional Football points and field goals three, and four downs to gain 10
College football was a U.S. symbol of virility before the yards (9.1 meters).
first identified contest in which players were known to Ohio again led the way in the professional game. Col-
be paid. The professional game has been traced to the legians such as Knute Rockne (1888–1931) of Notre
payment of Walter “Pudge” Heffelfinger (1867–1954), Dame and the great African-American stars—Paul Robe-
the acknowledged greatest college player of the nine- son (1898–1976) of Rutgers and Fritz Pollard (1894–
teenth century. Heffelfinger was on Walter Camp’s first 1986) of Brown—played in Ohio. Rockne once played
all-American team in 1889 as well as the next two for six different teams in a two-month period. Massillon
years. In the autumn after his graduation from Yale, he hired forty-five top players for one game to ensure that
was playing for the Chicago Athletic Club, as was Ben the opponent would not hire any of them. Jim Thorpe
“Sport” Donnelly, formerly of Princeton. When the club (1888–1953), the star of the Carlisle Indian School
concluded a tour of the eastern United States, Hef- around 1910, was paid $250 a game in 1915 to play for
felfinger and Donnelly did not return to Chicago. The the Canton Bulldogs.When Thorpe, the “greatest athlete”
Allegheny Athletic Association, located near Pittsburgh, of the first half of the twentieth century, made his debut
saw an opportunity to defeat the rival Pittsburgh Ath- at Canton, eight thousand spectators saw him lead the
letic Club with the help of outsiders and recruited Hef- Bulldogs to a victory over the hated Massillon Tigers. Al-
felfinger and Donnelly to play for them. Heffelfinger though the crowds at professional games did not com-
received the enormous sum of $500, approximately a pare with those at the best college games, interest in
worker’s yearly wage, plus travel expenses, and Don- football was increasing when World War I, momentarily,
nelly received $250 plus expenses. In a contest with halted the game.
high betting stakes, Heffelfinger picked up a fumble Two of the most important pro franchises were a result
and ran for the game’s only touchdown. of industry-sponsored teams—the Green Bay Packers
Other “amateur” teams began paying their players in and the Chicago Bears. In Wisconsin in 1919, Curly
western Pennsylvania, upper New York, and especially Lambeau (1898–1965), a Notre Dame dropout, re-
Ohio. Most of the better players were collegians, who at ceived $500 from the Indian Packing Company of Green
times played on Saturdays for college teams and com- Bay to organize a team, the Green Bay Packers. After a
peted under assumed names for pro teams on Sundays. 10–1 season playing regional teams, each player was
Some of the players were professional baseball players paid $16.75. The following year George Halas (1895–
as well as collegians. Christy Mathewson (1880–1925), 1983), a former University of Illinois player, organized
a Bucknell University player and later a star pitcher for a team with money from the Staley Starch Company of
the New York Giants, played for Pittsburgh Pirate owner Decatur, Illinois. Players on Halas’s Decatur Staleys were
Barney Dreyfuss (1865–1932), who fielded a football hired by the company and paid $50 a week, with two
team in 1898. The strongest teams early in the twenti- hours off each day to practice football. After a ten-win,
eth century were formed in Ohio, where Akron, Canton, one-loss, and two-tie season, the average payment for
Columbus, Dayton, and Massillon created unparalleled playing was $125 a game. Halas, with the blessing of the
rivalries, particularly the Canton Bulldogs and Massil- Staley company, moved his team to Chicago, where he
lon Tigers of towns a buggy ride apart. A scandal ema- renamed it the “Bears” because it shared Wrigley Field
nating from a bribe offer disrupted continuous play, but with the Chicago Cubs baseball team. In 1920 he joined
pro-football in the area was renewed in 1912. By then a group that was the forerunner of the National Football
the game resembled the modern one with the legaliza- League. The NFL was formed as the American Profes-
tion of the forward pass, touchdowns counting six sional Football Association in 1920 and renamed the
Something goes wrong, I yell at them—Fix it—whether it’s their fault or not.
You can only really yell at the players you trust. ■ BILL PARCELLS
National Football League in 1922. Green Bay and Pro-football received a degree of national attention
Chicago, along with the New York Giants and the Wash- when Red Grange joined the Chicago Bears and went
ington Redskins, came to dominate the NFL until the on an eastern and then southern and western tour, at
end of World War II. one point playing seven games in eleven days. Clearly,
The relationship between the professional game and having the pros feed off the colleges was more impor-
the intercollegiate game has been a long one and close tant than having the colleges benefit from the pros.
in many ways. The star players of the early professional Pro-football gained stature because its teams increas-
teams were mostly collegians from the time of Hef- ingly used the colleges as “farm teams.” In an attempt to
felfinger in the 1890s. Nearly as important, many col- ensure an equitable distribution of college players
lege coaches had played professional football, including within the professional ranks, the annual draft of college
such renowned coaches as Knute Rockne of Notre players was devised in 1936. When Jay Berwanger (b.
Dame, Hugo Bezdek (1884–1952) of Penn State, Bert 1914) of the University of Chicago (the first Heisman
Ingwerson (1898–1969) of Illinois, and Jimmy Conzel- Trophy winner) was chosen by the worst team in the
man (1898–1970) of St. Louis. Coaches, too, shifted NFL, the Philadelphia Eagles, it was an attempt to give
between college teams and pro teams. Examples in- weaker teams an opportunity to improve their teams im-
cluded Arnold Horween (1898–1985), who moved mediately. That Berwanger chose to enter business and
from the Chicago Cardinals pro team in the 1920s to not the NFL was a reflection of the lack of esteem ac-
head Harvard University’s team, and Jock Sutherland corded professional football during the 1930s. Some
(1889–1948), who took over the Brooklyn professional other star college players, however, were drafted and
team after a successful career at the University of Pitts- joined pro teams, including Byron “Whizzer” White
burgh. The midwestern Big 10 Conference and the Ivy (1917–2002) of the University of Colorado, who was
League in the East were so concerned about pro- paid the NFL’s highest salary of $15,800 to join the
football during the mid-1920s that they legislated that Pittsburgh Steelers in 1938. White became a U.S.
all employees of athletic departments who took part in Supreme Court justice.
professional football games as players or officials were College coaches and other college athletic officials
disqualified from employment in athletics at conference feared the growth of professional football. At about the
institutions. The case of Harold “Red” Grange (1903– time the NFL came into existence, college coaches
1991), a star halfback at the University of Illinois, led formed the Football Coaches Association (FCA). Ac-
to an outcry by colleges against the pros for signing a cording to a New York Times report in 1921, one of the
player before he graduated from college. During his association’s first actions that year was to unanimously
senior year Grange signed a football contract with the resolve that “professional football was detrimental to
Chicago Bears within a week of playing his last college the best interests of American football and American
game against Ohio State in 1925. The reaction was so youth and that football coaches [should] lend their in-
negative that the NFL decided to make an agreement fluence to discourage the professional game.” The fear
with the colleges not to sign any football player before that pro-football would hurt the college game continued
his eligibility was completed or his class had gradu- through the century. That fear was seen early in creation
ated. The so-called Red Grange Rule lasted for more of the Red Grange Rule, and it continued with such ac-
than a half-century, when the agreement could no tions during the 1960s as forbidding the mention of
longer stand up under federal antitrust law because it vi- pro-football in college football telecasts and lobbying to
olated the freedom of people to sign contracts, a con- pass federal legislation to prohibit pro-football from
spiracy in restraint of trade. televising games on Saturdays, when college football is
FOOTBALL 627
Football
A Sporting Sonnet on Football, 1923
“After the Ball” by Jim Nasium (with apologies to an old song):
Bright lights are flashing before the halfback’s eyes;

The quarterback and fullback are nursing busted thighs.
The tackle tried to buck the line, while offering up a prayer,
And in a mass of human fragments he has climbed the Golden Stair.
The center rode a mass play through the Pearly Gates;
The surgeons in the hospital are mending broken pates.
Somebody gouged my eye out, a nose was seen to fall
While scrambling over the goal line, after the ball.
Chorus:
After the ball is over; after the field is clear;
What did you do with my eyebrow? Where is the rest of my ear?
Somebody has my ulna bone as a souvenir of the brawl,
And I lost a lung on the five-yard line, after the ball.
The captain took the kickoff and was carted from the game;
The fullback tried a cross-buck, and he’ll never look the same.
The right end smeared a forward pass, in a quivering mass of remains,
One had an armful of arms and legs, another a handful of brains.
The quarterback has vanished into the Sweet Bye and Bye;
The left end’s in the garbage can searching for his eye.
The season now is over—the din, and shout, and all.
But some of the boys are not all here, after the ball.
Chorus:
After the ball is over; after the field was cleared;
Somebody’s got my knee-cap, my scalp has disappeared.
The boys are in the study room, the cheering squad and all,
But some of their principal parts were lost while after the ball.
Source: Nasium, J. (1923, January). After the ball. Sporting Life, p. 35
traditionally played. The fear of the pros was a major lematical and less attractive. In a similar way the success
stimulus in the 1960s decision to allow unlimited sub- of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, put
stitutions (two-platoon football) to increase fan interest, pressure on colleges to create their own hall of fame. As
which was being lost to the more exciting pro game. with the playoff system, the colleges did not financially
The fear of professional competition almost led to the support the hall of fame idea, and development of a col-
creation of a playoff system for college football during lege football hall of fame has languished for decades.
the 1960s, but the previous development of “bowl” College football far outstripped professional football
games at the end of each season made the playoff prob- until the 1960s. The college game took advantage of
claiming to be amateur, with athletes playing for the segregated until the end of World War II, when the Los
honor of their alma mater. British amateurism’s upper- Angeles Rams of the National Football League and the
class notions of participating in sport purely for enjoy- Cleveland Browns of the All-American Football Con-
ment, not financial benefits, applied to college football ference added black players shortly before Jackie Robin-
in the United States as well. Even though the college son (1917–1972) desegregated professional baseball.
game had been developed on a commercial model with
huge stadiums, highly paid coaches, and subsidized ath- Television and Football
letes (either overtly or covertly), people generally be- The introduction of television dramatically affected col-
lieved that the athletes were amateurs.The positive virtue lege and pro-football after World War II. Football games
of “amateurism” added to the luster of football traditions were first telecast in the autumn of 1939, but another
of homecoming, pep rallies, “tailgating,” cheerleaders, decade passed before the cable required to carry signals
and marching bands. Season-ending bowl games added spread from the East Coast as far west as Chicago. By
to the interest. The Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, about 1950 the growth of television made commercial
began in 1902 and has been continually played since telecasts of sport contests profitable. Colleges were con-
1916. During the Depression of the 1930s, several com- cerned that telecasts would have a negative impact on
munities, principally in the South, decided that they attendance at stadiums, and in 1951 members of the
could help the local economy by hosting bowl games. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) de-
The Orange Bowl in Miami and the Sugar Bowl in New cided to control the number of telecasts of their football
Orleans started the rush to season-ending contests and games. From 1951 to 1984 the NCAA plan provided
were followed by the Cotton Bowl in Dallas and a host for national and regional telecasts each Saturday during
of new bowls after World War II. the season. This monopoly existed first to limit games
College teams and professional teams lacked a large on TV and to preserve gate receipts. Later, when the
number of African-American players during the first NCAA contract with television networks was worth
half of the twentieth century. Southern institutions of more than $65 million per year, receiving television
higher learning refused to admit blacks until forced to revenues became more important to big-time colleges
do so by desegregation during the 1960s, and only a than preserving stadium attendance. A power struggle
few institutions in the North had black students until erupted between the smaller NCAA institutions and
after World War II. Outstanding players such as Fritz those that had regular game telecasts. The smaller in-
Pollard of Brown and Paul Robeson of Rutgers in the stitutions, demanding a greater percentage of television
1910s, Duke Slater (1898–1966) of Iowa and Joe Lil- funds, helped spur the creation of the College Football
lard (b. 1918) of Oregon in the 1920s, Wilmeth Sidat- Association (CFA). The CFA was created in 1976 to
Singh (1917–1943) of Syracuse and Kenny Washington promote big-time football. Within five years the CFA
(1918–1971) of UCLA in the 1930s, and Buddy Young helped sponsor a legal suit against the NCAA by the
(1926–1983) of Illinois and Marion Motley (b. 1920) University of Oklahoma and University of Georgia to
of Nevada in the 1940s were exceptions to the rule. Pro- break up the NCAA football TV monopoly. A 1984
fessional football’s first black player was Charles Follis U.S. Supreme Court decision went against the NCAA,
(1879–1919), who in 1904 played for the Shelby Ath- and colleges were thereafter free to create their own tel-
letic Club in Ohio. Fritz Pollard played pro-football evision plans. The result was an oversupply of games
after his Brown experience, becoming the first African- and lower revenues to most institutions.
American head football coach in 1919 when he The professional National Football League had dif-
coached the Akron Pros. Blacks played in the NFL until ferent results from television. The league’s popularity
the “color line” was drawn in 1933. Football remained rose greatly after its championship game in 1958, when
FOOTBALL 629
You need to play with supreme confidence, or else you’ll lose

again, and then losing becomes a habit. ■ JOE PATERNO
the Baltimore Colts defeated the New York Giants in a players’ strikes between 1968 and the mid-1980s. New
dramatic overtime contest seen by millions on televi- football leagues, also looking at the growing wealth in
sion. During that decade the NFL solution to protect the professional game, were formed. The World Foot-
stadium attendance was to prevent televising within a ball League lasted only one season in the mid-1970s.
radius of 75 miles without permission of the home Eight years later the United States Football League
team. The NFL also decided to pool television money, (USFL) began as a spring sport in 1983. The March-to-
dividing the TV revenues equally among all the teams. July schedule did not conflict with that of the stronger
This brilliant decision allowed smaller-market teams, NFL for a television audience, but the USFL survived for
such as the Green Bay Packers and the Pittsburgh Steel- only three years because of low television ratings. Three
ers, to remain financially competitive. years later the NFL established the World League of
Competition from a new league also had an impact American Football (WLAF) with teams in Europe and
on professional football. Lamar Hunt (b. 1932), dis- North America. The WLAF acts like a farm system for
gruntled at being unable to purchase an NFL franchise, the NFL and expanded the college football feeder sys-
in 1960 decided to form the American Football League tem that has existed for much of the century.
(AFL), which soon received a multimillion-dollar tele- Since the nineteenth century football has developed
vision contract from the National Broadcasting Corpo- differently in the United States than in the rest of the
ration (NBC). With the signing of star college players world, where soccer football is the dominant sport. The
such as Joe Namath (b. 1943) of Alabama, the AFL re- game was thriving in colleges well before the profes-
ceived recognition, and in 1966 the NFL, which fought sional game took hold. It has remained a game played
the AFL, accepted a merger of the two leagues. The almost exclusively by boys and men, unlike other pop-
merger, under the NFL name, became official as a ular team sports such as baseball, for which women
twenty-six-team league in 1970. A playoff between the formed a professional league in the 1940s and 1950s,
NFL and AFL beginning in 1967 added excitement and and basketball, which girls and women made the most
created greater wealth. The championship was called popular sport in schools and colleges for most of the
the “Super Bowl,” and Green Bay won the first two con- twentieth century.
tests. The Super Bowl, a kind of U.S. holiday, has had
Ronald A. Smith
some of the highest ratings in television history, easily
surpassing baseball’s World Series in popularity. The See also Super Bowl
NFL introduced Monday Night Football to supplement
the traditional Sunday games beginning in 1970.
“Prime-time” evening football was the creation of the Further Reading
NFL’s commissioner, Pete Rozelle, and the innovative Baker, L. H. (1945). Football: Facts and figures. New York: Farrar &
Roone Arledge of the American Broadcasting Com- Rinehart.
Braunwart, B., & Carroll, B. (1981). The alphabet wars: The birth of pro-
pany (ABC). For two decades Monday Night Football fessional football, 1890–1892. Canton, OH: Professional Football
surpassed all regular televised sporting events in popu- Researchers Association.
Cope, M. (1974). The game that was. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.
larity. Davies, R. O. (1994). America’s obsession: Sports and society since
Professional football’s increase in wealth from tele- 1945. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
vision has spurred both new labor disputes and com- Davis, P. H. (1911). Football, the American intercollegiate game. New
York: Scribner’s Sons.
peting leagues. Players formed the National Football Falla, J. (1981). NCAA: The voice of college sports. Mission, KS: National
League Players Association in 1956, but the union was Collegiate Athletic Association.
Hickok, R. (1992). The encyclopedia of North American sports history.
not recognized by NFL owners until 1968. A desire for New York: Facts on File.
a larger share of the profits eventually led to several Jable, J. T. (1978, April). The birth of professional football: Pittsburgh
athletic clubs ring in professionals in 1892. Western Pennsylvania that it began playing rugby the next year and persuaded
Historical Magazine, 62, 131–147.
some of its northeastern school neighbors to adopt the
March, H. A. (1934). Pro football: Its “ups” and “downs.” Albany, NY:
J. B. Lyon. new game. American and Canadian versions of football
McClellan, K. (1998). The Sunday game: At the dawn of professional continued to influence each other as the years went by.
football. Akron, OH: Akron University Press.
Neft, D. S., Cohen, R. M., & Korch, R. (1992). The sports encyclope- Rugby continued its transformation to Canadian
dia: Pro football. New York: St. Martin’s Press. football. By 1882, the traditional English scrummage
Neft, D. S., Johnson, R. T., & Cohen, R. M. (1974). The sports ency-
was removed with the Canadians heeling it, that is, the
clopedia: Pro football. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
Ours, R. (1984). College football almanac. New York: Harper & Row. center put the ball into play by tapping it with his heel
Peckham, H.W. (1967). The making of the university of Michigan, to the quarterback. On either side of the center was a
1817-1967. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Porter, D. L. (Ed.). (1987). Biographical dictionary of American sports: “scrim support” to protect the center and delay any rush
Football. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. from the opposition. The rule change also meant that
Roberts, R., & Olson, J. (1989). Winning is the only thing: Sports in
possession took precedence over spontaneity.
America since 1945. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Rowe, P. (1988). American football: The records. Enfield, UK: Guinness By 1892, a reorganized Canadian Rugby Union was
Publishing. formed and governed the sport and was responsible for
Smith, R. (1972). Illustrated history of pro football. New York: Grosset
& Dunlap. a national championship contest. The field was set at a
Smith, R. A. (1988). Sports and freedom: The rise of big-time college ath- length of 110 yards (100 meters) with a 25-yard (22.9-
letics. New York: Oxford University Press.
meter) goal area and a width of 65 yards (59.5 meters).
Smith, R. A. (1994). Big-time football at Harvard, 1905: The diary of
coach Bill Reid. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. There were 15 players on a side, and a game consisted
Smith, R. A. (2001). Play-by-play: Radio, television, and big-time college of two 45-minute halves. A team was awarded six
sport. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Watterson, J.S. (2000). College football: History, spectacle, controversy. points for a goal from a try, five from a drop kick, four
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. from a flying or free kick and a try, two from a safety
Weyand, A. M. (1926). Football, its history and development. New
touch, and one from a rouge. The only two values re-
York: D. Appleton.
Whittingham, R. (1984). What a game they played. New York: Harper maining in Canadian football today are the safety touch
& Row. and the rouge or single point given when a kick is not
returned from the end zone. The field dimensions are
the same with one exception. Since 1986 the Cana-
dian Football League changed its end zone to 20 yards
Football, Canadian (18 meters). Today, teams must gain 10 yards in three
downs or lose possession.
A s with some others aspects of Canadian culture,

Canadian football is a mix of Canadian, British,
and American influences. It began as rugby that was im-
Prior to World War I there were a number of Unions
or leagues including the Quebec Rugby Football Union
(1882), the Ontario Rugby Football Union (1883), the
ported from England in the 1860s. The Montreal Foot- Intercollegiate Rugby Football Union (1898), the In-
ball Club was formed in 1868 and from there rugby terprovincial Rugby Football Union (1907) and the
spread to McGill University. By 1874, McGill had its Western Canada Rugby Football Union (1911). In
own hybrid version of the rules codified for its own use. 1909 the title was symbolized by a trophy donated by
In that year, Captain David Rodgers challenged Har- the Governor General of Canada, Lord Earl Grey
vard University to two games, one in Cambridge in (1851–1917). The Grey Cup continues to be trophy
May, the other to be played in Montreal in the autumn. given to the team winning the Canadian Football
The one game at Cambridge turned out to be two. The League (CFL) championship.
teams agreed to play two games, one under each other’s By 1909, the game had evolved further and there
set of rules. Harvard was so impressed by McGill’s rules were 14 players; the ball was still being heeled out, and
FOOTBALL, CANADIAN 631
there was no interference and no forward passing. By Football League (CFL) in 1958. The Canadian Rugby
1921 teams were reduced to 12 to a side as they are Football Union turned over the trusteeship of the Grey
today, and the ball could be snapped back, although the Cup to the CFL in 1966 and became the Canadian
quarterback had to stay 5 yards behind the snapper. Amateur Football Association (CAFA). In 1986, it
That year the Dominion Championship, or the Grey changed its name to Football Canada and oversees play-
Cup Game as it was increasingly called, became an offs of developmental football outside the university
East-West competition. system and manages coaching certifications. The uni-
The forward pass was approved for all leagues in versities had already formed their own national playoffs
1931 and regular recruitment of American players and beginning in 1965. The Vanier Cup, named for Gover-
coaches began that year as well. To halt the flow of nor General Georges Vanier (1888–1967), is presented
American talent and develop the Canadian talent pool, annually to the university team winning the national
the Canadian Rugby Football Union imposed a resi- championship.
dence rule requirement for 1936. Players had to live in Since 1965, the CFL has described its players as im-
the community they represented for one year prior to ports (those who played football outside Canada prior
the season. to their seventeenth birthday) and nonimports (those
In 1946, the Canadian Rugby Football Union al- who had not played football outside Canada prior to
lowed teams to carry five American imports, and the res- their seventeenth birthday). For all intents and pur-
idence rule of 1936 was abolished. Not all teams poses, imports were Americans and nonimports Cana-
rushed to embrace the new reality: The Toronto Arg- dians. This legislation meant that naturalized Canadians
onauts preferred to play with an all-Canadian roster would continue to be classified as imports and therefore
and won the Grey Cup in 1945, 1946, and 1947. The not increase the cost of the Canadian side of the budget.
1947 game was a watershed of sorts. The following The legislation was responsible for the formation of
year, 1948, saw the Calgary Stampeders defeat the the Canadian Football League Players Association
Montreal Alouettes to win the Grey Cup and turn the (CFLPA).
game into a national festival with its array of cowboys, In the 1960s and 1970s, CFL football grew in popu-
chuck wagons, pancake breakfasts, horses, and boister- larity until a series of actions minimized its acceptance.
ous fans who arrived by the train load in Toronto, the A contentious Designated Import Rule passed in 1970
site of the game, for a week-long celebration. allowed two American quarterbacks to substitute freely
The popularity of the game increased, as did the de- and virtually guaranteed that a Canadian would not play
pendence on American talent. The term rugby disap- at that position. In the 1980s, a lucrative television con-
peared as a descriptor, replaced by football since it was tract was canceled, leaving teams in the CFL to scramble
more easily understood by American prospects. In to make up the shortfall in revenue. The league found it-
1956, the touchdown was increased in value from five self competing with Major League Baseball and other en-
to six points, and the following year the American tertainment options for the public’s favor and money. By
names for the positions of center, guard, tackle and end 1993, the league expanded into the United States when
replaced the Canadian snap, inside wing, middle wing, it added the Sacramento Gold Miners. The following
and outside wing. The twelfth position was retained, but year, teams from Las Vegas, Shreveport, and Baltimore
its name was changed from flying wing to wingback, joined, and in 1995, Memphis, Tennessee, and Birm-
and later to slot back, flanker, or wide out. ingham, Alabama, became members of the CFL.
Meanwhile, the two dominant leagues in the country In 1995, the CFL moved to North–South divisions
from the West and the East formed the Canadian Foot- that would play for the Grey Cup. Rosters per game
ball Council in 1956, which was renamed the Canadian were set at thirty-seven: The North could carry fourteen
imports, three quarterbacks, and twenty nonimports; ers must pull a flag attached to a belt worn by the ball
the South was allowed to carry whomever it wished. A carrier rather than tackle or touch the carrier. People
$2.5 million (Canadian) salary cap was in place. have played flag football since the 1950s, but no single
Baltimore, now known as the Stallions, won the Grey organization has emerged to govern the development of
Cup in 1995. It was the first American team to do so rules and standards. As a result, players have developed
but the American teams withdrew from the league and many styles of play, and rules vary greatly from league
the CFL reverted to an all-Canadian city format in to league.
1996. People play flag football in public schools, colleges,
The CFL game today differs from the American ver- and recreational leagues throughout the world. Many
sion chiefly in its size of field, no fair catch, unlimited students are introduced to football by playing a non-
motion by the backs, three downs to make 10 yards, 20 contact flag version of the game in physical education
seconds to put the ball into play, and a single point classes. Campus recreation services at many colleges
awarded for a punt or missed field goal when the re- offer intramural leagues with men’s, women’s, and co-
turning player is tackled in or the ball is kicked out of ed divisions. In fact, teams from U.S. colleges can com-
the goal area. By 2005 the CFL had nine teams in two pete in a national championship held at a professional
divisions. In the Western Division are the British Co- football stadium in conjunction with a National Foot-
lumbia Lions, Calgary Stampeders, Edmonton Eskimos, ball League (NFL) game. In the main, recreational
Saskatchewan Roughriders, and the Winnipeg Blue leagues are offered by local recreation councils. Local
Bombers. In the Eastern Division are the Montreal teams or leagues may then affiliate with a national or-
Alouettes, Ottawa Renegades, Toronto Argonauts, and ganization, adopting the regulations of that governing
the Hamilton Tiger-Cats. The league is also trying to cre- body.
ate greater interest in the Atlantic provinces and toward The oldest national governing body is the National
that end has scheduled a game between the Toronto Touch and Flag League (NTFL) in the United States.
Argonauts and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in Halifax, The NTFL, founded in 1960, offers touch and flag foot-
Nova Scotia in June 2005. ball for men and women at various levels of competi-
tion through leagues, tournaments, and a national
Frank Cosentino, with update by David Levinson
championship. A rival organization is the United States
Flag and Touch Football League (USFTL), founded in
Further Reading 1988 in response to the many flag football styles and
Canadian Football League. (2005). Retrieved March 30, 2005. from rules practiced in the United States. The USFTL, in ad-
http://www.cfl.ca dition to providing leagues and tournaments for men,
Cosentino, F. (1969). Canadian football: The Grey Cup years. Toronto,
Canada: Musson Book Co.
women, and children, trains and certifies officials and
Cosentino, F. (1995). The passing game: A history of the CFL. Winnipeg, produces educational aids for flag football players. Each
Canada: Bain & Cox. league is self-contained. Opportunities exist, however,
for teams to compete against teams in other leagues at
annual tournaments.
Football, Flag History

Scholars generally believe that flag football originated
F lag football, like touch football, is an adaptation of

the full-contact version of U.S. football (sometimes
called “gridiron football”). Stopping play in flag football
in the U.S. military during World War II. In fact, the
U.S. Army’s Fort Meade, Maryland, has the first
recorded history of flag football and is widely regarded
is more difficult than in touch football because defend- as the birthplace of the sport. Now people all over the
FOOTBALL, FLAG 633
A game of flag football

between friends. Notice the
white material hanging from
the players’ waists.
world play flag football. Germany,

Canada, France, Israel, Japan, and Swe-
den have formal leagues, and other
countries have informal leagues. The
U.S. military was largely responsible
for taking U.S.-style flag football to the
rest of the world. In many cases U.S.
soldiers played football informally at
military bases overseas, and this play
led to the creation of touch and flag
leagues. The flag version of U.S. foot-
ball was a low-cost form of the game
that gave players in other countries an
inexpensive way to experience a sport that many had No standard rules and regulations for flag football
watched on television. exist, but the majority of leagues across the world begin
with the rules and regulations of the U.S. football code.
Rules and Play Games are played on a rectangular field that measures
The equipment of flag football is minimal: a football either 100 or 80 yards (90 or 72 meters) long. The
and one flag belt per player. Flag belts differ in the number of players per side varies from four to nine, but
number of flags (strips of fabric) attached and in the most leagues consist of teams that have seven to nine
manner in which those flags adhere to a belt. To stop players per side. During play each team is given four
play, an opposing player needs to pull just one of the chances (downs) to move the ball 10 yards (9 meters).
flags. All belts have at least two flags—one placed on Some leagues mark the field in 20-yard (18-meter) in-
each hip. However, some belts have a third flag at- crements and require a team to move the ball to the
tached at the rear of the belt. Initially the flags were sim- next yard marker to be awarded a new set of downs.
ply tucked into the belt, but the advent of Velcro allowed Scoring is similar to that for full-contact football: six
players to attach flags more firmly and helped eliminate points for a touchdown, three points for a field goal,
the problem of flags falling off without being touched. two points for a safety, and either one or two points for
However, dirt and other debris were easily embedded in a point after touchdown.
Velcro’s hook-and-loop system, and this situation cre- Not all flag football leagues include opportunities for
ated a new problem in keeping the flags attached. To players to kick field goals or extra points—an arrange-
solve the problem, most leagues and tournaments have ment that allows the game to be played in areas that lack
adopted one of two styles. The first style is a more se- goal posts. In this version of the game, teams can still
cure two-flag belt that features a ball-and-socket flag at- choose to try for either a one- or two-point conversion:
tachment that pops loudly when pulled and makes the A one-point conversion begins from the 3-yard line (2.7
flag difficult to be knocked off inadvertently. The second meters), a two-point conversion typically begins from
style is a three-flag belt to which flags are attached per- the 10-, 15-, or 20-yard line (9, 14, or 18 meters).
manently. In this style the belt is secured with an alli- Although they do not follow uniform rules and reg-
gator clip (a small spring-loaded clip that resembles ulations, the majority of leagues can be characterized by
the jaws of an alligator). When a defender grips the flag, one of three styles of play: all eligible flag football, in-
the entire belt, rather than just the flag itself, is de- eligible lineman flag football, or screen flag football.
tached. As with other styles of flag belts, the defender Both all eligible and ineligible lineman flag football
needs to pull only one flag to stop play. allow full-contact blocking anywhere on the field. As a
We know what we are, but know not what

we may be. ■ WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
result, these styles of play encourage teams to incorpo- ation (IWFFA). The IWFFA’s mission is to give young
rate a strong running component in their offensive girls and women opportunities to enjoy healthy com-
strategies. The main difference between all eligible and petition and develop teamwork and leadership skills
ineligible lineman flag football is, as the terms imply, through sportsmanship and fair play. The IWFFA strives
the capacity of linemen to receive a pass and advance to increase the understanding of football theory while
the ball. Again, this situation creates a different style of promoting good health through physical play and
play, with different physical requirements for those play- building confidence and self-esteem through execution
ing the line. That is, a guard or a center in a flag league and play calling. The association created women’s
would typically be slightly smaller and more mobile teams in Denmark, Norway, and Holland and sponsors
than an ineligible lineman. The third style, screen flag clinics for girls and women throughout North America.
football, prohibits blocking. Players instead screen de- The international interest in flag football is not lim-
fenders from the ball carrier or quarterback without ited to the women’s game. The International Federation
using their hands (similar to defending in basketball). of Flag Football (IFFF) was founded in 2000. It’s mis-
This style of play encourages a strong passing game. sion is to become the international governing body of
Coed leagues usually play screen flag football. flag football and to work for the integration of flag
football as an Olympic sport. The IFFF has hosted the
Growth of Flag Football annual World Cup of Flag Football since its inception
Women have competed in flag football since the 1950s, in 2000. The World Cup and its qualifying tournaments
although until creation of the International Women’s provide competitions for men, women, and children.
Flag Football Association in 1997, the diffusion of flag Forty-eight teams from nine countries competed in the
football resulted mainly in the expansion of opportu- 2004 World Cup.
nities for men to play the sport. Public schools, colleges, Youth flag football, historically limited to physical ed-
and recreational leagues now offer flag football leagues ucation classes, has emerged as a league sport in its
for women, but these leagues represent a small pro- own right. In addition to local recreation leagues, the
portion of league offerings. For example, the USFTL of- NFL sanctions flag leagues for boys and girls, six to
fers seven national championship events for men’s fourteen years old, across the United States.
teams, one for coed teams, and one for women’s teams.
The NTFL’s Super Bowl does not include any events for Outlook
women. The National Women’s Flag Football Associa- Flag football is a growing sport for men, women, and
tion (NWFFA), created in 1995, was the first organi- children in countries across the globe. The fractured
zation devoted to the enhancement of women’s flag nature of the governance of the sport, and the resulting
football. Diane Beruldsen founded the NWFFA to link diversity in its rules may, albeit intentionally, facilitate
women’s leagues, teams, players, and officials to pro- the development and popularity of the sport. The num-
mote women’s flag football. The NWFFA is run by ber of players required (four-a-side up to nine-a-side)
women who want to make flag football a professional allows the sport to be played in areas with few eligi-
sport for women. The NWFFA sponsors the largest ble participants. It also allows the sport to grow—
women’s flag football tournament in the world—the beginning with small numbers of interested players,
Key West Women’s Flag Football League/FLAG-A-TAG while being easily adapted for high interest areas. The
National Kickoff in Key West, Florida—as well as re- various contact rules also speak well of the flexibility of
gional tournaments in the United States. the sport. Youth can learn and develop football skills
The NWFFA’s success motivated the same women to without the risk of injury inherent in full contact foot-
found the International Women’s Flag Football Associ- ball. Men and women of all ages can choose the form
FOOTBALL, GAELIC 635
of the game relevant to their taste and fitness level. In lentless British influence on Irish life and were rejected
this way, flag football can be played across the lifespan. by many Irish nationalists. The specifically Gaelic ver-
sion of football was the last game to emerge in Ireland
B. Christine Green
and is one of the few games in the world to be overtly
political in its origins.
Further Reading In 1884 the GAA was founded in Thurles, Ireland, as
Ferrell, J. M., & Ferrell, M. A. (1980). Coaching flag football. Cham- part of the Irish independence movement. The founders
paign, IL: Human Kinetics. developed several games, including Gaelic football, in
Green, B. C., & Chalip, L. (1998). Sport tourism as a celebration of sub-
culture: The ethnography of a women’s football tournament. Annals
a deliberate effort to counter the influence of the British
of Tourism Research, 25, 275–291. games that then dominated. The first men’s rules for
Johnson, J. (1992). Flag football: The worldwide game. Boston: Ameri- Gaelic football were drawn up that same year. The idea
can Press.
National Intramural-Recreation Sports Association. (1992). NIRSA flag for the establishment of the GAA came from Michael
and touch football rules and officials manual. Corvallis, OR: Author. Cusack, who was supported by the legendary Irish ath-
Windemuth, T. M. (1992). Flagball for the 90s. Reston, VA: National
Association for Sport and Physical Education.
lete Pat Davin. The aim of the association was to pro-
mote specifically Irish games and resist the spread of
British habits and pastimes among the Irish people.
After gaining support for the association from Arch-
bishop Croke of Cashel, the GAA was able to call on
Football, Gaelic the Catholic Church in assisting the spread of the game.
All Catholic parishes were encouraged to set up a club,
G aelic football is a variation of football in which

players carry, kick, or punch the ball to reach the
opposing team’s goal. It is the fastest growing sport in
and Cusack was able to claim that the game had, by the
end of 1885, spread like a prairie fire.
Ireland among both women and men and has histori- The Early Years
cally been closely linked through its organizing body, The game of Gaelic football was so successful in its
the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with Irish na- early years because Cusack and Davin, building on
tionalism and identity. British models of sporting organization, codified the
Gaelic football traces its roots generally back to the game and carefully monitored its rules from the start.
seventh century, when other variants of football also This meant that the playing and watching public were
emerged. Various forms of folk or mob football existed able to embrace a well-thought-out and exciting game.
in Ireland until the mid-nineteenth century, and the From 1887 the All-Ireland Championships in Gaelic
staging of such games was closely associated with reli- football were organized and ran as an annual event. In
gious holidays and fair days. Given the dislocation the first competition, only eight of the thirty-two coun-
caused by the Irish Famine of the mid-nineteenth cen- ties of Ireland entered, but that number grew year after
tury, all forms of sport, and especially football, suffered. year. The fact that the GAA as a whole, and the game
While there is evidence that different types of football of Gaelic football in particular, was imbued with the
were played in the postfamine years, it was not until the spirit of Irish nationalism was an added attraction. The
1880s that the game was formally organized. Prior to political dimension of the game did cause problems. In
that, in 1854, the Irish Rugby Football Union was the late 1880s and into the 1890s, there was a long-
formed, and this was followed in 1880 by the estab- running struggle for the control of the association
lishment of the Irish Football Association. Both these between the Catholic Church and members of the ad-
games, while popular, were considered part of the re- vanced nationalist Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)
who wanted to use the game to promote their political Rules of Play
beliefs. The IRB won the struggle and took control in The Gaelic football pitch is from 140 to 160 yards long
1887. In 1888 the association banned all members of and from 84 to 100 yards wide. These are the basic di-
the Royal Irish Constabulary, the Irish police force, mensions, and some pitches, like that at Dublin’s Croke
from taking any part in the games, and later banned its Park, are at the upper limit, while that of Westmeath’s
own members from playing or watching any “foreign” Cusack Park would be at the lower end of the scale. At
games: cricket, association football, rugby union, and each end of the pitch, is an H-shaped post, similar to that
hockey. This rule stayed in force until it was repealed in in rugby union.The lower half of the post is netted in the
1971. The easy identification of the GAA with the style of a soccer goal.When a team propels the ball over
forces of political nationalism led to a Gaelic football the bar, they score one point, while a goal, worth three
match at Croke Park being attacked by British forces points, is scored when the ball goes into the net. The
during the Anglo-Irish War of 1919–1921. On 21 No- team with the highest score is the winners. Each team
vember 1920, Tipperary and Dublin had agreed to meet has fifteen players, including a goalkeeper, and is al-
in a challenge match. A crowd of 10,000 attended the lowed three substitutions during the game. The game is
game. In response to an IRA attack on British forces played over two halves of thirty-five minutes each. Play-
earlier that day, a reprisal attack was mounted on Croke ers can kick, punch, and carry the ball, although they
Park. British troops fired into the crowd and at the play- must bounce the ball off the turf after every four steps.
ers on the pitch. By the end of the day, thirteen people, The game is incredibly physical, and shoulder barging
including the Tipperary player Michael Hogan, were is allowed. The striking of a player is banned, however,
dead. Hogan was immortalized when a stand at the and Gaelic football has some of the most severe penal-
ground was named after him. ties for players found guilty of violent conduct, with
After the end of the Irish Civil War in 1923, the GAA players often being disallowed from representing their
played a key role in reuniting the country. From 1925 teams for a period of months.
on, ten percent of all gate receipts were reserved for Gaelic football is organized around the geography of
ground development across the country, and the asso- Ireland. The basic unit is the parish club, based around
ciation rapidly built up a network of the best facilities in the Catholic Church parishes of the country. For such
the country. In 1926 a Gaelic football match became teams there are annual local and national cup and
the first-ever sporting event to be broadcast live on the league competitions. The highest level that a player can
radio through national broadcaster 2RN. This marked compete at is for the county. There are thirty-two coun-
the beginning of an important relationship between the ties in Ireland, and each one has a Gaelic football team.
game and the Irish media that has allowed Gaelic foot- The players for each county are drawn from the best
ball to flourish.The growing popularity of the game was parish club players under the county’s jurisdiction. Dur-
evidenced by the first-ever crowd of 40,000 for a match ing the winter the counties play in a two-league, four-
between Kildare and Kerry in 1929. division championship, with relegation and promotion
Although the game has remained strictly amateur at for two teams from each league. While now heavily
the playing level, the game of Gaelic football has at- sponsored and promoted on the Irish-language televi-
tracted a wealth of corporate sponsorship, including sion station TG4, the league is seen as the secondary
such leading firms as the Bank of Ireland, Allianz, and competition. The most important competition every
Guinness. The current stars of the game are highly vis- year is the All-Ireland Championship that runs every
ible in advertising campaigns, and their success contin- year from May to September. The thirty-two counties,
ues to underpin the growth of the game at schoolboy plus teams representing New York and London, play
level. preliminary rounds at the provincial level (there are
FOOTBALL, GAELIC 637
There is no “I” in team. ■ ANONYMOUS
four provinces in the country: Ulster, Connaught, Mun- have been large, and it seems that the series offers
ster, and Leinster). The four provincial champions then Gaelic football a solid and regular international outlet.
meet in semifinals, before the last two teams battle out
the All-Ireland final for the championship title and the Women’s Gaelic Football
Sam Maguire Trophy at Croke Park, Dublin, in front of Gaelic football remained a men’s game for almost one
a capacity crowd of 85,000. hundred years. Then, the Ladies Gaelic Football Asso-
ciation was founded in 1974, and it has had at the cen-
The Game Overseas ter of its mission statement as a goal to involve as many
The Irish have been one of the most mobile nationali- young girls and women in this Irish sport. The women’s
ties and have, since forced to leave their country because association has been successful since its inception. In
of the ravages of the mid-nineteenth century, always the schools Gaelic football for girls is a popular alter-
emigrated in large numbers. On leaving Ireland they native to the women’s version of hurling, camogie (the
have taken their games with them. Naturally, GAA Irish women’s national game, also founded by the
clubs, and Gaelic football in particular, can be found in GAA).
most countries with a significant Irish immigrant pop- The game is an exact copy of the men’s game with no
ulation, namely Australia, Britain, Canada, South rule changes or concessions made because the com-
Africa, New Zealand, and the United States. The GAA petitors are women, as happened with the creation of
club became a home away from home for many emi- camogie. Women’s Gaelic football is a contest between
grants, and while the game of Gaelic football never two sides of fifteen players each. The pitch is from 129
broke through and won over the indigenous popula- to 147 meters (140 to 160 yards) long and from 79.5
tion, it has always had a popular following among the to 92 meters (84 to 100 yards) wide. The goal at each
Irish diaspora. Gaelic football was also popular in Ar- end of the pitch is H-shaped, similar to that used in
gentina in the first half of the nineteenth century due to rugby union with the lower part of the post netted in
the Irish migration, and in recent years it has been the same way as a soccer goal. Players score one point
played in areas of new migration connected with inter- for kicking the ball over the uprights and three points
national business, namely Hong Kong and Dubai. for propelling the ball into the goal net. The winning
Attempts have been made by the GAA to popularize side is the one with the greatest number of points. Play-
the game abroad. In 1947, for instance, the All-Ireland ers are allowed to handle and kick the ball, although
final between Cavan and Kerry was played at the Polo they are prohibited from running with the ball farther
Grounds in New York in front of a crowd of 34,000. In than four steps.
1967 the All-Ireland champions Meath met a team Of the thirty-two Irish counties, twelve compete at
made up of Australian Rules footballers in a game of the senior level, while an additional nineteen also have
compromise rules drawn from both codes. Since that junior teams. The widespread support for the game at
date, various attempts have been made to create an an- the junior level and the game’s popularity in the school
nual test series between Gaelic footballers and Aus- system as an alternative to camogie means that the
tralian Rules players. In the 1980s representative teams game’s future is secure.
from Ireland and Australia met in a series of games, In the formative years of women’s Gaelic football, its
played in both countries, but they were financially un- main stronghold was in the province of Munster in the
successful. Since 1998 a renewed series of International southwest of Ireland, as evidenced by Kerry’s winning
Rules, sponsored by Coca-Cola, has been played on an the All-Ireland Championship nine consecutive times in
annual home-and-away basis and has proved to be a the 1980s. In the 1990s the game spread across Ire-
great success. Crowds in both Australia and Ireland land, and winners of the All-Ireland now come from all
over the nation. The growth of the sport is spectacular. Cronin, M. (1999). Sport and nationalism in Ireland: Gaelic games, soc-
It is estimated that in excess of 30,000 Irish women are cer, and Irish national identity since 1884. Dublin: Four Courts
Press.
regularly playing Gaelic football. In cities in other coun- De Búrca, M. (1980). The GAA: A history of the Gaelic Athletic Associ-
tries with large Irish immigrant populations, Gaelic ation. Dublin: Cumann Lúthchleas Gael.
Gael, C. L. (1984). A century of service, 1884–1984. Dublin: Cumann
football is being taken up as a sport for the women of Lúthchleas Gael.
the diaspora. The Ladies Gaelic Football Association is Hughes, A. (1997). The Irish community. In P. A. Mosely, R. Cahsman,
not officially affiliated with the GAA, but it is recog- J. O’Hara, & H. Weatherburn (Eds.), Sporting Immigrants. Crows
Nest, New South Wales: Walla Walla Press.
nized by the larger organization.
As sport and as a recent organization, the Ladies
Gaelic Football Association does not appear to have as
close links with political nationalism as does the GAA,
but the popularity of the sport does illustrate how im-
portant traditionally Irish forms of sport are within the
Foro Italico
nation. Its rapid spread outside Ireland suggests that it
has a secure future. T he Foro Italico (Italian Forum) sports complex is lo-
cated in Rome. The Fascist Academy for Physical
Education was established in the forum, then named
The Future the “Foro Mussolini,” and was progressively extended
The game of Gaelic football is undoubtedly the most until World War II. After the liberation of Italy, the
popular sport in Ireland. There are more competitors forum hosted large sports events such as the 1960
playing the game, and the spectator figures, both live Olympic Games and the 1990 soccer World Cup.
and those for television viewing, were higher in 2003
than even for international soccer. In recent years many History
of the country’s Gaelic football grounds, including the The fascist youth organization Organizzazione Nazio-
headquarters, Croke Park, in Dublin, have been mod- nale Balilla (ONB) was founded in 1926 to educate Ital-
ernized and facilities improved. The game is a great ian youth physically and morally. The question of the
success as it ties together local community pride at the need for an organization of physical education was
parish level, with support for an original and exciting finally raised in a country that had no great tradition
Irish phenomenon. While the game remains strictly am- of sports or gymnastics. In 1926 the ONB began to
ateur at the playing level, the GAA as an organization consider creating a school to train physical education
has become highly professional in its approach to man- teachers, and Renato Ricci, ONB president, began con-
aging Gaelic football. As a result it is a thoroughly mod- struction of the Fascist Academy for Physical Educa-
ern sport with excellent media coverage, high levels of tion to educate teachers who would later teach the
sponsorship and support, and nationwide community children of the whole of Italy. Ricci placed the architect
programs. While it may be a game that no one else in Enrico Del Debbio in charge of designing the buildings
the world plays, the future of Gaelic games is bright. for the academy. The foundation stone was laid on 5
February 1928. The Fascist Academia of Physical Edu-
Mike Cronin
cation, the Marble Stadium, the Cypress Stadium, and
an obelisk were then completed. After 1928 new build-
Further Reading ings were completed before World War II: a hotel to the
Bradley, J. (1999). British and Irish sport: The garrison game and the south (1933), the Sphere Fountain (1933), several ten-
GAA in Scotland. The Sports Historian, 1, 81–96.
Cronin, M. (1998). Enshrined in blood: The naming of Gaelic Athletic
nis courts (1933–1934), a hotel to the north (1935–
Association grounds and clubs. The Sports Historian, 1, 1–23. 1936), a weapons room (1935–1936), two indoor
FORO ITALICO 639
swimming pools (1936–1937), a private gymnasium moral education, Ricci wanted above all to build a
for the Italian premier Benito Mussolini (1937), the sports complex where the “fascist way of life” would be
Empire Square (1937), and so forth. taught. He therefore favored athletics that allow full ex-
ercising of the body, and he was critical of soccer and
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORO MUSSOLINI its passive spectators. Soccer could not be played in
With the transformation of the ONB into the Italian the Marble Stadium, and the Cypress Stadium was de-
Youth of the Lictor (Gioventu Italiana del Littorio— liberately of a reduced size so that the spectacle aspect
GIL) in 1937, the youth organization moved to the di- could not take priority over the educational aspect.
rect leadership of the Fascist National Party (PNF), and The fascists were proud of the architectural and artis-
Ricci left his post. The architect Luigi Moretti succeeded tic style of the Foro Mussolini. The progressive con-
Del Debbio and created a new general plan for the struction, carried out by several designers, could not
forum. During the mid-1930s the goal of presenting guarantee a unity of styles; nevertheless, a great har-
Rome as a candidate city to host the 1940 Olympic mony of the whole emerges. The Foro has both antique
Games led to the development of the Foro Mussolini. and modern elements, illustrating the eclectic nature of
With this goal in mind the Cypress Stadium was ex- architecture during the fascist period.The Greco-Roman
tended after 1937 and was more often called the style is present in the sixty statues that surround the
“Olympic Stadium” (Stadio Olimpionico) or the “Hun- Marble Stadium (donations from several Italian prov-
dred Thousand Stadium” (Stadio dei Centomila). inces), in the marble or bronze statues that decorate the
With the radicalization of fascism, monumentalism Foro in several places, and in the numerous mosaics.
gained ground, and the general plan of 1936 consisted The Roman style is also present in the landscape of the
of a parade ground that could hold 400,000 people and Mario hill in the background, in the almost five thou-
that would be located at the foot of a 100-meter-high sand trees—Mediterranean for the most part—that
statue of Mussolini giving a Roman salute. This project were planted, and even in the name Foro. Under fascism
was not carried out, and Achille Starace, secretary of the the buildings were colored in Pompeian red, an obvious
PNF, took advantage of the situation to make a gift of reference to the city at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, and
the ground to the PNF, which built the Palazzo Littorio the white of the statues, frames, and side walls show the
(1938–1943), which today is the seat of the minister of contrast and the complementary nature of traditional
foreign affairs (1956–1960). At the beginning of the colors. Marble is everywhere. Moreover, modernity is ex-
1940s Moretti drew up a last general plan (1941), pressed in the techniques of construction, the building
which provided for other monumental installations. materials (reinforced concrete), and the style of several
buildings (the obelisk, the weapons room, the Sphere
FASCIST SPORTS FACILITIES Fountain, Mussolini’s gymnasium, etc.).
The Foro Mussolini was not only one of the most im-
portant fascist constructions, but also one of the biggest Venue Today
sports complexes of the period. Ricci’s strong political After World War II the administration of the complex
commitment and his typically fascist willingness to was dispersed. With the difficult management of its fas-
allow young Italians to build the “new Italy” marked the cist past, the forum now is used for big sports events
history of the Foro. The myth of youth expressed itself such as the Rome international tennis championships
in Ricci’s choice to hire only young professionals (ar- or the world championships. The weapons room was
chitects, engineers, sculptors, artists, etc.), often between transformed into an armor-plated hall for major trials.
twenty and thirty years of age. A fervent defender of In order to host the 1960 Olympic Games, the Olym-
physical education as an essential complement to fascist pic Stadium was enlarged (1952), and an Olympic
water sports stadium (1956–1960), a training ground, nineteenth century there were two hundred packs of
and the International Student House (1958–1960) hounds, the structural base of any hunt; the numbers
were built. have remained more or less constant since that time.
After the Olympic Games the Foro Italico hosted the Hunt clubs divided the United Kingdom into infor-
world swimming championships, the world athletics mally agreed “territories” for this quintessential rural
championships, and the 1990 soccer World Cup. The sport, one whose basis was defined as involving a con-
Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) moved test with nature and animals. Most hunts practice for
into the buildings of the old academy, and the Higher three days a week during the season. Farming land-
Institute for Physical Education (ISEF) and then the scapes were often designed to meet the needs of local
University Institute for Motor Sciences (IUSM) of Rome hunts, whose leading members were usually aristocrats
took up residence in the thermals baths. with a considerable influence in their areas. Although
most hunting took place on horseback there were
Daphne Bolz
mountainous and marshy areas where the hounds were
followed on foot. Each hunt developed a distinctive
Further Reading uniform: the leading officials and servants usually wear
Il Foro Italico e lo Stadio Olimpico [The Foro Italico and the Olympic scarlet coats, known colloquially as “pink,” with dis-
Stadium]. (1990). Rome: Tomo. tinctive buttons; others wear black, or tweed jackets. Be-
fore World War I the sport’s value for men was often
justified as offering training for cavalry officers.
Unlike many modern sports, foxhunting has made lit-
Foxhunting tle use of formal rules and national organizations be-
cause the sport is noncompetitive (theoretically) and
F oxhunting is a field sport in which a group of rid-

ers and dogs pursue a fox—if one appears—cross-
country until the fox escapes or is killed. It is
locally based. In Britain associations of Masters of Fox
Hounds and Hunt Secretaries have been the main reg-
ulatory bodies but much has depended on self-imposed
recreational, not competitive, and is as much a ritual as codes of etiquette. These are usually transmitted by
it is an actual hunt. Traditionally the practice of the word of mouth, although some have appeared in guides
wealthy, foxhunting remains an expensive sport. It was to behavior for the socially ambitious. The latter became
also primarily a male sport until the nineteenth century, increasingly important in the later nineteenth century as
but today men and women participate in approximately the costs of hunting meant that many packs were now
equal numbers. supported by members’ subscriptions instead of aristo-
cratic benevolence. The sport’s popularity was due
History mostly to two factors—it became one avenue by which
Hunting foxes with hounds during winter months the aspiring newly rich could be introduced to and re-
emerged in England during the late seventeenth and inforce existing rural elites, and it offered entertainment
eighteenth centuries as other game animals became for all social classes, as the deferential lower classes
scarcer. By the early nineteenth century it had become watched the rich at play. Claims that it is a “democratic”
formalized, mainly due to the influence of Hugo sport need to be treated with care; inclusiveness would
Meynell (1735–?), who introduced the “scientific” be a better description. Foxhunting appeared in other
breeding of hounds and established codes of etiquette parts of the world, especially throughout the British
in the Quorn hunt in Leicestershire. His influence was Empire and its former colonies; in countries such as the
soon felt throughout the country, and by the end of the United States and Australia, variations were adopted
FOXHUNTING 641
If you chase two rabbits,

both will escape. ■ ANONYMOUS
that were suited to local conditions. There were also Most women hunted wearing female versions of male
some hunts in Italy and Spain. Other offshoots have in- headgear (top and bowler hats) worn over hair nets
cluded point-to-point racing, “national hunt” horse rac- and veils designed to protect delicate complexions from
ing, and equestrian competitions involving hurdles. overexposure to a frequently harsh climate. A tanned
face is now more acceptable but hair nets still appear
Gender Balance frequently. Like men, most women now wear light-
In its early years foxhunting was almost entirely a mas- weight protective helmets, after some serious accidents
culine activity, largely because of its associations with in the later twentieth century prompted a greater con-
aggression, heavy drinking, and the speed of the chase. cern with safety. Even so, few hunting seasons pass
Men have dominated the developments and much of without some broken bones after falls at hedges and
the literary popularization, through the writings of An- fences.
thony Trollope and Siegfried Sassoon. Women had,
however, participated occasionally in earlier forms of Social and Moral Issues
hunting on horseback such as hawking and stag hunt- When women began to hunt regularly in the 1870s,
ing; Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) had been a for- questions of social acceptability became paramount. It
midable rider in the earlier years of her reign. The was normal for women to reflect the social status of
Marchioness of Salisbury (d. 1835) ran her own pack of their fathers or husbands and to assess the social cre-
hounds in the 1790s. dentials of newcomers. Fringe events such as hunt
The great increase in female participation came in the breakfasts and balls were useful vehicles for this task.
later nineteenth century. Convention (as well as flowing But tensions arose because the subscriptions of new
gowns) had dictated that women could only ride members were essential to maintain the sport in periods
sidesaddle instead of astride, and this limited their abil- of agricultural recession, and this financial need was at
ity to join in the chase at speed. Around the 1850s odds with the selection and elimination process often
new developments in saddlery, and the addition of a organized by the women hunters. Significant problems
pommel, made the use of sidesaddles more secure, and also arose when established women hunters tried to act
it eventually became acceptable for women to wear rid- as moral arbiters. Male hunting groups had often ex-
ing breeches and boots, provided that they were con- isted on the fringes of sexual license and the occasional
cealed by a false skirt front that enveloped the rider’s appearance of mistresses and courtesans sometimes led
legs. Only after World War I did younger women dis- to social ostracism. A well-known example illustrates
card their skirts along with the old inhibitions and the difficulties this could cause. The most famous cour-
begin to sit astride their horses. tesan of mid-Victorian England was “Skittles,” Catherine
Within the limits posed by changing attitudes to Walters (1839–1920), who rose from humble origins
women’s athleticism and the practical physiological im- to wealth through the beds of aristocratic admirers,
plications of menstruation, pregnancy, and so on, some and who proved to be a courageous and active rider
active horsewomen became as daring, even as reckless, with a quasi-religious enthusiasm for hunting. Her other
on the hunting field as many men. The convention that legacy has been that the hunting field has remained
they went through gates opened specially for them gave one of the trysting grounds both for legitimate romance
way by the late Victorian period to their leaping hedges and illicit affairs. In the late twentieth century, Prince
and fences together with male riders. Even so, there Charles’s (b. 1948) companion, Camilla Parker-Bowles
was some debate as to whether active hunting made for (b. 1947), attracted considerable media attention when
stronger breeding mothers, or if the aggressive riding in- riding to hounds, in sharp contrast with Diana, Princess
hibited pelvic development if the girl began too young. of Wales (1961–1997), who reportedly disliked riding.
A red fox.
Source: istockphoto/celtic-art.
were often called “Dianas,” re-

ferring to the goddess of hunt-
ing.) Even so these women
relied frequently on their hus-
bands’ positions and wealth
and often combined joint
mastership with their spouses.
This development marked a
partnership in maintaining es-
tablished local status rather
than a new independence or
domination by the female
Masters. Slowly, as foxhunting
became a respectable, even es-
sential, part of the ruling
classes’ female life cycle, the
claim died out that women
who participated in the sport
were defeminized. Women
could exhibit, within limits,
some of the aggression that
had previously been a male
preserve.
Gender Integration Perhaps the most bizarre manifestation of women’s
Although most masters of packs have been men, the new level of involvement was the role that hunting
twentieth century saw a steady increase in the role of mothers took in the sporting initiation rites of their
women taking such responsibilities. In some cases it children, male or female. This was the “blooding”; the
was claimed that hunts were kept in existence during blood of a newly killed fox was smeared on the child’s
World War I solely by women. There were many face using the severed tail or “brush” to do the painting.
instances in the 1920s and 1930s where women out- By contrast, lower-class women appeared largely as
numbered male riders. In cultures increasingly depend- spectators, but the later twentieth century saw a small
ent on mechanized transport, the recreational use of growth in their numbers among the humbler hunting
horses grew rapidly, especially among women, and staff, as grooms and kennel maids. Only rarely did they
hunting benefited from this enthusiasm. Since the work with the key huntsmen and whippers-in, the pro-
1790s there had been hunt “patronesses” who had fessional servants who manage the packs and the ap-
presided over the social events that reinforced hunting paratus of a day’s hunting.
seasons. Women had been in charge of such related This gender integration is in sharp contrast with prac-
sports as otter hunting and beagling before 1914, and tice in the United States, where there are some working-
the postwar period saw others becoming Masters (never class foot hunts in which men use dogs to chase gray
“Mistresses”) of Fox Hounds, the titular and organiza- foxes. In the New Jersey pine barrens, for instance,
tional head of each hunt, as well as the leading riders women may appear as distant spectators or drivers of
on any day out and the final arbiters of etiquette. (They the pickup vehicles, but local social conventions ban
FOXHUNTING 643
them from the actual hunting itself. Gender segregation ject. Modern country magazines aimed at the socially
remains much stronger where other social and sporting aspiring continue to photograph elite women for the
activities are similarly divided. In the growing anti- same purpose—in Britain, Princess Anne, the Princess
hunting movement that has emerged in the United Royal (b. 1950) and a former Olympic competitor, has
Kingdom since the 1980s women and men play equal proved a favorite subject.
parts, both as hunt saboteurs and in public political Whilst men have also dominated hunting literature,
campaigns. The appeal is always to consciences over an- women have made a major contribution. A trio of men,
imal welfare rather than using the older claims that fox- Robert Smith Surtees (1805–1864), the inventor of Jor-
hunting was defeminizing, but there has also been a rocks, an honest and jolly squire, Anthony Trollope
strong element of class antagonism. The moral argu- (1815–1882), who put hunting into many of his forty-
ment is couched in strictly egalitarian gender terms. In seven novels, and Siegfried Sassoon (1886–1917), who
2002 the Scottish Parliament was persuaded to ban made foxhunting part of a nostalgia for Edwardian Eng-
hunting foxes with hounds and the English Parliament land, were read by many who did not hunt. At the end
was expected to do likewise in 2004. A fierce debate led of the twentieth century the English philosopher Roger
to mass protest by hunt supporters, including violent Scruton produced a lyrical apologia for the sport at a
clashes with the police and the invasion of the House time when it was increasingly threatened. As far as
of Commons as well as arguments about the relative women were concerned, Skittles’s hunting exploits oc-
powers of the two Houses of Parliament, Commons cupied part of a mediocre novel during her lifetime: Skit-
and Lords. The future of the sport remains uncertain, tles: A Biography of a Fascinating Woman (1864), by W.
with the possibility of illegal activity and its eventual re- S. Hayward. One of the most important contributions to
placement by “drag hunting,” in which a scented trail re- the sport’s modern popularity came in the novels writ-
places the fox as the quarry. In November 2004, the ten jointly by two Irish women. Beginning with The Sil-
British Parliament outlawed the hunting and killing of ver Fox in 1879, Edith Oenone Somerville (1858–
mammals using dogs. Despite attempts to block the leg- 1949) and Florence Martin (1862–1915) wrote, as
islation through the courts, the ban became effective in “Somerville and Ross,” fiction set in the Irish country-
February 2005. Hunts are still allowed to chase foxes side. Action, love, and social conscience went hand in
with dogs but can only kill them by shooting. Many hand to portray foxhunting as an essential part of a ro-
may do this, or shift to following human and artificial manticized rural order in which hunting women played
scents for a day’s sport. The overall effect of the legisla- a key role. In 2004 the London Times contributor Jane
tion will take some considerable time to become clear. Shilling produced a lyrical account of her introduction
to the sport as an adult and a justification for its being
Picture and Print allowed to continue.
The iconography of foxhunting has concentrated largely
John Lowerson
on men, either in groups or as individuals, whose por-
traits on horseback adorned many country houses. By
far the best known of these artists was Sir Alfred Further Reading
Munnings (1878–1959). Women were usually regarded Blow, S. (1983). Fields Elysian: A portrait of hunting society. London:
as subordinate subjects, included in group scenes. The J. M. Dent & Sons.
Blyth, H. (1970). Skittles, the cast Victorian courtesan: The life and
exceptions appeared in Victorian and other periodicals, times of Catherine Walters. London: Rupert Hart-Davis.
where engravings and photographs were used to em- Carr, R. (1976). English foxhunting: A history. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicholson.
phasize the desirable exclusiveness of the hunting field Ferguson, G. (1993). The green collars: The Tarporley Hunt Club and
—the Empress Elizabeth of Austria was a favorite sub- Cheshire hunting history. London: Quiller.
I will always be someone who wants to do better

than others. I love competition. ■ JEAN-CLAUDE KILLY
Hufford, M. T. (1992). Chaseworld: Foxhunting and storytelling in New republican-inspired, patriotic group activities that gath-
Jersey’s pine barrens. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
ered together workers, artisans, and people from the
Itzkowitz, D. C. (1977). Peculiar privilege: A social history of English
foxhunting. Hassocks, UK: Harvester. lower middle class. The values and practices of these
Lowerson, J. (1993). Sport and the English middle classes, 1870–1914. clubs were different from those of the aristocracy, which
Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
Lowerson, J. (1996). Foxhunting. In D. Levinson & K. Christensen preferred fencing, horseback riding, dancing, or tennis,
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of world sport (pp. 359–363). Santa Barbara, and from those of the new urban middle class, which
CA: ABC-CLIO.
preferred other sports.
Sassoon, S. (1928). Memoirs of a foxhunting man. London: Faber.
Scruton, R. (1999). On hunting. London: Yellow Jersey. The first sports clubs appeared in France in the
Shilling, J. (2004). The fox in the cupboard: A memoir. London: Viking. 1870s, often at the initiative of British residents. The
Sinclair, A. (1998). Death by fame: The life of Elizabeth, Empress of Aus-
tria. London: Constable. student areas of Paris and a few other large cities turned
out to be particularly fertile environments for these
clubs. In 1889 a multisports organization called the
Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques
(USFSA) was created, which gradually made a name for
France itself as a reference institution for most sports in France.
Despite considerable resistance from political and edu-
F rance is a European country with a population of

62 million people. It has been a republic since
1870, except for a short period during World War II. Al-
cational circles, both of which preferred gymnastics
practices, the sports movement spread. Not the activity
of Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern
though decentralization laws were introduced during Olympic Games, nor the organization of the 1900
the 1980s, France is still characterized by a centralist Olympic Games in Paris, nor even the 1901 law per-
tradition inherited from the Napoleonic period in eco- taining to the freedom to create associations appeared
nomic, cultural, political, and administrative domains. to have played any major role in this development.
This has given Paris, the capital, exceptional signifi- However, the USFSA fell victim to growing pains and
cance on a national scale. The development of sports in to the rising conservatism of its directors in the face of
France during the twentieth century grew out of gym- the social transformations that were affecting sports
nastics traditions that date back to the nineteenth adepts. It split in 1920 into a series of federations by
century. sports category.
Post–World War I society in France was able to turn
History its attention to leisure. Mass sport and sports enter-
Following the 1789 French Revolution and throughout tainment were able to develop for a number of reasons:
the nineteenth century, the country’s long military tra- (1) a boom in the specialized press (for example, the
dition combined with a growing hygienic trend to favor publication of La Vie au Grand Air and L’Auto); (2) the
the development of private gymnasiums. Its defeat by collapse of nationalist gymnastics practices and the suc-
Prussia in 1870 resulted in France’s painful loss of the cess of a number of symbolic events such as the 1919
Alsace-Lorraine region. It also gave rise to an unusual Interallied Games, the 1924 Paris Olympic Games, and
development of highly structured clubs devoted to gym- the Tour de France (initiated in 1901); (3) the con-
nastics practices. These became federated in 1873, pro- struction of sports stadiums; and (4) the rise of profes-
ducing an extremely influential association called the sional football in 1930. Mass sport and sports
Union des Sociétés de Gymnastique de France. The as- entertainment continued to progress slowly, supported
sociation, which enjoyed the support of the military by the action of France’s Popular Front government in
and civil authorities until World War I, promoted 1936 in favor of leisure activities and then by the
FRANCE 645
France
Pascal on Diversions
growth of associations during the German Occupation The French mathematician and thinker Blaise
(1939–1944). Pascal weighs in on what motivates people to
Due to the difficult economic situation in the post– choose certain activities in this extract from his
World War II years, it was not until the rise of France’s essay, “What Our Diversions Reveal About Us”
Fifth Republic in 1959 and the advent of profound (1670):
changes to French society that sport began to experi- Thus so wretched is man that he would weary
ence exponential growth. Under the impetus of Charles even without any cause for weariness from the
de Gaulle, the government made sport a public service peculiar state of his disposition; and so frivo-
during the 1960s. This encouraged building necessary lous is he that, though full of a thousand reasons
infrastructures and supervising or even introducing for weariness, the least thing, such as playing
more sportsmanship into physical education programs. billiards or hitting a ball, is sufficient to amuse
Thanks to a number of factors—the rising standard of him.
living, the greater participation of women in economic But will you say what object has he in all this?
life, the spread of television, and the success of the The pleasure of bragging tomorrow among his
main sporting publication, L’Equipe—25 percent of the friends that he has played better than another. So
French population were practicing a sport by 1967. others sweat in their own rooms to show to the
The 1970s were marked by a rage for outdoor sports, learned that they have solved a problem in alge-
the appearance of a sports-for-all ideal, and a relative bra, which no one had hitherto been able to
loss of momentum for sports policy. During the 1980s, solve. Many more expose themselves to extreme
sports continued to grow steadily and in 2000, 83 per- perils, in my opinion as foolishly, in order to
cent of the population aged 15 to 75 declared that they boast afterwards that they have captured a town.
practiced a sport, compared to 75 percent in 1987. Lastly, others wear themselves out in studying all
More people practiced nonfederated sports than tradi- these things, not in order to become wiser, but
tional sports. only in order to prove that they know them; and
The relationship between the government and the these are the most senseless of the band, since
sports association environment, which was defined they are so knowingly, whereas one may sup-
quite specifically in a series of statute laws in 1945, pose of the others that, if they knew it, they
1975, 1984, and 2000, has remained steady, with the would no longer be foolish.
allocation for sport at around 0.5 percent of the na-
tional budget. As a result of the public and private sub-
sidies allocated to elite sports, France ranked about
eighth among sporting nations in the early twenty-first at Albertville in 1992, and the World Football Cup in
century. 1998. Football remained the most popular sport, not
only as a spectator sport, but also as the most practiced
Participant and Spectator Sports sport (with more than 2 million registered federation
In addition to the highly popular entertainment pro- members).
vided each year by the Tour de France bicycle race, the Since the 1980s, the strong growth of televised sports
Five-Nations (now the Six-Nations) Rugby Tournament, entertainment, the competition among public and pri-
the Roland Garros tennis tournament, and the French vate channels, and the scramble for audience have all
football championships, the latter part of the twentieth widened the gap between popular sports and others.
century was marked by a few major events, such as the During the period from 1993 to 1997, 67.5 percent
Winter Olympic Games at Grenoble in 1968 and then of sport-televised hours were devoted to only nine
sport that contrasted with that of the Fédération des

Sociétés Sportives Féminines, created in 1916 and
presided over by Alice Milliat, a tireless advocate of
Baron de Zuylen’s six-seated 20 hp Panhard women in sports.
and Levassor car, which ran in the tourist Alice Milliat also disagreed with the international
section of the Paris–Berlin race of 1901. federations and with Pierre de Coubertin on women’s
participation in the Olympic Games. In reaction, she
founded the Women’s International Sport Federation
disciplines (listed from most televised to least): football, and, in April 1921, launched the first “Women Olympic
auto racing, tennis, cycling, rugby, basketball, athletics, Games” in Monte Carlo.
boxing, and golf. Differences in media coverage alone Shaken up by the change of attitude taking place at
can’t explain the French hierarchy in sports, however, the international level after 1928, French sports feder-
since the federations with more than 200,000 members ations gradually began to accept women as members.
are for the following sports (listed from the largest to As a result, the two rival women’s federations disap-
the smallest): football, tennis, judo, pétanque (a lawn peared. French society was deeply patriarchal, however
game), basketball, rugby, skiing, golf, sailing, handball, (women obtained the right to vote only in 1945), and
and karate. Golf, sailing, and judo, which have fewer the cycling, rugby, and boxing federations, among oth-
registered federation members, have had the highest ers, refused to change their statutes to allow women
growth rates since the 1980s. The culture of traditional members until the 1980s. Generally speaking, the pop-
practices is so widespread that bowls and pétanque ular image of women as wives and mothers slowed the
draw in more than 700,000 members, making that fed- development of women’s sport in France; until the
eration one of France’s largest. 1960s women were channeled into activities that con-
The French are regularly outstanding at the inter- formed more closely to feminine standards, such as
national level in cycling (especially track cycling), gymnastics, swimming, and basketball.
judo, fencing, horseback riding, rugby, and canoeing- More women began to participate in sports after
kayaking, for reasons that are also linked to the coun- 1960, as women became more involved in the country’s
try’s historical legacy. They also perform at high levels economic life. The 1970s movement in favor of gender
in skiing, athletics, boxing, football, volleyball, hand- equality, followed by the slow maturing of French atti-
ball, and tennis, although sporadically. tudes during the 1980s and 1990s, helped to boost the
proportion of women practicing a sport—from under
Women and Sport 10 percent in 1968, to 32 percent in 1983, and then to
Besides a few early exceptions in mountain climbing, 64 percent in 1994 (when 72 percent of men were
gymnastics, and swimming, women didn’t really ap- practicing a sport). The type of sport activity was still
pear in sports in France until after 1900, with the es- highly correlated with gender—25 percent of French
tablishment of clubs like the Ondine de Paris in 1906, women were doing various types of fitness exercise,
Fémina Sport in 1912, and Academia in 1915. Because ranging from aerobics to sophrology (a relaxation tech-
men’s sports and gymnastics federations refused to let nique), 23 percent were swimming, and 22 percent
them participate, women founded their own federa- were walking and hiking. Men were devoting them-
tions, but they were unable to reach an agreement on selves to cycling, tennis, and football. Certain sports
just what “women’s sport” should be. The Union have never attracted many women, in particular foot-
Française de Gymnastique Féminine, created in 1912, ball, rugby, boxing, and cycling.
defended a conservative, hygienic concept of women’s Since the 1970s, women have been practicing sports
FRANCE 647
A solo cyclist nearing the top of the

awesome Mt. Ventoux in France. The
tower is a military radar installation.
Source: istockphoto/Newsue.
more, but the increase appears to have especially bene-

fited noncompetitive and noninstitutionalized activi-
ties. While 4 million women were registered in sports
federations in 1992, by 2003 only 33 percent of regis-
tered women were members of Olympic federations.
Despite the remarkable international success in tennis
(Amélie Mauresmo), fencing (Laura Flessel), swimming
(Laure Manaudou), and cycling (Jeannie Longo), for
example, only 6 percent of French women currently
compete in sports, compared to 17 percent of men—
and the gap widens as age increases. There are also not
many women on the steering committees of sports fed-
erations. On average, they represent under 13 percent,
which is far below expressed parity objectives.
Youth Sports
In 2000 more than 90 percent of young people aged 14
to 17 practiced a sport outside the school system. In
school, between the mandatory physical education and
optional sports practiced within a school sports asso-
ciation, nearly 100 percent did. And yet the very idea of
youth sports is new in France, and so there is no con-
certed policy with respect to it. Since the 1982 decen-
tralization laws, the government itself depends heavily
on local governments (communes, departments, and gram that was eventually taken over by the communes,
regions), which finance about a third of sports activities enabled the creation of 1,500 local sports facilities.
in the country, including a significant part for promot- In addition to these public programs, many organi-
ing sports to young people. During the 1980s, for ex- zations that contain a sports component also target
ample, the communes set up sports activities in sensitive young people’s activities. These include, for example,
neighborhoods in the suburbs of large cities as a re- the country’s 150,000 sports associations, youth and
sponse to urban violence and juvenile delinquency. cultural centers, and youth organizations like the scouts,
During the 1990s, enthusiasm was generated for municipal day camps, summer camps (municipal, cor-
such activities by creating social programs that were fi- porate, or leisure centers), and youth hostels.
nanced nationally through a city policy that received
contributions from all the ministries involved (National Organizations
Education, Youth and Sports, and the Interior). Follow- The French sport system is based on linking up public
ing the sweeping laws on socio-educational and sports and private structures. Besides the national federations
facilities of the 1960s, which were focused on youth for individual sports, both Olympic and non-Olympic,
sports practiced within federations, other more recent like the Fédération Française de Football (Soccer)
programs are still concentrating on infrastructure, but and the Fédération Française de Natation (swimming),
with a vision that is better adapted to the changing there are also what are called multisport “fédérations
youth culture. In 1991, “J Sports,” a nationwide pro- affinitaires” whose statutes provide for a political,
France
Key Events in France Sports History
1873 The Union des Sociétés de Gymnastique de 1921 The “Women’s Olympic Games” in Monte
France is established. Carlo is tagged by Alice Milliat and the
Women’s International Sport Federation.
1889 The Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports
Athlétiques is founded. 1923 The first Le Mans auto race is held.
1894 The first automobile race in the world is held 1924 The Olympics are held Paris.
in France.
1930 Professional soccer becomes popular.
1900 The Olympics are held in Paris.
1968 The Winter Olympics are held at Grenoble.
1901 The first Tour de France bicycle race is held. Regional and local governments take a
greater role in supporting sports.
1906 The women’s sport association, Ondine de
Paris, is founded. 1991 The “J Sports” program leads to the building
of many sports facilities.
1912 The Union Française de Gymnastique Fémi-
nine is founded. 1992 The Winter Olympics are held at Albertville.
1916 The Fédération des Sociétés Sportives 1998 France hosts and wins the World Football
Féminines is founded. Cup.
1919 The Interallied Games are held in Paris. 1998 The “Festina Affair” indicates that doping is
common among Tour de France riders.
educational, or religious commitment (for example, the the national Olympic committee. The CNOSF also has
socialist Fédération Gymnique et Sportive du Travail, regional counterparts. At the local level, there are ad-
the educational Union Nationale du Sport Scolaire, or ministrative units for sport that implement municipal
the Catholic Fédération Sportive et Culturelle de policies, and municipal sport services that represent the
France). These federations are accredited by the state so local sports movement and are members of a national
that they can obtain funding and exercise a public serv- municipal sports federation (FNOMS).
ice function as long as they respect certain administra-
tive, technical, financial, and ethical principles (sports Sports in Society
clubs are prohibited from being listed on the stock ex- Sports have an ambiguous status in French society. The
change, for example). As a result, all federations are or- public authorities consider them an educational tool,
ganized around the same government-defined master providing that they are protected from society’s “dan-
statutes. gers.”They are very popular as spectacles, yet generally
The Youth and Sports Ministry is in charge of the gov- not considered an essential part of French life. Still,
ernment’s national policy on developing sports and government assistance does exist for high-level athletes,
high-level sports. Beyond its own budget, it can count in the form of financial contributions, training pro-
on a National Sport Development Fund (the FNDS), grams, and aids for integrating the work environment.
which is drawn from the revenue of various national lot- The Institut National du Sport et de l’Éducation Phys-
teries. Its objectives are carried out by ministerial offices ique (INSEP) is the public organization that helps to
at the regional and departmental levels throughout the prepare the national teams.
country. Each federation also has regional and depart- National identity is occasionally—but rarely—an
mental headquarters; each one is a member of the issue in sports events. During the 1998 elections, for ex-
Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français ample, the extreme right was making a lot of news.
(CNOSF), which coordinates both the federations and The World Cup victory of France’s mixed-race football
FRANCHISE RELOCATION 649
France Olympics Results

team, led by its captain Zinedine Zidane, provided an greater inequality nationwide in support. Over the
opportunity to counter that by rallying the French pop- medium term, resorting to the use of private partners to
ulation to join together in spite of individual differ- help mass sports survive will only serve to reinforce the
ences in opinion. The occasion received a lot of media impact of popular spectator sports, to the detriment of
coverage, and the power of sport as a means of social other sports.
integration was taken up politically.
Thierry Terret
During the 1990s and early 2000s, French sporting
news was shaken up by several widely publicized cases. See also Le Mans; Tour de France
One such case arose from the construction of the Stade
de France, a stadium in the suburbs of Paris that had
been on the agenda since 1938 and which was finally Further Reading
completed for the 1998 World Football Cup. The proj- Arnaud, P. (1985). Les athlètes de la République. Toulouse: Privat.
Arnaud, P. (1998). Le sport en France. Une approche politique,
ect was highly polemical and involved a number of sen- économique et sociale. Paris: La Documentation française.
sitive financial trade-offs. In another, football’s image Arnaud, P., & Terret, T. (1996). Histoire du sport féminin. Paris: L’Har-
mattan.
was tarnished by revelations of the corrupt dealings of Augustin, J. P. (1995). Sport, géographie et aménagement. Paris: Nathan.
well-known entrepreneur Bernard Tapie, a former min- Callède, J. P. (2000). Les politiques sportives en France. Paris: Eco-
ister of urban affairs and the owner of the Olympique nomica.
Davisse, A., & Louveau, C. (1998). Sport, école, société: la différence des
de Marseille, France’s best football team of the 1980s. sexes. Paris: L’Harmattan.
First accused of rigging a match against the Valenci- Duret, P., & Trabal, P. (2001). Le sport et ses affaires. Paris: Métailié.
Ministère des Sport and INSEP. (2002). Les pratiques sportives en
ennes team, he was swept away by a wave of scandals France. Paris: éditions de l’INSEP.
and eventually served a prison sentence. France was Terret, T. (2000). Education physique, sport et loisir. 1970-2000. Mar-
upset by another scandal in 1998, the “Festina Affair,”in seille: AFRAPS.
Vigarello, G. (2002). Du jeu ancien au show sportif. Paris: Seuil.
which it came out that doping practices were com-
monplace among Tour de France riders. Following the
case, some particularly strict legislation was passed in
France, which has ruffled some international sports au-
thorities. Finally, stadium violence—never an issue in
France until the mid-1980s—emerged as a major prob-
Franchise Relocation
lem, although without reaching the levels of the hooli-
ganism seen in England or Italy. M any sports franchises throughout the world have
established loyal fan followings in their respective
communities. In some cases, teams have maintained
The Future continuous operations for well over a century, creating
The close relationship in France between the govern- stability within their host cities. However, one charac-
ment and the sports movement has become a problem teristic of the professional sports industry in North
in the European context of free circulation of goods and America, where the vast majority of franchises are pri-
individuals (the 1995 Bosman ruling). This could cause vately owned, is the relocation of teams to new com-
public authorities to withdraw their involvement; on the munities. Often, relocating teams have left fans feeling
other hand, they are likely to refocus on elite perform- betrayed. These feelings have been exacerbated when it
ance and on combating doping practices and violence became apparent that many recent relocations were
in sport. No longer certain of the integrative and edu- driven more by a desire of the owners to increase prof-
cational virtues of sport, local governments are adopt- its than a lack of support from fans within the estab-
ing a wide range of strategies; these are creating a lished community.
Understanding Why Teams Relocate since communities began building publicly funded sport
The relocation of franchises has occurred frequently facilities for use by private franchises. However, one
within the North American professional sports context, particular incident in the early 1980s set a precedent
where teams have been traditionally controlled by own- that opened the door for the relocation of a number of
ers willing to uproot their clubs to seek out more lu- National Football League (NFL) franchises during the
crative alternatives in other cities. This has been 1980s and 1990s.
happening since the emergence of sport leagues in the
late nineteenth century, but a resurgence has occurred NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE
in recent years as the presence of teams has emerged as In 1980, the Los Angeles Rams relocated from their
a status symbol for communities seeking “big-league” home at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to nearby
standing. This has resulted in intercity competition to at- Anaheim. Because of the proximity of the two cities, the
tract professional sports franchises and in the allotment NFL did not consider the move to be a relocation, as it
of billions of dollars in public funds to construct facili- was still within the greater Los Angeles metropolitan
ties for housing franchises. Leagues generally frown on area. However, the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
franchises relocating, as they view long-term stability Commission (LAMCC) was left without a major tenant
among their members as a key to the overall success of and commenced negotiations with the owner of the
leagues as a whole. As a result, teams must receive ap- Oakland Raiders, Al Davis, about the possibility of re-
proval from their parent leagues in order to relocate. locating to Los Angeles. The team in Oakland was not
In the early years of sport-league operations, team rein any financial distress, but the LAMCC’s offer was too
locations were done to ensure the survival of the fran- good for Davis to pass up.
chise; typically, a team would be struggling to maintain In 1980, Davis announced that the Raiders would be
financial solvency, and relocation would be undertaken moving to Los Angeles from Oakland. However, ac-
as a last-ditch effort to keep the team alive. This was cording to the NFL’s constitution and bylaws, any fran-
generally witnessed in the instability of sport leagues chise move would need the approval of at least
during their formative years, when franchise reloca- three-quarters of the league’s owners. The league voted
tions have occurred more frequently and many teams 22–0 (with five abstentions) to block the move. The
folded or merged with other clubs. However, the move- NFL considered the fact that the Raiders were well sup-
ment of franchises in some professional sport leagues ported in Oakland and that the league could retain the
during the 1990s frequently saw teams moving from option to place an expansion franchise in the stadium
good situations to even better ones, as franchises were vacated by the Rams when they moved to Anaheim. A
lured with promises of guaranteed revenues and new, defiant Davis chose to relocate anyway and sued the
state-of-the-art facilities. And though it would appear NFL, charging that its franchise-relocation rules were
that there has been more resistance at the municipal anticompetitive according to US antitrust laws. Davis
level to fund sport stadiums to facilitate relocation in received a $14.58 million award (which, according to
this century, the threat of relocation remains an im- US antitrust laws, was trebled) and relocated his team
portant negotiating tool for teams with their respective to Los Angeles for the 1982 season. Due to the prece-
communities. dent set by Davis, NFL teams realized that they could
relocate freely if other cities offered more attractive pack-
League Relocation Histories ages to teams and chose to challenge the NFL’s au-
Cities and teams have played what some observers have thority to stop the move. If the NFL tried to block a
described as “the stadium game,” in which scarce pub- move, individual teams could potentially sue the league
lic resources have been allocated to fund sport facilities on the grounds that it was violating antitrust laws. With
for professional teams. This process has been in place this in mind, the Baltimore Colts moved to Indianapo-
FRANCHISE RELOCATION 651
lis is 1984, the St. Louis Cardinals to Phoenix in 1998, NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION
the Los Angeles Rams to St. Louis in 1995, the Raiders The National Basketball Association (NBA) has also
back to Oakland in 1995, the Cleveland Browns to witnessed franchise relocations, although teams from
Baltimore in 1996, and the Houston Oilers to Nashville this league have not aggressively pursued other cities in
in 1997, all with the approval of the NFL. order to improve their financial situations in their home
markets. Instead, many franchises have seen their teams
MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL relocate multiple times to multiple cities in order to re-
Major League Baseball (MLB) franchises have not relo- main financially viable. For example, the Atlanta
cated as frequently as NFL franchises in recent decades, Hawks’ franchise started in 1949 as the Tri-Cities Black-
although teams have also used the threat of relocating hawks, moving to Milwaukee in 1951 and becoming
in order to exact new stadiums and more lucrative lease the Hawks. The team then relocated to St. Louis in
agreements. Perhaps the most noteworthy relocations 1957 before finally settling in Atlanta in 1968. Simi-
for baseball occurred in 1958, when the Brooklyn larly, the Washington Wizards commenced operations
Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Ange- as the Chicago Packers in 1961, relocating to Balti-
les and San Francisco, respectively, making Major more in 1963 as the Bullets. In 1973 the team moved
League Baseball truly a nationwide league. Other no- to suburban Washington D.C. and finally, in 1998,
table relocations during the 1960s and early 1970s in- changed its name to the Wizards and moved into a
cluded the Washington Senators to Minnesota (as the downtown Washington arena.
Twins), the Milwaukee Braves to Atlanta, the Philadel- Other current teams also have had nomadic exis-
phia Athletics to Oakland, and the Seattle Pilots to Mil- tences. The Los Angeles Clippers started as the Buffalo
waukee (as the Brewers). Finally, a revived Washington Braves, moving to San Diego in 1977 before finally ar-
Senators franchise moved to Arlington, Texas, to be- riving in Los Angeles in 1984. The Sacramento Kings
come the Texas Rangers in 1972. In all of these cases, had previous incarnations as the Rochester Royals
the desire to relocate was motivated by the possibility (1945–1957), Cincinnati Royals (1957–1972), Kansas
of greater fan support in the new market. This was fol- City–Omaha Kings (1972–1975), and Kansas City
lowed by over thirty years of franchise stability in base- Kings (1975–1985) before moving to Sacramento in
ball, which lasted until the Montreal Expos, suffering 1985. Other teams that began operating in cities other
miserably from poor fan support, announced that they than their current ones include the Detroit Pistons (who
would relocate for the 2005 season. moved from Fort Wayne in 1957), the Philadelphia
76ers (who were the Syracuse Nationals until 1963),
Threat of Relocation as a Bargaining Stance the Houston Rockets (who played four years in San
Underneath such apparent stability, MLB teams have Diego before relocating in 1971), and the San Antonio
been able to use the threat of relocation to gain new sta- Spurs (who played as the Dallas Chaparrals in the
diums and more lucrative lease arrangements with their American Basketball Association until 1973).
host communities. A catalyst for this process was the ag- An interesting feature of NBA franchise movement
gressive pursuit of MLB franchises by several cities dur- has been the legacy of team names that have little as-
ing the 1990s, including that by St. Petersburg, Florida. sociation with their new communities. For example the
That city built a publicly funded facility suitable for aptly named New Orleans Jazz operated from 1974
hosting a baseball team and then set out to obtain a through 1979, before relocating to Utah in 1979. The
franchise. Leveraging the threat of moving to Florida, team kept its original name, despite the fact that Salt
several major-league teams, including the Chicago White Lake City is not known for its jazz music. Similarly, the
Sox, were able to receive new stadiums in their home Minneapolis Lakers, playing in the “Land of Ten Thou-
communities. sand Lakes,” moved to Los Angeles in 1960. The team
Business is a combination of
war and sport. ■ ANDRE MAUROIS
kept the name despite the dearth of lakes in the Los An- game” in order to exact more profits for their teams.
geles area. Teams were able to achieve this by using the threat of
More recently, the Vancouver Grizzlies moved to relocation to entice better offers from local and prospec-
Memphis in 2001, while the Charlotte Hornets relo- tive communities, many of whom were willing to fi-
cated to New Orleans in 2002. These two moves (along nance new, state-of-the-art facilities for use by teams.
with most of the moves previously mentioned), were un- So what was it that made professional sports teams
dertaken primarily to maintain the financial stability of so enticing for local communities, which were willing to
the teams, as due to various reasons the teams were not dedicate hundreds of millions of dollars of public
receiving adequate support in their original markets. monies to lure or retain teams? The answer lies in two
The fact that teams moved so frequently before 1985 is major changes in the competitiveness of major urban
a reflection of the lack of stability of the NBA as a centers in North America, and particularly in the United
whole, which did not see its rise in popularity until the States, that created an environment for the frequency of
late 1980s. franchise relocations. The first was a decrease in gov-
ernment funding that forced local communities to be-
NATIONAL HOCKEY LEAGUE come more entrepreneurial vis-à-vis major decisions
The National Hockey League has also seen franchise re- regarding city image and infrastructure development.
locations due to the financial struggles of teams in their The second was a changing economic climate that saw
home markets. The 1970s through the early 1990s saw the decline of traditional industries, which led to hard-
several teams move to new cities, including the Kansas ships for several major US centers. As a result, cities
City Scouts, who moved to Colorado (as the Rockies) were forced to reinvent themselves, and teams and their
in 1976 and later to New Jersey in 1982, where they new facilities emerged as anchors for larger downtown
were renamed the Devils. In 1980 the Flames moved to urban-revitalization projects that sought to draw
Calgary, after eight seasons in Atlanta, while the Min- tourism and other spending back into downtown cores
nesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars in 1993. decimated by the flight to the suburbs that had oc-
More recent relocations have involved several of the curred in previous decades.
franchises that were absorbed by the NHL after the In addition, the notion that having a major-league
World Hockey Association (WHA) ceased operations in franchise bestowed a certain degree of legitimacy on a
1979. Of the four teams in the WHA—Hartford, Que- city led several cities to actively pursue franchises dur-
bec City, Winnipeg, and Edmonton—only Edmonton ing the 1980s and 1990s. For example, several
remains. In 1995 the Quebec Nordiques were sold and multibillion-dollar urban-redevelopment projects, in-
relocated to Denver, becoming the Colorado Avalanche; cluding Baltimore’s Inner Harbor, have prominently
the Winnipeg Jets moved to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1996 featured new sport facilities. In Baltimore’s case, a new
and were renamed the Coyotes. Finally, the Hartford baseball facility was constructed for the Orioles, and a
Whalers moved to Raleigh-Durham to become the Car- new football stadium was built to lure the NFL’s Cleve-
olina Hurricanes. land Browns team (renamed the Ravens) to Baltimore
in 1996.
The “Stadium Game” Thus, the result of this was a period during which
Moves by NBA and NHL teams would suggest an at- teams and cities played “the stadium game,” as teams
tempt by team owners to attain some stability for their sought new concessions for their existing communities
franchises. However, moves by NFL teams and the using the threat of moving to new, more lucrative
threat of a move by MLB teams in the 1990s would in- climes. This bargaining leverage led teams to obtain
dicate that teams were actively involved in the “stadium unprecedented control of revenue streams from their fa-
FREE AGENCY 653
cilities and saw a movement from the multipurpose fa- Euchner, C. (1993). Playing the field: Why sports teams move and cities
cilities built with public funds during the 1970s to new fight to keep them. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Mason, D. S. (1997). Revenue sharing and agency problems in pro-
single-sport facilities with new opportunities for rev- fessional team sport: The case of the National Football League.
enue generation like luxury suites, luxury seating, per- Journal of Sport Management, 11, 203–222.
Noll, R., & Zimbalist, A. (1997). Sports, jobs and taxes. Washington,
sonal seat licenses, and other amenities. In the case of DC: Brookings Institution Press.
some leagues, virtually all team movements during this Quirk, J., & Fort, R. (1992). Pay dirt: The business of professional team
period saw teams going from strong financial positions sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Quirk, J., & Fort, R. (1999). Hard ball: The abuse of power in pro team
to even stronger ones. Nevertheless, it has been the sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
teams that have not relocated (but threatened to) that Rosentraub, M. (1999). Major league losers: The real cost of sports and
who’s paying for it (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
have benefited the most from the rash of relocations Rosentraub, M. S., & Swindell, D. (2001). Negotiating games: Cities,
that have occurred over the past fifteen years. sports, and the winner’s curse. Journal of Sport Management, 16,
However, in the long run, the possibility of team re- 18–35.
Shropshire, K. (1995). The sports franchise game: Cities in pursuit of
location may erode fan support, and teams may find it sports franchises, events, stadiums, and arenas. Philadelphia: Uni-
difficult to establish ties to their new communities that versity of Pennsylvania Press.
Silver, J. (1996). Thin ice: Money, politics, and the demise of an NHL
equal those with their original communities. In most franchise. Nova Scotia, Canada: Fernwood.
cases, franchises relocate to markets that have larger Swindell, D., & Rosentraub, M. S. (1998). Who benefits from the
metropolitan statistics areas and thus have the potential presence of professional sports teams? The implication for public
funding of stadiums and arenas. Public Administration Review, 58,
to draw more fans and ultimately more money for team 11–20.
owners. However, there is a risk to doing this, as the
new market often does not have an established base of
fans to draw upon. As a result, teams may struggle to es-
tablish a loyal fan base similar to that of the market they
have just vacated. In the long run, it is in the best in-
terests of fans, teams, and their parent leagues to keep
Free Agency
teams in communities that have shown a history of
supporting their local franchises. F ree agency—the ability of players to shop their serv-
ices to the team of their choice—is an important
issue in professional sports labor markets. It has long
Daniel S. Mason
been a source of discontent between players and team
See also Fan Loyalty owners and a source of frustration and confusion to
sports fans. Team owners express concern that free
agency causes increases in salaries for star players; such
Further Reading increases might reduce the competitiveness of some, if
Andelman, B. (1993). Stadium for rent: Tampa Bay’s quest for major not most, teams in the league and might make solvency
league baseball. London: McFarland & Company.
Baade, R., & Dye, R. (1990). The impact of stadiums and professional more difficult for small-market teams. League officials
sports on metropolitan area development. Growth and Change, 21 express concern that free agency might reduce compet-
(2), 1–14.
Baim, D. (1994). The sports stadium as a municipal investment. West-
itive balance, which is in the financial interest of the
port, CT: Greenwood Press. league. In a similar vein fans often express concern that
Cagan, J., & deMause, N. (1998). Field of schemes: How the great sta- their favorite players might move from team to team
dium swindle turns public money into private profit. Monroe, ME:
Common Courage Press. after free agency is introduced, reducing the loyalty that
Danielson, M. (1997). Home team: Professional sports and the Ameri- fans have for particular teams.
can metropolis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Elkin, S. (1987). City and regime in the American republic. Chicago:
Although these concerns are often expressed in the
University of Chicago Press. popular media and are the basis for policies artificially
limiting player movement in professional labor mar- services from year to year until the team sells, trades, or
kets, sports economists have generally found that al- releases the player. The reserve clause in baseball was
though salaries increase with free agency, competitive often literally the last line on a player’s annual contract
balance tends to be unaffected and that no team in the and stipulated that the player could not play with an-
four major U.S. professional sports has been bank- other team without permission or release. The reserve
rupted by free agency. Although free agency might in- clause was a common source of labor strife between
crease the incentive for good players to move from players and team owners during the twentieth century.
teams in small cities to teams in large cities, free agency In 1970 Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals sued
does not seem to have substantially increased the move- Major League Baseball, claiming that the reserve clause
ment of players over time. Finally, concerns over fan ap- violated the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Consti-
athy are not supported by evidence in the aggregate: tution; however, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the
Free agency has not reduced attendance or television case in 1972. In 1975 Andy Messersmith and Dave Mc-
viewership. Nally won an arbitration hearing that allowed them to
In the United States various levels of free agency file for free agency starting in 1976. Soon after baseball
were introduced in Major League Baseball (MLB) in team owners came to terms with the baseball players’
1976, the National Football League (NFL) in 1992, the union about the actual structure of free agency.
National Hockey League (NHL) in 1995, and the Na-
tional Basketball Association (NBA) in 1996. Because Average Salaries
free agency was instituted first in Major League Base- After free agency was introduced in professional base-
ball, and therefore more years of data exist with which ball, average salaries began to increase. In 1976 the av-
to test the impact of free agency on several variables of erage salary in professional baseball was $51,000
interest, the majority of economics research on the im- ($170,000 in 2004 dollars). In 1980 the first million-
pact of free agency focuses on professional baseball. dollar free-agent contract was signed between Nolan
Free agency is typically structured so that players Ryan and the Houston Astros. By 2004 the average
who meet certain criteria, most often a minimum salary had increased to $2.48 million, with the three
amount of professional experience, are allowed to shop highest annual salaries earned by Manny Ramirez of the
their services to the team of their choice. Thus, free Boston Red Sox ($22.5 million), Alex Rodriguez of
agents choose where they will play and have a direct the New York Yankees ($25 million), and Carlos Del-
role in the negotiation of their salary. In Major League gado of the Toronto Blue Jays ($19.7 million). Salaries
Baseball, players with six years of big league experience are expected to continue to increase as long as team
qualify as free agents. In other leagues somewhat dif- owners earn more revenue.
ferent age and experience restrictions are placed on free In nonfree agency environments team owners exert
agency; yet, these differences do not change the nature considerable control over player salaries; this control
of the concerns enumerated earlier. Although players tends to depress salaries and allows team owners to re-
can shop their services to all teams, free agents do not tain more of the revenue generated by players. Free
necessarily take the highest salary bid; compensating agents typically receive a salary closer to the revenue
differentials, such as being close to home or having a they generate for team owners. Free agents who sign for
chance to win a championship, might induce a player to considerable salaries are high quality players for which
accept less than the maximum bid for his services. fans are willing to pay to watch. Team owners generate
Free agency differs from the so-called reserve system, revenue through ticket sales and media contracts, which
in which teams hold the exclusive rights to a player’s are primarily influenced by the quality of the team.
FREE AGENCY 655
Show me a guy who’s afraid to look bad, and I’ll show

you a guy you can beat every time. ■ LOU BROCK
High quality players are expected to increase team rev- able to Team B than to Team A but might not know ex-
enues, and free agency allows players to negotiate for a actly how much he is worth. Many times free agents
larger share of these increased revenues. look to players with similar performance statistics who
Regardless of whether free agency exists, team own- have also been free agents. The salary of comparable
ers (especially in larger markets) earn considerable rev- players is often used as a guideline for negotiation. The
enues from hiring high quality players. If a team owner free agent’s salary is expected to increase, but the team
retains the property rights to a player’s services (con- that ultimately hires the player is no different with free
tract), then the team owner stands to gain from selling agency.
the player’s services (contract) to a team that would Although without free agency the owner of Team A
generate more revenue from hiring the player. In free- may decline to trade or sell the player’s services to Team
agent markets the player receives the returns that would B (perhaps for strategic reasons, e.g., Team A and Team
have gone to the team owner sans free agency; hence B are divisional rivals), experts generally believe that
the natural conflict between owners and players over team owners are profit maximizers. In the absence of
free agency. The key difference between free agency and free agency the owner of Team A will sell the player’s
the reserve system is from whom the player’s services contract to Team B if the sale is profit enhancing. The
are purchased, not necessarily the dollar value of the implication is that player movement may be only some-
purchase. In either system the player will ultimately what limited by the lack of free agency and only some-
play for the team that values him the most; the only dif- what enhanced after free agency; that is, player
ference is who gets the proceeds from selling the movement is expected to be basically the same regard-
player’s services. less of whether free agency exists.
To operationalize this logic, assume that a player In economics this logic is embodied in the Coase the-
provides $1 million of value to Team A and $2 million orem, which has been applied to a variety of problems.
of value to Team B and that the player currently plays Although the Coase theorem is by no means universally
for Team A for a salary less than or equal to $1 million. accepted it seems particularly appropriate for profes-
The revenue that a player provides a team is the maxi- sional sports labor markets. Specifically, the Coase the-
mum salary that he will be paid by that team. Because orem predicts that free agency will increase player
Team B values the player more than Team A does, the salaries but will not affect the ultimate allocation of
owner of Team B is naturally inclined to negotiate for players across teams. Therefore, fears that competitive
the player’s services. Without free agency the two team balance will be permanently skewed by free agency may
owners negotiate a trade for the player, perhaps in- be misplaced. Notwithstanding the perception that free
volving a cash payment to the owner of Team A to com- agency increases the probability that wealthy, large-
pensate for losing the player. For example, the two market teams will monopolize high quality (and ex-
owners may agree to keep the player’s salary the same pensive) talent, the Coase theorem (and common sense)
and split the $1 million (or more) difference between suggests that the wealthiest teams will purchase the
the value of the player to Team A and the value of the best players with or without free agency.
player to Team B. How has the Coase theorem withstood empirical
tests in professional sports? Numerous studies have fo-
Negotiation cused on three implications of the Coase theorem:
In free agency the situation is somewhat different. Now player salaries, player movement, and competitive bal-
the owner of Team B negotiates with the player (or his ance. Overall, the results tend to support the Coase
agent). The player rightly believes that he is more valu- theorem and are here outlined briefly.
The first implication is player salaries. Rottenberg gardless of what the actual data suggest, fans may per-
(1956) was the first economist to systematically analyze ceive free agency as a mechanism of skewing success to-
the economics of an open market for baseball players. ward a relatively small number of teams and away from
Cassing and Douglas (1980), Sommers and Quinton the majority. This perception might cause a reduction in
(1982), and Quirk and Fort (1992) all show that player attendance and television viewership as fans feel the
salaries increased after the advent of free agency and sport is less competitive; this feeling in turn reduces the
that the salaries paid to free agents approach the true financial well-being of a league’s teams. If this situation
value of the players to their teams. Subsequent studies were the case, league officials and team owners might
have generally confirmed that free agents tend to be wish to restrict player mobility in the financial interest
paid more than nonfree agents, everything else being of the league and its teams, although such a restriction
equal, but that players are rarely paid more than the rev- would introduce distortions in the labor market. Un-
enue they generate for their teams (season-ending in- fortunately, no studies have directly investigated the im-
juries are the most common exceptions). pact of free agency on attendance. Some evidence
The second implication is player movement. The indicates that roster turnover can cause a decline in at-
Coase theorem says player movement should not be sig- tendance to MLB games, but aggregate attendance
nificantly affected by free agency, a fact that has been changes do not seem to have been affected by free
called the “invariance principle.” Most studies find that agency.
player mobility was at least as common, if not more Overall, the evidence suggests that the impacts of
common, during the era before free agency. For exam- free agency are consistent with the implications of the
ple, Cymrot (1983) shows that players often leave a Coase theorem: fears that free agency increases player
winning team in a small city for a lower-quality team in mobility, skews competitive balance, and reduces the at-
cities with rapidly growing populations. A contrarian tractiveness of the sport seem to be misplaced. Of the
view is taken by Hylan, Lage, and Treglia (1996), who expressed concerns, only the increase in player salaries
argue against the invariance principle. They find that seems justified but is not surprising because team own-
older pitchers, better pitchers, pitchers in big cities, and ers must directly pay the free agent.
pitchers on better teams are less likely to move after free Another concern affiliated with salary increases
agency. “caused’’ by free agency is that ticket prices increase in
response to salary increases, making the sport less af-
Competitive Balance fordable and pricing some fans out of the market for live
The third implication is competitive balance. The Coase sporting events. Although we might reasonably assume
theorem says competitive balance should be unaffected that higher salaries cause price increases, this assump-
by free agency. Competitive balance is typically defined tion actually confuses causation and correlation.
as “a greater number of teams having a legitimate Salaries are, for the most part, determined before the be-
chance to contend for a playoff spot and therefore a ginning of the season and are not affected by the num-
championship.” Numerous studies in professional base- ber of tickets sold or the number of people who watch
ball suggest that the competitive balance in Major the games on television. If team owners seek to maxi-
League Baseball has not been significantly reduced by mize profits, ticket prices are determined by the inter-
free agency. action between demand for live events and variable
Another concern is that free agency alienates fans costs, those that change with the number of tickets sold.
and that fans therefore attend or view a sport’s events If salaries do not influence variable costs, they cannot
less often after free agency is introduced. That is, re- influence ticket prices. However, ticket prices might in-
FREE AGENCY 657
crease after a team signs a high-salaried free agent if the Further Reading
demand for the team’s games increases. In 2000 the Butler, M. R. (1995). Competitive balance in Major League Baseball.
American Economist, 39(2), 46–50.
Texas Rangers signed Alex Rodriguez for an average Cassing, J., & Douglas, R. W. (1980). Implications of the auction
salary of $25 million per year. That year the Rangers in- mechanism in baseball’s free agent draft. Southern Economic Journal,
creased ticket prices, not because of the higher payroll 47(1), 110–121.
Coase, R. C. (1960). The problem of social cost. Journal of Law and
but because more Rangers fans attended Rangers base- Economics, 3(1), 1–44.
ball games. Increases in attendance are not caused by Cymrot, D. J. (1983). Migration trends and earnings of free agents in
Major League Baseball, 1976–1979. Economic Inquiry, 21(4), 545–
high salaries but rather by the quality of the players who 556.
are paid high salaries. Depken, C. A., II. (1999). Free agency and the competitive balance of
Major League Baseball. Review of Industrial Organization, 14(3),
205–217.
The Future Depken, C. A., II. (2002). Free agency and the concentration of player
Free agency will likely continue to be a source of friction talent in Major League Baseball. Journal of Sports Economics, 3(4),
335–353.
between team owners and players and a possible source Drahozol, C. R. (1986). The impact of free agency on the distribution
of frustration and confusion to sports fans. The idea that of playing talent in Major League Baseball. Journal of Economics and
players making millions of dollars seek to increase their Business, 38(2), 113–121.
Eckard, E. W. (2001). Free agency, competitive balance, and diminish-
salaries, often at the expense of their current team’s ing returns to pennant contention. Economic Inquiry, 39(3), 430–
quality, seems to many people to contradict the spirit of 443.
Fort, R. D. (2004). Sports economics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
sports and reduces fans’ vicarious enjoyment derived Hall.
through their favorite team’s success. The 1994 MLB Horowitz, I. (1997). The increasing competitive balance in Major
player’s strike, the lockout of NBA players in 1998, League Baseball. Review of Industrial Organization, 12(3), 373–
387.
and the lockout in the NHL after the 2004 season all Hylan, T. R., Lage, M. J., & Treglia, M. (1996). The Coase theorem, free
had free agency as a primary point of contention. Ulti- agency, and Major League Baseball: A panel study of pitcher mo-
bility from 1961 to 1992. Southern Economic Journal, 62(4), 1029–
mately, the debate over free agency centers on how 1042.
owners and players divide the league’s revenues (be- Kahane, L., & Shmanske, S. (1997). Team roster turnover and atten-
tween profits and wages) and seems to have little direct dance in Major League Baseball. Applied Economics, 29(4), 425–
431.
effect on team and league performance or on how fans Quirk, J., & Fort, R. D. (1992). Pay dirt: The business of professional
value the sport as an entertainment event. team sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rottenberg, S. (1956). The baseball players’ labor market. Journal of Po-
litical Economy, 64(3), 242–258.
Craig A. Depken II Sommers, P. M., & Quinton, N. (1982). Pay and performance in Major
League Baseball: The case of the first family of free agents. Journal
See also Collective Bargaining; Unionism of Human Resources, 17(3), 426–436.
Games of the
New Emerging Forces
(GANEFO)
Gay Games
Gender Equity
Gender Verification
Gambling
Germany See Horse Racing; Internet
Globalization
Goalball
Golf
Games of the New
Greece Emerging Forces
Greece, Ancient
Growth and Development
(GANEFO)
Gymnastics, Apparatus
Gymnastics, Rhythmic
T he Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO)
grew from a complex post–World War II political
environment, with the fledgling independent nation of
Indonesia and its dynamic leader Ahmed Sukarno at the
center.
Sukarno observed international relations among the
United States, the USSR, China, and Taiwan; the Arab
nations and Israel; and the new independent states in
Africa, Asia and South America and developed political
theories that categorized nations as Old Established
Forces and New Emerging Forces.
Sukarno’s Strategy
On these theories Sukarno constructed a strategy to
place Indonesia, and hence him, as president, as leaders
of a movement that would catapult the New Emerging
Forces to dominance over the Old Established Forces.
While Sukarno was solidifying these theories, In-
donesia was awarded, in May of 1958, the 1962 Asian
Games. The decision was met with skepticism by many
who were not convinced that Indonesia had the orga-
nizational or economic power to run the games.
G
Nevertheless, the games opened in August with nei-
ther Israel nor Taiwan allowed to compete. This threw
the games into a political frenzy, with international
Part of the Sukarno strategy was a position of sup- sport officials meeting on a near-daily basis to seek a
posed neutrality while concurrently soliciting aid from resolution.
the Old Established Forces. He approached the United India’s International Olympic Committee (IOC) rep-
States for assistance with Asian Games preparations in resentative Guru Dutt Sondhi held that Asian Games
the fall of 1958, but the United States did not respond. Federation rules were being broken and the Federation
The Soviet Union, when asked for assistance, responded should immediately remove its sanction from the games
immediately, providing a loan enabling Indonesia to and the games should be called the “Jakarta Games.”
build the main sport complex for the games, including This announcement caused the international federa-
a 100,000-seat stadium, and several other venues. tions of basketball and weightlifting to withdraw their
Japan loaned money for a major hotel project. approval from the games, and those sports were can-
celled. The International Amateur Athletic Federation
P OLITICAL REPERCUSSIONS (IAAF) and Federation Internationale de Natation
By 1962 facilities were nearly complete, but there was (FINA, the international swimming federation) issued
concern from several nations that preparations were similar warnings for the sports of athletics and swim-
delayed because the official games invitations had not ming, but those sports were not cancelled.
been issued. Indonesia’s Department of Foreign Affairs Sondhi was eventually run out of Jakarta by a mob
refused to issue visas for athletes from Taiwan and Is- on the last day of the games, escaping on a plane back
rael, thus delaying the invitations. to India. A few months later, he led the IOC effort to
Indonesia invited all members of the Asian Games place sanctions on Indonesia.
Federation to Jakarta in April of 1962 to confirm their
state of readiness. During the visit, flags of Taiwan and The Creation of GANEFO
Israel were prominently displayed with the flags of the In November 1962 President Sukarno gave a speech
other nations. This satisfied Taiwan and Israel but agi- proposing that Indonesia host the Games of the New
tated several Arab nations and China. Emerging Forces of the World (GANEFO), which would
One month prior to the opening of the games, Chi- be for countries from Asia, Africa, South America, and
nese Prime Minister Chou En-Lai officially warned Indo- the socialist countries. Sukarno stated that “sport has
nesia that there would be repercussions if Taiwan were some relation to politics. Indonesia proposes now to
allowed to compete. Taiwan asked other nations to join mix sport and politics.”
in a boycott if Taiwan were refused entry to the games. In April 1963 a preparatory conference was held.
659
Organizers announced that the GANEFO games would wrote after the games that GANEFO “marks the end of
be held every four years and were to be based on the imperialist monopoly and manipulation of interna-
Olympic ideals and the spirit of the Asia-Africa Con- tional sports activities” and is “a powerful current in in-
ference at Bandung in 1955. Another goal was to break ternational sports, which cannot be checked by anyone
the imperialist monopoly in sports. on earth.
The first games were held from 10 to 22 November “The GANEFO torch, once lit, will shine forever,” he
1963, with forty-eight nations attending. China had concluded.
the largest contingent of the games and won the most
medals, taking advantage of their first opportunity to GANEFO Seen as Destructive
participate in a large international competition for the IOC press attaché Frederic Schlatter, writing in the
first time in several years; they had withdrawn from Olympic Review in May 1964, stated that “the
the Olympic movement after the 1952 Olympic Games ‘GANEFO’ Games were a typical illustration of an in-
over the issue of Taiwan’s participation. filtration into sport of destructive political elements”
Organizers announced that five world records had and that the “International Olympic Committee has no
been set during the games. The IAAF refused to ratify greater nor more urgent a problem than to consider this
times by North Korea’s Sim Kim Dan in the 400- and particular one during the 4-year Olympiad which begins
800-meter athletics events, as the IAAF had not sanc- in 1964.”
tioned the event. The 1967 GANEFO games were scheduled to be
held in Cairo, but a volatile political landscape led to
SUSPENSION AND SANCTION CONFUSION several realignments, including Indonesia’s new gov-
The international federations threatened to pass out ernment’s reestablishing of ties with Taiwan, and the
suspensions for any athletes that had participated in the games were canceled.
GANEFO games, barring them from Olympic partici- A smaller, fifteen-nation Asian GANEFO was held in
pation, but backed away after this turned out to be im- Cambodia in 1966, but the organization dissolved
practical; for instance, athletes from Japan, the host of thereafter.
the upcoming 1964 Olympics, had participated. Tur- Speaking to the seventy-third IOC congress in Mu-
moil over suspensions and sanctions lingered, however; nich in 1972, IOC President Avery Brundage noted
the IOC suspended Indonesia from membership, then that the IOC response to the games had eventually
reinstated them after Indonesia agreed to follow IOC been successful. He said, “As an international athletic
rules. Due to the confusion, however, Indonesia and competition it was a farce, and it has not been repeated
North Korea did not compete in the 1964 Olympic since.”
Games, and Iraq’s National Olympic Committee boy-
Daniel Bell
cotted in solidarity with Indonesia.
ATTEMPTS AT STRUCTURE AND LEGITIMACY Further Reading

Immediately after the 1963 GANEFO games, a Bell, Daniel. (2003). Encyclopedia of international games. Jefferson,
GANEFO Congress was held in Jakarta, which author- NC: McFarland Publishing.
ized that GANEFO continental committees and na- GANEFO Federation. (1964). GANEFO opens new era in world sports:
Chinese sports delegation in Djakarta. Peking, China.
tional GANEFO committees be established, mirroring Pauker, E. (1964). GANEFO I; Sport and politics in Jakarta. Santa Mon-
the structure of the International Olympic Committee. ica, CA: Rand Corp.
Permanent Secretariat of the GANEFO Federation. (1965). GANEFO
The head of China’s GANEFO delegation, Jung Kao- Games of the New Emerging Forces, its principles purposes and or-
tang, noting the games’ slogan, “Onward! No Retreat!” ganization. Jakarta, Indonesia.
GAY GAMES 661
Schlatter, Frederic. (1964, May). Is the Olympic spirit in danger? ances) during the Gay Games. The organization is run
Olympic Review, No 86, 79–80. by thousand of workers, mainly volunteers, and Gay
Sie, S. (1978). Sport and politics: The case of the Asian Games and the
GANEFO. In B. Lowe, D. Kanin, & A. Strenk (Eds.), Sports and in- Games events are attended by up to a million specta-
ternational relations (pp. 279–296). Champaign. IL: Stipes Pub- tors. Gay Games VII will take place in Chicago in 2006,
lishing.
returning to the North American continent, after the
fifth and sixth editions were held in Europe (Amster-
dam) and Australia (Sydney), respectively. Over the past
two decades, the Gay Games have grown into an enor-
Gaming mous popular and successful international, multimillion
dollar, queer rainbow event. However, this success has
See Internet been tempered to some extent by financial problems,
management crises, and internal and external criticism.
What Is “Olympic” about

Gay Games the Gay Games?
Waddell founded San Francisco Arts and Athletics,
F ormer Olympic decathlete Dr. Tom Wadell realized

a dream by staging the first Gay Games in San
Francisco in 1982. His goal was to organize an inclu-
which organized the first “Gay Olympics” in 1982. The
use of the name “Olympics,” however, was successfully
opposed by the International Olympic Committee,
sive, safe sport and cultural event for gays and lesbians through a court injunction, shortly before the games
—without excluding heterosexuals—as an alternative started (International Olympic Committee v. San Fran-
sports event free of the homophobia existing within cisco Arts and Athletics). The refusal of the IOC to “lend”
mainstream sports. (Homophobia can best be described “Olympic” to the Gay Games has often been referred to
as the irrational fear and hatred of gay, lesbian, and bias discrimination against gays and lesbians within
sexual people, manifested through prejudice, discrimi- GLBT (gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender) communi-
nation, harassment, physical violence, and the like.) ties. But since 1910, numerous other events (e.g., Deaf
Combating stereotypes about gays and lesbians in Olympics, Military Olympics, Senior Olympics) have
sports, empowering individuals, and building bridges been legally refused use of the word Olympic or Olym-
between mainstream and “queer” communities are cen- pic symbols, the Special Olympics, a sport event for
tral goals of the Federation of Gay Games (FGG), the people with cognitive impairments, being the only ex-
international governing body of the Gay Games. Since ception. Moreover, only events sanctioned by the FGG
its foundation in 1989, the federation has been re- are allowed to use the name “Gay Games” and the re-
sponsible for “safeguarding the spirit, integrity and qual- lated symbols.
ity of the Gay Games” by selecting, supporting, and The spectacular official opening and closing cere-
controlling their host organizations. monies of the Gay Games, including a parade of all par-
The Gay Games have been staged every four years ticipants, distinguished by country, do to some extent
since 1982 and have grown into one of the largest in- resemble those of the Olympic Games The most im-
ternational sport and cultural events. With more than portant difference with the Olympic Games or other in-
ten thousand participants in about thirty different ternational competitive sport events for specific groups
sports, it exceeds the Olympic Games in terms of sheer (e.g., the Universiade for students) is that there are no
numbers. Furthermore, several thousand people partic- qualifying criteria to compete in the Gay Games. Every-
ipate in cultural events (e.g., choir and band perform- one is welcome to participate within a sport, the only
selection criterion being the order of registration. In In 1998 the Gay Games were held outside the North
most sports a maximum number of teams or partici- American continent for the first time. Friendship 1998
pants is allowed. The traditional Olympic motto “par- was hosted by “the gay capital of Europe”: Amsterdam.
ticipating is more important than winning” is mirrored These sixth Gay Games had a budget of $7 million and
by Gay Games’ “doing one’s personal best.” Neverthe- welcomed a record number of nearly 14,500 sports
less, many participants are very seriously competing for participants. Shortly before the games started, it be-
a medal or to “win the gold.” came clear that financial mismanagement threatened
Gay Games participants vary enormously in age and the full staging of the Gay Games program, which was
sporting abilities. Therefore, individual sport events like guaranteed by extra subsidies granted by the city of
swimming and track and field are organized by age Amsterdam.
classifications (according to the standards of the inter- Gay Games VI (Under New Skies 2002) were held in
national swimming and track and field federations), the Southern hemisphere, in Australia. Several of the
and team sport events are often divided into categories Olympic venues of the 2000 Sydney Games were used
based on skill. This means that there are many medals by 11,000 athletes and 1,000 cultural participants from
to be won. Also, each participant of the Gay Games can more than seventy countries. As in the other Gay
collect a general medal of participation. Games, the most popular sports in Sydney were swim-
ming, track and field, marathon, volleyball, and tennis.
Developments Through the Years Again, the organization was confronted with a large fi-
The first Gay Games (Challenge 1982) were held in San nancial deficit, partly due to overly optimistic expecta-
Francisco, on a budget of $350,000. This event saw tions concerning ticket sales for several official program
1,350 athletes from twelve countries competing in sev- events.
enteen different sports. When the next games (Triumph Along with repeated financial mismanagement by
1986) were also hosted by San Francisco four years the host organizations, there has been another chal-
later, the number of sport participants had risen to lenge to the unity and solidarity of the international
3,500. (Founder Tom Waddell died of AIDS shortly GLBT sporting community. An unresolved conflict be-
after these games.) In 1989 the local organization, San tween the assigned host of Gay Games VII in 2006,
Francisco Arts and Athletics, became the international Montreal, and the FGG resulted in withdrawal of offi-
governing body, the Federation of Gay Games. cial assignment. Chicago became the new official Gay
Gay Games III (Celebration 1990) took place in the Games destination. Since the Montreal organization
Canadian city of Vancouver, welcoming nearly 7,500 continues its preparations for an international queer
athletes in twenty-three sports and 1,500 cultural par- sports event, two separate international gay/lesbian
ticipants (up from 400 in the first games). For the first sport and cultural events will be held in 2006. More-
time world records in the master age class (in swim- over, the European sister organization, the EGLSF (Eu-
ming) were broken and were officially recognized, and ropean Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation), has
the organization was confronted with financial losses, withdrawn their membership from the FGG. Since
although the local economy had profited enormously. 1992, the EGLSF has organized the EuroGames in the
New York City was the home of Gay Games IV (Unity years without a Gay Games. The “large-scale edition” of
1994), where the number of sport participants had the EuroGames, which is held every four years, has also
again increased to 11,000 from forty-five countries. The grown into a big queer sport and cultural event, with
games were organized to coincide with the twenty-fifth Munich 2004, welcoming over 55,000 participants in
anniversary of the GLBT festival, commemorating the twenty-six different sports.
city’s Stonewall riots of 1969. To combat the financial and managerial problems
GAY GAMES 663
Gay Games
“Oath of the Athletes”
that have accompanied the Gay Games since 1990, the I, [name], on behalf of all the athletes in this
federation wrote a strategic plan in 2003 with stricter stadium
rules for future host cities. Twenty “core sports” were Pledge to fully participate in the Gay Games
identified, covering a range of team and individual by honoring the Spirit of their origins.
sports for men and women of different ages. Depend- I pledge to celebrate the uniqueness of these
ing on the country and region of the host city (national Games in their purest realm of
culture and natural evironment), extra sports can be sportsmanship
added to the program. In Sydney, for example, a sailing Where there is no shame of failure
event took place. The federation wants to limit extra of- Only glory in achievement and the shared
ficial cultural events, outreach programs, and parties fulfillment of each personal best.
that are not securely financially covered or based on re- In these Games I have no rivals;
liable ticket sales expectations. Only comrades in Unity.
Processes of globalization and commercialism have
accompanied the original idealistic goals of the Gay
Games. In spite of the existing financial perils, the Gay
Games have developed as a result of a perfect fit be- among participants. In San Francisco and Amsterdam,
tween growing sport tourism and gay tourism industries more than 40 percent of all participants were women. In
and can be identified as the biggest celebration of queer Sydney, as in some other Gay Games, men clearly out-
subculture. numbered women. Gender equality and inclusiveness
are important to the federation, as witnessed, for exam-
Inclusiveness? ple, by the coed presidency of the executive committee
As was mentioned earlier, with respect to sporting abil- and in the development of outreach programs for women
ities the Gay Games are very inclusive, because there are and non-Western participants by host organizations.
no qualifying criteria to participate. But what about Since the event has grown enormously in its rela-
other aspects of inclusion? tively short history, as well as becoming more profes-
Although the event is regarded as separative and most sional and commercial, the integrative philosophy
participants are indeed gay men and lesbian women, the mainly holds true for the increasing cooperation be-
vision of the FGG is to be sexually inclusive, and there- tween gay/lesbian sport organizations (from informal
fore straight men and women are also welcome to par- groups to clubs and international federations) and
ticipate. In Sydney, 95 percent of the participants mainstream institutionalized sport. Many volunteers
identified themselves as homosexual, 3 percent as bi- and most of the officials are heterosexual. Since most
sexual, and 1 percent as heterosexual. Over the last sport events during the Gay Games are sanctioned by
years the games tended to be more inclusive to trans- international sporting bodies, there are more possibili-
gender people as well, although as in mainstream sport, ties for elite athletes to compete and for new national
most sport events are strictly structured by gender and and world records (mainly in the master age classes) to
do not include mixed gender or separate transgender be recognized.
categories. On registration forms, however, participants In contrast to many international mainstream sport
have more possibilities than only “male” or “female” to events, young athletes are largely underrepresented. The
describe their gender. (One percent of Sydney 2002 majority of the participants are between 30 and 49
participants identified themselves as transgender.) years of age. In Sydney, 20–29 year olds made up 7 per-
In some editions of the Gay Games, the organization cent of the total group, and 14 percent fell in the age
was rather successful in pursuing an equal gender ratio category of 50 and over. Explanations for the senior
character of the event are twofold. First, many young ence in their daily lives. But it would be somewhat
gays and lesbians are still participating in mainstream naïve to expect international sporting events to make
sport and are not members of the gay/lesbian sport the world a better place. For many participants the Gay
clubs that provide the majority of participants in the Games are mainly a gay/lesbian sport and cultural
Gay Games. Second, many young gays and lesbians are event and a celebration of subculture, during which
still studying and therefore have less income, which is they strive for their personal best, a medal, friendships,
a major impediment for participating in the Gay one-night stands, or to meet a steady partner. Many
Games. Apart from travel and accommodations costs, don’t identify with or believe in the wider political or
registration fees and tickets to official Gay Games events ideological impacts of the Gay Games (although they
and parties are rather expensive, which has led critics to may be eager to buy official souvenirs with the respec-
characterize the event as the “Pay Games.” The Gay tive Gay Games logos and mottos, like Triumph, Unity,
Games are therefore certainly not inclusive to all peo- or Friendship).
ple, regardless of income. There is not only support for, but often also criticism
Furthermore, the majority of the participants is of the Gay Games from individuals and organizations
highly educated and “white”: among the Sydney partic- within GLBT communities, as well as other persons in
ipants 43 percent received a college or university degree public life, journalists, and “common people.” The most
and only 9 percent identified themselves as persons of important question for both gay/lesbian and straight
color (including members of tribal and indigenous people is, Why is it necessary to have separate games
groups). when gays/lesbians want to integrate into mainstream
The underrepresentation and exclusion of lower in- society? People might give different answers to this
come groups and nonwhite people are partly compen- question: visibility, emancipation, empowerment, re-
sated, however, by special outreach programs for people sistance, celebration, freedom, integration. Maybe the
from GLBT communities in countries in Eastern Eu- best answer to this question is a return question: Why
rope, Pan American, South Asia, and Africa. For many of are gay/lesbian events like the Gay Games more often
the participants from these countries, it is extremely dif- “attacked” for being separative than, for example, male-
ficult to lead an openly gay/lesbian lifestyle at home; the only professional sport events like football or rugby
sense of “freedom to be who you are” and of interna- championships, sport events for students or certain
tional solidarity and community is probably even more branches of the military, Jewish Games, or any multi-
empowering for them than it is for other participants. cultural sport and cultural festival?
Integration or Separation? Contested Sports Spaces

The central vision of the FGG and the respective host Visible (separate) sport participation by lesbians and
organizations is formulated in terms of their contribu- gays can certainly challenge, but simultaneously con-
tion to emancipation and integration. Their aim, to confirm, stereotypical images of gay and lesbian people.
tribute to a better world through international sport The more challenging Gay Games events include same-
events, is not unique to the Gay Games; it is similar to sex (ice) dancing competitions and gay male competi-
Olympic ambitions of “fraternization” and “peace.” The tion in hard contact sports, whereas male cheerleaders
games certainly can benefit processes leading to per- and tough lesbian football or ice hockey players may
sonal empowerment, identity development, and tem- confirm existing stereotypes of sporting gays and les-
porary feelings of recognition and security instead of the bians. Since most of the public at large read or hear
marginalization, fear, and/or violence that many gay, about and see these events through mainstream news-
lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people still experi- papers and television, and since the mass media often
GENDER EQUITY 665
look for stereotypical “queer signs,” it is not plausible values that are dominant in most sports are also closely
that the Gay Games only contribute to images of cul- connected to a traditional definition of masculinity,
tural integration. which praises toughness, competitiveness, and aggres-
GLBT sport events possess possibilities for “queer siveness. In this connection it is important to remember
resistance” to the mainstream sports culture and “inte- that masculinities and femininities are social construc-
gration of sexual difference,” but their existence and tions. They refer to what are acceptable behaviors for
visibility does not automatically lead to greater accept- women and men.
ance of sexual diversity by the public. According to Patricia Flor (1998), the former chair-
person of the United Nations Commission on the Sta-
Agnes Elling
tus of Women, the topic of women and sport belongs in
the human-rights context. At the Second World Con-
Further Reading ference on Women and Sport in Namibia in 1998, she
Bell, D. (2003). Why can’t the Gay Games be the Gay Olympics? Re- stated that, “Over two decades, the international com-
trieved on May 2004, from www.internationalgames.net/topics/ munity confirmed time and again explicitly in U.N.
gayolympics.htm
Elling, A., De Knop, P. , & Knoppers, A. (2003). Gay/lesbian sport
documents that the principle of non-discrimination en-
clubs and events: Places of homo-social bonding and cultural compasses the right of all women and girls to engage in
resistance? International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38(4), sport, physical and recreational activity on an equal
441–456.
Eurogames. (2004). Retrieved November 24, 2004, from http://www. basis with men and boys” (Flor, 1998). The year 1995
eurogames.info was a very important one for organizations working to-
Federation of Gay Games. (2003). Image of the Gay Games. Retrieved
November 24 2004, from http://www.gaygames.com
ward equal rights for women in sport.
Gay Games Amsterdam. (1996). Gay Games Amsterdam 1998: Friend- The United Nations Fourth World Conference on
ship through culture and sports. Amsterdam: Businessplan. Women, which took place in Beijing for the first time in
Krane, V., & Romont, L. (1997). Female athletes motives and experi-
ences during the Gay Games. Journal of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual history, devoted space in its final document to the ques-
Identity 2, 123–138. tion of women’s active physical lives. It is mentioned in
Labreque, L. (1994). Unity: A celebration of Gay Games IV and
Stonewall. San Francisco, CA: Labrecque Publishing.
three places in the document. Under Chapter IV,
Pitts, B. (2000). Gay Games. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann, & G. Women and Health, for example, it is written that the
Pfister (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women & sport (pp. following actions should be taken: “Create and support
441–444). New York: Macmillan.
Waddell, T., & Schaap, D. (1996). Gay Olympian: The life and death of programs in the educational system, in the workplace
Dr. Tom Waddell. New York: A.A. Knopf. and in the community to make opportunities to partic-
Young, P. D. (1994). Lesbians and gays in sports. New York: Chelsea
House.
ipate in sport, physical activity and recreation available
to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they
are made available to men and boys.” To fulfill these
fairness goals of gender equity in sport, it is necessary
to have equality of access, recognizing inequalities and
Gender Equity taking steps to address them. Since equality in sport still
does not exist, it is also about changing the culture and
E quity in sport is about fairness. But experiencing

fairness in sport has been, and is, problematic for
girls and women because sport traditionally has been
structure of sport to ensure that it becomes equally ac-
cessible to everyone in society (Sport England, 2000).
defined as a masculine activity, and women historically Equality and Equity

have been excluded. Sport was developed by and for In an article called “Human Rights in Sports,” Kidd
men and is also ruled, for the most part, by men. The and Donnelly (2000, 139) point out that in a Canadian
A female sumo competitior

in a ritual position.
boys and men could not get the

same access to the soccer fields
that they had because the time
and fields available now had
to be divided between the two
genders.
As mentioned above, equity in
sport is about equality of access
and recognizing inequalities. But
let us look at women’s and men’s
access to the Olympic Games, to
media representation, and to
coaching and leadership roles.
context those seeking to improve opportunities for girls Access to Participation

and women in sport have changed their focus from Today women compete in sports that they did not have
equality to equity. Equality is defined as “treating per- access to a few years ago, such as wrestling and boxing.
sons the same” and equity as “giving all persons fair ac- Though women compete in many of the same sports as
cess to social resources, while recognizing that they men, they sometimes play according to different rules
may well have different needs and interests.” This is and do not always compete in the same events. For ex-
particularly important for gender equity in sport be- ample, in cross-country skiing, the longest distance for
cause girls and boys, women and men often have dif- men is 50 km, while the longest for women is 30 km.
ferent needs and interests in sport and physical activity The reason for this difference is the erroneous idea,
due to their socialization and background. based on supposed physiological gender differences,
According to Coakley and Donnelly (2004), equity that women are the weaker sex. Some people will also
would involve taking steps to make up for the years of argue that the goal should not be that women and men
underfunding and underservicing often experienced by participate in exactly the same events, but that no one
girls’ and women’s sport. One example mentioned is should be banned from a sport or event because of his
the women-only hours in pools and weight rooms, or her gender. In apparatus gymnastics, for example, we
which may create a comfort level for many women who don’t see men on the balance bar or women in the
have had negative experiences in a male environment or rings, but of course both women and men can perform
who may have never dared to exercise in a place dom- on these apparatuses. There are, however, a few sports
inated by males. in which men are not allowed to compete, such as rhyth-
mic sport gymnastics and synchronized swimming.
Difficulty of Fairness to Both Genders
It should also be mentioned that, though many people Differences around the World
support fairness as a principle, it becomes problematic There are large differences around the world concerning
when fairness to both genders has to be put into prac- girls’ and women’s participation in sport. In most coun-
tice. Many people do not want to give up what they al- tries men are more actively involved than women, par-
ready have to achieve fairness. Access to sport facilities ticularly when it comes to competitive sport. In the
can be used as an example here. When girls in Norway Scandinavian countries almost as many adult women as
in 1975 were allowed to play soccer, it meant that some men participate in recreational sport and leisure-time
GENDER EQUITY 667
Table 1.
Women’s participation in the Summer Olympic Games
Year Events Participants % of all participants
1908 3 36 1.8
physical activity. In some countries women do partici- 1928 14 290 9.6
pate more in exercise and sport than ever before, but 1952 25 518 10.5
this does not mean that all women have the same access 1968 39 781 14.2
to physical education, to recreation, to sport facilities, or 1984 62 1567 23.0
to competitive sport. From a worldwide perspective, ex- 2000 132 4063 38.2
ercise and sport may be irrelevant for women whose pri-
mary concern is getting enough food, water, and shelter. lel with the number of female participants. The sports
that have been added to the women’s competitions in
Effects of Feminism the Summer Olympic Games since 1996 are soccer,
The reasons for the increasing number of physically ac- softball, weightlifting, taekwondo, triathlon, and wrest-
tive women are, of course, due to a number of factors. ling. The latest sports included in the Winter Olympic
This increase can be partly explained as a result of a lib- Games are curling, ice hockey, pentathlon and bob-
eral feminist agenda, which has aided equal-rights leg- sleigh (International Olympic Committee, 2004).
islation for the situation of women in society at large. This positive development concerning gender equity
The influence of this feminist agenda and its conse- can partly be explained by the decision of the Interna-
quences for women’s sport, however, differs between tional Olympic Committee (IOC) that all sports seeking
nations, because gender ideologies will vary both be- inclusion in the program must include women’s events
tween cultures and within a culture. A more radical (Stivachtis 1998).
feminist perspective will question the development that There are huge differences in rate of participation
has taken place in the Western world. It may be looked among different countries. Some have even had more fe-
upon as a “sport on men’s premises” (liberal feminism). male than male participants; this was the situation for
Many sociologists have argued that real gender equity Norway at the Olympic Games in Atlanta in 1996. But
can never be achieved in sport activities and organiza- there are also countries that don’t have any female par-
tions exclusively shaped by the values and experiences ticipants at all. The reason might be that they have no
of men (Fasting, 1997) and that gender equity in sport female athletes who qualify, but it might also be due to
implies a change in the culture of sport. discrimination and religious restrictions. In Atlanta in
1996, twenty-six nations did not have any female par-
Women’s Access to the Olympics ticipants. Four years later this number had decreased to
Women’s access to the Olympic Games has increased six. A women’s-rights activist body, “Atlanta Plus,” has
dramatically since the first women participated in the demanded that countries that do not allow women to
Games in modern times. The first of the “modern take part in sport should not themselves be allowed to
Olympics” was held in 1896, with no female partici- participate in the Games and that the IOC is contra-
pants. Four years later nineteen women, 1.6 percent of vening its own Olympic Charter by letting these coun-
all participants, competed, in three events. When the tries participate. Atlanta Plus has, therefore, with
first Winter Olympic Games were organized in 1924, 5 reference to human rights, demanded an Olympic ban
percent of the participants were women; the thirteen on those countries in the Atlanta, Sydney, and Athens
women were allowed to compete in only two events. In Games. They have compared the situation to the former
the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City, ban of South Africa and named it “gender apartheid.”
women competed in thirty-seven events and accounted The IOC, however, has never agreed to their demands,
for 36.9 percent of the participants. in spite of the fact that Atlanta Plus has received support
Table 1 focuses on the Summer Olympic Games and from major organizations and groups such as the
shows that the number of events have increased paral- Women’s Sports Foundation of the USA, the United
Gender Equity
Hardly Equity in 1884
The following is an account of one man’s disas- men’s PGA tour, that would have put her in 24th place
trous attempt to organize a women’s baseball for earnings. In some sports and in some competitions,
team. the prize money is the same for women and men, but
Baltimore, Md., July 7.—[Special.]—The 4th of this is still more an exception than a rule.
July a man brought to this city from Philadelphia
nine blondes and nine brunets, and put them to Media Representations
playing ball at Oriole Park—the grounds of the Many studies show that female athletes are both un-
American association team, which is now in the derrepresented in media coverage and portrayed in a
West. The audience was very small, not large gender-stereotypical way. Their lack of visibility in
enough to pay expenses, and the playing was media compared to male athletes may have a negative
very bad. Saturday the same females played at influence on their opportunities to obtain sponsors, so
Monumental Park before an audience of thirty- this may for some sports and some women become a
two people. The manager left Saturday night, catch-22—in which one factor negatively affects an-
and has not been seen since. The result is the fe- other and is in turn itself affected. As an example of un-
male base-ball players are stranded here without derrepresentation, the following study from Germany
a cent in their pockets, and with no means of re- illustrates the point. A content analysis of four daily
turning to their homes in Philadelphia. Today German newspapers in 1979 found that only 5 percent
they applied to the Mayor for passes to Philadel- of all coverage dealt with women’s sport, although
phia, but he could not grant them. They are half women accounted for 34 percent of the membership in
starved and in a sad plight. the German sports clubs. Twenty years later, in 1999,
the same study was done, and the results showed that
Source: Female ball-players stranded. (1884, July 8). Chicago Tribune, p. 6.
the female membership had increased to 39 percent,
but coverage of women’s sports had risen to only 10
percent (Hartmann-Tews and Rulofs 2001).
Nations, and the Parliamentary Council of Europe One factor is the amount of women’s sport in the
(Hargreaves 2000). media; another important area is how the female athlete
is depicted or portrayed. A study examined media treat-
Inequality in Prize Money ment of female athletes throughout CBS’s sixteen-day
Another area for elite-level female athletes where the in- telecast of the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville,
equality between the two genders is striking is in prize France. The findings revealed that although women
money. A few years ago at the Manitoba Tennis Open were depicted in physically challenging events that defy
in Canada, the Tuxedo Tennis Club offered a $2,000 stereotypical notions of femininity, such as mogul skiing
first prize for the men’s championships, which were and luge, the sport media reinforced “a masculine sports
held on a Sunday on the club’s center court. The prize hegemony through strategies of marginalization” (Dad-
money for the women’s final was $125, and it was held dario 1994, 275). It was found that the television com-
on a Friday on a side court (http://www.caaws.ca). At mentators were condescending in their descriptors,
Wimbledon in 2002, the women’s top prize was in- which trivialized the achievements of the female ath-
creased to £486,000, while the equivalent men’s prize letes. There was a strong tendency to blame female ath-
still was higher, £525,000 (news.bbc.co.uk). Ladies letes for their failures, while excuses were made for the
Professional Golf Association 1998 Player of the Year failures of the male athletes. There was also a dimin-
Annika Sorenstam won four tournaments and earned a ishing of the women by casting them as “little girls.”
record $1,092,748 in 1998. If she had been on the And there was the consensus that female athletes were
GENDER EQUITY 669
A student and sensei

working on aikido
technique.
typically cooperative while the

men were typically competitive.
Coaching and
Administrative Roles
Over the last twenty to thirty
years we have seen an enormous
increase in the participation of
girls and women in physical ac-
tivity and sport. This evolution,
however, has not been reflected
in the development of female
leadership. Acosta and Carpenter
(2004) have conducted a longitudinal study of women in this, in spite of the fact that sport politicians all over the
U.S. intercollegiate sport (from 1977 to 2004). Though world seem to agree that female leadership in sport
sport is organized differently in the United States. com- must be increased?
pared to many other places in the world, the study find-
ings are interesting. Concerning coaching, it shows that Barriers to Leadership for Women
only 44.1 percent of all women’s teams in 2004 were The largest barrier for women’s involvement in leader-
coached by women. However, in 1972 (the year Title IX ship roles in sport seems to be that sport organizations
was enacted) more than 90 percent of women’s teams are dominated by a male culture that either excludes
were coached by a woman. Acosta and Carpenter suggest women or does not attract nor accommodate large
that some of the factors that may explain this develop- groups of women (Fasting 1997). Job-search commit-
ment may be market based, others may be based on dis- tees or election committees, which usually consist of all
crimination and disparate recruitment, and others on an men, also often use subjective evaluative criteria, which
expansion of the career goals of women. means that women often will be seen as less qualified
Having few female coaches seems also to be an in- than men. In practice this means that men have used
ternational phenomenon. There is also a trend showing their male network to help them during job searching
that the higher the performance level of the female ath- and hiring processes or during the election procedure of
letes, the larger is the chance that they will have a male coaching and administrative positions.
coach. This means that relatively few top-level female Sexual harassment is more likely to be anticipated
athletes are coached by women, but almost no elite and also experienced by women, and women coaches
male athletes are coached by a woman. A study from and administrators often feel they are judged by more
Britain (Brackenridge 1987) found that between 6 and demanding standards than men (Coakley and Donnelly
8 percent of full-salaried coaches were women, while 2004). Being an officer in a voluntary sport-governing
Canada reported that one out of five high-performance body requires a heavy investment of time and energy
coaches were women (Laberge 1992). plus a flexible home and work life. The structures of the
Studies have shown that in addition to there being sport organizations themselves and the way they oper-
few female coaches, they have less status, lower salaries, ate are not very often questioned. This is, however, as
and less power than their male counterparts (Knoopers mentioned before, the key point in gender equity; that
1989; Laberge, 1992). The same phenomenon has is, recognizing that women and men may have different
been found in sport administration. Why is it still like needs and interests.
People in the States used to think that if girls were good at

sports their sexuality would be affected. Being feminine meant
being a cheerleader, not being an athlete. The image of women is
Outlook change in the sport culture as a prerequisite to gaining

It seems that gender equity or fairness in sport is diffi- equality for women and men in sport.
cult to achieve in practice, in spite of the fact that most
Kari Fasting
people will agree upon the principle whether it is from
a fairness or a human-rights perspective. The European See also Body Image; Coeducational Sport; Disordered
Union, and many other European countries, have dur- Eating; Feminist Perspective; Gender Verification; In-
ing the last ten years committed themselves to gender jury Risk in Women’s Sport; Lesbianism; Psychology of
mainstreaming as a “new” strategy for developing gen- Gender Differences; Sexual Harassment; Sexuality;
der equality in a society at large.This is based on the fact Women’s Sports, Media Coverage of
that other legal-opportunity approaches like “equal treat-
ment” and “positive action” have not been successful
enough. The same can be said for sport organizations.
Further Reading
Acosta, R. V., and Carpenter, L. J. (2004). Women in intercollegiate
Effectiveness of Gender sport. A longitudinal, national study twenty-seven year update:
Mainstreaming 1977–2004, Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 13(1),
62–89.
The question is whether gender mainstreaming in sport Brackenridge, C. (1987). Ethical concerns in women’s sport. Coaching
will be more successful than other strategies. By “gender Focus, (6), 5–6.
mainstreaming” is meant the integration of a gender Coakley, J., and Donnelly, P. (2004). Sports in society. Issues and
controversies. First Canadian Edition. Ryerson, Toronto: McGraw-
focus in the mainstream of an organization’s processes Hill.
and work. It can be defined as follows: “Gender main- Daddario, G. (1994). Chilly scenes of the 1992 Winter Games: The
mass media and the marginalization of female athletes. Sociology of
streaming is the systematic integration of gender equal- Sport Journal, 11, 275–288.
ity into all systems and structures; policies, programs, Fasting, K. (1997). Equality of opportunity—the evolution of democracy
processes and projects; into cultures and their organi- in sport. Proceedings, The 40th Anniversary ICHPER—SD World
Congress, Kyung Hee University, Korea, July 4–9, 1997.
sations, into ways of seeing and doing” (Rees 2002, 2). Fasting, K. (2000). Women’s role in national and international sport
According to Rees, mainstreaming turns attention away governing bodies. In B. Drinkwater (Ed.), Women in sport. The en-
cyclopedia of sports medicine. An IOC Medicine Commission pub-
from individuals and their rights, or their deficiencies lication in collaboration with the International Federation of Sport
and disadvantages, and focuses instead on those sys- Medicine (pp. 441–453). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science.
tems and structures that produce those deficiencies and Flor, P. (1998). Statement presented at The Second International World
Conference, Women in Sport. Windhoek, Namibia, May 19–22.
disadvantages in the first place. It seeks to integrate Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport. The politics of difference and
equality into those systems and structures. identity. London: Routledge.
Hartmann-Tews, I., & Rulofs, B. (2001). Representations of male and
But she also states that gender mainstreaming is a female athletes in the media and sports reporting: A comparative
highly effective long-term strategy that complements study of German newspapers in 1979 and 2000. Paper presented at
the effect of equal treatment and positive action. Gen- the 6th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science
—15th Congress of the German Society of Sport Science, Cologne,
der mainstreaming seeks to identify the ways in which Germany, 24–28 July.
existing systems and structures are “institutionally sex- International Olympic Committee. (2004). Women and sport progress
report. A review of IOC policy and activities to promote women in
ist.” It seeks to neutralize the gender bias, and it is an and through sport. 3rd World Conference on Women and Sport, 7–
approach to produce policies and processes that seek to 10 March, Marrakech, Morocco.
benefit men and women equally. The overall aim of Kidd, B., and Donnelly, P. (2000). Human rights in sports. Interna-
tional Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(2), 131–148.
gender mainstreaming is that something should be Knoopers, A. (1989). Gender and the salaries of coaches. Sociology of
changed, primarily the culture of an organization, and Sport Journal, 6(4), 248–362.
Laberge, S. (1992). Employment situation of higher performance
that one needs statistics and research to do that. To coaches in Canada. Sport Canada, Occasional Papers 3(1), 1–49.
achieve gender equity in sport, we therefore must see a Rees, T. (2002). A new strategy: Gender mainstreaming. Paper
GENDER VERIFICATION 671
changing now. You don’t have to be pretty for people to come

and see you play. At the same time, if you’re a good athlete, it
doesn’t mean you’re not a woman. ■ MARTINA NAVRATILOVA
presented at the 5th European Women and Sport Conference in in sports, people had concerns about the acceptability
Berlin, April 18–21.. Hotel Crowne Plaza, Berlin, Germany.
of certain sports because of women’s unique repro-
Stivachtis, K. M. (1998). Women’s participation in the 18th Olympic
Winter Games in Nagano. Olympic Review (April–May), 41. ductive capacity. Throughout history middle-class
Sport England. (2000). Making English sport inclusive: Equity guide- women bore the responsibility of ensuring not only
lines for governing bodies. London: Sport England.
U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women. (1995). Report, part II, their own health but also the health of the ensuing
Platform for action. Beijing, China, September 4–15. generations. Women’s exercise regimes have been de-
cided by doctors and prescribed to women with distinct
class and ethnic biases. Although reproductive health
was of paramount importance, doctors viewed the re-
Gender Verification productive capacity of Anglo-Saxon, middle-class
women as a more valuable commodity than that of
I n a patriarchal society men and women relate on un-

equal terms, and sports are but one aspect of a soci-
ety in which masculine power is constructed and
their working-class, immigrant counterparts; the idea
that some of these women might prefer to remain child-
less was unpardonable, and the fact that labor per-
maintained. In sports people in superordinate roles see formed by working-class women might be just as
forceful, strong, able, independent women as a menace; demanding as sports was ignored. People have ex-
thus, for these people maintaining and reproducing a pressed concern, never substantiated, that sports, par-
myth of female frailty is a top priority, and they have re- ticularly of the vigorous, competitive variety, would
inforced this myth by “verifying” the sex of the world’s “masculinize” women physically, behaviorally, and psy-
top women athletes. The body is directly involved in a chologically. Sports were considered to waste women’s
political field, and its manifestations in sports spill over vital force and to disable them from completing the req-
into social life and vice versa. uisite reproductive and domestic duties associated with
their gender. A curious emphasis on the incompatibil-
Prohibition of Women’s Sports ity between sports and women’s breasts, which are
During the past century discourses surrounding gender thought to prevent women from making appropriate
and sports have certainly changed. Powerful male al- movements, is bound in medical control over women’s
liances in the medical establishment once ruled, and reproduction and sexuality.
doctors were able to construct female physiological de- The gradual increase in women’s opportunities to
ficiencies and prohibit numerous physical activities for participate in sports and other physical activity has
women. Today male control of the sports industry and been tempered by precise constraints that set the
its trivializing or obscuring media practices, combined boundaries beyond which young women should not
with definitions of femininity linked to (hetero)sexual attempt to move, thereby reaffirming a dainty, delicate,
attractiveness and reproductive functions, propagates docile femininity, the legacy of which is still a constraint
female subjugation and perpetuates women’s exclusion on women’s experiences of their bodies.
from “masculine” sports domains.
The “knowledge” historically espoused by the (male) Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation
medical profession was informed by the ascribed social People often confuse and use inconsistently the terms
positions of women and led to representations of their sex, gender, and sexual orientation. The term sex usually
bodies as inferior, deficient, and incapable compared refers to the dichotomous distinctions between male
with those of men. Subsequently, the ideology of and female based on genetically determined physio-
women’s sports became imbued with prohibitions and logical characteristics. Gender usually defines the psy-
inhibitions. When women began to compete seriously chological and cultural dimensions of masculine and
feminine. Sexual orientation delineates one’s sexual at- though the practice was recently abandoned (1999), the
traction: heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual. The most successful women athletes continue to have their
process variously called “gender verification” or “sex sex, gender, or sexual orientation questioned.
testing” attempts to reveal an athlete’s sex; however,
gender or sexual orientation ambiguity is the underly- Ancient Olympics—A Male-Only Club
ing reason. The sex of a petite figure skater, gymnast, or The first Olympic sex test took place in ancient Greece
synchronized swimmer married to her (male) coach is and was instituted to keep women from disguising
rarely questioned. Women who excel at “power” sports themselves as men. Athletes and trainers had to pass
are often considered masculine, lesbian, or not really naked as they arrived at the ancient Olympics lest any
women at all. women sneak in to watch or participate. The founder of
Sex testing is based on a simple gender logic that the modern games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin of
classifies all people as one of two sex categories: male France, actually wanted the Olympics to remain a male-
or female. These categories are seen in biological terms, only “club”; however, women slowly gained more and
and they are conceptualized to highlight difference and more rights to participation. Nineteen women partici-
opposition; in fact, they are called “opposite sexes.” pated in the 1900 games, and fifty-seven in the 1912
Dedication and hard work are required to maintain a games. The number of women competing in the games
simple binary classification system because it is incon- has steadily grown along with the competitiveness of
sistent with evidence showing that anatomy, hormones, the women’s events. Of course, as the women competi-
chromosomes, and secondary sex characteristics vary in tors became fitter and/or more skilled, their perform-
complex ways and cannot be divided into two simple ances became more “manly.” To cite a few examples, the
categories. However, the International Olympic Com- 1988 Olympic record in the women’s 400-meter free-
mittee (IOC) and other sports governing bodies have style swimming event would have surpassed all men’s
been willing to spare no effort to maintain a two- performances prior to 1972; the 15-kilometer women’s
category system, which in effect maintains male su- cross-country skiing standard in 1994 would have
premacy and control over female bodies. beaten all men’s marks before 1992; and the winning
The participation of girls and women in sports has al- women’s 30-kilometer time in 1992 outstripped every-
ways presented a threat to the preservation of tradi- thing that men competitors had accomplished previ-
tional gender logic. Because men are presumed to have ously.
an advantage in most sports, some people suspect that As women’s performance standards improved
female athletes who do well may be men in disguise markedly, questions began to arise concerning the ac-
and present a threat to men’s domination. Conse- tual “femininity” of many of the supposedly women
quently, girls and women have been excluded from play- Olympic competitors. In fact, the IOC was chagrined to
ing many sports or are encouraged to play only sports learn that three track and field champions who com-
that emphasize grace, beauty, and coordination. peted as women in the pre–World War II games even-
Women are now allowed (by men) to participate tually underwent reconstructive surgery to remove
fully in some traditionally male sports such as basket- external, male reproductive structures. The IOC also
ball and soccer and Olympic events in which athletes had to retrieve the medals of a Polish sprinter who
demonstrate speed and power; however, their feminin- competed as a woman when it learned that she had
ity is often called into question, and forty years ago in- male reproductive organs. After World War II, when
ternational sporting federations actually began “testing” the former Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc coun-
women athletes to ensure their status as women. Al- tries fielded rather formidable women’s Olympic teams
GENDER VERIFICATION 673
(both in terms of performance and appearance), the inside of an athlete’s cheek and then examined for the
IOC became concerned about widespread rumors that presence of the XX chromosomal constitution. This test
at least some of the “females” on the teams were actu- was used from 1968 through 1992 despite its signifi-
ally male and began strict sex testing of all competitors. cant problems. It was unreliable, allowing some athletes
with distinct “male” advantages because of their abnor-
External Examinations mal XXY chromosomal pattern to compete as women
In 1966 the IOC introduced sex testing; this testing while basking in the benefits of increased strength and
continued to be controversial until its discontinuation power afforded by their Y chromosome and subsequent
thirty-three years later. The Olympic Charter (1983) high levels of testosterone. In the Journal of the Ameri-
stated that all competitors registered as women had to can Medical Association geneticist Dr. Albert de la
report to the femininity control head office. Initially, at Chappelle reported that one in five thousand women
every major championship, women lined up in the fe- has a hormonal imbalance called “adrenal hyperpla-
male medical officer’s waiting room. In turn each sia,” which gives them the shape and muscular strength
woman walked, passport in hand, into the examining of a man despite their female genitalia and XX chro-
room and dropped her towel, and examiners performed mosomes. On the other hand, women who are osten-
an external gynecological exam in order to issue the sibly female were disqualified. Dr. de la Chappelle also
“femininity certificate” that allowed her to compete. recognized that six women in one thousand look like
Those competitors who failed to report could not take women, think they are women, have a body composi-
part in the games. Women competitors with a feminin- tion and musculature that seem entirely female, but
ity certificate were exempted from another examination “fail” the test because of their Y chromosomes. A con-
upon presenting that certificate to the femininity control dition called “androgen resistance” makes some XY
head office. The certificate operated much like South women immune to the sexual-developing and strength-
Africa’s pass card during apartheid (racial segregation), promoting qualities of testosterone and leaves them
which communicated the message to blacks that they physiologically female despite the absence of the XX
are an underclass so suspicious that they require sur- chromosomal constitution.
veillance. Because women don’t need a special card in
other walks of life, a sex test obliquely tells women that DNA Testing
their success in sports is worrying, suspicious, or even Finally recognizing that such problems existed, the IOC
unnatural. Many athletes found the external examina- in 1992 decided to move on to more sophisticated tests
tions invasive and offensive, and, in fact, the examina- that look even more closely at the genetic makeup of the
tions proved to be ineffective. As technology advanced Y chromosome with methods based on deoxyribonu-
and women’s performances continually improved, the cleic acid (DNA). These tests were also a poor choice
IOC moved on to other methods of sex testing. because, as mentioned, some XY persons are essen-
tially female. Nonetheless, the 1996 games in Atlanta,
Sex Chromatin Test Georgia, incorporated a complicated, expensive, and
The sex chromatin test, which relies on the biological time-consuming process of “SRY sex identification,”
fact that cells of most females contain two X chromo- which included screening of athlete DNA, confirma-
somes, whereas cells of males contain one X and one Y tion of testing, and counseling of “detected” athletes.
chromosome, was first used at the Mexico Olympic The SRY sex-identification process still did not elim-
Games (1968). The test consists of a simple cheek swab inate all the issues surrounding the accuracy of the tests,
in which oral-cavity cells are painlessly scraped from the and at the 1996 Atlanta games officials reverted to the
cheek-swab method. About one in four hundred females was forced to return her Olympic and other medals
at the Atlanta games tested positive for male chromo- and retired from competition surrounded by contro-
somal material, but all tests were eventually ruled “false versy. To avoid this development, it was proposed that
positives.” Eight women were permitted to compete any athlete who failed the sex test be rushed to the iso-
because seven of them had androgen insensitivity, and lation ward of a hospital and that the news media be
the other had an enzyme deficiency, which effectively told that she had developed a highly contagious dis-
neutralized male sex hormones. ease. Some women who “failed” the test were instructed
to feign injury or actually were fitted with casts.
Men “Caught” Masquerading
as Females Abandonment of Sex Testing
In a few cases men have disguised themselves as fe- In 1990 the International Amateur Athletics Federa-
males; however, more often than not hermaphrodites or tion (IAAF), the governing organization for track and
genetic males who have believed (or wished) they were field, called for the abandonment of gender verification
females have been ruled against. German high jumper and convened a working group of international experts,
Dora Ratjen, who set a world record of 1.7 meters at including ethicists, sports governors, physicians, and
the 1936 Olympics, was found in 1938 to have both women athletes, in support of such abandonment. The
male and female sexual organs. She was banned, and al- group concluded that women with birth defects of the
though she had lived as a woman previously she sex chromosomes do not possess an unfair advantage
changed her name to “Hermann” and lived the rest of and should be permitted to compete as females. People
her life as a man. Two Frenchwomen on the 1946 Eu- who have been both legally and psychosocially female
ropean silver medal-winning relay team later were since childhood should be eligible for women’s com-
found to be living as Frenchmen. Claire Bresolles had petition regardless of their chromosomal constitution.
become Pierre; Lean Caula had become Leon. Erika The IAAF discontinued routine gender verification in
Schineggar of the Australian national ski team, who 1992.
won the 1966 downhill ski title, was also “caught” with On the other hand, for an additional nine years, the
male chromosomes. Supposedly her male sexual or- IOC continued to ignore the compelling evidence that
gans had been hidden inside her body since birth. Later sex testing is discriminatory and traumatic for athletes
she changed her name to “Eric,” competed in cycling with sex chromosomal disorders regardless of the
and skiing as a male while undergoing four genital sur- method of analysis employed. Finally, because of the
geries, and is said to have married and become a father. high frequency of “false positives” (eight out of eight
Women who have been “caught” as males often women at the Atlanta games) and pressure from the
didn’t know about their Y chromosome and have suf- IOC’s Athlete’s Commission, the American Medical
fered psychologically from the trauma of being dis- Association, the American College of Physicians, the
qualified from competition and having their medals American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the
revoked and success in sports discounted. Polish Endocrine Society, and the American Society of Human
sprinter Eva Klobukowska passed a 1966 gynecological Genetics, among others, the practice was abandoned
examination at the Budapest European Champi- for the 2004 summer games in Sydney, Australia, on a
onships. After the introduction of sex chromatin testing, “trial basis.”
in Kiev at the 1967 European Cup, she was found to The IOC hasn’t completely eliminated its interest in
have extra chromosomes. Despite having a rare condi- the sexual anatomy of women athletes. The decision to
tion that gave her no advantage over other athletes, she suspend gender verification depended in part on the
GERMANY 675
opportunity for officials to gain a peek at athletes’ gen-

itals during doping testing, which requires freshly
voided urine. Gonadectomized (relating to surgical re-
Germany
moval of the testes) males would pass superficial ex-
amination, of course, but such persons—as long as
they were not doping themselves with steroids—would
G ermany is a federal republic in central Europe with
sixteen states and a population of about 82 million
people. The democratic constitution emphasizes indi-
not be in a position to benefit from testosterone be- vidual liberty and the division of powers. Germany is a
cause the hormone would essentially vanish along with welfare state with a social market system, which leads
their testes. to a high degree of social security and high levels in the
areas of education, technological development, and eco-
Implications nomic productivity. The reunification of the Federal Re-
A woman who excels in sports, although no longer public of Germany and the German Democratic
subjected to sex tests, may still have her sex, gender, or Republic in 1990 led to considerable socioeconomic
sexual orientation questioned. With so much concern changes, partly because it was necessary to increase the
over which competitors are “real women,” the possibil- standard of living and build up the inadequate infra-
ity that a woman athlete could masquerade as a male structure in the eastern part of the country. Today Ger-
competitor and take home an Olympic medal has been many suffers from high unemployment, a recession,
completely ignored. Women may pretend to be men to and economic problems that have caused a restructur-
gain status, safety on the street, the right to earn a living of the welfare system.
ing, and even the right to participate in sports. The rhet-
oric of women “failing” their femininity tests and being History
“caught” masquerading as males is embedded in a strict Germany has a rich sporting tradition, and today sports
gender logic and masculine sporting hegemony (influ- are an integrated part of German culture and physical
ence) that should be questioned. activities are a valued part of the German lifestyle.
Janelle Joseph
THE EIGHTEENTH AND
NINETEENTH CENTURIES
At the end of the eighteenth century, in accordance with
Further Reading the ideals of the Enlightenment, Johann Friedrich
Blue, A. (1987). Grace under pressure: The emergence of women in
sport. London: Sidgwick and Jackson.
GutsMuths (1759–1839), a Saxon educator, developed
Coakley, J. (2001). Sport in society: Issues and controversies (7th ed.). a teaching concept that included physical education as
Boston: McGraw-Hill. a precondition for mental development and intellectual
Daniels, D. B. (1992). Gender (body) verification (building). Play &
Culture, 5(4), 370–377. learning. In his 1793 book, Gymnastics for Youth,
De la Chappelle, A. (1986). Why sex chromatin should be abandoned GutsMuths introduced a large collection of exercises
as a screening method for “gender verification” of female athletes.
New Studies in Athletics, 1(2), 49–53. and games, from climbing and balancing to running,
Ferguson-Smith, M.A. (1994). Gender verification. In M. Haines et jumping, and throwing, from swimming, ice skating,
al., (Eds.), Oxford textbook of sport medicine (pp. 355–366). New and hiking to exercises for improving the senses. This
York: Oxford University Press.
Fox, J. S. (1993). Gender verification—What purpose? What price? led to the introduction of gymnastics and other di-
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(3), 148–149. rected, quantifiable physical activities into the educa-
Hall, A. (1981). The Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement
of Women papers: Sport sex roles and sex identity. Ontario, Canada:
tional curriculum of several Philantropine, (boarding
CRIAW. schools established by philanthropists); the aim was to
Plans for rowing club

facilities in Berlin and
Hamburg in the 1890s.
Their work found many adher-

ents, partly because they empha-
sized exercises for beauty and
grace, which reflected nineteenth-
century ideals of femininity.
THE EARLY TWENTIETH

CENTURY
With the industrialization and
modernization of society at the
end of the nineteenth century, var-
ious reform movements changed
educate useful citizens, but GutsMuths’s vision ex- the physical activities of the German population. A
cluded girls and women. games movement propagated games and outdoor ex-
The gymnastics of GutsMuths served as a model for ercises and fought for the establishment of playing
Turnen, a comprehensive concept of games, exercises, grounds; a hiking movement addressed German youth;
and physical activities—ranging from climbing and bal- a gymnastic and dance movement, which focused on
ancing to running, jumping, and throwing, and from health and aesthetics, became the women’s domain. In
wrestling to playing games—initiated by Friedrich Lud- 1893, the Workers Gymnastic Association (Arbeiter-
wig Jahn (1778–1852), commonly known as the father Turnerbund, ATB), which became a serious rival of the
of gymnastics. Jahn’s goals were to liberate Germany bourgeois Turnen and sport movement, was founded.
from French occupation, to overthrow the feudal order, By 1924, the Deutsche Turnerschaft (German Turners
and to form a German nation state. The principles of Tur- Federation) had 11,000 clubs with 1,750,000 mem-
nen differed fundamentally from the sporting ideas de- bers, and the ATB had 6,373 clubs with 653,000 mem-
veloped in England in the same period. Turnen did not, bers. In both organizations the female membership was
for example, attach any importance to records and ab- around 20 percent.
stract performance; instead, it used a person’s height as The workers sport movement encouraged the health
the criterion for judging a high jump. All-around exer- and fitness of male and female workers. Yet, in many
cising of the body was preferred to specialization, and ways, with regard to training and competition as well as
the Turnen movement strove to improve the nation’s to the organization of events, including the proletarian
strength rather than individual performance. With the Olympic Games, the workers sport movement did not
foundation of the second German Empire in 1871, the differ very much from its bourgeois rivals. In the be-
movement’s dream of a united Germany came true. ginning, it rejected competition, but soon yielded to
Although Turnen was initially exclusively a male ac- the fascination of elite performances. Since the end of
tivity, since the 1830s, physical education was available the nineteenth century, modern sport with its orienta-
for the small group of girls whose parents could pay for tion toward competition and record-keeping soon
it. In the course of the nineteenth century, there was in- spread from its country of origin, Great Britain, to Ger-
creasing concern about the effects of industrialization many. In Germany, modern sport followed the example
and urbanization on the health of girls and women. of Turnen and was organized into clubs and federations.
Among the first champions of physical education for After the turn of the century, women were allowed to
girls and women were Phokion Heinrich Clias (1782– participate in Turnen and in some of the new sports, es-
1854) and Johann Adolf Ludwig Werner (1794–1866). pecially those which authorities believed did not
GERMANY 677
Germany
Key Events in Germany
Sports History
endanger health, beauty, or morals. On the tennis
courts or the ski slopes, women had to play their tradi- 1793 Gymnastics for Youth by GutsMuths is
tional role as decoration. However, a few unconven- published.
tional women tried many types of sport, from
1800s The Turnen movement takes hold in
parachuting to ski jumping. Germany.
Before World War I, public interest focused not on
1830s Physical education is open to young
the Olympic Games, which were nearly invisible, but on women of wealthy families.
horse racing (because of the betting) and cycling. In
1893 The Workers Gymnastic Association is
1909, Germans admired the first motored flight on a founded.
drill ground in Berlin. In the following years, curiosity
1913 The German Sport Award is established.
and a craving for sensation enticed tens of thousands of
spectators to visit flight shows. 1936 The Olympics take place in Berlin.
1950 The German Sport Confederation is
WEIMAR REPUBLIC founded.
In the wake of the profound political, economic, and so- 1970s The “Sport for All” campaign is
cial changes that followed World War I, sport experi- launched.
enced an enormous upswing. Indicators of the growing 1986 Government support for top-level
importance of sport included an increase in the per- athletes is increased.
centage of people participating in sport activities, an in-
creasing number of competitions and sport events, and
increasing sport coverage in the mass media, which cre-
ated sport stars like the boxer Max Schmeling and the spoke to many who liked the idea of an essentially fem-
automobile racer Bernd Rosemeyer. Sport became fash- inine movement culture free from men’s interference
ionable and attracted large audiences. For example, up and control.
to half a million spectators watched the car races on the
AVUS in Berlin, the first freeway (Autobahn) in the world NATIONAL SOCIALISM
and for a long time one of the most important ones. In National Socialist (Nazi) ideology, biological and
Girls and women were also infected by the sport racist ideas led to a partial redefinition of sport and the
fever. Corsets, long skirts, and narrow blouses were re- shaping of a new centralized sport system. The Nazis
placed by trousers and sweaters. The sport girl with had the same aims and used the same strategies here as
long legs, slim hips, and short hair, became the new they did in other areas. On the one hand, sport organ-
ideal for many women. izations that did not fit into the National Socialist sport
In Germany and throughout Europe, a variety of system, like the workers’ sport association and later the
gymnastic systems were propagated, some emphasizing Jewish sport organizations, were dissolved; on the other
health and hygiene, some more intent on the aesthetics hand, physical education became a central pillar in the
of human movement. The proponents of gymnastics schools and—at least on paper—in the structure of the
strongly criticized modern sports and their obsession Nazi state. Physical education was supposed to prepare
with quantified achievement. They were concerned prin- men for their predetermined biological role as fighters
cipally with the quality of the movement, the form and and women for their role as mothers. Clubs and feder-
shape of the body, and the harmonious development of ations of the bourgeois Turnen movement were reor-
the whole person. Although the gymnastics movement ganized and forced to adopt the Nazi ideology. Jews
advocated a rather traditional image of womanhood, it were thrown out of the sport clubs.
Young women in a
physical education class
in the early twentieth
century.
Although top-level sport and

the Olympic Games did not
readily fit into the National So-
cialist ideology of “fitness for
Führer and fatherland,” the new
rulers realized their propa-
ganda advantages and sup-
ported the 1936 Olympic
Games, which took place in
Berlin. At these Games, Ger-
many was a successful nation.
National Socialist myths and
ideals were even embodied in
the architecture and the sculptures of the Olympic sta- Sport Today
tion, which were designed following the ideas of Adolf In the last decade, German sport experienced an enor-
Hitler. mous differentiation process. On the one hand, top-
level sport won increasing importance and public
AFTER WORLD WAR II attention, and on the other hand, more and more sport
After the devastation and deprivation of World War II, activities that were not competition- and performance-
the German population turned back to sport, in part be- oriented, from yoga to roller skating, became popular.
cause they represented a more attractive world than the This “de-sportification” process motivated new groups
ubiquitous ruins of their defeated nation. But within the —women, senior citizens, and disabled persons, among
context of the Cold War, sport became increasingly im- others—to take up sport, and a whole new sport mar-
portant as a symbol of power and dominance. Athletes ket developed that decisively changed the face of sport.
were looked upon as diplomats in track suits. The as- At present there is a broad spectrum of sports, with
tonishing success of East Germany’s athletes, especially different aims, purposes, rules, rituals, and practices.
the female athletes, sprang from a number of inter- The spectrum ranges from top-level competitive sports
related factors: the centralized search for athletic talent, to mass sport and recreational activities, and from
which began with the systematic recruitment of chil- sports for health to team games. Sports may be played
dren; scientific research designed to maximize per- informally or organized by different providers in differ-
formance; the concentration of economic resources on ent settings. Private firms have joined municipalities
sport; the high prestige, social security, and other and even informal groups as providers of sport courses
material rewards (such as trips abroad) granted to suc- or facilities, from tennis courts to fitness studios.
cessful athletes; and medical manipulation through In Germany, physical education is obligatory in all
drugs. schools and classes. And top-level sport, competition
The focus on elite athletes came at the expense of sport, and sport for all are organized into a central
recreational sports. Among other things, the facilities sport system with ninety-thousand sport clubs.
available to ordinary citizens were few and poor. After
the reunification of Germany, the sport structures in Organizations
the new German states were modeled, more or less, on The federal structure of Germany is reflected in the
West Germany’s less-centralized structures. structure, organization, and division of responsibilities
GERMANY 679
Germany Olympics Results

in the field of sport. Sixteen sport federations, which are is a much-discussed and contested issue. Many of the
responsible for sporting activities in the sixteen German bigger clubs and the national federations, which started
states, exist beside fifty-eight sport federations for the at the end of the 1990s, employ at least some paid per-
various types of sport. The umbrella organization is the sons, who are mostly responsible for coordination, but
German Sport Confederation (Deutscher Sportbund, also help with training. In many clubs and federations,
DSB), founded in 1950. Because the DSB coordinates however, paid and volunteer personnel work well
all sport in Germany, it is engaged in elite as well as together.
mass sport and conducts numerous initiatives and The federal government and local authorities pro-
campaigns. vide legal and material support for sports organiza-
One of the most successful activities of the DSB is the tions in those cases where the latter’s staffing and
German Sport Award (Deutsches Sportabzeichen), financial resources are insufficient. However, the rela-
founded in 1913, which is given to those who have tionship of the state and organized sport is always char-
reached a certain performance level in certain sports. acterized as partnership and cooperation.
The conditions of the test vary according to age and The German constitution has no regulations referring
sex. Since 1913, around 25 million Sport Awards have to sport. However, in accordance with the constitu-
been given. tional division of responsibilities, public promotion and
Another successful activity of the DSB was the “Sport support of sport clubs and federations are primarily a
for All” campaign in the 1970s. Slogans such as “Make responsibility of the states. The federal government is
yourself fit by doing sport” or “A clever person improves mainly concerned with sport issues of national or supra-
his endurance” or “Movement is the best medicine” were national importance. Therefore, it provides financial
coined and propagated; jogging meetings were organ- support to top level sport and top level athletes. The re-
ized. As a result of this campaign, jogging, cycling, and, sources come from several places, including a lottery.
later, roller skating and Nordic walking, inside and out-
side of the sport clubs, gained more and more adher- Competition at the Top
ents. The popularity of jogging and roller skating is Top-level sport was reorganized in 1986 to encourage
shown by the numbers of participants in a recent event the systematic training of athletes, and around thirty-five
—thirty-five thousand runners and skaters participated hundred athletes are currently training in centers that
in the Berlin Marathon in 2003. are supported mainly by the federal ministry of inner af-
Sport organizations, from the clubs to the federa- fairs. These centers provide medical advice and care
tions and the DSB, are based on the principles of and coordinate education and training for athletes and
democracy, autonomy, volunteering, and reciprocity. their trainers. This federal ministry also supports thirty-
The leaders of sport organizations are volunteers, and eight schools that place a special emphasis on sport. In
many of the coaches and instructors are compensated these schools, there are no conflicts between school
only for their expenses or given a small amount of and training, and it is possible for students to earn an
money as recognition of their work. The principle of rec- education in spite of their engagement in top-level
iprocity means that the engagement of volunteers is sport. It is even possible for some (older) athletes em-
compensated by the engagement of others. Thus, the ployed by state institutions to earn a living and practice
public relation official in a club, for example, writes re- their sport. Under certain conditions, athletes are also
ports for the press without getting paid, but he need not supported by an organization called German Sport Aid,
pay to use a trainer. which gets its money through the selling of sports
Today the professionalization of sport organizations postage stamps, a lottery, and other activities.
When I go out on the ice, I just think about my skating.

I forget it is a competition. ■ KATARINA WITT
Sport Clubs girls and women are in the majority with 70 percent of
The main sponsors of sport are clubs. All sport clubs are members. Then follows the German Tennis Federation
nonprofit organizations, but they are very different with (1,840,311 members), the German Shooting Federa-
regard to their size, their philosophies, and their values tion (1,550,580 members), the German Track-and Field
and cultures. Small clubs that have only one sport exist Federation (866,197 members), and the German Hand-
beside huge sport associations with several thousand ball Federation (827,905 members).
members who have not only numerous sports in their Team handball was developed at the end of World
clubs, but also fitness rooms, swimming pools, and War I by members of the Turnen movement for women
restaurants. Around 35 percent of the 90,000 sport who were excluded from other team games like soccer.
clubs have fewer than 100 members, 34 percent have But it soon became a fast and aggressive game that
101 to 300 members, and 31 percent have over 2,300 attracted more and more men. Team handball is also
members. Up to 70 percent of the cost of clubs is fi- popular in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and South
nanced by membership fees and events or activities; America.
the rest comes from sponsors and from the states or
communities. The Future
Germany is a country where sport plays a very impor-
Noncompetitive Sports tant role and where the number of participants has con-
Research shows that more than 50 percent of Germans tinuously increased. One reason for this is the
are active in sports, but that most of those who claim to engagement of new sectors of the population, like sen-
be active participate in sports irregularly or with a low ior men or women who use sport for health and fitness.
intensity. More than 30 percent of Germans belong to Another reason is that the increase in the commitment
a sport club, and 38 percent of the members of these of sport-minded people and the introduction of new
sport clubs are female. The involvement of women in sports have roused the interest of formerly sport-
sports depends more on age, class, and ethnic origin abstinent people. The current favorite sports are street
than does the involvement of men. In German clubs, ball with boys, Nordic walking with seniors, and roller
girls typically begin to withdraw from sports participa- skating with female and males of all ages.
tion when they reached the age of fourteen, while boys
stay active until they are at least eighteen. Men and Gertrud Pfister
women of higher social status are more likely than the
See also East Germany; Eiger North Face; Olympic Sta-
less affluent to be athletically active, but the effect of this
dium (Berlin),1936
variable is greater for women than for men. The partic-
ipation of ethnic minorities is marginal in German
sport. This is especially true for girls and women from Further Reading
an Islamic background. DSB Jahresmagazin. (2005). Frankfurt, Germany: DSB.
The most popular sports in Germany are physical ac- Emrich, E., Pitsch, W., & Papathanassiou, V. (2001). Die Sportvereine.
Ein Versuch auf empirischer Grundlage. Schorndorf, Germany: Hof-
tivities that can be easily integrated into everyday life, mann.
like hiking, cycling, swimming, jogging, and gymnastics, Hartmann-Tews, I. (1996). Sport für alle!? Strukturwandel europäischer
which attract mostly women. Number one among the Sportsysteme im Vergleich: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Frankreich,
Großbritannien. Schorndorf, Germany: Hofmann.
organized sports is soccer—the soccer federation has Jütting, D. H., & Jochinke, M. (Eds.). (1996). Standpunkte und Per-
more than 6 million members and 10 percent of them spektiven zur Ehrenamtlichkeit im Sport. Münster, Hamburg, & Lon-
don: Lit.
are women. The second-largest federation is the Ger- Krüger, M. (1993). Einführung in die Geschichte der Leibesübungen.
man Gymnastics Federation with 5 million members; Schorndorf, Germany: Hofmann.
GLOBALIZATION 681
Opaschowski, H. (1995). Neue Trends im Freizeitsport. Hamburg, Ger- ues centrally associated with state or counterstate ide-
many: BAT. ologies and movements. All five dimensions can be de-
Pfister, G. (1980). Frau und Sport: Frühe Texte. Frankfurt, Germany:
Fischer. tected in late twentieth-century sports development.
Pfister, G. (1996). Physical activity in the name of the fatherland: Tur- The global migration of sports personnel has been a
nen and the national movement. Sporting Heritage, 1, 14–36.
pronounced feature of recent decades and appears likely
to continue in the future. The flow across the globe of
goods, equipment, and “landscapes” such as sports
complexes and golf courses has developed into a
Globalization multibillion-dollar business in recent years and repre-
sents another transnational development in the sport
M odern sport is bound up with an interdependent

global network that is marked by global flows
and uneven power relations. For example, people across
sphere. The flow of finance in the global sport arena
centers not only on the international trade in personnel,
prize money, and endorsements, but also on the mar-
the globe regularly view satellite broadcasts of English keting of sport along specific lines. The transformation
Premier League and European Champions League of sports such as American football, basketball, golf,
matches. In these games the best players drawn from and soccer into global sports is part of this process.
Europe, South America, and Africa perform using Closely connected to these flows have been media-led
equipment—boots, balls, uniforms, and so on—that is developments. The media-sports complex projects im-
designed in the West, financed by multinational corpo- ages of individual sports, leisure forms, and specific
rations such as Adidas and Nike, and hand-stitched, in cultural messages to large global audiences—for ex-
the case of soccer balls, in Asia using child labor. This ample, the worldwide audience for the 2004 Athens
equipment is then sold, at significant profit, to a mass Olympic Games. The power of this media-sports com-
market in the towns and cities of North America and plex has forced a range of sports to align themselves
Europe. In the production and consumption phases of with this global model, which emphasizes spectacle,
global soccer, several transnational corporations are in- personality, and excitement. At the level of ideology,
volved—some corporations both own the media com- global sports festivals such as the Olympics have come
panies and have, as in the case of Sky TV, shareholdings to serve as vehicles for the expression of ideologies that
in the soccer clubs they screen, creating part of what so- are transnational in character. For example, the opening
ciologists term the “global media-sports complex.” and closing ceremonies of the Athens Games were de-
The global flows that pattern world sport have sev- signed to project images of and messages about Greece
eral dimensions. These include the international move- both to its own people and to a global audience.
ment of people such as tourists, migrants, exiles, and
guest workers; a technology dimension created by the Understanding Global
flow between countries of the machinery and equip- Sport Processes
ment produced by corporations and government agen- Three approaches can help make sense of these global
cies; an economic dimension centering on the rapid sport processes. First, sports have to be studied in the
flow of money and its equivalents around the world; a context of the societies in which they are played, and
media dimension in which the flow of images and in- the interconnected political, economic, cultural, and so-
formation between countries is produced and distrib- cial patterns that shape modern sport must be empha-
uted by newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, sized. Attention also has to be given to how these
video, satellite, cable, and the World Wide Web; and fi- patterns both enable and constrain people’s actions—
nally, an ideological dimension linked to the flow of val- there are “winners” and “losers” in this global game.
No one goes there anymore—

it’s too crowded. ■ YOGI BERRA
Societies are no longer—and except in very rare cases refers to the growing network of interdependencies—
were never—sealed off from other societies. Ties of political, economic, cultural, and social—that bind
trade, warfare, migration, and culture are long-standing human beings together, for better and for worse. These
in human history—for instance, elaborate connections globalization processes are not of recent origin nor do
were made throughout Renaissance Europe. More re- they occur evenly across all areas of the globe. The
cent globalization processes have constructed new sets processes that involve an increasing intensification of
of “interdependency chains,” networks that connect peo- global interconnectedness are by their nature long-term,
ple from distant parts of the globe. It is in this context but during the twentieth century the rate of change
of global power networks that the practice and con- gathered momentum. Despite the unevenness of these
sumption of elite modern sport can be best understood. processes, it is difficult to understand local or national
Second, a long-term perspective can help to trace, de- experiences without reference to these global flows. In
scribe, and analyze the global sport process. A histori- fact, our living conditions, beliefs, knowledge, and ac-
cal and comparative approach can explain how the tions are intertwined with unfolding globalization
present pattern of global sport emerged out of the past processes, which include the emergence of a global
and how it is connected to a range of “civilizational economy, a transnational cosmopolitan culture, and a
struggles.” range of international social movements.
The third helpful approach is through an under- A multitude of transnational or global economic and
standing of the concept of globalization. The concept technological exchanges, communication networks, and
Globalization
English and Continental Figure Skating
In Europe there are two distinct schools of figure of the American, Jackson Haines, to Germany and
skating, and two only, though both schools have Austria in 1864–5. Thanks to the wonderful per-
slight local variations. These are the English and the formances of this skater, a new interest was awak-
Continental. Skating, that is to say, straight-ahead ened. In Germany, Austria, Scandinavia, and Russia
skating, seems to have been made fashionable in Eng- he produced a great impression, but not so in Eng-
land by the Royalist exiles returning from Holland at land, and he does not seem to have introduced any
the restoration. Pepys in 1662 notices it, but it was new movements in the form of rockers, counters, or
many years before any attempt was made to skate on brackets; these were of later birth. Since the time of
an edge. In 1772 one Robert Jones described the in- Jackson Haines, figure skating has been developed on
side and outside edges, the forward roll, the outside separate and distinct lines by the English on the one
forward 3, and other figures. His treatise is so ad- hand, and by the central Europeans on the other; the
vanced, however, that he must have had many keen movements and figures performed are the same in
forerunners, of whose practice he made use. On the each case, but the methods adopted are entirely dis-
Continent we find elementary works on figure skat- tinct, and even opposed to one another.
ing at about the same date, but the art does not seem Source: Wood, G. (1900, March). European figure skating. Outing, 6, 687.
to have flourished to any great extent until the visit

GLOBALIZATION 683
An old basket with the bottom knocked out, set up as a basketball hoop on a brick
wall, shows the little equipment needed to play basketball. This makes it appealing
around the world. Source: istockphoto/dgilder.
migratory patterns characterize this interconnected linkages and networks that transcend nation-states sug-
world pattern. As a result, people experience spatial gests that we may be at the earliest stages of the devel-
and temporal dimensions differently. There is a “speed- opment of a “transnational culture” or “global culture,” of
ing up” of time and a “shrinking” of space. Modern which sport is a part. This entails a shift from ethnic or
technologies enable people, images, ideas, and money national cultures to supranational forms based upon the
to cross the globe with great rapidity. These processes culture either of a superpower or of cosmopolitan com-
lead to a greater degree of interdependence, but also to munication and migrant networks. In this connection
an increased awareness of a sense of the world as a there is considerable debate as to whether global sport
whole. People become more attuned to the notion that is leading to a form of homogenized body culture—
their lives and where they live are part of a single social specifically along Western, or American, lines. There is
space—the globe. some evidence to support this notion, yet global flows
Globalization processes, then, involve multidirectional are simultaneously increasing the varieties of body cul-
movements of people, practices, customs, and ideas that tures and identities available to people in local cultures.
include a series of power balances, yet have neither the Global sport, then, seems to be leading to both a re-
hidden hand of progress nor some all-pervasive, overar- duction in contrasts between societies and a growth of
ching conspiracy guiding them. Although the globe can new varieties of body cultures and identities. Several
be understood as an interdependent whole, in different of the more recent features of globalization include an
areas of social life, established and outsider groups and increase in the number of international agencies and
nation states are constantly vying with each other for in global forms of communication; the development of
dominant positions. This growth in the multiplicity of global competitions and prizes; and the development
Globalization
Cricket Replaces Wrestling in West Africa
They [the Akan people] are not at all limited in their tractive games of cricket and football. Cricket and
means of enjoyment. They have games of all sorts: football are good games; nobody doubts that. The
the boys have organized swimming and shooting fear is not that we are discarding the good for the
parties, and the girls have parties for collecting fire- bad, but that we are dispensing with the essential for
wood and picking snails. At the riverside they have the convenient. Our national character as a race of
sports of peculiar kinds, chief among which is what people having endurance and capable of prolonged
is called in the Akan language Avensin, or Aguma. exertion involving determination to see a thing
Two opponents meet to wrestle arm to arm, leg to through to its end, stands the risk of being modified,
leg, and body against body, in a rather violent but art- and in time altogether lost, if we give up our na-
ful manner. Until one of them succeeds in conquer- tional games, pastimes, and customary practices.
ing the other by sending him down or getting his Cricket and football games help to make good sports-
opponent exhausted, the contest is a draw. This game men, good soldiers, good administrators, as well as
is somewhat similar to the Japanese “Ju-jitsu,” at least good conservatives. But if the Akans have to acquire
in principle. or enrich these qualities, should they do so at the risk
Our regret, however, is that with the growth of of losing their national character?
English schools, this healthy and muscle-developing Source: Danquah, J. B. (1928). Gold Coast: Akan laws and customs and the Akim
Abuakwa constitution (pp. 229). London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.
pastime is being gradually given up for the more at-
of notions of rights and citizenship that are increas- ments, sport development within a particular society
ingly standardized internationally. The emergence and also depends on the status of that nation in the sports
diffusion of sport in the nineteenth century is clearly in- international rank order. Less developed nations tend to
terwoven with this overall process. The development of underutilize their talent and performers or lose them to
national and international sports organizations, the more powerful nations in the global sports process.
growth of competition between national teams, the Global sport processes can thus lead to an underdevel-
worldwide acceptance of rules governing specific—that opment or a dependent development of a nation’s
is, Western—sport forms, and the establishment of talent.
global competitions such as the Olympic Games and
the men’s and women’s soccer World Cups all indicate TALENT MIGRATION
the increasing globalization in the sports world. The migration of performers, coaches, administrators,
If consideration is given to the issue of international and sport scientists within and between nations and
sport success in the late twentieth century and in the within and between continents and hemispheres is also
early part of this new century, it is clear that this success a pronounced feature of late twentieth-century sport.
involves a contest between systems located within a Migration of this elite talent has become a decisive fea-
global context. Sport success depends on several ele- ture that structures the experience of sport in different
ments: the availability and identification of human re- societies. The movement of technology and the manu-
sources, methods of coaching and training, the efficiency facture of clothing, footwear, and equipment is a world-
of the sport organization, and the depth of knowledge wide industry that wealthier nations are able to access
of sports medicine and sport sciences. However, these to a far greater degree than their poorer counterparts,
elements are a necessary but not sufficient explanation and the implications of this global sports industry for
of international sport success. In addition to these ele- sustainable sport systems are not clear. In addition to
GLOBALIZATION 685
these global flows, the images of sport stars and tour- excluding Mexico—and former “white” Commonwealth
naments flow round the globe via the media sport com- countries such as Australia. Semiperipheral countries
plex. The interconnected web of media and corporate tend to involve former socialist countries and some
interests structures, though it does not completely de- emerging nations such as South Korea. Peripheral coun-
termine, the sports experience for performers and con- tries include most Islamic nations, the majority of
sumers alike. African countries, and most South Asian countries.
Whereas the West may be challenged on the field of
NATIONAL PRIDE AND SPORT play by noncore countries, control over the content,
Global sporting success not only reflects national sport ideology, and economic resources associated with sport
systems but also reinforces national esteem. Global sport still tends to lie with the West. Yet through state policy
involves a form of patriot games in which images and noncore countries can use major sport festivals to so-
stories are told to us about ourselves and others; elite- lidify internal national identification and enhance in-
level achievement in sport also tells us something about ternational recognition and prestige.
what it is to be human.With its emphasis on rational and However, both in terms of hosting events and mak-
efficient performance, specialization, scientization, coming relevant decisions, the West dominates in interna-
petition, and professionalization, achievement sport re- tional recognition, respectability, status, and prestige.
inforces the myth of the superman.This myth is sustained The more high-tech and commodified the sport, the
by the ideology and findings of the sport sciences, which more dependent success is on the elements of the global
tend to be concerned with identifying the conditions sport process identified earlier. As a result, the West
necessary to produce the ultimate performance. tends to win out. Indeed, the last decade has seen not
The global sport system accordingly involves the only the recruitment by Western nations of sport scien-
mechanisms of production, experience, and consump- tists and coaches from the former Soviet bloc, but also
tion. Achievement sport demands the identification and the drain of athletic talent from Africa and South Amer-
development of talent, its production on a global stage ica in sports such as soccer to the economically more
in a single or multisport event, and its consumption by powerful clubs of Europe. Noncore leagues remain in a
direct spectators or, through the media complex, a dependent relationship with the dominant European
global mass audience. Over time there is a tendency to- core. In other sports such as track and field and base-
ward the creation of a global achievement-sport mono- ball, this drain of talent flows to the United States. The
culture—a culture in which administrators, coaches, West also remains dominant in terms of the design, pro-
and teachers promote and foster achievement-sport val- duction, and marketing of sports equipment. Innova-
ues and ideologies and where competitions and tour- tions emerge in the West, sport federations tend to be
naments are structured along highly commodified and controlled by Western officials, and global sport tour-
rationalized lines. Within the global sport system, not naments are usually located in the West.
only are nations rank-ordered internationally, they are In the past decade or so there have, however, been
also grouped, more or less, along political, economic, challenges to the achievement-sport ideology and to
and cultural lines into core, semiperipheral, and periph- Western domination. Though no longer in existence,
eral blocs. the Soviet bloc mounted a sustained challenge to the
West for some forty years, though it too was incorpo-
Western Domination and rated into the ideology of achievement sport. Despite
Eastern Challenges the ideological differences between Castro’s Cuba and
At the core of most team- and individual-based sports the capitalist West, Cubans participate in the Olympics,
lie the countries of Western Europe, North America— and by some measures outperform the core capitalist
countries. The recent Chinese success in the Olympics Non-Western cultures, as noted, resist and reinterpret
will only accelerate with the holding of the 2008 Western sports and maintain, foster, and promote, on
Olympic Games in Beijing. Non-Western success on a global scale, their own indigenous recreational pur-
the field of play, in specific sports such as badminton suits—for example, Kabbadi, an ancient Indian game
and middle- and long-distance athletics, is beginning to that now has an international World Cup. Clearly, the
be matched by the involvement of non-Western per- speed, scale, and volume of sports development are
sonnel as coaches, officials, administrators, producers of interwoven with the broader global flows of people,
sports goods and media outlets, and as hosts of major technology, finance, images, and ideologies that are
tournaments. controlled by the West, in particular by Western men. In
Though England was the cradle of modern sport, the longer term, however, it is possible to detect signs
the relative decline of Great Britain on the sports field that the disjunctions and nonisomorphic patterns that
—despite the improved, if overhyped success in the characterize global processes are leading to the diminu-
Sydney Olympic Games—is matched by its fading in- tion of Western power in a variety of contexts. Sport
fluence in the corridors of power of global-sport poli- may be no exception.
tics. This could indicate how things might develop in
Joseph Maguire
this century for Europeans and perhaps for Westerners
more generally. One main source of potential dispute See also International Politics; Internet; Sports Politics;
may well be the Olympic Games. As yet, however, the Sport Tourism; Sport and National Identity
West is the winner in the global-sport contest, and hege-
monic control remains with Westerners.
Global sport has not, however, led to complete ho- Further Reading
mogenization: The consumption of nonindigenous cul- Maguire, J. (1999). Global sport: Identities, societies, and civilizations,
Cambridge: Polity Press.
tural wares by different national groups is both active Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L., & Bradley, J. (2002). Sport worlds:
and heterogeneous, and there is a continuing resistance A sociological perspective. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
to global sport processes. Yet the political economy at
work in the production and consumption of global
sport and leisure products can lead to the relative as-
cendancy of a narrow selection of capitalist and West-
ern sport cultures.
Goalball
Global sport processes can therefore be understood
in terms of the attempts by more established white,
male groups to control and regulate access to global
G oalball is a team sport, an indoor court game, de-
signed specifically for athletes with visual impair-
ments and is currently played throughout the world
flows and also in terms of how indigenous peoples from grassroots levels to the Paralympics. The game
both resist these processes and recycle their own cul- was devised after World War II to assist newly blinded
tural products. We are currently witnessing simultane- veterans with an activity that would not only help them
ously the homogenization of specific body cultures— become active again, but one that would assist in learn-
through achievement sports, the Olympic movement, ing better sound localization.
and sports science programs—and an increase in the di-
versity of sports and body cultures. History
It is possible, however, to overstate the extent to Goalball has its roots in Europe following World War
which the West has triumphed in terms of global sports II. The original version was played on a much smaller
structures, organizations, ideologies, and performances. court with a larger ball and was played only by men. It
GOALBALL 687
was in 1976 at the Games for the Disabled (later called What Is Goalball?
Paralympics) in Toronto, Ontario, that those represent- Goalball is played on a court about the size of a vol-
ing the United States first heard about the game. The leyball court with two end zones where three team play-
track and swimming athletes in attendance combined ers from opposing teams are contained. Court lines are
forces to become our first goalball team, learning about taped with string underneath so players can feel where
the game in the aisle of the bus on the way to the gym- they are for orientation. The ball has bells inside, which
nasium. Needless to say, the U.S. team did not fare very assist in locating the ball for defense. All players must
well that day, coming in ninth out of the nine teams par- wear a blindfold so the game is completely tactile and
ticipating. Most European teams had been competing auditory.
for many years. Butler University in Indianapolis, Indi- The objective of the game of goalball is to score on
ana, hosted the 1982 World Goal Ball Championships, the opposing team by sending the ball across their end-
which were the first world championships for the blind line. A score is worth one point. The game as far as
to be held in the United States. (Goal ball was originally ball, court, and rules is the same for men and women.
two words but over time has become goalball.) However, the men’s game is usually a faster game. Play-
One major rule change of interest had to do with ers stand to throw the ball as if they were bowling. De-
penalties. The three team members on the court are fense begins in a squat position with a center and two
both offense and defense. Originally, when a player wings each covering major sections of the court. As the
caused a penalty, he was taken off the court and the re- ball approaches and the players anticipate where the
maining two players had to defend a throw from the ball will be, they dive out on their sides much as a soc-
other team. Currently, the person making the penalty cer goalie might to defend the goal, which is the entire
must defend the throw alone on the court. The one end line. Once the ball touches a player, the team has
causing the penalty now has the chance to redeem his ten seconds to make the offensive throw to the other
or her error. team. Players alternate fast and slow as well as down-
Goalball is played worldwide and is the only team the-line and cross-court shots to keep the defense on
sport for those with visual impairments played at the their toes.
elite Paralympic level. In the September 2004 games While the only required piece of equipment is a
in Athens, the U.S. women won silver behind Canada’s blindfold, players wear padding and protective gear
gold and the U.S. men won bronze behind Denmark’s based on their style of sliding to defend. Equipment re-
gold and Sweden’s silver. Regional and national com- strictions have to do with inappropriate materials for
petitions throughout the year keep athletes in shape for gymnasium flooring and padding extending too far
international competitions. from the body.
Major controversies are often the reason for rule Goalball participants are typically adults for most
changes. In goalball the only required piece of equip- competitions. Players need good knees, a keen sense of
ment is a blindfold so those that qualify by level of vi- hearing, and great athletic ability. The center should be
sual impairment still will be playing completely in the able to cover the entire width of the court with wings
dark. Most controversies have centered around whether backing up the center. Wings are typically the throwers
players can see anything that would give them an ad- although all are permitted and encouraged to throw
vantage in orientation. Eyeshades have changed over since the rule states that only two consecutive throws
the years from airline-type sleep shades to ski goggles per player are permitted before a penalty is called. Since
taped inside and out to players now patched (gauze pad the eye gear is the only required piece of equipment, it
taped over the eye) prior to putting the goggle in place is a great game for reverse inclusion (including the able-
at the Paralympic level. bodied population with those with disabilities).
Competition at the Top drews, Fife, has been at the center of golf’s recorded his-
Each October through June, the United States Associa- tory. However, pictures and records from many other
tion for Blind Athletes hosts regional championships nations depict a sport resembling the ancient ball-and-
that include goalball culminating in a national cham- stick target game.
pionship in June. Internationally, there are several invi-
■ A Roman game called paganica was introduced to
tational meets yearly as well as World Games and the
France and Germany and then to the Netherlands.
Paralympics every four years (two weeks after the
■ Chole, a derivative of hockey, played in Belgium as
Olympics at the same site). Nineteen seventy-six was the
early as 1353, may have provided the most direct link
first time goalball was played in a Paralympic-type com-
to Scotland.
petition. The United States entered a quality men’s team
■ Reportedly, a Scottish regiment aiding the French
in the 1980 games in the Netherlands. Men and women
against the English in 1421 became entranced by
representing the United States have competed in every
the sport and, when the regiment returned home,
Paralympic Games since 1984.
members played a modified version that became golf
Eugenia S. Scott as we know it today.
Golf became so popular that the Scottish parliament

Further Reading of James II banned golf in 1457 because it interfered
International Blind Sport Federation. (2005). Retrieved February 16, with military training for the wars against the English.
2005, from http://www.ibsa.es/eng/deportes/goalball/presentacion. The ban continued through the parliaments of James III
htm
USA Goalball. (2005). Retrieved February 16, 2005, from http://www.
(1470) and King James IV (1491). In 1502, with the
angelfire.com/hi5/usa-goalball Treaty of Glasgow between England and Scotland,
James IV lifted the ban and was the first recorded pur-
chaser of golf equipment—a set of clubs. In 1553, the
Archbishop Hamilton of St. Andrews granted the local
population the right to play on the St. Andrews links,
Golf and the game took root as Scotland’s own sport.
Mary, Queen of Scots, was the first recorded female
G olf is a ball-and-stick game, the chief aim of which

is hitting a small, hard ball into small holes placed
at prescribed intervals around a grassy course. Today,
golfer, and according to legend, that partly led to her de-
mise. She was seen playing golf shortly after the death
of her first husband, Lord Darnley. Such behavior was
golf reaches out to people of all ages and has become considered unfit for a woman in mourning and, pre-
one of the premier world sports recreationally and sumably, contributed to her being convicted and be-
professionally. The International Golf Federation (IGF) headed in 1587. Her indelible mark on golf history
recently requested recognition from the International remains her introduction of caddies, in reference to the
Olympic Committee for the 2008 games, citing world cadets she brought along to carry her equipment.
participation of more than sixty million men and Despite being banned on Sundays, initially for inter-
women. In the early years of the modern Olympic ference with military archery training and the nation’s
games, golf was one of the events staged. defense and later for stealing attendance from church,
golf’s evolution continued:
Scottish Claims
Scotland has long claimed to have founded the game of ■ 1618: the “feathery ball” was introduced.
golf, and its headquarters for golf rules housed within ■ 1642: John Dickson was officially licensed as the
the Royal and Ancient Golf Club (R&A) at St. An- ball-maker for Aberdeen, Scotland.
GOLF 689
An advertisement from the 1920s for

a variety of Spalding golf products.
■ 1659: Records from the American colonies show

that golf was banned from the streets in Albany, New
York.
■ 1744: The Honourable Company of Edinburgh
Golfers formed and honored its annual champion
with a silver chalice.
■ 1754: The St. Andrews Golfers Club, later named the
Royal and Ancient Club (R&A), formed and pub-
lished the first rules of the game.
Soon, other clubs sprang up, including Royal Burgess

of Edinburgh (1773), Royal Aberdeen (1780), and, in
the United States, the South Carolina Golf Club in
Charleston (1786). In each of these clubs, membership
was restricted to mostly noblemen and gentlemen, who
engaged in interclub fall and spring matches involving
hefty wagers.
Rules Development
Before the published rules of the St. Andrews golfers,
golf had been played at a variety of venues, on courses
with differing numbers of holes.The “Old Course” at St. the USGA assumed control of the U.S. Women’s Open
Andrews was originally eleven holes leading out from in 1953. This paralleled the organization and align-
the club/university grounds to the water. The golfers ment of the British Women’s Open with the R&A and
then played the same holes in reverse—twenty-two helped promote tournament play for professionals and
holes total. The first rule established by the St. Andrews amateurs alike. In 1958, further organization of ama-
golfers, to speed up play and standardize distance, was teur standards came from the formation of the World
that the ball was to be teed within one club of the last Amateur Golf Council, in collaboration with the USGA
hole. In 1764, the members converted the first four and organizations from thirty-two other countries. A
holes to two holes each because they were too short and new system for handicapping was implemented, in
slowed play, which left an eighteen-hole venue—nine which each golfer had a single USGA handicap instead
holes out from the clubhouse, and nine coming back in. of various other versions. This allowed men and women
This standardized future courses.The front nine score is and golfers of varying skill levels to participate equi-
still referred to as the “out” score, and the back nine as tably. The R&A and USGA joined the IGF in 2000
the “in” score, referencing the revised St. Andrews layout. and affiliated with associations worldwide to establish
For years, golf was governed separately—in the and maintain standardized rules for an equitable play-
United States by the United States Golf Association ing field. Scoring systems, equipment, rules for play,
(USGA), and in the United Kingdom by the British length of holes for “par” from tee to green, amateur sta-
Golf Association (BGA) and the R&A—and lacked tus, and player etiquette are all governed by IGF rules.
standardization of equipment and rulings. In 1952, the Even with standardization, competitive golf provides
first world code of rules was established between the scoring options. In medal play, players keep an aggre-
R&A and USGA. In an effort to standardize play for gate score across all eighteen holes and compete against
professionals and amateurs in all major competitions, the course, their personal records, or other golfers on
Golf
“His Drive”
He’s not a business wizard, and have a handicap of 0. A professional golfer com-
Socially he does not shine, peting in a handicapped tournament might even have a
And for a place in politics negative handicap and have to add strokes to his or her
His name is not in line. score at the end, or on a hole. In medal play, the golfer’s
In fact, for all these honors handicap is subtracted from the gross (total) eighteen-
He never seems to strive, hole score to arrive at a net score. Many leagues and
But hear that “foursome” murmur: tournaments award prizes on both gross and net scores.
“Gosh, how that man can drive!” In match play, opponents compete hole by hole, with
Perhaps he lacks ambition, a point scored for the winner of each hole. Using hand-
Or perhaps he doesn’t care icaps in match play, the score per hole is adjusted ac-
To climb success’s ladder, cording to the handicap, before the point is awarded.
Though all his friends are there. Match play is still the most common scoring system for
Mayhap “Reward of Virtue” collegiate golf and many amateur championships—a
In some measure he derives tradition established at the matches at St. Andrews. The
From a muttered exclamation,— handicapping system has made golf an attractive leisure
“Great Scott, how that man drives!” sport for golfers of all levels—it rewards individuals
for playing at their best and allows players with differ-
So when his life is over, ent skill levels to compete equitably.
Not one will say of him, Newer courses have different teeing grounds (tee
“He made his name in business” boxes) on each hole, designed so that golfers of differ-
Or “Left a fortune, trim.” ing ability, age, strength, handicap, or gender would use
But the tott’ring old-time golfers a similar length shot or club in their approach shot to
Who still are quite alive the green. This provides golfers an equitable chance to
Will whisper at his passing, achieve a “net” par on a hole. A course rating system has
“Law, how that man could drive!” also been designed to identify difficulty, according to
Source: Street, L. H. (1923). Sporting Life, 71(8), 27. length (rating) and topography (slope) for each course.
Equipment Creates Professional Golf

The first golfing equipment was a handmade ball of
the same or different rounds and days. This is the for- feathers tightly wound around a center of either stone
mat most commonly broadcast on television and played or other material that could be molded into a round
by leisure golfers and those on the professional tours— shape and clubs constructed of whatever wood was in-
the medalist is the golfer with the lowest stroke total. digenous to the countryside. The title “The World’s First
Golfers who play regularly are encouraged to honestly Golf Professional” was given to Allan Robertson, a
and accurately record all rounds to establish a handi- feather ball maker from St. Andrews, who developed a
cap. Under USGA rules, handicaps are derived by the new club with a slender wooden shaft and an iron
difference or partial difference between their best head. Robertson continually built clubs that were
twenty-round average subtracted from par (normally lighter and more flexible than those of his contempo-
72). Par is derived by the distance on each hole—and raries. The change in clubs led to a fundamental change
the number of strokes an expert golfer should need in the golf swing.
from tee to green, plus two putting strokes. Golfers The amateur golfers wore crested wool jackets that
who consistently play par golf are called scratch golfers represented their clubs but also limited their arm move-
GOLF 691
It took me seventeen years to get three thousand hits in baseball.

I did it in one afternoon on the golf course. ■ HANK AARON
ments to about 180 degrees and a wristy swing. This ers took up the challenge to find a swing and new irons
created a low, flat, and often rolling shot—good initially that could so dramatically change their games. In 1890,
in the Scottish winds, but not resembling the swing the brassie club was introduced—a brass plate was
taught today. Robertson, not of the “gentlemen’s” class, added to the sole of the wooden club. Harry Vardon in-
was not so restricted. He and the other caddies turned vented the modern upright swing and a grip that con-
professional golfers sported sweaters and were able to trolled the longer swing path—one that interlocked the
experiment with different swings. little finger on one hand with the index and middle fin-
Other professionals were merchants who made clubs, gers on the other. Today, 95 percent of touring profes-
designed and laid out courses, and made golf apparel sionals use the Vardon grip. Vardon won the British
for the club members. The caddies and other profes- Open six times between 1896 and 1914 and was hired
sionals would assist with the morning matches between by Spaulding Company, of the United States, in 1900
the gentleman members but would gather later for their to teach and tour with Spaulding’s equipment. While in
own rounds while the members socialized in the club- the United States, Vardon won the 1900 U.S. Open
house. As the gentlemen’s matches (match play format) and inspired Americans to adopt his grip and swing.
became more established, many clubs began employing Over the next few decades, several equipment and
club professionals to manage their courses and opera- rule changes affected golf:
tions, and to teach the game. In 1854, the R&A invited
■ The rubber core ball, patented by Coburn Haskell in
each of the twelve clubs in existence to send two golfers
1898, enabled the ball to travel further.
for a “Grand Tournament,” which was played over sev-
■ Grooved-faced irons were invented in 1902.
eral days. The last day the professionals played and
■ The mass production of golf clubs developed from
recorded their round—Robertson’s 80 was about 25
1900 to 1920, and clubs were numbered and stan-
strokes less than that of the amateurs participating in
dardized.
the club match play. Thus, the challenge of the profes-
■ William Taylor introduced the dimpled-pattern ball
sionals was born. As word spread about the profes-
cover in England in 1905.
sional challenges, some of the amateurs joined, leading
■ The Goodrich Company introduced a golf ball with
to the term open play. Today, “open tournaments” are
a rubber core filled with compressed air in 1906.
still played with amateur and professional golfers com-
■ The R&A banned the center-shafted putter in 1910,
peting against one another.
but the USGA kept it legal.
The establishment of rules, equipment development,
■ Arthur F. Knight patented steel shafts, also in 1910.
and professional golf have always been intertwined. As
The USGA allowed them in tournaments in 1926,
numbers of competitors increased worldwide, equip-
and the R&A followed suit in 1929.
ment changed to gain the competitive edge. The “guttie,”
■ One of the last rules to be standardized worldwide
or gutta-percha ball (made of a natural balata-like sub-
was the size of the golf ball when, in 1990, the R&A
stance) was introduced in 1848 and, by the mid 1850s,
adopted the 1.68-inch diameter golf ball (previously
had replaced the feathery ball. The guttie was machine
1.62-inches) standardized by the USGA.
produced, cheaper, and produced a consistent ball
flight. Professionals began experimenting with new The industry continues to experiment with and de-
swings to curve shots and impart backspin to reduce the velop balls with different dimple patterns, covers, or
roll on the hard greens. Tom Kidd, winner of the 1873 core composition to entice golfers to purchase new
Open, built irons with metal spines across the faces— equipment and gain a competitive edge.
producing backspin far beyond that of the flat-surfaced Manufacturers hired professional golfers to tour at
irons. Although the R&A banned the protrusions, oth- various clubs, give clinics, and promote equipment for
their new sporting goods industry. The first female pro- and didn’t whip and twist as the hickory shafts did. The
fessional, Mrs. Gordon Robertson, was hired at shafts maintained a better swing pattern throughout
Princess Ladies Golf Club, in 1908. Professional golfers the down swing, so the professionals learned to keep
were skillful players, but others were employed by clubs their wrists cocked longer and swing harder, releasing
and seldom had time to perfect their games. Vardon’s the wrists at the end to increase clubhead speed and
playing success in the United States led to an exodus of shot distance. Byron Nelson, who won eleven tourna-
Scottish, Irish, and English professionals across the At- ments in a row in 1945, adopted the new swing and
lantic, where Americans had the money to pay for les- taught many of the great players of the 1950s, 1960s,
sons and equipment. Among the Scots who joined the and 1970s. Also developing the upright swing to per-
immigrant movement was Donald Ross, who moved to fection was female golfer Mickey Wright, who won
North Carolina and built dozens of courses. eight-two tournaments between 1955 and 1973—her
As these pros toured the United States, they gave les- swing is considered the best swing of all time, male or
sons, held exhibition matches, and played events like female.
the U.S. Open. The Professional Golfers Association of
America (PGA) was formed in 1916 and held its first Participation for All
championship with a prize of $500 to the winner. Although professional golf receives much media cover-
Among the best-known pros were Walter Hagen and age, amateur golf continues to flourish throughout the
Gene Sarazan. In 1935, Helen Hicks was one of the world and across the ages. The National Golf Founda-
first women hired by Wilson Sporting Goods to pro- tion (NGF) reports that in the United States
mote women’s golf through exhibitions and clinics and
■ 26.2 million golfers aged eighteen and older played
to advise the company about golf club design for
at least one regulation round of golf in the previous
women. Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias, 1932
twelve months,
Olympic track and field medalist, also turned to golf.
■ 36.7 million Americans five years or older played a
In 1935, declared a professional by the USGA, she
round of golf or visited a golf practice facility,
played professionally until 1946. Reinstated as an
■ 6.1 million junior golfers ages five to seventeen have
amateur in 1946, she won seventeen amateur titles in
either played a round of golf or visited a golf practice
two years, including the 1947 British Women’s Open
facility,
Championship—the first U.S. golfer to do so. Her per-
■ 45 percent of golfers (11.9 million) are aged eighteen
sonality and international fame attracted spectators
to thirty-nine,
and brought attention to women’s professional golf.
■ 33 percent of golfers are seniors (ages 50+),
She ushered in a new style of clothing, shedding long,
■ 22 percent (5.76 million) are female golfers.
tight skirts and other restrictive garments for knickers
and slacks, which gave more freedom to swing for dis- The ratios are similar in other Western countries, and
tance and increased comfort. This interest sparked the participation in Asian countries is growing as well. Pub-
industry to pay more attention to women as clients. lic golf courses have developed to the point that the
The Women’s Professional Golf Association (WPGA) sport is much less limited by cost—the median price of
was chartered in 1944 but disbanded in early 1949 be- a round of golf at an eighteen-hole municipal or daily
cause of financial stress. fee course in the United States is $36 to $40 including
Following World War II, steel-shafted clubs were in- cart and green fee. Most courses also have provisions
troduced as factories transitioned from war to peace- for individuals with mobility impairments. The NGF es-
time productions. Professionals began playing with timates that roughly 10 percent (2.4 million) of today’s
these cheaper clubs that would not warp when wet, U.S. golfers represent a racial minority:
GOLF 693
A golfer hits from the fairway.

Source: istockphoto/Skashkin.
“handicapping” system, provide uniform rules, and fund

an annual championship tournament for women. Later
that year, the first Women’s British Amateur Champi-
onship had thirty-three contestants at the nine-hole
course at Royal Lytham and St. Anne’s Golf Club.
The Amateur Golf Association of America (later re-
named the USGA) organized in 1894 and held its first
U.S. Amateur Championship in Newport, Rhode Is-
land; one year later, its first women’s U.S. Amateur
was held at the Meadow Brook Club on Long Island,
New York. By 1900, U.S. men and women were win-
ning golf medals at the Olympic games. The USGA and
LGU agreed to hold biennial amateur competitions be-
tween the United States and Britain in 1932. The first
official Curtis Cup was held in May at England’s Went-
worth Golf Club, witnessed by 15,000 spectators, and
won by the U.S. team (led by Marion Hollins) over the
British team (led by Joyce Wethered). Wethered’s
matches with Glenna Collett Vare became so legendary
that towns closed up shop and gave workers the day off
■ 882,000 are African-Americans to watch the matches, which were credited with per-
■ 1,400,000 are Hispanic manently raising the standards of women in golf.
■ 851,000 are Asian/Pacific Islanders Robert Tyre (Bobby) Jones, U.S. golfing legend of the
■ 712,000 are self-identified by survey respondents as 1920s and 1930s and the only player to win the Grand
“other,” which includes Native Americans and mixed Slam of men’s golf, reportedly called Wethered the
races “greatest golfer of all time, man or woman.” In 1950,
during the U.S. Women’s Open Championship, the
Breaking Down Barriers: Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) certifi-
Women and Minorities in Golf cate of incorporation was signed, and the women’s golf
Although golf today reaches out to a diverse popula- tour consisted of eleven events and a total purse of
tion, clubs did not readily open their doors to women $50,000.
or to persons of color or diverse backgrounds for many Today, international competition for women is as ex-
decades. The gender barrier began breaking down with tensive as that for men:
the earliest recorded reference to a women’s competi-
tion in 1810, at Musselburgh, Scotland. The North ■ The 1990s brought the Solheim Cup sponsored by
Berwick Club in Scotland included women in its activ- Karsten Manufacturing, which created biennial pro-
ities in 1832. The Ladies’ Golf Club at St. Andrews fessional match-play competition between the LPGA
(1867) was the first official golf club for women, and on and European Women’s Professional Golfers Tour
19 April 1893, Issette Person convened a meeting of (WPGET).
dedicated women golfers in London, forming the Ladies ■ Since 1988, LPGA Rookie-of-the-Year winners have
Golf Union (LGU). In addition to promoting general in- heralded from Sweden, Scotland, England, Japan,
terest in the women’s game, its goals were to develop a Australia, and South Korea.
Golf
The Origins of Some Golf Terms
“Fore!” is Scottish in origin, and is a shortened ver- United States in 1899. H.B. Martin’s “Fifty Years of
sion of the word “before” or “afore.” The old Scottish American Golf ” contains an account of a foursomes
warning, essentially meaning “look out ahead,” is be- match played at the Atlantic City (N.J.) CC. One of
lieved adopted from military circles, where it was the players, Ab Smith relates: “my ball . . . came to
used by artillery men as a warning to troops in fore- rest within six inches of the cup. I said ‘That was a
word positions. Golfers as early as the 18th century bird of a shot . . . I suggest that when one of us plays
simply adopted this military warning cry for use on a hole in one under par he receives double compen-
the links. sation.’ The other two agreed and we began right
“Links” is a term that refers to tracts of low-lying, away, just as soon as the next one came, to call it a
seaside land—characteristically sandy, treeless, and ‘birdie.’” In 19th century American slang, “bird” re-
undulating, often with lines of dunes or dune ridges, ferred to anyone or anything excellent or wonderful.
and covered by bent grass and gorse found in Scot- The term “eagle” soon became common to refer to a
land. From the Middle Ages onward, linksland (gen- score one better than a “bird.” Also by analogy, the
erally speaking, poor land for farming) were common term “albatross” for double eagle—an even bigger
grounds used for sports, including archery, bowls eagle!
and golf. Source: Adapted from the Golf History FAQ on the USGA website. Retrieved February
22, 2005, from http://www.usga.org/questions/faqs/usga _ history.asp
“For the Birds?” The term “birdie” originated in the
■ In 1988, Mercury LPGA Series was instituted as the ■ George F. Grant, a dentist and one of the first
first television series for women’s golf and Betsy King African-American golfers following the Civil War,
(U.S.) became the first player ever to receive $6 mil- patented the golf tee.
lion in career earnings. ■ Joseph M. Bartholomew, a caddie from the age of
seven, constructed a golf course in 1922, in New
International competition for men was already firmly
Orleans, that is still in play today, and is named after
entrenched. The game of golf spread early to South
him.
Africa (1885) and Japan, where, in 1914 at Komozawa,
■ Ben Spiller competed equally with the likes of Ben
the Tokyo Club was founded, triggering the golf boom
Hogan in the mid 1940s. Spiller and Ted Rhodes fin-
in that nation. The race and class barriers were not so
ished in the top twenty-five of a PGA tour event in
easily erased, however. In South Africa, for example,
1948 in Los Angeles.
clubs banned persons of color from playing on their
courses, and today many clubs still restrict member-
Not until 1955 and a lawsuit by Alfred (Tup)
ships and play to males and to those “voted” acceptable.
Holmes, however, were public golf courses in Atlanta,
The rich history of golf included prominent African-
Georgia, and other parts of the nation opened to peo-
Americans long before the U.S. Civil Rights movement
ple of color. The PGA didn’t remove the Caucasian-
of the 1960s, however:
only clause of its constitution officially until 1961. PGA
■ John M. Shippen was actually the first African- professionals still boycotted South Africa in the 1980s
American professional golfer and played in the U.S. because of exclusion of black players. The female color
Open at the age of sixteen in 1896—the officials barrier was overcome largely because of such athletes as
and golfers believed that he was half Shinnecock two-time Wimbledon (tennis) champion Althea Gib-
Indian. son, who joined the LPGA tour in 1963. That same
GOLF 695
Golf is a good walk spoiled. ■ MARK TWAIN
year, the final round of the U.S. Women’s Open was tel- equipment to schools and community associations to
evised and helped to expose young girls, regardless of attract youth to the sport.
race, to the possibilities of golf for leisure or career. Four
years later, African-American Renee Powell became a Recognition of Champions
regular player on the LPGA tour, and the women in golf In 1998, the World Golf Foundation (www.wgv.com/
became champions of equal rights for women every- hof/organizations.html) was established in St. Augus-
where: They refused to hold the tournament at any tine, Florida, to represent all major golf organizations
venue where Gibson or Powell were not allowed into a throughout the world, to honor the history of golf and
clubhouse or faced other discrimination. achievements of its greatest individuals, and to teach
Today, the international and diverse representation in both golfers and the general public about the game
golf is evident, with young players of all races taking top and its positive values. The website lists all major golf
honors on both men’s and women’s tours. Worldwide, organizations as partners and has representatives from
competition for women is found in North America, each on its advisory board. The USGA (www.usga.org)
Asia, and in Europe. Asiam women’s golf started with and R&A (www.randa.org) also have web links to
the Thailand Ladies Amateur Open Golf and Inter-Club museums and archives worldwide for information on
Team Championships (1978), and in 1979, the Nichirei golfing heroes, pioneers, golf history, evolution of
International U.S.–Japan Team Championships were equipment and the rules.
inaugurated. For men, there are professional golf tours
in Australia, Africa, Asia, Europe, South America, and Growing Participation
North America. Although some private clubs still hold Golf has won a prominent place as a leisure pursuit, a
to prejudicial constraints by race and gender, other competitive sport, and a corporate lifestyle, and it con-
clubs and organizations are being developed to cater tinues to grow. Participants around the world will find
only to women or golfers from minority populations. a wide array of opportunities to enjoy and celebrate golf
Many clubs have accommodations for persons who are as a sport for all age groups, and for amateurs and pro-
blind or physically challenged, some have special mo- fessionals alike.
bility provisions, and wheelchair golf has worldwide
Debra Ann Ballinger
competitions.
Golf also has expanded to youth, through efforts of See also British Open; Masters; Pebble Beach; Ryder
professional associations. In 1987, Judy Bell became Cup; St. Andrews
the first woman elected to the USGA executive com-
mittee, and two years later, reflecting the growing ap-
peal of the game to younger girls, the LPGA began
sponsoring the PGA Urban Youth Golf Program and
Further Reading
Chambers, M., & Alcott, A. (1995). The unplayable lie: The untold
the LPGA Girls Golf Club. This club has expanded its story of women and discrimination in American golf. New York:
outreach throughout the United States, Canada, New Golf Digest Pocket Books, Simon & Schuster.
Crosset, T. W. (1995). Outsiders in the clubhouse: The world of women’s
Zealand, and Australia, in partnership with the USGA professional golf. New York: State University of New York Press.
and the Girl Scouts of the USA. International competi- Dawkins, M. P., & Grahan, C. K. (2000). African American golfers dur-
tion for juniors includes the Junior Ryder Cup, and the ing the Jim Crow era. Westport, CT: Praeger.
International Golf Federation (IGF). Retrieved from www.
International Golf Federation sponsors clinics and jun- internationalgolffederation.org
ior tournaments around the globe. The PGA, LPGA, Joy, D. (1999). St. Andrews & The Open championship: The official his-
tory. Chelsea, MI: Sleeping Bear Press.
R&A, and national professional associations sponsor Kennedy, J. (2000). A course of their own: A history of African Ameri-
youth clinics, sponsor teaching schools, and donate can golfers. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel.
Greece Olympics Results

McDaniel, P. (2000). Uneven lies: The heroic story of African-Americans Greek Cup analogous to the Super Bowl. The Athletic
in golf. Lanham, MD: National Book Network.
Union of Constantinople leads Greek teams with thir-
Rutter, H. (2000). The illustrated golf rules dictionary. Chicago: Tri-
umph Books. teen Greek Cups, its first in 1931 and its most recent in
Sinnette, C. H. (1998) Forbidden fairways: African Americans and the 2002. Mountaineering rivals soccer in popularity and
game of golf. Chelsea, MI: Sleeping Bear Press.
has a religious mysticism that soccer lacks. Those peo-
ple who climb Mount Olympus and Mount Athos pass
Orthodox monasteries, symbols of the belief that in as-
cending a mountain a climber approaches God. The
Greece Greek mainland, Crete, and the Ionian and Aegean
islands all boast mountains that challenge novice and
G reece occupies 131,940 square kilometers in south-

ern Europe, jutting into the Mediterranean Sea and
sharing its northern border with Albania, Macedonia,
veteran alike. Between December and April these moun-
tains also attract skiers and snowboarders. The most
popular, Mount Parnassos, has twenty slopes that span
Bulgaria, and Turkey. Nearly 4 million of Greece’s 10.6 14 kilometers and range between 1.6 and 2.3 kilome-
million people live in Athens, the capital and largest ters in elevation. Since 1994 Mount Parnassos has
city. Terrain, climate, narcissism, and competitiveness hosted the Panhellenic Giant Slalom Race. Greek
have shaped Greek sports, which include soccer, weight- beaches and resorts mix sun, water, and sports. Golden
lifting, skiing, snowboarding, mountaineering, hang Beach on Paros Island attracts athletes and tourists to
gliding, windsurfing, and beach volleyball. beach volleyball, windsurfing, water skiing, snorkeling,
scuba diving, and bicycling.
History
The Greeks adopted the Olympic Games in the eighth Women and Sports
century BCE, weightlifting in the sixth century BCE, and In May 1993 women athletes and academics at the first
the marathon in the fifth century BCE. These contests International Conference in Sports Sciences formed the
did not continue uninterrupted into modernity, perhaps Hellenic Union for Promoting Women in Sports and
because a succession of empires conquered Greece. In- Physical Education. The union acknowledges that
dependent again since 1829, Greece rekindled its en- women occupy an ambiguous status in Greek sports.
thusiasm for sports. In 1913 Christos Kakalos, along Nike, the goddess of victory, is a woman; but only 25
with two Swiss climbers, became the first to climb percent of Greek women ages eighteen to sixty partici-
Mount Olympus, Greece’s tallest mountain at 2,917 pate in competitive or recreational sports. Soccer clin-
meters. In 1924 Turkish refuges founded in Athens the ics routinely attract more boys and men as spectators
Athletic Union of Constantinople, and in 1926 soccer than girls as participants. Some men assert that women
teams in Athens, Piraeus, and Thessalonica coalesced lack the strength and stamina to compete in sports,
into the Hellenic Football Federation. In 1993 Mount claiming, for example, that the female foot is too small
Parnassos hosted the first snowboard race in Greece, and delicate to withstand the rigors of soccer. Despite
and since 2002 Greek resorts have hosted beach vol- these attitudes Greek women have made progress, no-
leyball tournaments for women and juniors. tably in beach volleyball. Since 2002 Rhodes Island has
hosted the Hellas Open, a tournament on the Federa-
Participant and Spectator Sports tion Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) Beach Volleyball
Fans in Greece display the same passion for soccer that World Tour. The 2004 open attracted seventy-four
fans in the United States display for football, with the women’s pairs from Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and
GREECE 697
A city sidewalk is rebuilt for

the 2004 Olympics.
the two-headed eagle of the Byzan-

tine Empire, faces east and west to
unite symbolically the two halves
of the Roman Empire. Another
local club, the Greek Mountaineer-
ing Association of Aharnon (www.
center.gr/climb/mountain), runs a
school six weekends every Decem-
ber and January, culminating in an
ascent of Mount Olympus.
Sports in Society
Historians view narcissism and
competitiveness as being at the core
the Americas and four thousand spectators, although of Greek character. In this view sports are not an end
no Greek pair finished higher than seventeenth. but rather a means of drawing attention to one’s
physique. Muscle tone and suntan mark the Greek ath-
Youth Sports lete’s preoccupation with self. Competition functions as
Greek youth gravitate to soccer much as U.S. youth drama. Champions distinguish themselves from oppo-
gravitate to football and baseball. The Hellenic Football nents as do protagonists from the chorus. In both sports
Federation sponsors the Greek Youth Championship, an and drama the spectators impart meaning to the spec-
annual event analogous to baseball’s Little League tacle because athlete and actor crave their adulation. In
World Series in the United States. Each June and July both sports and drama emotional intensity unites ath-
the city of Kalamata hosts the Zeus Cup International lete and spectator. Greeks tend to romanticize sports,
Youth Soccer Tournament. Like U.S. football and base- contrasting their passion against what they view as the
ball, soccer attracts more Greek boys than girls, whereas corporate mentality toward sports in the United States.
beach volleyball attracts more girls than boys. Since In this view sports assume a moral dimension, with
2002 the Greek resort of Xylokastron has hosted the Greek athletes the bulwark against sports as capitalist
FIVB Under-18 Beach Volleyball World Championship. enterprise devoid of suspense and emotion.
Organizations The Future

The General Secretariat for Sports (www.sport.gov.gr) The Greek idyllic view of sports may have to change
is a government ministry. Beneath it are fifteen national with the scrutiny of the twenty-first century. In 2000
federations. The largest, the Hellenic Football Federa- Greek sprinters Kostas Kenteris and Katerina Thanou
tion (www.epo.gr), boasts 2 million members and staged a motorcycle accident to avoid a drug test.
5,773 soccer clubs. Other federations include the Hel- In 2004 the Greek National Organization of Medi-
lenic Weightlifting Federation (www.weightlifting.gr) cines seized anabolic steroids and diuretics from the
and the Hellenic Beach Volleyball Association (www. warehouse of track coach Christos Tsekos. That year
beachvolleyball.gr). Beneath the national federations the International Olympic Committee stripped Greek
are local clubs, of which the Athletic Union of Con- weightlifter Leonidas Sampanis of a bronze medal
stantinople (www.aek.com) is an example. Its emblem, for having too much testosterone in his urine. These
Greece: Sports. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2005, from http://www.

hri.org/nodes/grsport.html
Greece Hickok, B. (2004). Everything you wanted to know about sports. Re-
trieved February 9, 2005, from http://www.hickoksports.com
Key Events in Greece

Sports History
776 BCE The Olympics are first held at
Olympia. Greece, Ancient
394 CE The Olympics end.
1766 The Englishman Richard Chandler
discovers the site of Olympia.
I n ancient Greece sports had a cultural significance
that was unequalled anywhere else in the world be-
fore the rise of modern sports.
1896 The first modern Olympics are held
in Athens.
Homeric Age
1906 The Olympics are held in Athens. The poems of the ancient Greek Homer, written no
1924 Turkish refugees found the Athletic later than the eighth or seventh century BCE, show that
Union of Constantinople in Athens. the Greeks conducted athletic contests before 776 BCE
1926 The Hellenic Football Federation is (when the quadrennial games at Olympia began). Sec-
established. ular and religious motives mingle in history’s first ex-
1993 The 1993 Hellenic Union for tensive “sports report,” found in Book XXIII of Homer’s
Promoting Women in Sports and Iliad in the form of funeral games for the dead Greek
Physical Education is founded. hero Patroclus before the walls of Troy. The sports at the
2002 The Hellas Open beach volleyball funeral games included chariot racing, boxing,
tournament begins on Rhodes. wrestling, foot racing, and discus and javelin throwing.
2004 The Summer Olympics are held in The Iliad also offers evidence that funeral games at the
Athens. death of heroes and kings were common in Greece.
The contests in Homer’s Odyssey, on the other hand,
were essentially secular: Odysseus was challenged by
the Phaeacians to demonstrate his prowess as an ath-
controversies may signal the retreat of traditional sports lete. A Phaeacian tells Odysseus, “Thou art no athlete.”
in Greece. The future may belong to beach volleyball, This passage is perhaps the first use of the word athlete,
windsurfing, and their ilk—sports that combine sun deriving from athlos (contest), in Greek literature.
and sex appeal.
Christopher Cumo Olympic Games
In general, ancient Greek culture included both cult
See also Olympics, 2004
sports and secular contests. The most famous associa-
tion of sports and religion was certainly the Olympic
Further Reading Games that began in 776 BCE. Through time the Earth
Gardiner, E. (1970). Greek athletic sports and festivals. New York: goddess Gaea, originally worshiped at Olympia, was
Macmillan.
Go Greece. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2005, from http://www.go
supplanted in importance by the sky god Zeus, in
greece.com whose honor priestly officials conducted quadrennial
GREECE, ANCIENT 699
The bravest are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before them,
glory and danger alike, and yet notwithstanding, go out to meet it. ■ THUCYDIDES
athletic contests. The importance of the Olympic Games started at Delphi (in honor of Apollo) and Corinth in
is evidenced by the fact that a “sacred truce” was signed 582 BCE and at Nemea in 573 BCE. These four events
by the kings of Elis and Pisa, who disputed control of were known as the periodos, and great athletes, such as
the area, to ensure the safety of the competing athletes. Theagenes of Thasos, prided themselves on victories at
This truce also covered the period of travel to and from all four sites. The prestige accorded athletic triumphs
the games. Strict observance of the truce ensured the brought with it not only literary accolades (as in the
peaceful observance of the games until an edict ended odes of the poet Pindar) and visual commemoration (in
them in 392 CE. (The modern Olympic Games have not the form of statues of the victors) but also material ben-
enjoyed such protection, being suspended in 1916, efits, contrary to the amateur myth propagated by
1940, and 1944 because of war.) nineteenth-century philhellenists (admirers of Greek cul-
ture). Because the Greeks were devoted to secular sports
Periodos as well as to sacred games, no city-state was considered
By the sixth century BCE only citizens of the Greek city- a proper community if it lacked a gymnasium where, as
states were permitted to compete in the games, and all the word gymnos indicates, naked male athletes trained
were expected to exercise this privilege. During the and competed. Except in militaristic Sparta, Greek
years after the Persian Wars (fifth century BCE) the women rarely participated in sports of any kind. Except
Olympic Games reached their greatest popularity. for the priestess of the goddess Demeter, women were
Other Panhellenic (relating to Greece) festivals were excluded from the Olympic Games even as spectators.
The Antikes Panathenaeisches Stadium.

Greece, Ancient
Extract from Homer’s The Odyssey, c. 850 BCE
BOOK VIII. he left every one else behind him by the length of the
furrow that a couple of mules can plough in a fallow
Ulysses speaks: field. They then turned to the painful art of wrestling,
“Aldermen and town councillors of the Phaeacians, and here Euryalus proved to be the best man. Am-
we have had enough now, both of the feast, and of phialus excelled all the others in jumping, while at
the minstrelsy that is its due accompaniment; let us throwing the disc there was no one who could ap-
proceed therefore to the athletic sports, so that our proach Elatreus. Alcinous’s son Laodamas was the
guest on his return home may be able to tell his best boxer, and he it was who presently said, when
friends how much we surpass all other nations as they had all been diverted with the games, “Let us ask
boxers, wrestlers, jumpers, and runners.” the stranger whether he excels in any of these sports;
[...] he seems very powerfully built; his thighs, calves,
The foot races came first. The course was set out hands, and neck are of prodigious strength, nor is he
for them from the starting post, and they raised a at all old, but he has suffered much lately, and there
dust upon the plain as they all flew forward at the is nothing like the sea for making havoc with a man,
same moment. Clytoneus came in first by a long way; no matter how strong he is.”
Pausanias, the second-century CE traveler, wrote of races duce the best all-around athlete. The pentathlete was a
for girls at Olympia, but these races in honor of the god- representative of the Greek ideals of harmony and bal-
dess Hera were of minor importance. ance as opposed to specialized and one-sided develop-
ment.
Contests in the Olympic Games Jump. The rules of the jump were similar to those of
Contests in the ancient Olympic Games included: modern contests except that the athletes used hand
Foot races. People held foot races as independent weights made of stone or metal, called halteres, to as-
events as well as part of the pentathlon, which consisted sist their momentum. The broad jump or long jump was
of five parts: running, jumping, throwing the discus, the only type of jump that had any place in the games.
throwing the javelin, and wrestling. The length of a foot Unlike the modern broad jumper who employs a long
race was determined by the length of the stadium. One run prior to the takeoff, the Greeks employed a few
length of the stadium was equal to a stade, a distance short, springy steps, like the modern high jumper, to
of about 182 meters. The three types of foot races were prepare for the takeoff. During the approach to the
the stade or short race, the diaulos or two-stade race, takeoff, halteres were scarcely swung. Immediately be-
and the long race (dolichos) of seven to twenty-four fore the takeoff, the jumper momentarily checked his
stades. Different races were held for different age clas- run and utilized the upward and downward swing of
sifications. The runners assumed a more upright posi- the arms with the halteres to coincide with the spring of
tion than the modern crouching stance, but otherwise the legs. The use of the weights added to the distance of
their form was similar to that of the present day. In the the jump.
short races the contestants ran in heats, and the winner Discus throwing. Discus throwing, like jumping, ex-
of each heat ran in the finals to determine the victor. isted only as an event in the pentathlon. The discus
The pentathlon was not introduced until the eigh- was made of polished stone or metal. The standard
teenth Olympics. It resulted from the evolutionary pentathlon discus was circular in form with an average
process of selecting the various events that could pro- diameter of a little less than 30 centimeters and a
GREECE, ANCIENT 701
Hoplites in full armor at

the ancient Olympia.
weight of 1.8–2.2 kilograms. Unlike the modern

method of hurling after making two or three complete
turns, the Greeks employed a relatively fixed position.
Artists found the perfectly proportioned body of the dis-
cus thrower a favorite subject.
Javelin throwing. The athletic javelin was from 2.4 to
3 meters long, lightweight, and had a blunt point. The
athlete threw it by means of a fixed thong, attached near
the center of gravity, which gave the javelin a rotary mo-
tion in flight. In comparison with discus throwing,
javelin throwing was a test of skill rather than of
strength.
Wrestling. Wrestling, the last event in the pentathlon,
was perhaps the most popular and universal of all
Greek exercises. It was part of the pentathlon as well as
a separate event in the Olympic Games. Wrestling had
two modes: standing and ground. The former mode their palms instead of using gloves. Greek boxing had
was the most common and popular. The contestants no rounds; the combatants continued uninterrupted
stood upright, face to face, and each tried to throw his until one was knocked unconscious or was compelled
opponent to the ground without falling himself. Three by wounds or fatigue to accept defeat. No weight clas-
falls constituted a victory. In ground wrestling the ob- sifications existed, so boxing eventually became a sport
ject was to throw the opponent to the ground, and then of the heavyweights.
the struggle continued until the opponent Pancratium. The pancratium was intro-
admitted defeat. duced in the thirty-third Olympics. It was
Boxing. Boxing, as an independent a primitive, rough-and-tumble activity
event, was introduced in the twenty- combining many elements of boxing
third Olympics. Greek boxers closely and wrestling. Despite its seemingly
resembled modern boxers in their tech- undisciplined qualities, it was governed
niques. Their blows and parries were by definite rules to eliminate brutality.
similar to those of today. Differ- Biting, gouging, and strangling were
ences did exist, however, because prohibited. Victory was achieved
Greek boxers confined their blows when the opponent admitted defeat.
almost entirely to the head; body Chariot racing and horse racing.
blows were not practiced and may Chariot racing and horse racing were
have been prohibited by rules. Ap- popular. Generally the racing pro-
parently no regulations existed to pre- gram comprised events for full-grown
vent hitting a man who was down. The horses, colts, four-horse chariots, and
Greeks wound thin thongs of dry, hard- two-horse chariots. The two-horse char-
ened leather about 3 meters long about iot race was probably the oldest event. The
nature of these sports more or less limited
A classic symbol of ancient Greek them to men who were wealthy enough to
sports, the Amphore Pankration. maintain stables.
Greece, Ancient
The Achievements of
Three Sisters (41–47 CE)
mercialism, the Olympic Games ended in 394 CE, not
Hermesianax, son of Dionysisus, of Tralles Cae- to be renewed for more than fifteen hundred years—in
sarea, but also a citizen of Athens and Delphi, 1896 at the first modern Olympic Games.
makes this dedication to Pythian Apollo for his Alberto Jori
daughters who likewise obtained the same citi-
zenships: See also Olympia
Tryphosa, who won the stade races [one
length of the stadium] at the Pythian games [in
Delphi] when they were directed by Antigonus
Further Reading
Buhmann, H. (1972). Der Sieg in Olympia und in den anderen pan-
and when they were directed by Cleomachidas, hellenischen Spielen [The victory at Olympia and in the other Pan-
and at the next Isthmian games [in Corinth] di- hellenic games]. Munich, Germany: UNI-Druck.
Drees, L. (1967). Olympia: Gotter, Kunstler und Athleten [Olympia:
rected by Juventius Proclus. She came in first Gods, artists and athletes]. Stuttgart, Germany: Kohlhammer.
among the girls. Golden, M. (1998). Sport and society in ancient Greece. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hedea, who won the chariot race in armor at
Harris, H. A. (1972). Sport in Greece and Rome. London: Thames &
the Isthmian games when they were directed by Hudson.
Cornelius Pulcher, and the stade race at the Ne- Harris, H. A. (1979). Greek athletes and athletics. London: Hutchinson.
(Original work published 1964)
mean games directed by Antigonus and again at Jori, A. (2003). Filostrato sulla decadenza della ginnastica [Philostratus
the Sicyonian games directed by Menoetas. . . . on the decline of gymnastics]. In S. Palmieri (Ed.), Studi per Marcello
Gigante [Studies in honour of Marcello Gigante] (pp. 173–216).
And Dionysia, who won the stade race at the
Bologna, Italy: Societa Editrice il Mulino.
Isthmian games directed by Antigonus, and Kennell, N. M. (1995). The gymnasium of virtue: Education and culture
again at the Asclepieia in holy Epidaurus under in ancient Sparta. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Roller, L. E. (1981). Funeral games for historical persons. Stadion, 7,
the direction of Nicoteles. 1–18.
Source: Moretti, L. (1955). Iscrizioni agonistiche Greche (pp. 163–164). Rome: Scanlon, T. F. (1984). Greek and Roman athletics: A bibliography.
Angelo Signorelli. In R. S. Robinson (Ed.), Sources for the history of Greek ath- Chicago: Ares.
letics. Chicago: Ares. 163–164.
Growth and
Decline
Athletic ideals at Olympia were high; contestants swore
by the gods to obey the rules and to conduct themselves
Development
in an honorable manner. However, from the late fifth
century BCE the games began to decline. The Greek
ideal of the all-around athlete was lost as more and
G rowth, maturation, and development are three con-
cepts that are often used together and sometimes
considered as synonymous. Growth starts at conception
more champions began to specialize. The Roman con- and continues until the late teens or even the early
quest of Greece in 146 BCE brought about a further de- twenties for a number of individuals. Growth refers to
cline in the Olympic Games. During the early centuries the increase in size of the body as a whole or the size
of the Christian era, only at Olympia did people at- attained by the specific parts of the body. The changes
tempt to keep alive the classic Greek ideal of physical in size are outcomes of (a) an increase in cell number or
excellence as part of citizenship. Some of the profes- hyperplasia, (b) an increase in cell size or cell hyper-
sional athletes respected the sanctity of these games. trophy, and (c) an increase in intercellular material, or
However, after a period of increasing scandal and com- accretion. These processes occur during growth but the
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 703
predominance of one or another process varies with postnatal motor development is characterized by a shift
age. For example, the number of muscle cells is al- from primitive reflex mechanisms toward postural re-
ready established shortly after birth. The growth of the flexes and definite motor actions. It further refers to the
whole body is traditionally assessed by the changes in acquisition of independent walking and competence in
staturemeasured in a standing position, or for infants, a variety of manipulative tasks and fundamental motor
in supine position (recumbent length). To assess the skills such as running, skipping, throwing, catching,
growth of specific parts of the body, appropriate an- jumping, climbing, and hopping (Keogh and Sugden
thropometric techniques have been described (Lohman 1985). From school age onward the focus shifts toward
et al. 1988). the development of physical performance capacities
traditionally studied in the context of physical fitness
MATURATION or motor fitness projects. Motor fitness includes car-
Maturation refers to the process of becoming fully ma- diorespiratory endurance, anaerobic power, muscular
ture, It gives an indication of the distance that is traveled strength and power, local muscular endurance (some-
along the road to adulthood. In other words the tempo times called functional strength), speed, flexibility, and
and timing in the progress toward the mature biologi- balance (Pate and Shephard 1989).
cal state. Biological maturation varies with the biolog-
ical system that is considered. Most often the following Studies Over Time
biological systems are examined: sexual maturation, According to Tanner (1981) the earliest surviving state-
morphological maturation, dental maturation, and ment about human growth appears in a Greek elegy of
skeletal maturation. Sexual maturation refers to the the sixth century BCE. Solon the Athenian divided the
process of becoming fully sexual mature, that is, func- growth period in hebdomads, that is, successive periods
tional reproductive capability. Morphological matura- of seven years each. The infant (literally, while unable to
tion can be estimated through the percentage of adult speak) acquires deciduous teeth and sheds them before
stature that is already attained at a given age. Skeletal the age of seven, at the end of the next hebdomad the
and dental maturation refer respectively to a fully ossi- boy shows the signs of puberty (beginning of pubic
fied adult skeleton or dentition (Tanner 1962, 1989; hair), and in the last period the body enlarges and the
Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or 2004). skin becomes bearded (Tanner 1981, 1). Anthropome-
try was not born of medicine or science but of the arts.
DEVELOPMENT Painters and sculptors needed instructions about the rel-
Development is a broader concept, encompassing ative proportions of legs and trunks, shoulders and
growth, maturation, learning, and experience (training). hips, eyes and forehead, and other parts of the body.
It relates to becoming competent in a variety of tasks. The inventor of the term anthropometry was a German
Thus one can speak of cognitive development, motor physician, Johan Sigismund Elshotz (1623–1688). It is
development, and emotional development as the child’s noteworthy that at this time there was not very much at-
personality emerges within the context of the particular tention given to absolute size but much more to
culture in which the child was born and reared. Motor proportions.
development is the process by which the child acquires The first published longitudinal growth study of
movement patterns and skills. It is characterized by a which we have record was made by Count Philibert de
continuous modification based upon neuromuscular Montbeillard (1720–1785) on request of his close
maturation, growth and maturation of the body, resid- friend Buffon (Tanner 1981). The growth and the
ual effects of prior experience, and new motor experi- growth velocity curves of Montbeillard’s son are prob-
ences per se (Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or 2004). The ably the best known curves in auxology (study of human
The series of drawings on the following

pages show different exercises used to
encourage normal physical development.
growth); they describe the growth and its velocity from

birth to adulthood which have been widely studied
since then in various populations (see, for example,
Eveleth and Tanner 1990). Growth velocity refers to
the growth over a period of time. It is frequently used to
indicate changes in stature over a period of one year.
Another significant impetus in the study of growth
was given by the Belgian mathematician Adolphe
Quetelet (1796–1874). He was in many ways the
founder of modem statistics and was instrumental in the
foundation of the Statistical Society of London. Quete-
let collected data on height and weight and fitted a
curve to the succession of means. According to this
mathematical function, the growth velocity declines
from birth to maturity and shows no adolescent growth
spurt. This confused a number of investigators until the
1940s (Tanner 1981, 134). At the beginning of the
nineteenth century there was an increased interest in the
growing child due to the appalling conditions of the
poor and their children. A new direction was given by
the anthropologist Franz Boas (1858–1942). He was
the first to realize the individual variation in tempo of
growth and was responsible for the introduction of the
concept of physiological age or biological maturation. (Clarke 1979, 1). Often the distinction is made between
A number of longitudinal studies were then initiated in an organic component and a motor component. The or-
the 1920s in the United States and later in Europe. ganic component is defined as the capacity to adapt to
These studies served largely as the basis of our present and recover from strenuous exercise, it relates to energy
knowledge on physical growth and maturation (Tanner production and work output performance. The motor
1981; Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or 2004). component relates to development and performance of
gross motor abilities. Since the beginning of the 1980s
Physical Fitness the distinction between health-related and performance-
In several nations there is great interest in developing related physical fitness has come into common use.
and maintaining the physical fitness levels of the citi- Health-related fitness is then viewed as a state charac-
zens of all age levels, but special concern goes to the fit- terized by an ability to perform daily activities with
ness of youth. Physical fitness has been defined in many vigor, and traits and capacities that are associated with
ways. The American Academy of Physical Education low risk of premature development of the hypokinetic
adopted the following definition: “Physical fitness is the diseases (i.e., those associated with physical inactivity)
ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, (Pate and Shephard 1989, 4). Health-related physical
without undue fatigue and with ample energy to engage fitness includes cardiorespiratory endurance, body com-
in leisure time pursuits and to meet the above average position, muscular strength, and flexibility. Performance-
physical stresses encountered in emergency situations” related fitness refers to the abilities associated with
adequate athletic performance, and encompasses com- inferred from response consistencies on a number of re-
ponents such as isometric strength, power, speed-agility, lated tasks whereas skill refers to the level of proficiency
balance and arm-eye coordination. on a specific task or limited group of tasks. A child pos-
Since D. A. Sargent proposed the vertical jump as a sesses isometric strength since he or she performs weIl
physical performance test for men in 1921, consider- on a variety of isometric strength tests. Considerable at-
able change has taken place both in our thinking about tention has been devoted to fitness testing and research
physical performance, physical fitness and about its in the United States and Canada. The President’s Coun-
measurement. In the early days the expression “general cil on Youth Fitness, the American Alliance for Health,
motor ability” was used to indicate one’s “general” skill. Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPER)
The term was similar to the general intelligence factor and the Canadian sister organization (CAHPER) have
used at that time. Primarily under the influence of Brace done an outstanding job in constructing and promoting
(1927) and McCloy (1934), a fairly large number of fitness testing in schools. Internationally the funda-
studies have been undertaken and a multiple motor mental works of Fleishman (1964), and of the Interna-
ability concept replaced the general ability concept. tional Committee for the Standardization of Physical
There is now considerable agreement among authors Fitness Tests, now the International Council for Physi-
and experts that the fitness concept is multidimensional cal Activity and Fitness Research (Larson 1974), have
and several abilities can be identified. An ability refers received considerable attention and served, for example,
to a more general trait of the individual, which can be as the basis for nationwide studies in Belgium.
pends on the growth velocity and also on the measure-

ment error. During periods of rapid growth it is neces-
sary to increase the frequency of the measurements. For
stature, for example, it is recommended to carry out
monthly measurements during the first year of life and
to measure every three months during the adolescent
growth spurt. Although some recent evidence (Lampl et
al. 1992) suggests that there is much more variation in
growth velocity, with periods of rapid change (stepwise
or saltatory increase) followed by periods of no change
(stasis) when growth is monitored over very short peri-
ods of time (days or weeks). “normal” growth. This does not imply that on a single
Cross-sectional standards for growth are most often measurement one can decide about the “abnormality” of
presented as growth charts. Such charts are constructed the growth process. Children with statures outside the
from the means and standard deviations or from the 3rd and 97th percentiles need to be examined further.
centiles of the different sex and age groups. Conven- Longitudinal growth velocity reference values are
tionally, the 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 97th obtained from the analysis of individual growth data.
percentiles are displayed. The 3rd and 97th percentiles Individual growth curves are fitted to the serial meas-
delineate the outer borders of what is considered as urements of each child. For many purposes graphical
fits are sufficient, but mathematical curves may also be Subcutaneous fat or adiposity and dimensions of the
employed. Most mathematical curves or models head and face follow another pattern.
presently in use are developed for growth in stature.
Some models have also been applied for a few body di- Biological Maturation
mensions, such as body mass and diameters. The assessment of biological maturity is thus a very
A number of structural models have also been pro- important indicator of the growing child. It is therefore
posed to describe the whole growth period from birth a valuable tool in the hands of experienced kinanthro-
to adulthood (such as those by Preece and Baines in pometrists and all other professionals involved in the
1978, and Bock and Thissen in 1980). evaluation of the growth and development of children.
For most growth studies cross-sectional standards
have been published. Tanner (1989) has argued that METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
“tempo-conditional” standards, meaning standards that As mentioned already, several biological systems can be
allow for differences in the tempo of growth between used to assess biological maturity status. In assessing
children, are much finer instruments to evaluate the sexual maturation the criteria described by Reynolds
normality of growth. Such conditional standards com- and Wines (1948, 1951) synthesized and popularized
bine information from longitudinal and cross-sectional by Tanner (1962) are most often used. They should not
studies. Other conditional standards can be used such be referred to as Tanner’s stages since they were in use
as standards for height that allow for height of parents long before Tanner described them in Growth at Ado-
(Tanner 1989). lescence. Furthermore, there is considerable difference
in the stages for pubic hair, breast, or genital develop-
GROWTH IN SOMATIC DIMENSIONS ment. For breast, pubic hair, and genital development,
From birth to maturity the growth in length and body five discrete stages are described (Tanner 1962). These
mass follows a so-called general growth pattern (Tanner stages must be assigned by visual inspection of the
1989, Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or 2004): rapid gain nude subject or from somatotype photographs from
during the first years of life (20 cm/year in the first year which the specific areas are enlarged. Given the inva-
and 10 cm/yr in the second year), a rather steady gain siveness of the technique, self inspection has been pro-
(5 cm to 6 cm/year) during middle childhood (5 to 6 posed as an alternative but more information is needed
years until the onset of puberty), again a rapid increase, on its reliability and validity before it can be used in epi-
or growth spurt during puberty (about 10 cm/year at demiological research.
about 14 years, i.e., the age of reaching the maximum Age at menarche, defined as the first menstrual flow,
velocity in boys and 8 to 9 cm/year at about 12 years can be obtained retrospectively by interrogating a rep-
in girls), and subsequently a slow increase until adult- resentative sample of sexually mature women. Note,
hood when the growth velocity decreases to 0 cm/yr. however, the influence of error of recall. The recall data
During this time the length increases from about 50 cm are reasonably accurate for group comparisons.
at birth to 178 cm in U.S. boys and 163.5 in U.S. girls. The information obtained in longitudinal or prospec-
On average, girls are slightly smaller than boys until tive studies is of course much more accurate but here
they reach the onset of the pubertal growth spurt at the other problems inherent to longitudinal studies inter-
age of about ten years. At that time girls start to grow fere. In the status quo technique representative sam-
taller than boys. Boys catch up again and grow, on the ples of girls expected to experience menarche are
average 12 to 13 cm taller then girls at adulthood. interrogated. The investigator records whether or not
Body mass, body segments (arms, legs, trunk) breadths, menstrual periods have started at the time of investiga-
and circumferences all follow a similar growth pattern. tion. Reference standards can be constructed using pro-
The greatest oak was once a little nut

who held its ground. ■ ANONYMOUS
bits or logits for which the percentage of menstruating can be easily viewed and evaluated on a standardized
girls at each age level is plotted against chronological radiograph. Traditionally, the left hand and wrist is
age (CA), whereafter a probit or logit is fitted through used. It is placed flat on the X-ray plate with the fingers
the observed data. Morphological age can be assessed slightly apart. Hence, when a film is viewed, the hand-
by means of the age at peak height velocity, that is, the wrist skeleton is observed from the dorsal (posterior) as
age at which the maximum growth velocity in height oc- opposed to the palmar (anterior) surface.
curs. This requires a longitudinal study. An alternative The changes that each bone goes through from initial
to define morphological age is to use percentage of pre- ossification to adult morphology are fairly uniform and
dicted height. The actual height is then expressed as a provide the basis for assessing skeletal maturation.
percentage of adult height. The problem here is to de- These are referred to as maturity indicators, specific
fine adult height. Several techniques have been devel- features of individual bones that can be noted on a
oped for the prediction of adult height. The techniques hand-wrist X-ray and that occur regularly and in a def-
developed by Bayley (1946), Roche et al. (1975a) and inite, irreversible order (Greulich and Pyle 1959).
Tanner et al. (1983) seem to be the most accurate and
most commonly used. The predictors in these tech- GREULICH –PYLE METHOD (GP)
niques are actual height, chronological age, skeletal age, The GP method is based on the original work of Todd
and, in some techniques, parental height and/or age at (1937) and is sometimes called the atlas or inspectional
menarche for girls. Until now no practical useful tech- method. It entails the matching of a hand-wrist X-ray of
nique has been developed to assess “shape age” as an- a specific child as closely as possible with a series of
other indicator of morphological maturity. standard X-ray plates, which correspond to successive
Dental maturity can be estimated from the age of levels of skeletal maturation at specific CAs. The method
eruption of deciduous or permanent teeth or from the is most often used as follows. The age identified as typ-
number of teeth present at a certain age (Demirjian ical of the standard plate with which a given child’s film
1978). Eruption is, however, only one event in the os- coincides, represents the child’s skeletal age (SA). Thus,
sification process and has no real biological meaning. if the hand-wrist X-ray of a seven-year-old child matches
For this reason, Demirjian et al. (1973) constructed the standard plate for eight-year-old children, the child’s
scales for the assessment of dental maturity, based on SA is eight years. However, the method was intended to
the principles developed by Tanner et al. (1983) for the and should be applied by rating the skeletal maturity of
estimation of skeletal age. each individual bone. Each bone is matched to the stan-
Skeletal maturity is the most commonly used indica- dard plates in the atlas in the same manner as above,
tor of biological maturation. It is widely recognized as and the one with which the individual bone most
the best single biological maturity indicator (Tanner closely coincides is noted. The SA of the standard plate
1962). Three main techniques are presently in use: the is the assigned SA of the bone in question. The process
atlas technique, first introduced by Todd (1937) and is repeated for all bones that are present in the hand
later revised by Greulich and Pyle (1950, 1959), the and wrist, and the child’s SA is the median of the SAs
bone-specific approach developed by Tanner et al. of each individually rated bone.
(1983, 2001), the bone-specific approach developed
by Roche et al. for the knee (1975b), and for the hand TANNER-WHITEHOUSE METHOD (TW)
(1988). The TW method, sometimes called the bone-specific
The bones of the hand and wrist provide the pri- approach, entails matching features of twenty individual
mary basis for assessing skeletal maturation, which is bones to a series of written criteria for stages through
based upon changes in the developing skeleton that which each bone passes from initial appearance on a
You have to expect things of yourself

before you can do them. ■ MICHAEL JORDAN
radiograph to the mature state. The twenty bones in- ples for each, the skeletal maturity status of a child
clude seven carpals (excluding the pisiform) and thir- rated by all three methods may be quite different. It is
teen long bones (radius, ulna, and metacarpals and important that the method used to estimate SA be
phalanges of the first, third, and fifth digits). Each stage specified.
is assigned a specific point score and the scores are SA assessment is a method to estimate the level of
summed to give a skeletal maturity score. The maturity maturity which a child has attained at a given point in
score can be converted to an SA, which is referred to as time relative to reference data for healthy children. The
the 20-bone SA. The revised TW method (TWII) pro- three methods for assessing skeletal maturity have their
vides a carpal SA based on the seven carpals and a ra- strengths and limitations. It is important to note, how-
dius, ulna and short bone (RUS) SA, in addition to the ever, that SAs derived from the GP, TW, and Fels meth-
20-bone SA. Most recently new reference data have ods are not equivalent. The methods differ in criteria,
been published, together with some modifications of scoring, and the reference samples upon which they
the system (Tanner et al. 2001). are based. There are, in addition, apparent population
differences in skeletal maturation. For example, skele-
FELS METHOD tal maturation is somewhat advanced in American black
The Fels method is based on the same twenty bones as compared to American white girls (see Malina, Bouch-
the TW method plus the pisiform and adductor ard, and Bar-Or, 2004). The changes that each bone
sesamoid. The authors defined their own maturity in- goes through from initial formation to epiphyseal union
dicators and specific criteria for each. They are based on or adult morphology, however, are the same; the rate
a variety of shape changes and several ratios between at which the process progresses varies among popula-
linear measurements of the long bones of the hand and tions.
wrist. Grades are assigned to the indicators for each
bone by matching the film being assessed to the de- AGES AT ATTAINING STAGES
scribed criteria. The assigned grades and ratios are then OF SEXUAL MATURATION
entered into a microcomputer, which calculates an SA The ages at which individual children attain various
and a standard error of the estimation. stages of pubic hair, breast, and genital development
and attain menarche are ordinarily derived prospec-
SKELETAL AGE tively from longitudinal studies in which children are ex-
All of the methods for the estimation of skeletal ma- amined at close intervals during adolescence, usually
turity yield an SA that corresponds to the level of every three months. The time of appearance of each
skeletal maturity attained by a child relative to the ref- stage and the duration of each stage of secondary sex
erence sample. In the GP method, the reference sam- characteristic development, that is, how long the indi-
ple is American children in the CIeveland, Ohio, area vidual spends during a particular stage, can be esti-
studied between 1931 and 1942; in the TW method, mated with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In the case
the reference sample is British children from several of menarche, the girl is interviewed as to whether it has
areas of the country studied between 1946 and 1972 occurred and when. Given that the interval between
(Beunen et al. 1990; Tanner et al. 2001 have reported examinations in most longitudinal studies is relatively
more recent TWIII reference data); in the Fels-method, short, age at menarche so derived is quite reliable.
the reference sample is the Fels longitudinal study Sample sizes in longitudinal studies, however, are
which includes American children from southern Ohio not ordinarily large enough to derive population esti-
studied between 1932 and 1972. Given the differ- mates and may not reflect the normal range of varia-
ences in the methods as well as in the reference sam- tion. Hence, a different method, the status quo method,
is used to estimate ages at the attainment of specific sec- are derived primarily from status quo surveys, but sev-
ondary sex characteristic stages and of menarche. The eral ages from prospective (longitudinal) studies are
resulting estimates apply only to the population and do also included.
not apply to individuals. A large sample of boys or In contrast to the status quo method for estimating
girls, which spans the ages at which the particular de- the age at menarche, many studies use the retrospec-
velopmental stage normally occurs, is surveyed. It is tive method, which requires the girl to recall the age
most often performed for menarche, but can be per- at which she attained menarche. With careful inter-
formed for the different stages of development of sec- view methods reasonably accurate estimates can be ob-
ondary sex characteristics. tained.
Selected percentiles for ages at which specific stages
of secondary sex characteristics are attained in a na-
tional sample of Dutch youths, based on status quo es- Table 2.
timates, are given in Table 1. Median ages at menarche Median Ages at Menarche in Several Samples of North
in several samples of North American and European American and European Girls
girls are summarized in Table 2. The menarcheal data Location Median age
North America
Canada, Quebec 12.9
Table 1. US, national 12.4
Selected Percentiles for Ages at Which Stages of white 12.6
Secondary Sex Characteristics Are Attained in a black 12.1
National Sample of Dutch Youth
Sex Europe
PERCENTILES
characteristics Belgium, national, Flemish 13.2
stage 10 50 90
Federal Republic of Germany, Bremen 13.3
Females German Democratic Republic, Gorlitz 13.0
Breast B2 9.1 10.5 12.3 France, Paris, national 12.8
B3 10.2 11.7 13.1
B4 11.4 12.9 14.5 Greece, national 12.6
12.5 14.2 — Hungary
Pubic hair PH2 9.0 10.8 12.6 Szeged 12.8
PH3 10.2 11.7 13.1 County Szeged 12.8
PH4 11.3 12.6 14.0
PH5 12.2 14.0 16.4 Italy, different regions 12.4 to 12.8
Menarche 11.7 13.3 14.9 Netherlands, national 13.3

Poland
Males Warsaw 12.7
Genital G2 9.3 11.3 13.3 Cities 13.0
G3 11.6 13.1 14.5
G4 12.7 14.0 15.6 Russia, Moscow 13.0
G5 13.5 15.3 18.6 Sweden 12.7 to 13.0
Pubic hair PH2 9.0 11.7 13.5 Switzerland, Zürich 13.4
PH3 11.7 13.1 14.5 UK, Northumberland 13.3
PH4 12.9 14.0 15.5
PH5 13.5 15.0 18.4 Newcastle 13.4
B = breast; G = genitals; PH = pubic hair Yugoslavia, Zagreb 12.7
Source: Adapted from Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or (2004).
Source: Adapted from Roede and Van Wieringen (1985).
Physical Fitness Between 5 and 8 years children show considerable

As mentioned in the introduction, the physical fitness increase in running speed, and a steady, more gradual
concept and its measurement have evolved over the increase in other fitness items (strength and muscular
years and recently the distinction between health- and endurance). Performances of girls show an almost lin-
performance-related fitness has been introduced. ear increase between 6 and 14 years, and thereafter a
slight increase or a plateau. For strength characteristics
KEY PHYSICAL FITNESS TEST BATTERIES (isometric strength, explosive strength, and muscular
Since 1958, a number of physical fitness test batteries endurance) boys show an adolescent growth spurt
have been used in the United States, Canada, and Eu- about 6 months after the growth spurt in length
rope. These include the AAHPER youth fitness test (Beunen et al. 1988, Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or
(1958, 1965), CAHPER (1965), Fleishman (1964), Si- 2004).
mons et al. (1969), ICPFT (Larson 1974), Fitnessgram
(1987), NCYFS II (Ross and Pate 1987), AAHPERD Interrelationships and Young Athletes
Physical Best (1988), and EUROFIT (Adam et al. Growth and maturation are confounded in their effect
1988). on performance. The associations become more appar-
In most batteries the same components are included ent during the adolescent growth spurt. Boys and girls
and quite often the same tests are proposed. For exam- who are advanced in their maturity status are taller and
ple for evaluating health-related fitness, a 660-yard or heavier, and generally have larger body dimensions than
1-minute run-walk is used to test cardiorespiratory en- average or early maturing peers. Especially in boys
durance; pull-ups or a flexed arm-hang is used for test- around the adolescent growth spurt (average 14 years)
ing upper body muscular endurance and strength. In early maturing boys outperform the average and late
evaluating performance, a standing long jump and/or maturing boys in most performance characteristics (Be-
softball throw is frequently the test for strength and unen 1989).
power, and running speed is tested with a 50-yard/50- Child and adolescent athletes grow in a manner sim-
meter dash or shuttle run. With increasing awareness ilar to nonathletes. Many samples of athletes in differ-
about safety and risks involved in testing, some testing ent sports have heights that fluctuate above and below
procedures have been adapted; for example, sit-ups the reference median. Gymnastics is the only sport that
were originally tested with straight legs and hands consistently presents a profile of short stature in both
crossed behind the neck whereas in more recent proce- sexes. Moreover, female gymnasts trend to be slow ma-
dures the arms are crossed over the chest, the knees are turers. However, there is not compelling evidence to
bent and the subject curls to a position in which the el- support the notion that regular athletic training and
bows touch the knees or thighs. In the latter procedure competition beginning at relatively young ages appears
there is less risk of causing low back pain. to accelerate or decelerate growth and biological matu-
ration. But as researchers point out (for example,
PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or 2004), systematic train-
Information on attained levels of physical performance ing for sport is a significant factor affecting body com-
during preschool years are limited. Performances in sev- position and performance characteristics of young
eral motor tasks (agility, jumping, running, throwing, athletes.
and catching) is almost linear between 3 and 6 years. At
G. Beunen
this age boys consistently show better results than girls,
except for balance. See also Exercise and Health; Nutrition; Youth Sports
GYMNASTICS, APPARATUS 713
Further Reading adolescence in boys. American Journal of Diseases of Children,

AAHPER. (1958). Youth fitness test manual. Washington: AAHPER. 529–547.
AAHPER. (1965). Youth fitness test manual (rev. ed.). Washington: Roche, A. F., Chumlea, W. C., & Thissen, D. (1988). Assessing the skele-
AAHPER. tal maturity of the hand wrist: Fels method. Springfield: Thomas.
AAHPERD. (1988). The AAHPERD physical best program. Reston VA: Roche, A. F., Wainer, H., & Thissen, D. (1975a). Predicting adult
AAHEPRD. stature for individuals. Monographs in Pediatrics, 3, 1–114.
Adam, C., Klissouras, V., Ravassolo, M., et al. (1988). Eurofit: Hand- Roche, A. F., Wainer, H., & Thissen, D. (1975b). Skeletal maturity: Knee
book for the Eurofit Test of Physical Fitness. Rome: Council of Eu- joint as a biological indicator. New York: Plenum Press.
rope. Committee for the Development of Sport. Roede, M. J., & Van Wieringen, J. C. (1985). Growth diagrams 1980:
Bayley, N. (1946). Tables for predicting adult height from skeletal age The Netherlands third nationalwide survey. Tijdschrift Sociale
and present height. Journal of Pediatrics, 28, 49–64. Gezondheid, Suppl, 63.
Beunen, G. (1989). Biological age in pediatric exercise research. In O. Ross, J. G., & Pate, R. R. (1987). The national children and youth fit-
Bar-Or (Ed.), Advances in Pediatric Sport Sciences, 3, Biological Is- ness study Il: A summary of findings. Journal of Physical Education,
sues (pp. 1–39). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Recreation and Dance, 56, 45–50.
Beunen, G., Lefevre, J., Ostyn, M. et al. (1990). Skeletal maturity in Bel- Simons, J., Beunen, G., Ostyn, M. et al. (1969). Construction d’une bat-
gian youths assessed by the Tanner-Whitehouse method (TW2). terie de tests d’aptitude motrice pour garçons de 12 à 19 ans par le
Annals of Human Biology, 17, 355–376. méthode de l’analyse factorielle. Kinanthropologie, 1, 323–362.
Beunen, G., Malina, R. M., Van ‘t Hof, M. A., et al. (1988). Adolescent Simons, J., Beunen, G. P., Renson, R., et al. (Eds.). (1990). Growth and
growth and motor performance: A longitudinal study of Belgian boys. fitness of Flemish girls. The Leuven Growth Study. HKP Sport Science
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Monograph Series 3. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
Brace, D. K. (1927). Measuring motor ability. New York: Barnes. Tanner, J. M. (1962). Growth at adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell Scien-
CAHPER (1965). Fitness performance test manual for boys. Toronto: tific Publications.
CAHPER. Tanner, J. M. (1981). A history of the study of human growth. Cam-
Clarke, H. H. (1979). Academy approves physical fitness definition. bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Physical Fitness News-Letter, 25, 1. Tanner, J. M. (1989). Fetus info man: Physical growth from conception
Demirjian, A. (1978). Dentition. In F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner (Eds.), to maturity. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
Human Growth: Postnatal Growth, 2, 413–444. New York: Plenum. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., & Cameron, N., et al. (1983). As-
Demirjian, A., Goldstein, H., & Tanner, J. M. (1973). A new system for sessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW2
dental age assessment. Human Biology, 45, 211–227. method). London: Academic Press.
Eveleth, P. B., & Tanner, J. M. (1990). Worldwide variation in human Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., & Cameron, N. (2001). Assessment
growth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW3 method).
Fleishrnan, E. A. (1964). The structure and measurement of physical fit- London: Saunders.
ness. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., & Takaiski, M. (1966). Standards
Greulich, W. W., & Pyle, I. (1950, 1959). Radiographic atlas of skele- from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity and weight
tal development of the hand and wrist. Standford, CA: Standford velocity. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 41, 454–471,613–635.
University Press. Todd, J. W. (1937). Atlas of skeletal maturation: Part 1: Hand. London:
Keogh, J., & Sugden, D. (1985). Movement skill development. New Mosby.
York: Macmillan. van ‘t Hof, M. A., Roede, M. J., & Kowalski, C. J. (1976). Estimation
Lampl, M., Veldhuis, J. D., & Johnson, M. L. (1992). Saltation and sta- of growth velocities from individual longitudinal data. Growth, 40,
sis: a model of human growth. Science, 258, 801–803. 217–240.
Larson, L. A. (Ed.). (1974). Fitness, heaIth, and work capacity: Inter-
national standards for assessment. New York: Macmillan.
Lohman, T. G., Roche, A. F., & Martorell, R. (Eds.). (1988). Anthro-
pometric standardization reference manuaI. Champaign IL: Human
Kinetics.
Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation,
and physical activity. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
McCloy, C. H. (1934). The measurement of general motor capacity and
general motor ability. Research Quarterly, 5, 46–61.
Pate, R., & Shephard, R. (1989). Characteristics of physical fitness in
youth. In C. V. Gisolfi & D. R. Lamb (Eds.), Perspectives in exercise
P eople have performed some form of gymnastics
since the earliest known sports activity. Modern ap-
paratus and modern gymnastics began to appear early
science and sports medicine:Youth, exercise and sport. Indianapolis,
IN: Benchmark Press. during the nineteenth century and have continued to
Reynolds, E. L., & Wines, J. V. (1948). Individual differences in physi- evolve. Gymnastics, once nearly exclusively a European
cal changes associated with adolescence in girls. American Journal
of Diseases of Children, 75, 329-50.
sport, has become universally practiced, although its de-
Reynolds, E. L., & Wines, J.V. (1951). Physical changes associated with velopment still lags in Africa and much of Asia and
Other people may not have had high expectations for me . . .

but I had high expectations for myself. ■ SHANNON MILLER
Latin America. Since 1952 men and women of the for- Gymnastics festivals featuring huge numbers of ath-
mer Soviet Union, Japanese men, and Romanian letes of all ages are a remarkable European tradition.
women have dominated international competition in The emphasis is on participation rather than competi-
artistic gymnastics. Gymnasts from Germany, Czecho- tion. In gymnaestradas thousands of gymnasts from
slovakia, and other European countries and more re- turner clubs and Sokol clubs participate in mass demon-
cently from the United States and China have also strations, team and individual competitions, and work-
performed well. shops involving artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, folk
dancing, acrobatics, and related activities.
Origins Many U.S. schools during the late 1800s favored
People performed balancing and tumbling activities in Swedish gymnastics, a highly structured system of ex-
Egypt and China before 2000 BCE. During the second ercises that used specialized apparatus and was said to
millennium BCE Minoan athletes on the island of Crete have healthful benefits. The Young Men’s Christian As-
in the Mediterranean not only balanced and tumbled, sociation (YMCA) has also promoted gymnastics for
but also grasped the horns of a charging bull and vaulted men and women. The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU)
with a front handspring to a landing on the bull’s back. held its first national gymnastics championships in
As part of their training in skills needed in warfare, the 1888 and controlled the sport for the next half-century
ancient Romans used wooden horses to practice mount- until conflicts with the National Collegiate Athletic As-
ing and dismounting. This apparatus evolved into the sociation (NCAA) and other considerations led to for-
vaulting and pommel horses of gymnastics. Early mod- mation of the U.S. Gymnastics Federation in 1962.
els were built to resemble horses with saddles or had at
least one end curved upward like the neck of a horse.The Emergence of Female Gymnasts
three sections of the gymnastics horse still retain the The United States deemphasized gymnastics about the
names neck, saddle, and croup (rump). turn of the twentieth century as people responded to ed-
Acrobats during the Middle Ages and early Renais- ucators’ preference for team sports to develop demo-
sance worked as court entertainers, but not until the late cratic and social skills and physical symmetry and grace.
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries did a modern The rise of physical education professionals’ control
form of gymnastics begin to develop. About that time over women’s athletics led to the deemphasis of com-
many pieces of gymnastics apparatus were invented, petitive sports for women. Girls and college women
mostly by Germans such as Friedrich Ludwig Jahn participated in “play days” in place of their former com-
(1778–1852) and Johann Friedrich Guts Muths (1759– petitions. Play days emphasized participation for all
1839). Swiss, Danish, and Italian educators also pro- rather than hard competition between the most tal-
moted gymnastics activity. Important contributions to ented. The theory behind such deemphasis argued that
gymnastics originated in Sweden, and gymnastics ac- competitive sports are adverse to the health interests of
tivity began in the United States during the early nine- women athletes, and physical education professionals—
teenth century. largely women themselves—controlled women’s sports
Swiss and German immigrants in the United States until the 1960s.
founded turner (gymnast) clubs, and Czechoslovakian World Cup and World Gymnastics Championships
immigrants founded American Sokol (falcon) clubs that offer international competitions at the highest level, as
emphasized physical fitness and gymnastics. The turn- do U.S. and European championships and multisport
ers promoted the introduction of physical education competitions such as the Olympics, Goodwill, Com-
classes in U.S. schools, and most early school physical monwealth, World University, Pan American, Central
education activity involved gymnastics. American, and Caribbean Games. With the rise of
Three types of vaulting

horse from the 1920s.
international gymnastics competi-

tion after World War II, gymnas-
tics officials felt a great need for
rules standards and better judg-
ing. The International Gymnastics
Federation formulated the first
Code of Points in 1949 to have
guidelines for the 1950 World
Gymnastics Championships. Be-
fore then little consistency existed
in judging practices from country
to country. At the Olympic Games
in 1948 considerable differences
among judges’ scores had led to
noticeably inaccurate judging.
Later editions of the code defined
difficulty levels of skills and added
more specific rules.
Since World War II, and especially since the early
1960s, gymnastics has grown greatly in the United support of gymnastics was closely related to the poor
States. Much of this growth has been caused by the in- showing by the United States in international gymnastics
creased coverage of gymnastics on television, and espe- competition, especially in comparison with the Soviet
cially by coverage of the Olympic performances of Olga Union. The American Association for Health, Physical
Korbut of the Soviet Union in 1972 and Nadia Co- Education and Recreation’s Division for Girls and
maneci of Romania in 1976. Korbut was the first of a Women’s Sport sponsored the first national gymnastics
new breed of young women gymnasts who caught the championship for women in 1969, and the Association
public’s imagination. When Korbut fell at the end of an for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women sponsored cham-
event, her tear-streaked face not only tugged at viewer’s pionships for women from 1971 until 1982, when the
heartstrings, but also put a human face on Communist NCAA gained control of this competition.
athletes, popularly held to be little more than automa- Gymnasts such as Comaneci and Korbut captured
tons by most people on the other side of the Cold War’s the public imagination and inspired generations of girls,
ideological divide. Comaneci continued in Korbut’s both in the United States and worldwide, but public
mold, becoming the sweetheart of Olympic viewers, policy changes also contributed to the rapid growth of
and scored the first perfect 10 in Olympic gymnastics gymnastics for women in the United States. Title IX of
history at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal, the 1972 Civil Rights Act mandated that athletic op-
Canada. Korbut’s and Comaneci’s youth and diminutive portunities be provided for girls in high school and col-
size set the standard for women gymnasts, who became lege. Under Title IX, and in subsequent interpretations
increasingly younger and smaller during the 1970s. mandating a rough proportionality in the number of
In the United States growth of women’s gymnastics sports offered to males and females, gymnastics has be-
has been especially great since 1974, with most of the come widespread as a sport in colleges. However, al-
growth occurring in private clubs and in the participation though Title IX has benefited women’s gymnastics
of these clubs in the Junior Olympic program. Increasing programs, some people have blamed it for the decline
Gymnastics is my entire life. ■ SVETLANA BOGUINSKAIA
Margaret Streicher on
Gymnastics and Gender
also can lead to long-term problems such as osteo-
The extract below is a quote from Margaret Stre- porosis, which can be made more probable by the late
icher, an Australian physical education teacher onset of menarche (the beginning of the menstrual func-
who influenced German students through much of tion), a common side effect of athletic training at a
the twentieth century: young age. Critics also have used Strugg’s valiant second
vault in Atlanta to point out that women’s sports have
The truly masculine in men’s gymnastics and adopted the “gotta play hurt” mentality of men’s sports,
the truly feminine in women’s gymnastics are with possibly serious consequences for young athletes.
expressions of male and female nature and can-
not be willed into existence. To seek femininity Men’s Events
consciously is to produce only a distortion of it. Men’s apparatus gymnastics events include the hori-
Everyone agrees that men’s gymnastics are a zontal bar (high bar), rings (still rings), floor exercise
matter for men. With equal justice, women’s (free calisthenics), parallel bars, pommel horse (side
gymnastics should be a matter for women. Use- horse), and vault (long horse).
ful scientific information can come from a man
as well from a woman, but neither men’s gym- HORIZONTAL BAR (HIGH BAR)
nastics nor women’s are simply matters of sci- The horizontal bar is a flexible steel bar, measuring
entific information. Each is a whole, and like about 2.8 centimeters in diameter and 2.4 meters in
every whole, each must grow. Neither can be length, mounted approximately 2.6 meters above the
fabricated. floor. Gymnastics skills consist of swinging and vault-
Source: Pfister, G. (Ed.). (1980). Frau und sport (A. Guttman, Trans.). Frankfurt, ing types of movements. Swinging movements are done
Germany: Fischer.
either with the trunk and legs close to the bar (in-bar
moves) or with the body fully extended from the hands
(giant swings). Competitive routines should have no
stops; body parts other than the hands or soles of the
in the number of men’s programs as schools have cho- feet are rarely in more than momentary contact with the
sen to cut programs in order to be in compliance. bar; releases of one and both hands from the bar are
U.S. women’s gymnastics also benefited in 1981 common; and dismounts often consist of multiple som-
when Comaneci’s coach, Bela Karolyi, defected and ersaults (triples have been executed), sometimes with
began training gymnasts in the United States.Two of his one or more twists.
most famous students were Mary Lou Retton, who won
five medals at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles, and RINGS (STILL RINGS)
Kerri Strug, whose performance despite an injured ankle The rings are wooden and are spaced 50 centimeters
helped the United States win its first team gymnastics apart and suspended from a height of about 5.6 meters.
championship at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, The lowest part of the rings is about 2.6 meters above
Georgia. the floor. Ring activities include swinging movements,
The trend toward smaller and younger gymnasts has held positions, and slow movements that emphasize
led many people to worry that the desire to achieve the strength.
ideal causes problems for many participants. Many girls
develop eating disorders such as bulimia or anorexia FLOOR EXERCISE (FREE CALISTHENICS)
nervosa in order to fit into the pattern that Comaneci The floor exercise uses a square floor area measuring
and Korbut began. Gymnastics training at an early age 12 meters on each side and is performed on a mat
Instructions for raising and lowering on

the horizontal bars from J. A. Beaujeu’s
A Treatise on Gymnastic Exercises (1828).
3.2 centimeters thick. Tumbling skills are combined

with balance and positions and movements emphasiz-
ing strength and flexibility.
PARALLEL BARS
The parallel bars are flexible wooden rails measuring
3.5 meters in length. Their height and width are ad-
justable, but for competition the height is set at about
1.7 meters above the floor. Movements consist of vaults,
swings, balance positions (held for two seconds), and
slow movements that emphasize strength (e.g., presses
to handstands). The gymnast releases and regrasps the
bars with one hand at a time or with both hands si- or piano) is used, and the movements should conform
multaneously while being above or below the bars. to the tempo, rhythm, and spirit of the music.
P OMMEL HORSE (SIDE HORSE) VAULT (SIDE HORSE VAULT)

The pommel horse is a cylinder that measures 35.5 The vaulting horse for women is the same apparatus
centimeters in diameter and 162.5 centimeters in that men use. However, the vaults are performed across
length and is covered with leather or fabric. The pom- the short dimension of the horse, and its height is set at
mels are set 40 to 45 centimeters apart, and the height 1.2 meters.
of the horse is 1.25 meters to the top of the pommels.
All movements on the horse are swinging movements UNEVEN BARS (UNEVEN PARALLEL BARS)
(no stops or slow movements employing obvious The uneven bars originally were an adaptation of the
strength are permitted). Only the hands should touch men’s parallel bars, and thus the bars were identical to
the horse. the men’s bars but with one bar set higher than the
other.
VAULT (LONG HORSE)
The vaulting horse is the same apparatus as the pommel BALANCE BEAM
horse, with the pommels removed. The height to the top Originally the balance beam was wooden, measuring 5
of the horse is 1.35 meters. The horse is vaulted along meters in length and 10 centimeters in width.The beam
its length, with an approach run of up to 25 meters. height is set at 1.2 meters. Competitive routines consist
of tumbling, balance, and gymnastic movements.
Women’s Events
Women’s apparatus gymnastics events include the floor Competition at the Top
exercise, vault (side horse vault), uneven bars (uneven Western European countries dominated international
parallel bars), and balance beam. gymnastics competition before World War II. In the
Olympic Games of 1896 through 1948 Finland,
FLOOR EXERCISE Switzerland, and Italy each won team medals four
Women gymnasts use the floor area and mat of the times; France, the United States, and Hungary each
men’s event. Movements are continuous and involve won twice; and eight other countries (all European)
tumbling, dance, and gymnastic movements, as well as each won once. Italy won the team gold medal four
momentary balance positions. Music (taped orchestra times, and the United States, Germany, Switzerland,
Rhythmic gymnastics makes

football look easy. ■ UNKNOWN
Finland, and Sweden each won the team gold medal responsible for U.S. participation in international com-
once. In 1952, with the entrance of the Soviet Union petitions. In turn, national federations belong to the In-
into Olympic competition and the rise of Japan as a ternational Gymnastics Federation (FIG, www.fig-gym
gymnastics power, the situation changed greatly. In the nastics.com), which was founded in 1881 as the gov-
eleven Olympic Games staged between 1952 and 1992 erning body of international gymnastics.
Japan and the Soviet Union won the men’s team gold
Richard V. McGehee and Russ Crawford
medal five times each, and the United States won once.
At the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece, in artistic
gymnastics Romania finished first, followed by the Further Reading
United States, Japan, and China. In the men’s team Bowers, C. O., Fie, J. K., & Schmid, A. B. (1981). Judging and coach-
competition Japan won gold, the United States won ing women’s gymnastics (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Cahn, S. (1994). Coming on strong: Gender and sexuality in twentieth-
silver, and Romania won bronze. In the women’s team century women’s sports. New York: Free Press.
competition Romania won gold, the United States won Cooper, P. (1980). Feminine gymnastics (3rd ed.). Minneapolis, MN:
silver, and Russia won bronze. Burgess.
Coulton, J. (1981). Sport acrobatics. New York: Sterling.
Paul Hamm of the United States won gold in the Fukushima, S. (1980). Men’s gymnastics. Boston: Faber & Faber.
men’s individual all-around competition; Carly Patter- Goodbody, J. (1983). The illustrated history of gymnastics. New York:
Beaufort.
son of the United States won gold in the women’s in- Guttman, A. (1991). Women’s sports: A history. New York: Columbia
dividual all-around competition. Other gold medals University Press.
were won by Kyle Shewfelt of Canada, men’s floor; International Gymnastics Federation. (1993). Code of points for artis-
tic gymnastics for men. Moutier, Switzerland: Author.
Catalina Ponor of Romania, women’s floor; Gervasio International Gymnastics Federation. (1993). Code of points for artis-
Deferr of Spain, men’s vault; Monica Rosu of Romania, tic gymnastics for women. Moutier, Switzerland: Author.
Loken, N. C., & Willoughby, R. J. (1977). Complete book of gymnastics
women’s vault; Haibin Teng of China, men’s pommel (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
horse; Dimosthenis Tampakos of Greece, men’s rings; Murray, M. (1979). Women’s gymnastics: Coach, participant, spectator.
Catalina Ponor of Romania, women’s balance beam; Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and breaking of
Emilie Lepennec of France, women’s asymmetric bars; elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New York: Doubleday.
Valeri Goncharov of Ukraine, men’s parallel bars; and Ryser, O., & Brown, J. (1990). A manual for tumbling and apparatus
stunts (8th ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
Igor Cassina of Italy, men’s horizontal bar. Schmid, A. B. (1976). Modern rhythmic gymnastics. Palo Alto, CA: May-
field.
Governing Bodies Schmid, A. B., & Drury, B. J. (1977). Gymnastics for women (4th ed.).
Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
A national federation administers competitive gymnas- Turoff, F. (1991). Artistic gymnastics: A comprehensive guide to per-
tics in most countries. In the United States gymnastics forming and teaching skills for beginners and advanced beginners.
Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
has been organized on different levels by several organ- Wallechinsky, D. (1984). The complete book of the Olympics. New York:
izations. The U.S. Turner Clubs, American Sokol clubs, Viking.
and the YMCA have long histories of staging competi-
tions for members, and for many years the AAU spon-
sored most open gymnastics competitions. The NCAA
controls collegiate competitions, and many state athletic
associations stage interschool competitions at the high Gymnastics, Rhythmic
school level. Private gymnastics schools stage interclub
competitions, especially for young women. USA Gym-
nastics (www.usa-gymnastics.org), formerly known as
the “U.S. Gymnastics Federation” (USGF), is the parent
A lthough athletes in ancient Greece performed ex-
ercises that combined flexibility, strength, and
movement with aesthetic appeal and grace, rhythmic
organization for all U.S. gymnastics competition and is gymnastics as athletes practice it today is a product of
GYMNASTICS, RHYTHMIC 719
Israeli rhythmic
gymnasts.
Rhythmic gymnasts per-

form choreographed tumbling
and dance routines to music
on a floor mat and use appa-
ratus—clubs, ball, rope, rib-
bon, and hoop—in their
routines. Depending on the
apparatus, a gymnast might
move around, over, or under
it; balance on or with it; toss
and catch it; spin or twirl it;
the physical education and sports culture of twentieth- swing it; roll it; jump over it; and so forth. The goal is
century northern Europe. Although men practice rhyth- to perform a routine that demonstrates flexibility and
mic gymnastics, it is mainly a women’s sport, and only agility, is in time with the music, shows a creative use of
women compete in the Olympics. the apparatus, and is pleasing to the observer. The team
Rhythmic gymnastics developed out of a German re- competition or group exercise brings four or five team
form movement in gymnastics and physical education members onto the mat together; each member performs
during the early twentieth century. The movement em- the same routine using the same or different apparatus.
phasized appreciation of the human body and natural Team members also exchange apparatus and must dis-
body movement in performance and exercise. In 1946 play the same level of movement as in individual per-
rhythmic gymnastics became a sport when the Soviet formance. The individual routine lasts 90 seconds; the
Union defined it as a sport separate from apparatus group routine lasts 150 seconds. Judges rate perform-
gymnastics—which uses equipment such as the pom- ances on degree of difficulty, harmony of the move-
mel horse, horizontal bar, and balance beam—and ment and the music, flexibility, appearance, and ability
began to train girls and young women. At first rhythmic to follow rules such as staying on the mat and wearing
gymnastics was confined to nations of the Soviet bloc, an appropriately colored leotard.
and only the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Bul- Despite its being an Olympic sport since 1984, crit-
garia competed in the first “international” competition ics of rhythmic gymnastics continue to question
in 1961. The International Gymnastics Federation whether it is really a sport, given the somewhat subjec-
(FIG, www.fig-gymnastics.com) recognized the sport tive nature of the judging process, the use of music, and
in 1962 and became the governing body. In 1963 the the emphasis on appealing body movement and con-
first world championships were held. By the mid-1970s trol. Although popular with enthusiasts, rhythmic gym-
rhythmic gymnastics had spread to North America, and nastics has not yet rivaled apparatus gymnastics in
by 2005 120 nations were participating. The individual popular appeal.
all-around competition became an Olympic event in David Levinson
1984, and the team competition was added in 1996.
At the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece, Russia fin-
ished first; Italy finished second; Bulgaria and Ukraine Further Reading
tied for third. Russia won the group all-around compe- Bott, J. (1995). Rhythmic gymnastics: The skills of the game. North
Pomfret, VT: Trafalgar Square Publishing.
tition; Alina Kabaeva of Russia won the individual all- Jastrjembskaia, N., & Titov, Y. (1998). Rhythmic gymnastics. Cham-
around competition. paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Handball, Team
Hang Gliding
Hazing
Henley Regatta
Heptathlon Handball, Team
Highland Games
Hockey, Field N ineteen million people in more than 150 coun-
tries play team handball. In Europe team handball
is second in popularity only to soccer. The sport, also
Hockey, Ice
called “continental handball,” “European handball,” or
Hockey, In-line “Olympic handball,” is fast paced and physically de-
Holmenkollen Ski Jump manding, combining elements of basketball and soccer.
Team handball bears no resemblance to four-wall hand-
Holmenkollen Sunday ball or court handball.
Home Field Advantage
Origins
Homophobia We can trace the ancestry of team handball back three
Honduras thousand years to ancient Greece. In his Odyssey the
Greek poet Homer described a game invented by Ana-
Horse Racing galla, a princess of Sparta: “O’er the green mead the
Horseback Riding sporting virgins play, their shining veils unbound along
the skies, tossed and retossed, the ball incessant flies.”
Human Movement Studies King Alexander of Macedon (356–323 BCE) played
Hungary handball on a sphairisterion (ball court). The Roman
physician Claudius Galenus described harpastum,
Hunting played on a sphaeristerum (ball arena attached to pub-
Hurling lic baths or located on the estates of the wealthy). Ac-
cording to Walter von der Vogelweide, knights played a
sport called “fangball” during the Middle Ages. All of
these were ball games that teams played in open fields.
Modern team handball, some historians claim, was
developed in Germany in 1897 when Konrad Koch
worked up a game to train gymnasts. In 1915 Max
Heiden added several more elements of play, including
a set of rules. In 1917 Karl Schelenz moved team
handball with eleven players on a team from the gym-
nasium to a large soccer-like field.
However, other historians claim that modern team
H
the 1940s. French immigrants teaching in Canadian sec-
ondary schools, especially in Quebec, taught the sport.
Eastern Europeans supported team handball in large
handball evolved in Scandinavia early in the twentieth numbers, surpassing Scandinavians in participation.The
century. Swedish sources refer to seven-player handball International Handball Federation replaced the IAHF in
being played in 1907. Historians who support a Dan- 1946. However, when the Olympic Games resumed in
ish origin believe that the Dane Fredrik Knudsen codi- 1948, team handball was not on the program.
fied the seven-player sport in 1911. Because of the European immigrants living in the metropolitan areas
colder climate, Scandinavians played more on modern- of New York and New Jersey introduced the indoor ver-
looking, smaller indoor courts than on large outdoor sion of team handball to the United States about 1959.
fields. Dr. Peter Buehning, a promoter of the sport, organized
In Europe team handball developed further under the United States Team Handball Federation. The U.S.
the auspices of association football (soccer). In 1926 Army popularized team handball as a camp sport in
the International Amateur Athletic Federation ap- many areas. College and high school students, looking
pointed a committee representing the eleven countries for new indoor activities, also began playing team hand-
where handball was played to develop a set of stan- ball. The sport became even more popular when Ger-
dardized rules. The International Amateur Handball many announced that it would again feature men’s
Federation (IAHF) was founded during the 1928 team handball (the indoor variation with seven players
Olympic Games in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Avery on each team) at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich.
Brundage (later president of the International Olympic Yugoslavia won the gold medal. Women’s team hand-
Committee) was its first president. Twenty-five coun- ball was included in the 1976 Olympic Games in Mon-
tries belonged to the federation by 1934. Germany, as treal. The Soviet men’s and women’s teams won the
host of the 1936 Olympics, added men’s team handball gold medals.
to the Olympic Games in Berlin. This sport was the out- In 1980 the men’s team from East Germany and the
door, European version with eleven players on each women’s team from the Soviet Union won gold medals
team. The German team defeated five other teams to at the Moscow Olympic Games, which some Western
win the gold medal. The 1940 and 1944 Olympic nations boycotted. In 1984 Yugoslavia won both men’s
Games were canceled because of World War II, but this and women’s gold medals at the Los Angeles Olympic
hiatus did not stop the spread of team handball. Games, which some Communist nations boycotted.
In 1937 Norway recognized team handball as a Most nations were represented at the Olympics in
women’s sport. Prisoners of war at Camp Borden, On- Seoul, South Korea, in 1988, when the men’s team
tario, Canada, introduced the sport to Canada during from the Soviet Union and the women’s team from
721
South Korea won. In 1992 the men’s Unified Team (for- Further Reading
mer Soviet players) won the gold at the Olympic Games Blazic, B., & Soric, Z. (1975). Team handball. Winnipeg, Canada: Win-
nipeg Free Press.
in Barcelona, Spain, as did the women’s team from Edwards, R. W. (1984). Team handball: A familiar name but a differ-
South Korea. In 1996 at the Olympic Games in At- ent game. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance,
lanta, Georgia, the Danish women’s team and the Croa- 55(2), 27–28.
International Handball Federation. (2004). Retrieved December 10,
tian men’s team won the gold. In 2004, at the Olympic 2004, from http://www.ihf.info
Games in Athens, Greece, the Danish women’s team Neil, G. I. (1976). Modern team handball. Montreal, Canada: McGill
University Press.
and the Croatian men’s team won the gold. Rowland, B. J. (1970). Handball: A complete guide. London: Faber and
Faber.
Practice
In Europe team handball is still played outdoors, on
open fields similar to soccer fields, with eleven players
on each team. However, the last sanctioned champi-
onship of eleven-player outdoor team handball was
Hang Gliding
held in 1966. The seven-player indoor version is more
popular. People play indoor team handball on courts
that measure 40 by 20 meters—35 percent larger than
H ang gliding is a sport in which people soar using
a hang glider—a wing made of an aluminum or
carbon fiber frame and a synthetic sail and a triangular-
basketball courts. A team has six court players and a shaped structure below the wing that allows a pilot to
goalie. The object is to throw a hard leather ball (18 carry and maneuver the glider. The pilot wears a harness
centimeters in diameter) into the opponents’ goal net (2 that is hooked to the glider and takes off on foot on a
meters high by 3 meters wide) while defending one’s slope or is towed aloft by a vehicle on flatlands. Hang
own goal net. gliding allows a pilot to admire fantastic views in the
Players may throw the ball with their hands, propel company of soaring birds with only the rush of the
the ball with any part of the body above the knee (they wind to break the silence.
may not kick the ball), and advance the ball by drib- Hang gliding pilots find rising air currents and use
bling it an unlimited distance like a basketball. How- them to climb, stay aloft, and fly over the landscape.
ever, after players stop with the ball, they must shoot or With the right weather pattern hang gliders can travel
pass within three seconds. Players may not carry the long distances—the world record (regularly broken)
ball more than three steps or kick it. stands at 703 kilometers (437 miles), flown by Mike
Team handball is played in two thirty-minute halves Barber in 2002 in Texas. Pilots can reach altitudes of
with no time-outs. Halftime is a ten-minute rest period. more than 6,000 meters (countries set their own legal
The sport demands strength, skill, speed, stamina, strat- altitude limits).
egy, quick reactions, and agility. The offensive attacks
and defensive strategies occur at either end of the court History
within 6 to 9 meters of the goal. Little play occurs in the Hang gliding is a relatively new sport that began during
center of the court. Theoretically, team handball is a the early 1970s, but its development had a long evolu-
noncontact sport. However, the fast breaks, quick mation. Legends, including that of Icarus in Greek mythol-
neuvers to pass or block, and leaps and dives to pene- ogy, show that people dreamed to fly even during ancient
trate and shoot make contact inevitable. Team handball times. The Italian Renaissance artist and inventor,
can be an elegant statement of individual and team Leonardo da Vinci, studied flight, as did many inventors
achievement. during the nineteenth century: Otto Lilienthal of Ger-
A. Gilbert Belles many, Sir George Cayley of England, and John Mont-
HANG GLIDING 723
A hang glider soars high

over the northen beaches
of Sydney, Australia.
Source: istockphoto.com/ mattscherf.
gomery of the United States built suc-

cessful motorless flying machines.The
development of powered flight by
Wilbur and Orville Wright of the
United States during the early 1900s
started with nonpowered soaring
flights from the dunes of North Car-
olina. The pursuit of powered flight
put soaring on the sidelines, and it
resurfaced in Germany only after
World War I. In the United States dur-
ing the 1960s National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) en-
gineer Francis Rogallo and his wife,
Gertrude, developed a triangular wing
designed as a reentry device for space-
craft. By the early 1970s the design
was adapted to launching on foot and
spread throughout the United States
and Europe.The sport of hang gliding
was born.
Instructors use two main methods
to teach hang gliding: training-hill ses-
sions and tandem flying. Most schools
use a combination of both.The devel-
opment of safe towing practices using
a winch or an ultralight (a light recre-
ational aircraft typically for one per-
son and powered by a small gasoline
engine) has promoted tandem flying,
which is less physically demanding
and appeals more to women.Tandem
flying is done on a larger hang glider
that is designed for two persons: a
pilot (or instructor) and a passenger (or student). This of teaching techniques during recent years have pro-
arrangement allows a student to learn skills with hands- moted the participation of women. With new technol-
on experience under the supervision of an instructor. ogy and materials the equipment is better adapted to
lighter-weight pilots. Some participants believe that
Women in Hang Gliding hang gliding is popular among women because it is aes-
Women historically have been a minority in hang glid- thetically appealing and requires finesse in control. The
ing (5–10 percent of participants). However, the devel- glider is controlled by weight shift, which requires upper
opment of smaller and lighter gliders and the evolution body motions but not excessive strength.
The hang gliding world distance record for women is this upward wind and stay up above the ridge. Thermal
held by Kari Castle of the United States. In 2001 she soaring uses rising columns of warm air known as “ther-
flew 350 kilometers (217.5 miles) from Zapata, Texas. mals.” Thermals develop over dry, darker, or rocky ter-
Judy Leden of England holds the Guinness World rain that absorbs and then radiates heat from the sun.
Records altitude record (for men and women): On 25 A pilot uses a thermal by circling and climbing in it. To
October 1994, she took off at 11,856 meters (38,898 aid in soaring pilots use altimeters (to measure alti-
feet) from a balloon over Wadi Rum, Jordan, and flew tude) and variometers (to measure the rate of climb or
back to Earth. descent).
Competition at the Top The Future

With the exception of the Women’s World Meet held Hang gliding, like any other type of aviation, is con-
every other year, men and women compete together in stantly evolving as new technologies and materials
hang gliding competitions. Hang gliding has three cause the gliders to change form. Through the years
forms of competition: aerobatics, speed gliding, and gliders have become safer and more efficient, their rates
cross-country. Aerobatics (or freestyle) is a routine of aes- of descent becoming slower and their speeds faster.
thetically pleasing maneuvers judged on precision, tech- These changes improve performance while soaring and
nique, and elegance. Speed gliding, the newest form, is traveling distances.
a short race close to the ground between pylons.
Claire Pagen
Cross-country, the most common form of competi-
tion, is a long race along a course that is determined by
turnpoints (reference points such as the takeoff and Further Reading
landing spot) and a goal. Cross-country competitions Cheney, P. (1997). Hang gliding for beginner pilots. Colorado Springs,
typically last one to two weeks. A different task is set for CO: United States Hang Gliding Association.
Leden, J. (1996). Flying with condors. Spring Mills, PA: Sport Aviation
competitors every day. Each task may be on a course Publications.
that is from 80 to 240 kilometers in length and may last Pagen, D. (1991). Understanding the sky. Spring Mills, PA: Sport Avi-
from two to six hours. The course may be a straight line ation Publications.
Pagen, D. (1993). Performance flying. Spring Mills, PA: Sport Aviation
to the goal, a series of doglegs, an out-and-return Publications.
course, or a triangular course. Competitors prove that Pagen, D. (1995). Hang gliding training manual. Spring Mills, PA:
Sport Aviation Publications.
they have flown the task along the course by taking Palmieri, J., & Palmieri, M. (1997). Sky adventures, fantasies of free
aerial photographs of the turnpoints or by recording flight: True stories by pilots. Roanoke, VA: Sky Dog Publications.
their flight path with a GPS (Global Positioning Sys- Palmieri, J., & Palmieri, M. (1998). Sky adventures, stories of our her-
itage. Roanoke, VA: Sky Dog Publications.
tem). To complete the course competitors must find ris-
ing air currents along their way and plan their flight so
that they achieve the fastest time. Accomplishing this re-
quires a knowledge of weather conditions on the large
scale and small scale and honed soaring skills. (The
terms soaring and gliding are often used interchange-
Hazing
ably; however, soaring refers particularly to using air
currents to stay aloft.)
The two main types of soaring are ridge soaring and
I n recent years law enforcement agencies, school of-
ficials, parent groups, and community leaders have
become more aware of the negative effects of hazing on
thermal soaring. Ridge soaring takes place when wind athletes. Hazing is a challenge that athletes encounter
strikes a slope and is deflected upward. A pilot can ride everywhere in the world. However, hazing is not re-
HAZING 725
Win or lose, do it fairly. ■ KNUTE ROCKNE
stricted to athletes, but rather surfaces in the workplace, of that group most were men’s colleges. The “football
fraternities and sororities, the military, and in many rush,” an annual interclass football game staged be-
other organizations where membership is sought and tween freshmen and sophomores, conveys a feeling for
where the approval of the group is deemed important the atmosphere in schools of the day. To avoid the in-
by those seeking admission. terference of professors, students scheduled the game to
Hazing in sports offers vivid pictures of human ex- coincide with Monday afternoon faculty meetings. On
perience that run the gamut from the amusing and the “bloody Monday” the brutal hazing of freshmen would
affectionate to the abusive and the abominable. One take place on the football field at the hands of the once
might think that a single word could not bear such con- lowly sophomores now moved up in the class power
tradiction. Yet, hazing is an all-purpose word that lends structure.
itself to a qualifier, as seen in a Sports Illustrated for Kids In 1923 the beating of Hobart freshman Lloyd Hyde
interview with children between the ages of fourteen resulted in two senior football players being expelled
and seventeen who were asked, “Do you think there is and three other senior athletes receiving lesser punish-
good hazing and bad hazing?” They replied, “Yes.” As a ments for their involvement in the beating. The athletes
framework for capturing the essence of hazing, a con- who assaulted Hyde may have been members of the
sideration of the good, the bad, and the ugly offers an same fraternity. This would not have been uncommon
appropriate starting point. during the 1920s, a decade when college fraternity haz-
We have few succinct ways to describe what some ing had become rampant. In February 1932 the editors
people consider “good” forms of hazing: swimmers of the Law Journal urged higher education authorities
bonding over breakfast in their pajamas after team- to ban all forms of hazing because “it does not make for
mates awaken them in the middle of the night; football education, but for barbarism.” Another seventy years
players singing their college fight songs to audiences of passed before many public policy makers and educators
well-meaning, although tunefully impaired, professional recognized that the brutality associated with hazing
athletes and coaches; good-natured contests designed to constitutes criminal conduct and took steps to pass leg-
build camaraderie and esprit d’corps are thought of as islation barring it. Between 1990 and 2002 the number
routine team-building exercises. People consider these of antihazing statutes in the United States increased
to be harmless gestures that encourage athletes to get to from twenty-five to forty-three.
know and support one another.
In contrast, the practice of hazing has also produced Prevalence of Hazing among Athletes
a vocabulary of its own, reflective of a far less benign Despite the long history of negative hazing among ath-
form of behavior. Athletes and nonathletes, and the cul- letes, people have done little research on the topic in
ture in general, have more than passing familiarity with general. The first baseline study of hazing was under-
beatdowns, forced drinking, public humiliation, shaved taken at the direction of Edward R. Koll, president of Al-
heads, simulated sex acts, swirlies, tea bagging, and fred University, after an incident on that campus. Of the
threats of physical and mental harm. Activities played 2,027 athletes who responded to a national survey, 80
out under the guise of bringing athletes together divide percent were subjected to what the researchers called
the athletes into victims and perpetrators. “questionable” (humiliating or degrading) or “unac-
ceptable” (high probability of causing physical injury
History and/or being illegal) activities as part of their initiation
College campuses during the 1800s were, in some re- into a college sports team. More than 50 percent were
spects, much different than those of today. Most of the involved in some kind of alcohol-related activity, and 35
institutions of higher education were single-gender, and percent participated in a drinking contest.
Hazing
Definitions of Hazing
The legal definitions of hazing vary considerably of a postsecondary institution. Such term includes,
from state to state. but is not limited to, any brutality of a physical
In Minnesota, for example, hazing is defined as a nature, such as whipping, beating, branding, forced
means of “committing an act against a student , or co- calisthenics, exposure to the elements, forced con-
ercing a student into committing an act, that creates sumption of any food, liquor, drug, or other sub-
a substantial risk of harm to a person in order for the stance, or other forced physical activity which could
student to be initiated into or affiliated with a student adversely affect the physical health or safety of the
organization” (Minnesota State Code 127.465). student, and also includes any activity which would
In contrast, the state of Florida uses this definition subject the student to extreme mental stress, such as
when determining if hazing as occurred: “As used in sleep deprivation, forced exclusion from social con-
this section, ‘hazing’ means any action or situation tact, forced conduct which could result in extreme
which recklessly or intentionally endangers the men- embarrassment, or other forced activity which could
tal or physical health or safety of a student for the adversely affect the mental health or dignity of the
purpose of initiation or admission into or affiliation student” (Florida State Code 240.1325).
with any organization operating under the sanction
Since that initial study others have followed. Based instigating the beatdown and causing the injury, while
on the findings across these studies, several trends are the remaining players were charged with misdemeanor
emerging. Specifically, although the frequency of hazing hazing.
does vary by sport, athletes may be hazed regardless of This example provides insight into the patterns that
the sports they play. Men athletes are more likely to contribute to the difficulty that athletes have in distin-
have physical harm done to them during hazing, guishing hazing that constitutes criminal conduct and/
whereas women athletes are more likely to experience or socially deviant behavior from benign hazing. Con-
humiliating or embarrassing forms of hazing. Addi- sistent with other types of interpersonal violence, de-
tionally, significant numbers of athletes are unable to nials on the part of both victims and perpetrators occur
correctly define hazing while believing that being sub- while strong codes of silence are enforced. At the same
jected to these kinds of experiences as a condition of time, community members often rely on explanations
joining a team is worth it. In effect, athletes who have or rationales to minimize the behavior. In this case,
been hazed and who haze have difficulty distinguishing some students at the high school believed the incident
between what they call “fun” and “hazing.” was “blown out of proportion” and that the criminal
charges were “excessive.” To demonstrate their support
Challenges for the instigators, students wore T-shirts calling atten-
In September 2004 Garrett Watterson, a first-year foot- tion to the unfair treatment that the alleged perpetrators
ball player at Sandwich High School in Massachusetts, were receiving.
was the target of a “beatdown” by nine of his team- This lack of sensitivity for the victims, coupled with
mates. One of the blows he received resulted in a rup- the secretive nature of the practice, contributes to its po-
tured spleen. Initially, he told his family that he suffered tency as a socializing agent and the willingness of so
the injury when tackled at practice. While Watterson many people to ignore the trauma caused to the victims.
was undergoing surgery, local prosecutors charged with Hank Nuwer, an expert in the subject, points out recent
felony assault and battery two of the players accused of trends in entertainment contribute in a negative way to
HENLEY REGATTA 727
the social mores that influence hazing. He notes, “The Smith, R. (1988). Sports and freedom: The rise of big-time college ath-
media standards have changed in terms of embarrassing letics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Staurowsky, E. J. (2003). Hazing. In D. Cotton & J. Wolohan (Eds.),
somebody. We humiliate. We vote people off. Kids are Law for recreation and sport managers (pp. 282–293). Dubuque,
very aware that you laugh at these things” (Wahl and IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Wahl, G., & Wertheim, L. J. (2003, December 22). A rite gone terribly
Wertheim 2003, 68). When considered from the stand- wrong. Sports Illustrated, 99(24), 68.
point that hazing occurs among the young and is tied
to a belief system that justifies this behavior as a nec-
essary price of acceptance, the task of intervening is
challenging.
Henley Regatta
The Future
As more states have adopted antihazing laws, and as ed-
ucational institutions have been called upon to develop
student conduct codes that address hazing, systemic
E stablished on 26 March 1839, the Henley Regatta
has been held at Henley-on-Thames, England, for
more than 160 years amid world wars and issues of am-
mechanisms to educate athletes about hazing are slowly ateurism, foreign competitors, and participation by
being put into place. Perhaps in time these measures women. The regatta remains the world’s grandest spec-
will result in more athletes being able to discern the dif- tacle in rowing, with the flair of the Victorian era pre-
ference between team-building exercises and forms of served by its dress, protocol, Pimm’s (a liqueur),
interpersonal violence. However, given the cycle of vi- lemonade, and cucumber sandwiches in the Steward’s
olence that exists in hazing, more education and edu- Area but juxtaposed against state-of-the-art rowing
cation of the right kind are needed. shells cutting through the calm surface of the Thames
River. The regatta brings the British traditions of rowing
Ellen J. Staurowsky
and the modern complexity of the realm of crew into
See also Anti-Jock Movement; Youth Culture and Sports harmony for one week each June as contestants vie for
prizes called the “Lady’s Plate,” the “Grand,” and the
“Diamond Challenge Sculls.”
The regatta originated after twenty thousand people
Further Reading were drawn to the banks of the river when Oxford and
Egan, E., & Dempsey, B. (2004, June). Kids speak out: Hazing. Sports
Illustrated for Kids, 16(6), 50–55. Cambridge crews in search of neutral water raced at
Ehrlich, J. H. (2003, December 2). Mepham investigation highlights Henley just outside London. The regatta began as the
limits to disclosing records. New York Law Journal, 16.
Gershel, J. C., Katz-Sidlow, R. J., Small, E., & Zandieh, S. (2003, May).
brainstorm of W. P. Williams-Freeman and Captain E.
Hazing of suburban middle school and high school athletes. Jour- Gardiner, who sought to bring an event to the ancient
nal of Adolescent Health, 32(5), 333–335. river city. A regatta seemed a logical way to attract com-
Johnson, J., & Holman, M. (2004). Making the team: Inside the world
of sport, initiation, and hazing. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Schol- merce and even a rail line. The regatta committee
ars Press. formed a board of stewards to host events that would
Longman, J. (2004, September 29). At Mepham, play begins but the
pain never ends. New York Times, p. D1.
draw competitors, spectators, and commerce.
Nuwer, H. (2001). Wrongs of passage: Fraternities, sororities, hazing, Seeking to attract as many types of boats and styles
and binge drinking. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. of rowing as possible, during its first ten years the re-
Nuwer, H. (2003). The hazing reader. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Uni-
versity Press. gatta hosted only seven events, mainly singles, doubles,
Robinson, L. (1998). Baptized a hawk: Initiations in junior hockey. In and fours events based on rivermen’s skills that had de-
L. Robinson (Ed.), Crossing the line: Violence and sexual assault in
Canada’s national sport (pp. 56–64). Toronto, Canada: McClelland
veloped through the centuries into the amateur art of
& Stewart. rowing. Getting crews of eight athletes—the eight being
Vivian and Guy Nickalls, a successful team in the early twentieth century.
the premier rowing event—to participate was difficult prize. Early incidents, such as in 1895 when the Cornell
because of the difficulties of transporting the rowing University eight rowed on in the Grand race, leaving Le-
shells, which are about 18 meters long. ander sitting at the start when a regatta official failed to
The Henley course is considered to be hallowed hear the Leander club state that it was not ready to row,
ground. Along its banks Temple Island boasts the had British newspapers labeling U.S. entrants as poor
Etruscan-style Fawley Court Temple, built in 1771 by sportsmen. The Vesper boat club of Philadelphia was
James Wyatt. This landmark is held in such high regard banned from early regattas because of what the British
as part of the regatta tradition that it was purchased by saw as a violation of amateur status.
the board of stewards and is typically referred to by the Among the sporting figures to add to the issue of am-
race announcers—when the shells race by it—as simply ateur status at Henley was U.S. racer Jack Kelly—father
“Fawley time.” In 1850 the Henley race became a royal of Princess Grace of Monaco—who was reputed to
regatta when the town council, hoping to draw entries, have been refused entry to the Diamond Sculls race in
sought the patronage of Prince Albert, who accepted.The 1920 because he had laid bricks one summer. Kelly
royal family has graced the Steward’s Area ever since. went on the next month to win the Olympic gold medal
at Antwerp, Belgium. Perhaps the greatest single com-
Not-So-Calm Waters petitor at Henley was Sean Drea of Ireland, who won
The issue of foreign crews, in particular those of the the Diamond Sculls race three times in 1973, 1974,
U.S. laboring class, participating in the regatta and the and 1975.
issue of professional coaches coming to Henley and World War I decimated the numbers of available
breaking the amateur code of the British gentleman British rowers, and the regatta fell upon hard times
athlete wreaked havoc among the regatta organizers as until 1919, when the Henley course was used for the
early as 1872, when a U.S. sculler (one who propels a Peace Regatta by Allied nations’ crews. Henley was the
boat by oars called “sculls”) raced for the Diamond Olympic regatta course in 1908 and 1948. The regatta
Sculls prize. The issue seemed to become more poignant began to receive a flood of applications by foreign crews
depending on who was winning or losing, especially after World War II. From then on the regatta became a
when the British were beaten by the U.S., Belgian, and world-class event, equivalent to Olympic competition,
Canadian entrants in the late nineteenth and early twen- although different in structure. Modern Olympic rowing
tieth centuries. Crews of the London Rowing Club, competition takes place on a currentless course that is
Cambridge, Oxford, and Leander—Britain’s oldest six lanes wide. Henley is raced two lanes at a time on
boat club, tracing its origin to 1818—considered row- a true river course in single elimination style—with the
ing to be their sport and Henley to be their coveted winner progressing.
HEPTATHLON 729
Today, as one hundred years ago, the course is laid Further Reading
out along the river with wooden posts and booms. The Burnell, R. (1989). Henley Royal Regatta: A celebration of 150 years.
London: Trafalgar Square Publishers.
posts and booms make a canal out of the river, allow- Dodd, C. (1989). Henley Royal Regatta. London: William Heinemann.
ing other boat traffic to proceed by. After the regatta the Tomalin, G. H. J. (1972). The Henley Royal Regatta since 1839: A pic-
posts and booms are dismantled and stored at regatta torial review with text. Henley-on-Thames, UK: Julian Berrisford As-
sociates.
headquarters until the next year. Originally the course Underwood, L. (Ed.). Henley Royal Regatta 1839–1989. Ipswich, UK:
had a slight dog-leg, giving one crew an advantage; Belgrave Publishing.
however, the modern course is a straight, fair, course for
both crews.
Classes and Levels Heptathlon

The rowing events can be classed as sweep rowing and
sculling by eights, fours, pairs, and singles. At the top
level are six open events for men and—added in the late
twentieth century—three open events for women.
T he heptathlon, which consists of seven track-and-
field events staged on two days, is the women’s
counterpart of the men’s ten-event decathlon. The hep-
Below the top level participants are regulated by age tathlon was introduced in 1981 to replace the five-event
and racing experience in order to keep more experi- pentathlon, which had been the major multiple-event
enced rowers, for instance, from mixing in with less tal- competition for women.
ented rowers. At the intermediate level are three events On the first day of a heptathlon athletes compete in
for men who are considered the best of the club and stu- high jump, shot put, 100-meter hurdles, and a 200-
dent crews. The next level offers five men’s events for meter race. On the second day athletes compete in
the majority of club and student oarsmen. Finally, two javelin, long jump, and a 800-meter race. That the
events are held for junior boys, who must be under the women’s event increased from five to seven events is an
age of nineteen on regatta day. acknowledgment of women’s athletic ability and im-
The events for open men are Grand Challenge Cup proving performances. That women do not yet compete
(8+), Stewards’ Challenge Cup (4–), Queen Mother in a decathlon indicates the continuing belief that
Challenge Cup (4✕), Silver Goblets & Nickalls’ Chal- women are not physically able to meet the demands of
lenge Cup (2–), Double Sculls Challenge Cup (2✕), and a ten-event competition.
Diamond Challenge Sculls (1✕). The events for open
women are Remenham Challenge Cup (8+), Princess Origins
Grace Challenge Cup (4✕), and Princess Royal Chal- Before the early twentieth century either women did
lenge Cup (1✕). The events for intermediate men are not participate in multiple-event competitions or their
Ladies’ Challenge Plate (8+), Visitors’ Challenge Cup competitions were unrecorded. Thus, tracing the devel-
(4–), and Men’s Quadruple Sculls (4✕). The events for opment of the heptathlon is a matter of tracing the
junior boys are Princess Elizabeth Challenge Cup (8+) growth of multiple-event competitions more generally.
and Fawley Challenge Cup (4✕). The events for club That growth has involved continuous revision of the
men are Thames Challenge Cup (8+), Wyfold Chal- number and type of events involved and of the scoring
lenge Cup (4–), and Britannia Challenge Cup (4+). The systems used to compare performances.
events for student men are Temple Challenge Cup (8+) Early multiple-event competitions were for men only
and Men’s Student Coxed Fours (4+). and seem to have been linked with ideals of masculin-
ity. In 708 BCE, for example, the Greeks introduced a
Susan Saint Sing
pentathlon to their Olympic program. It incorporated
running, discus, javelin, long jump, and wrestling. The the second. The distance for hurdles was changed to
pentathlon became the central event of the Olympics be- 100 meters in 1969. After 1977 all events took place
cause Hellenism (devotion to or imitation of ancient on one day, the order being 100-meter hurdles, shot
Greek thought, customs, or styles) valued versatility. In put, high jump, long jump, and 800-meter race. The
modern times the opposite has become the case, with heptathlon was introduced in 1981.
versatility viewed more as feminine and specialization During the early twentieth century women’s pen-
more as masculine. The symbolism of the pentathlon as tathlon events were taking place at the amateur level
it relates to gender is complex. During the nineteenth long before they were introduced to the Olympics. An in-
century all-around competitions were held for men in creasing number of heptathlon competitions have been
Ireland, but the United States introduced them to for- held since 1981 at elite and nonelite levels in the United
mal athletics programs. The Amateur Athletics Union States, Europe, Africa, and Asia. College-level competi-
(AAU) championships in 1884 featured a ten-event tions also are held in the United States. However, the
competition that incorporated a 1-mile run, a 100-yard heptathlon remains a minority sport for women.
race, 120-yard hurdles, 880-yard walk, shot put, high
jump, hammer throw, pole vault, 56-pound weight lift, Competition at the Top
and long jump.These events were completed in one day. Although the pentathlon and the heptathlon retain mi-
Several versions of multiple-event competitions have nority status, both have had notable women competi-
been held around the world since that early competitors and closely fought contests. Comparing women’s
tion. Some countries hold a one-hour decathlon. The performances across time is difficult because of the
best known, however, are the decathlon, a track and changing nature of the event and the different scoring
field event for men; the modern pentathlon, which in- systems used. In 1938 the record for the pentathlon
volves fencing, shooting, horseback riding, swimming, was held by Gisela Mauermayer of Germany, who
and cross-country running; the triathlon, which involves scored 418 points. Her performance, which took place
cycling, running, and swimming; and the women’s hep- in Stuttgart, Germany, included a 13.07-meter shot put,
tathlon. a 5.62-meter long jump, a time of 12.4 seconds in the
100-meter hurdles, a 1.56-meter high jump, and a
Development 36.90-meter javelin throw. Mauermayer was the top
The women’s pentathlon is the earliest known multiple- woman athlete of the prewar period. She also held
event competition for women. National and interna- world records in the shot put (Warsaw, 1934) and the
tional competitions began early during the twentieth discus (Berlin, 1936) and ran on the relay team that
century. They consisted of long jump, shot put, 100- broke the record at the 4 ✕ 100-meter race in the Berlin
meter race, high jump, and javelin and took place dur- Olympics in 1936. Indeed, top heptathletes have often
ing two days. One can view the introduction of the held records in other individual events.
women’s pentathlon as the beginning of acceptance of Fanny Blankers-Koen of the Netherlands was the first
athletic competition as a valid part of femininity. How- record holder in the postwar version of the pentathlon.
ever, that the women’s pentathlon was not part of the Blankers-Koen scored a total of 4,692 points with a
Olympic program until 1964 indicates the limitations 11.50-meter shot put, a 1.60-meter high jump,
of such acceptance. After World War II the pentathlon 24.4 seconds in the 200-meter run, 11.4 seconds in the
program changed: Shot put, high jump, and the 200- 80-meter hurdles, and a 5.88-meter long jump. Irena
meter race took place on the first day and the long Press of the Soviet Union was an elite performer of the
jump and 80-meter hurdles on the second day. The pro- post-1961 pentathlon with 10.7 seconds in the 80-
gram was altered again in 1961, with the 80-meter hur- meter hurdles, 17.16 meters in the shot put, 1.63 me-
dles moved to the first day and the 200-meter race to ters in the high jump, 6.24 meters in the long jump, and
HIGHLAND GAMES 731
24.7 seconds in the 200-meter run. After the hurdles Scoring

distance was changed to 100 meters in 1969, Burglinde The heptathlon scoring system is based on the idea
Pollak of East Germany turned in a great performance that different skills can be measured in such a way that
at Erfurt, Germany, in 1970 with 13.3 seconds in the comparison among athletes is possible. Although the
100-meter hurdles, 15.57 meters in the shot put, heptathlon is based on the idea that participants display
1.75 meters in the high jump, 6.20 meters in the long their all-around athleticism, excellence in one or two
jump, and 23.8 seconds in the 200-meter run. events often may determine the victor. The events are as-
At the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, Heide signed scores whose primary purpose is to rank com-
Rosendahl of West Germany and Mary Peters of Great petitors, not to weigh the absolute and relative value of
Britain both broke the world record, with Peters win- performances in all events. Nevertheless, controversy
ning marginally by ten points in the last event, which has surrounded the adequacy of different scoring sys-
was a 200-meter race in which Rosendahl actually fin- tems. As a consequence, they have changed over time.
ished ahead of Peters. An even closer contest occurred
at the Montreal Olympics in 1976 when Siegrun Siegl The Future
and Christine Laser, both of East Germany, finished One might argue that women’s equality in multiple-
with the same score. Judges decided to award the vic- event competitions will not be achieved until a women’s
tory on the basis of which athlete had performed better decathlon is created. However, as the following anony-
than the other in the most events: Siegl had outper- mous poem suggests, for many people the heptathlon
formed Laser in three of five events. is the ultimate in sporting participation.
Although Ramona Neubert of East Germany was the
The magnificent seven, the perfect score
first world record holder in the heptathlon, Jackie Two days, seven trials, and chances to soar
Joyner-Kersee has been the best-known heptathlete. At Towards heaven the luck magnificent seven
the 1986 Goodwill Games in Moscow Joyner-Kersee be-
came the first woman to score more than seven thou- Andrea Abbas
sand points (7,184).The records she set in the event are
indicative of women’s growing achievement in the hep-
tathlon: 12.85 seconds in the 100-meter hurdles, 1.88
Further Reading
Payne, H., & Payne, R. (1981). The science of track and field athletics.
meters in the high jump, 14.76 meters in the shot put, London: Pelham Books.
23.00 seconds in the 200-meter run, 7.01 meters in the Quercetani, R. L. (1990). Athletics: A history of modern track and field
athletics (1860–1990). Milan, Italy: Vallardi & Associati.
long jump, 49.86 meters in the javelin, and 2 minutes,
10.02 seconds in the 800-meter race. In the 1988 Olym-
pics in Seoul, South Korea, Joyner-Kersee scored 7,291
points—394 points ahead of her nearest rival. She
dropped out of the Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, in
1996 because of injury and retired in 1998 after win-
Highland Games
ning her fourth Goodwill Games heptathlon. She has
held the heptathlon world record since 1986.
The gold medal winner at Atlanta was Ghada
T he Highland Games are competitive gatherings held
throughout the world to celebrate the heritage of
Scotland’s Highlanders.The games are particularly pop-
Shouaa, who became Syria’s first gold medal winner. ular in Scotland, Canada, and the United States but take
She also won the gold medal at the 1995 world cham- place wherever a large population of Scots lives. Scottish
pionships. That Shouaa is a Christian and also the first “clans,” somewhat complex extended family groups,
gold medal winner from Syria—a Muslim country— gather at these meetings to watch and participate in
shows how gender, culture, and sport interact. games on the local, national, and international levels.
Among her most noted accomplishments,

Cynthia Morrison was the first woman to
compete in the Scotland Highland Games
“heavy athletics” contest in 1994.
The events held at games vary, but three main competi-

tive event categories exist at most games: athletics, pip-
ing, and dancing. Other events include tug-of-war,
wrestling, and fiddling. Competition is open to persons
of any background, not just those of Scottish heritage.
Professional and amateur sections exist for competition,
and the athletic competitions have women’s, men’s, and
masters’ divisions.
Origins
Precursors of the games had been held for hundreds of
years. Highlander clans would often relax after a suc-
cessful hunt by testing each other’s prowess at sports or
by proving who had the mightiest warriors. More for-
mally, the Braemar Gathering dates back to the reign of
King Malcolm III of Scotland (1057–1093), and the
Ceres Games in Fife, Scotland, claim to date back to
1314.
The modern revival of the games is linked to the sta-
tus of Highlanders in Great Britain. Highlanders were
separated from the rest of Scotland not only by moun-
tains but also by language (Gaelic) and culture. After the
last Jacobite (a partisan of James II of England or of the
Stuarts after the revolution of 1688) rising the English
attempted to quell further rebellion by passing the 1747
Act of Proscription, preventing Scottish Highlanders Highland Society of New York was held in 1836.
from playing the pipes, wearing their native kilt, or Canada’s oldest games (1863) are still held by the
doing anything linked with Highland tradition. Even- Antigonish Highland Society.
tually the importance of celebrating Scottish Highland
traditions grew out of this suppression. The first High- Athletics
land Society Gathering was held in 1781 at Falkirk Athletics at the games include “heavy events” and “light
Tryst, and the Act of Proscription was repealed in 1782. events” (running and jumping events). The main heavy
Annual Highland Games were supported by the St. Fil- events are the caber toss, stone throw, weight throw,
lian’s Society by 1819. weight toss, hammer throw, and the sheaf toss. The im-
A turning point in Highland Games history occurred plements used often vary in size and weight, making
when Queen Victoria of England attended the Braemar record keeping nearly impossible from year to year in
Gathering in 1848. With her interest in Highlander cul- the Highland Games.
ture and purchase of an estate in the area, everything The caber toss is perhaps the most famous event. The
connected with the Highlands became fashionable. caber, a trimmed tree trunk tapered at one end, is usu-
Royalty continues to support the games by appearing at ally 4.8–6.7 meters long and 40–59 kilograms in
the Braemar Gathering. weight. A competitor lifts it, runs with it in any direc-
In the United States the First Sportive Meeting of the tion, and then attempts to flip it so it lands in the
HIGHLAND GAMES 733
People understand contests. You take a bunch of kids throwing rocks

at random and people look askance, but if you go and hold a
rock-throwing contest—people understand that. ■ DON MURRAY
ground straight up with the top side down (considered has a scale that differs from pipes of other countries.
“twelve o’clock”). Each competitor gets three attempts, Judges score the events, with pipe bands being judged
and the winner is the competitor who turned the caber 60 percent on piping, 20 percent on drumming, and 20
closest to twelve o’clock, with every landing from nine percent on members’ work together. Specific types of
o’clock to three o’clock being judged a valid toss. If no music, such as the march, the strathspey, the reel, the
one makes a valid toss, the caber is trimmed to a shorter hornpipe, the jig, and the piobaireachd, are used in the
length until at least one competitor can flip it within the different levels of competition.
acceptable range. This event originated during the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries as forestry workers of Dancing
the Highlands pitched logs into rivers. Highland dancing is competitive and strenuous. Men
The stone throw originated from the “stone of and women compete in different costumes: men in a
strength” (clachneart) that was often found outside of kilt, doublet (jacket), sporran (pouch worn at the waist,
the homes of Highland clan chieftains. Visitors to a often covered in fur), and hat; women in “Aboyne
home were encouraged to test their strength by throw- dress”: vested white blouse, plaid over the shoulder,
ing this stone. Today’s stone weighs 7.2–14.5 kilo- and a full, graceful skirt. Dancers are judged 80 percent
grams (3.6–5.4 kilograms for women), is thrown for on technique, 10 percent on general deportment, and
distance, and usually taken from a local stream. 10 percent on timing. Usually a piper provides music.
The weight used in the weight throw (12.7–25.4 Dance competitions include the Highland fling, the
kilograms for men, 6.3–12.7 kilograms for women) is sword dance (gille chaluim), seann triubhas, and the
attached to a handle or ring by a chain measuring not reel. Competitors belong to one of five classifications,
more than 45 centimeters. The weight is squared off or the highest being “open.”
spherical and is thrown for distance with one hand.
The hammer used in the hammer throw is a metal The Future
ball weighing 7.5–9.9 kilograms (5.4–7.2 kilograms The Highland Games continue to attract thousands of
for women). It is attached to a handle made of wood or spectators and are one of Scotland’s main tourist at-
cane and thrown for distance. The competitor swings tractions. Today nearly one hundred games a year are
the hammer around his head a few times before release. held in Scotland, about three hundred across the United
In the weight toss and the sheaf toss a competitor States and Canada, and many other annual gatherings
throws an implement (weight toss: 25.4 kilograms for around the world as people find family togetherness
men, 12.7 kilograms for women; sheaf toss: a 7.2- to 9 through the Scottish clans and kinship of the Highland
kilogram bag of hay or sticks for men, a 4.5- to 5.4-kilo- Games.
gram bag of hay or sticks for women) over a crossbar
without dislodging it, with three attempts at each height
before the crossbar is raised. In the weight toss a com-
petitor must stand directly under the crossbar, throwing Further Reading
the weight over the bar in an arc. Brander, M. (1992). The essential guide to the Highland Games. Edin-
burgh, UK: Canongate Press.
Piping Donaldson, E. A. (1986). The Scottish Highland Games in America.
Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing.
Piping is a Scottish tradition dating back to 100 CE; Jarvie, G. (1991). Highland Games: The making of the myth. Edinburgh,
bagpipes became popular during the eleventh century. UK: Edinburgh University Press.
Lynch, M. (2001). The Oxford companion to Scottish history. Oxford,
Pipers compete as individuals or as part of a pipe and UK: Oxford University Press.
drum band. Pipers use the Highland bagpipe, which Scottish Official Highland Dancing Association. (1994). The A.B.C. of
Highland dancing & games directory. North Berwick, UK: Kinmor United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and
Music.
several other countries by the turn of the century. Men’s
Vroblesky, V., & Snyder, C. (1988). The Scottish athletic events: A por-
trait of the heptathlon in America. Bruceton Mills, WV: Scotpress. hockey was spread throughout the Continent and then
Webster, D. (1973). Scottish Highland Games. Edinburgh, UK: Repro- the world, mostly through Britain’s military presence in
graphia.
many countries including India and Pakistan, who
would become two of the dominate countries in this
sport. Men’s field hockey developed quite differently
from the women’s game and each game existed sepa-
Hockey, Field rately until the 1970s.
Field hockey became an Olympic event for men in
F ield hockey evolved as a stick-and-ball game with a

heavy British influence—from the creation of the
rules of the game to its being played throughout the
1908 with England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales as
well as France and Germany competing for the first
gold medal. For the following decades, hockey would
world. Originally referred to as “hockey,” it is now called appear in the Olympics at irregular intervals until 1928
“field hockey” to make the distinction from ice hockey. when it became a permanent event. One of the critical
changes that provided consistency and stability was the
Early History of the Game establishment of a world governing body. In 1924, Paul
Field hockey is one of the oldest “stick-and-ball ” games. Léautey, a Frenchman, invited hockey officials from Aus-
It flourished as far back as the early part of the Middle tria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Spain,
Kingdom dynasty of Egypt (2000–1786 BCE), as de- and Switzerland to a meeting to discuss the need to
picted in tomb paintings. Similar forms of the game unify field hockey development. With their support he
were also cited or depicted in the antiquity of Ethiopia, created the Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur
Greece, Rome, and even by the Aztecs in South America. Gazon to serve as the official organization for field
Related stick and ball games of earlier times include hockey. Other countries that have added teams in the
hocquet (French for a shepherds’ crook) referring to the past decades include the Netherlands, South Africa,
shape of the stick, hurley (Ireland), bandy (England) and Hong Kong, Japan, Egypt, Trinidad and Tobago, and
shinty (Scotland). The modern history of field hockey most recently the United Arab Emirates. The top ten
began in England where the game was introduced to the teams based on the 8 December 2003 rankings are
elite colleges and public schools-comparable to Amer- Germany, Netherlands, Australia, Korea, Pakistan,
ica’s Ivy League and private schools. The sport was India, Argentina, England, Spain, and Malaysia. One of
quickly embraced and spread to other countries. In most the extraordinary records in field hockey is the “golden
other countries the men have very high visibility, except era” of India’s Olympic teams. From 1928 to 1956,
in North America, where although men do play the India won six consecutive gold medals with a stellar
game, there is a general perception that it is a women’s record of 28 straight victories, scoring 178 goals and al-
sport. lowing only 7.
Some of the major rule changes include the intro-
The Game Develops duction of the penalty corner in 1908, calling different
The early modern history of field hockey is fragmentary types of stick interferences in 1938, and changing from
for both men and women. The first documented rules two substitutions to unlimited (rolling) substitutions.
for men were from England for the Blackhealth Hockey With the unlimited substitutions, the game has in-
Club in 1861 and for Eaton College in 1868. By the creased in flexibility and in the evolution of specialty
early 1900s men’s field hockey had spread to the players especially on the short corner.
HOCKEY, FIELD 735
Games played with the ball, and others of that nature, are too violent
for the body and stamp no character on the mind. ■ THOMAS JEFFERSON
The Women’s Game teams, the IFWHA relinquished its non-competitive

In 1887 the Molesey Ladies Hockey Club was credited policies and ranked its member teams, so at the tour-
for adapting hockey for the enjoyment of women. Field nament unofficial rankings as well as a winner were an-
hockey was quickly incorporated into the programs of nounced. The tournament in Edinburgh, Scotland in
several public schools in Scotland and England and 1975 was the first World Championship for Women
clubs, both college and recreational, were also formed sanctioned by the IFWHA. For its part, every two years
by the late 1880s. From 1889 onward, associations in since 1970, the FIH had been holding a sponsored
the north and south territories of England, Wales, and competition, known after 1974 as the FIH Women’s
Scotland had been established. The first women’s World Cup. Individual countries began to establish
hockey publication, The Hockey Field, was started in their team’s training and competition schedules around
England by Edith Thompson in 1901. Although these international events. As increasing commitments
sources credit hockey being played at Goucher College of time and energy were required of players, countries
as early as 1897, the establishment of women’s field were forced to think of new ways to sustain and com-
hockey in the United States has been primarily associ- pensate them.
ated with Constance M. K. Applebee (1873–1981), The discussion of inclusion of women’s field hockey
who introduced the sport in 1901. In January 1922, in the Olympics underwent serious consideration by
the United States Field Hockey Association (USFHA) the International Olympic Committee in the 1970s. A
was created. 1974 membership poll of 34 member associations re-
The sport for women had expanded in the southern vealed 17 in favor, 6 opposed, and 2 undecided. Even
hemisphere by 1903 with the establishment of the Aus- within the group that supported consideration, there
tralian Women’s Hockey Club in Sydney. Five years was concern that the high ideals of the IFWHA might
later, New Zealand formed their own association. Japan be compromised by a transfer to the Olympics. While
and Korea were competing by the 1930s. Worldwide the debate on inclusion in the Olympics continued in
expansion notwithstanding, women’s European teams the February 1975 meeting, the IFWHA received a let-
have always had an advantage in opportunities for com- ter from the FIH that the IOC had notified the FIH that
petition over other teams in other parts of the world the women’s event had been approved. In 1976, the
since Europe had the greatest concentration of women IOC announced that women’s field hockey would be in-
players in the smallest geographical area. The first post- cluded in the 1980 Olympics.
war request for women’s field hockey to be added to the An example of addressing a venue for player devel-
Olympic program was made in 1946. The International opment at elite level was made in 1977 when the first
Olympic Committee’s (IOC) rejection prompted the FIH junior cup for girls was held. With the Olympics on
FIH to propose a World Festival of Women’s Hockey in the horizon, women’s hockey appeared in the Soviet
May 1948 in Amsterdam. Union in 1977 with teams formed in the southern
The 1960s saw changes in attitudes that began to in- Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Women were also integrated
filtrate the associations as politics began to influence the into the Soviet field hockey association and the na-
development of the sport. The IFWHA was faced with tional women’s teams began to compete in 1979.
a decision on whether or not to hold the 1971 tourna- China appeared on the women’s scene in 1994 and
ment in South Africa. Acutely aware of apartheid, since 2000 the team has secured international status
IFWHA made an unprecedented boycott and moved ranked in the top five teams.
the host location to New Zealand. At the same time the Currently there are 114 countries represented through
organization was experiencing financial pressures. In national associations that are members of the FIH.
order to obtain government funding of national sport Playing opportunities range from country to country.
An English woman playing field hockey

around 1900. The All England Women’s
Hockey Association was formed in 1895.
Gazon (FIH) was founded in 1924 by Mr. Paul Léautey

representing both men and women. In 1927 the Inter-
national Federation of Women’s Hockey Association
(IFWHA) was formed. The major objectives of the
IFWHA were to “standardize and popularize the game
of field hockey among women of all nations.” The
founding members of the IFWHA were Australia, Den-
mark, England, Ireland, Scotland, South Africa, the
United States, and Wales. With the establishment of
the IFWHA, there were now two hockey federations:
one focused on women and one included both sexes. A
Development opportunities may include players under love-hate relationship between the two federations arose
15, 16, 18, and 21. Sometimes there are opportunities and persisted for close to half a century. The major con-
for veterans or Master level players. Club teams can in- flicts between the FIH and the IFWHA revolved around
clude recreational, competitive, local, and college. membership in regards to participation in the matches
and the rules. As IFWHA membership expanded, the
Major Controversies in the Sport. issue of how to handle the teams that were associated
For both men and women, the selection process of na- with the FIH arose. In 1953 a joint consultative com-
tional governing bodies as well as the FIH continues to mittee between IFWHA and FIH was formed to pro-
appear in the media, especially for elite competitions mote exchanges of information and cooperation
such as the Olympics. Each association has its own se- between both Federations and ultimately secure uni-
lection criteria for each competition, sometimes through formity in the rules and regulations and sensitive issue
player rankings along with other types of evaluations. of participation in international matches.
There is also an appeal process that is available for dis- Besides its own set of rules, the IFWHA required that
satisfied players and coaches to use. Sometimes player its games be officiated by women officials while FIH
and coach personalities conflict, as well as those of fel- matches permitted male officials. FIH also required that
low players, beyond a workable level. Therefore, al- any rules of play had to be established by an independ-
though the player might be the most talented and ent rules-making body just like the International Hockey
skilled player, there is such a negative contribution to Rules Board (IHRB); a formal organization, comparable
the team’s composition that they are not selected. Re- rules-making process, established committee member-
cent examples include the exclusion and subsequent ship, and actual rules of play. Talks stalled because FIH
discussion on whether or not Dhanaraj Pillay should be would not agree to recognize any decisions made by the
a member of India’s Olympic team in 2004. On occa- IFWHA Rules and Umpiring sub-committee until an
sion organizational politics arise in selection of players independent rules-making body was established. In Sep-
and coaches to the dissatisfaction of other players or of- tember 1966, a constitution for the proposed inde-
ficials such as the appointment and resulting resigna- pendent rules-making body was accepted and in January
tion of Tracey Belbin in 2003 as the women’s coach of 1967, the Women’s International Hockey Rules Board
the United States. was established by unanimous vote and would work in
Another controversial issue has been the merger be- close cooperation with IHRB.
tween men’s and women’s associations and governing The ongoing conflict between these two organiza-
bodies. The Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur tions was one reason that field hockey for women was
HOCKEY, FIELD 737
not included in the Olympics until 1980. Unable to me- velopment of women’s programs as it delayed their
diate between the two, the IOC had continuously rec- competitive presence at the global level.
ognized the FIH as the official organization for men’s
and women’s field hockey. In 1979, the officers of the Nature of the Sport
IFWHA began negotiations with the FIH. As the posi- Eleven players including a goaltender make up a team
tioning and posturing continued, it seemed that the and there are many variations on how players may be
FIH was maintaining control of power and not at- arranged on the field depending on the coaches and the
tempting to provide an equitable transition for the skill and talent of the players. Positions fall into three
IFWHA. Finally in 1981, the IFWHA was absorbed categories; attack, midfield (playing both attack and de-
into the FIH. Since then all national organizations have fense), and defenders. The point of the game is to score
gradually merged to one governing body that is re- more goals than the other team.
sponsible for all members. One of the concerns that had Players wear a uniform of shirt, skirts or shorts,
been expressed within the IFWHA before the merger mouth and shin guards. The goalie wears protective
was finding ways to increase female interest in coaching equipment that includes a helmet with facemask,
and officiating at all levels and that with the number of gloves, leg pads, booties, and many wear mouth and
male coaches in FIH, a merger would lessen opportu- neck guards as well as chest protectors.
nities for females.
One of the ironic controversies for males in the EQUIPMENT
United States is that with limited opportunities to play Players use a stick 35 inches (90cm) long made of wood
at all levels in male league; males try to get on female or specific synthetic materials which tapers to the bot-
teams to gain playing experience. Field hockey in the tom of the stick to a short hook curved (rounded) at the
United States is considered a women’s sport reflected in bottom to hit the ball which is 2.75 inches (7 cm) in di-
the history and control of the development and evolu- ameter. The shaft of the stick to the “head” is flattened
tion of the sport. Men formed the Field Hockey Asso- on one side so the ball can be easily hit.
ciation of America (FHAA) in 1928, four years after the The playing field is 100 yards long (91.4 m) and 60
women, spearheaded by Henry Greer, and since then yards wide (55 m) with flags placed at each corner of
have struggled to develop a program for boys and men. the field.There is a scoring circle, which is really an arch,
Conversely, the merging of FHAA to the United States in front of each goal of which the radius measures 16
Field Hockey Association (USFHA) helped provide fi- yards (14.63 m). Goals are rectangular 6.8 feet (2.1 me-
nancial support and some structure to enhance male ters) high and 12 feet (3.7 meters) wide, measured by
participation. Field hockey has become one of the few goal posts and crossbar, white in color, 2 inches wide
sports where males have tried to use Title IX and related (50 mm) and 3 inches (75 mm) deep.There are two side
legal cases to argue a case to allow males to participate boards 4 feet (1.22mm) long and 18 inches (460 mm)
on female teams at various levels. There are mixed emo- high and a backboard of the same height and a 12 foot
tions and reactions to this situation as many believe (3.66m) long line at the base of the goal with a net be-
boys would intimidate girls through physical advan- hind them. The net hangs loosely to prevent the ball
tages as well as skew the game from its philosophical from rebounding after a shot. Goals are placed at the
construction towards females. center of the goal line also referred to as the back line.
The political decision of several countries to boycott There are two officials or umpires, who make calls for
the Olympics in 1980, the first year for women to com- off-sides, player offenses, as well as check equipment in-
pete at that level, has for some, disadvantaged the de- cluding sticks, goals, field, uniforms and lineups.
Field hockey uses what is called a “mandatory ex- Rules Board functions as the body for the creation, re-
periment” to test for a time a proposed change that the vision, deletion, and testing of rules to benefit the game
Hockey Rules Board has included in the Rules of and maintain the safety of the players. Information on
Hockey. Until it becomes an official rule, all members the Board is located in the rules sections of the FIH
of all hockey federations must play by this rule. Two website.
mandatory experiments currently under review are al-
lowing a defender to use the stick to stop or deflect a Indoor Hockey
shot at goal at any height and not requiring the ball to Not to be confused with street hockey, floor hockey, or
be stopped before a shot at the goal at a penalty corner. floorball, indoor hockey is field hockey moved inside. It
To learn about the many other rules in field hockey has been in existence at least forty years serving as a
go to www.fihockey.org and click on rules. way for players to continue and maintain their mo-
mentum over the winter months. The FIH published its
Competition at the Top first indoors rule book in 1966; prior to that time, the
Hockey became an Olympic event for men in 1908 German Hockey Association produced the rules. Two
with a sporadic existence until 1928.Women played in years later, the FIH formally recognized the indoor
their own international competitions until 1980 when game and included indoor hockey as part of hockey in
approval for Olympic participation was given by the their Constitution revision. In 1988, rule responsibili-
IOC. The method of world ranking recently established ties were transferred to the Hockey Rules Board. Com-
by the FIH includes the following major tournaments petition started in Europe in 1974 with the European
over a four-year period. Olympic Games (including Indoor Cup for men and women and would be held
qualifying events), World Cup (including qualifying every three years. The first Pan American Cup was held
events), Champions Trophy, Champions Challenge, and 17 March 2002 in the U.S., where it was decided which
the Continental Federation Championships as well as teams would be participating in the first international
their qualifying events. Other competitions include Eu- world competition that would be held in Leipzig, Ger-
ropean championships, Asian Games, Pan American many in 2003. One of the concerns about the tourna-
Games, African Games, Commonwealth Games (every ment was the number of scheduling conflicts and
4 years), and the Junior World Cup (every 4 years). tapping of the player pools, that not necessarily the
There have been many honored athletes and coaches best teams or players would be present. The rules are
in field hockey including: Beth Anders, (United States, adapted to the smaller and shorter field. There are six
player and coach), Ric Charlesworth (Australia women’s players including the goalkeeper. Two umpires with a
coach), Carsten Fisher (Germany), Marieke van Dorn playing time of 20 minutes in a half each have 5 min-
(Netherlands), Katrina Masotta (Argentina), Marina utes half time. Other specifics of the rules can be found
vander Merwe (Canadian Women’s coach), Balbir Singh in the rules section of the FIH website.
(India) and Dhyan Chand (India).
The Future
Governing Body Field hockey has had several challenges in the last few
The Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon decades, a critical one being the possible elimination
(FIH) was founded in 1924 as the world governing from the Olympics.The FIH is working on ways to main-
body and in 1979, incorporated the International Fed- tain interest and support of the sport as membership
eration of Women’s Hockey Association (IFWHA). One continues to remain fairly consistent. Providing inter-
can locate information on other federations and asso- national rankings, and testing rule changes to help im-
ciations at the website (www.fihockey.org). Hockey prove the game for both players and spectators are
HOCKEY, ICE 739
A good hockey player plays where the puck is. A great hockey
player plays where the puck is going to be. ■ WAYNE GRETZKY
hopefully steps to help maintain the status of the sport. tensively in Canada and the United States but it also
However, as other national governing bodies also have very popular in Sweden, Finland, the Czech Republic,
to address the many issues for their members including Russia, and most of the countries that formed after the
organizational structure and financial stability, there will demise of the USSR. These countries with cold winters
need to be discussion on all levels with all those who are have dominated the sport of ice hockey at the interna-
invested in the continuation of the sport to contribute tional level. The game has recently begun to attract par-
their insights, suggestions, and concerns for its success. ticipants from countries with warmer climates, such as
Brazil and Mexico. The number of countries belonging
Mila C. Su
to the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the
international governing body of ice hockey, now ex-
Further Reading ceeds fifty, including the most recent members, Mace-
Adelson, B. (2000). The composite guide to field hockey. Philadelphia: donia and Liechtenstein, who joined in 2001.
Chelsea House Publishers.
Cox, R., Jarvie, G., & Vamplew, W. (Eds.). (2000). Encyclopedia of
British sport. Oxford, UK: ABC-CLIO.
History
Fédération Internationale de Hockey. (2004). Retrieved November 24, Many scholars of the game believe that early versions of
2004, from http://www.fihockey.org/ ice hockey were played by ancient Egyptians, Greeks,
Grant, C. H. B. (1984). Gender gap in sport: From Olympic to inter-
collegiate level. Arena Review, 8(2), 31–47. Romans, and Arabs. In more recent history a number of
Home of Hockey. (1998). Retrieved November 24, 2004, from http:// sports have been recognized as early forms of the mod-
www.fieldhockey.com
McBryde, J. (1986). The bipartite development of hockey: The bipartite
ern game of ice hockey. The sport of Irish hurling fea-
development of men’s and women’s field hockey in Canada in the tured a stick that resembled a hockey stick. The English
context of separate international hockey federations. Master’s thesis. game of field hockey has distinct similarities but is
Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia.
Shaner, J. P. (1975). The history and development of the International played on grass. The Native American game of baggat-
Federation of Women’s Hockey Association. Master’s thesis. away, which developed into the modern game of
Northampton, MA: Smith College.
lacrosse, also had distinct similarities to the early game
of ice hockey. Games that even more closely resembled
hockey were played in Canada, Britain, Holland, and
many other countries where it was cold enough for
Hockey, Ice rivers, ponds, or lakes to freeze. It is generally accepted,
although conflicting accounts exist, that British soldiers
I ce hockey is a winter sport played on an ice rink. Two

teams of players wearing skates and utilizing long
sticks with a curved blade at the end attempt to put a
stationed in Canada created the modern version of the
game in the 1850s. Despite the difficulty of articulating
the exact historical origins of the game of ice hockey,
hard rubber puck into their opponent’s net. Ice hockey there is little dispute that the first modern indoor ice
requires players to be able to skate, stickhandle the hockey game was played on 3 March 1875, at the Vic-
puck, pass the puck, and shoot on goal. It is often called toria Skating Rink in Montreal, Canada.
the fastest game on earth. Ice hockey can be played The Stanley Cup, which is considered one of the most
both indoors and outdoors, but it is primarily played in- prestigious trophies in ice hockey, was created in 1893,
doors at an organized level. There are numerous other when Lord Stanley of Preston, governor general of
versions of hockey including in-line, street, ball, and Canada, decided that the leading hockey club in Canada
floor hockey. each year should be awarded. It is the oldest profes-
Since the first modern game of hockey was played in- sional team sport trophy. The first North American
doors in Canada in 1875, the game has developed ex- league was the very short-lived International Hockey
League (IHL). It was followed by the National Hockey Ice hockey is growing in popularity worldwide. The
Association (NHA) in 1910 and the Pacific Coast IIHF now has over fifty member federations. There has
Hockey Association (PCHA) in 1911.Teams from these been continuous growth in the game of hockey as it has
two leagues eventually played for the Stanley Cup tro- spread across the globe. In the 1990s national hockey
phy until 1917. The NHA folded in 1917, and it im- federations from Iceland, Andorra, Ireland, Israel,
mediately reemerged as the National Hockey League Turkey, Singapore, Argentina, and Namibia joined the
(NHL). The PCHA folded in 1926, leaving the NHL as IIHF. Hockey is regarded as the fastest growing sport
the only professional league in Canada and the United for women and girls in Canada, and the entrance of
States. The NHL eventually settled as a six-team league women’s hockey in the Olympics, with the 1998
until the growing popularity of the game led to expan- Nagano Games, helped to promote the game for girls
sion in the late 1960s and 1970s that continued and women worldwide. The National Hockey League
through the 1990s.The NHL currently has thirty teams, has expanded to include teams in many warm-climate
twenty-five in the United States and five in Canada and cities, such as Dallas and Tampa. Despite this expan-
is considered the best professional ice hockey league in sion the NHL has struggled in the United States to
the world. compete with basketball, football and baseball and re-
The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) was mains a distant fourth to the big three in terms of spec-
created in 1908 to govern, develop, and promote ice tator support.
hockey throughout the world. It was originally called
the Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace (LIHG) Nature of the Game
and was based in Europe. The founding member coun- Indoor ice hockey is played on a patch of ice commonly
tries were France, Bohemia, Great Britain, Switzerland, referred to as a rink. A rink in Canada or the United
and Belgium. The first European Championships were States is typically 200 feet long and 85 feet wide. In Eu-
held in 1910 in conjunction with the congress of the rope a rink is slightly longer than 200 feet but signifi-
LIHG. Many of the LIHG teams competed in the first cantly wider than North American rinks at 98.5 feet.
Olympic ice hockey tournament in the 1920 Summer The rink is generally rectangular in shape but the cor-
Olympic Games in Antwerp. Canada and the United ners are rounded. The ice surface is surrounded by
States were added to the organization shortly after the boards that have Plexiglass and netting on top to keep
first Olympic tournament and were the first non- the puck from going into the stands and injuring spec-
European countries admitted to the LIHG. The 1924 tators. The playing surface is divided into three zones
Chamonix Winter Olympic Games were the first Win- marked by lines painted on the ice. A red line runs
ter Olympics, and the hockey event was also considered across the width of the ice and splits the surface into
the world championship. In 1928 the Olympics, World, two equal halves. Two blue lines are placed approxi-
and European Championships were all held at the same mately forty feet on each side of the red centerline. The
time. The leaders of the LIHG decided to hold world area between the two blue lines is called the neutral
championships every year beginning in 1930. zone. There are also two thin red goal lines placed ap-
Canada dominated early international competition, proximately ten feet from the end of the boards. The
winning six of the first seven Olympic gold medals. goals are placed on these lines. The area between the
But Canada was replaced on top of the ice hockey goal line and blue line is referred to as the end zone or
podium by the USSR. Between 1952 and the breakup as the defending and attacking zones. In addition to
of the USSR, it was a dominant force in international these five lines there are five face off circles painted on
competition. The result of the breakup of the USSR has a rink. Two face-off circles are located in each end zone
been a degree of parity in international ice hockey and one at center ice. Face-offs can be taken within any
competition. of these face-off circles or at four other face-off spots
HOCKEY, ICE 741
Hockey, Ice
Competition for Players in the 1890s
As the number of teams grew, so did competition for Athletics, but does not assume their liabilities. Presi-
players. The following account of the Ontario Hockey dent Brown in opening the proceedings spoke glow-
Association Meeting in 1895 outlines this and other ingly of the progress of the association, which he
issues affecting ice hockey’s early development into a though was largely due to the energetic efforts of the
professional sport. Secretary. . . . The large attendance he thought spoke
well for the future of the game. The sub-committee’s
On Saturday afternoon when the annual parliament
report . . . expressed the opinion that the number of
of the Ontario Hockey Association was convened at
clubs in the senior series in Toronto and elsewhere
the Queen’s Hotel nearly 50 delegates were present,
was too great and the matches too many. It was
representing about 20 clubs, an increase over the last
pointed out that the Canadian Hockey Association is
yearly gathering of 30 delegates. Last year there was
a five club league, and that a city the size of Ottawa
an appreciable decrease in the interest in the game
was allowed only one team in the senior series.
taken in Toronto, which could be ascribed to the lack
Treasurer A.R. Creelman’s statement . . . showed
of a first-class representative city team, but legislation
that the affairs of the association financially were all
towards the formation of such a seven was enacted by
that could be desired, there being a balance of
the hockeyists on Saturday, both the local and outside
$191.49. . . .
delegates combining in furthering the scheme.
McFadden wanted the rules altered so that a player
Many telling arguments were used by Vice-
could not play for more than one club during one
President McFadden in favor of establishing an in-
season. This would shut out Bank League players
termediate series, which would embrace all the clubs
from participation in the O.H.A. cup matches, and it
that have proved themselves to be too strong for the
seemed to be the general opinion that the league was
junior and too weak for the senior, but it was thought
the chief factor in the surfeit of hockey that Toronto
by a goodly proportion of the members that the time
had last year. After getting this expression McFadden
was hardly ripe enough for so radical a change, and
withdrew his motion. An endeavor will be made to
the matter was left in abeyance. . . .
get the city clubs together for the organization of a
The first business transacted was the admittance of
representative Toronto team fit to hold its own with
Norwood, Lindsay and the Victorias of Kingston to
Queen’s or any of the other eastern clubs. . . .
the full privileges of the full privileges of the associa-
Source: Too many teams. (1895, December 9). Toronto Globe, p. 8.
tion. The latter club takes the place vacated by the
with the neutral zone. The only players allowed inside How the Game Is Played
the face-off circles are the two players taking the face-off. The game of ice hockey is played with six players on
Each player must be equipped with a stick and sub- the ice at one time. The six players include three for-
stantial protective equipment, including a helmet with wards, two defensive players, and a goalie. The three
a cage or shield, shoulder pads, elbow pads, hockey forwards consist of a right wing, a left wing, and the
gloves, padded hockey pants, shin guards, and skates. center. The center plays in between the two wingers and
The players must also have hockey socks that cover the controls the flow of play. The two defensive players
shin guards and a hockey jersey that is worn on top of play side by side. Despite being labeled forwards and
the shoulder and elbow pads. The puck is a very hard defense, all players on the ice have both offensive and
black rubber disc that is 1 inch thick and 3 inches in di- defensive responsibilities—with the exception of the
ameter with the top and bottom flat surfaces being very goalie. The goalie’s primary job is to keep the puck out
smooth to allow the puck to slide easily across the ice. of the net and as part of that job to communicate with
A hockey player skating towards the puck. Source: istockphoto/jamirae.
the other players on the ice. The three forwards are some combination, with the last three to ten minutes of
considered a line. There are usually several lines of for- the last period being stop time. The game is started
wards and several defensive pairings on each team. A with all players on their side of the center line. The
line plays a shift that is approximately one minute in puck is dropped between the two centers in a face off,
length although this varies by the level of hockey being and each player attempts to win possession of the puck.
played, the speed of the game, and the position of the The goal of ice hockey is to score more goals than the
players. Games that are played at a higher level and opponent. A goal is scored when the puck crosses com-
faster speed require players to take shorter shifts. De- pletely over the opponent’s goal line. A player attempts
fensive players tend to take slightly longer shifts than to put the puck in the net with his or her stick. A puck
forwards and centers. Defensive players may also be that is unintentionally deflected off of any part of the
considered a part of a line or separately as a defensive hockey player’s body into the net is considered a goal.
pair. Players can change on the fly in hockey—while the But a puck may not be intentionally kicked, blocked, or
game continues—or when play stops. Changing on the deflected into the net by any part of the body. The de-
fly often requires a player to jump over the boards in- cision on whether of not the deflection was intentional
stead of using one of the doors at either end of the is up to the discretion of the referee. At higher levels of
team bench. Forwards and defensive players often ice hockey, a goal judge behind the goal determines
change at separate times to avoid being caught in a bad whether or not the puck entered the goal, and in the Na-
line change. tional Hockey League, officials may make use of video
Ice hockey games are divided into three equal periods replay to review a goal judge’s decision.
of play. Professional and international games are played Possession of the puck changes quickly in hockey.
in three twenty-minute periods of stop time; that is, Once a defending team gains possession of the puck in
each time the puck is out of play the clock stops. Recre- the defensive zone, they work to move the puck into the
ational games are often played with running-time peri- neutral zone while maintaining possession of the puck.
ods or stop-time periods of ten or fifteen minutes or This process is referred to as a breakout. The defensive
HOCKEY, ICE 743
I had all my own teeth and I wanted

to keep it that way. ■ TOM GLAVINE
players move the puck up to the forwards in set pat- to that player. Minor penalties require the offending
terns. Once the puck is controlled in the neutral zone, player to spend two minutes in the penalty box while
the defensive team is now on the offensive and attempts his or her team plays with only five players on the ice.
to establish possession of the puck in the offensive If a goal is scored before the end of the two minutes, the
zone. Two primary tactics are used to do this: The first penalty ends. Major penalties are assessed for more se-
is by carrying the puck into the zone and past the de- rious infractions of the rules, such as punching another
fenders, setting up deep in the offensive zone close to player or causing a minor injury to an opponent. Major
the goal. The other tactic is “forechecking,” or dumping penalties result in a five-minute removal from the ice. A
the puck into the offensive zone—shooting it past the goal being scored during a major penalty does not end
defensive players and off the boards—and having the the penalty as it does for a minor penalty. The players
forwards rush in, control the puck, and put intense must stay in the penalty box for the entire five minutes.
pressure on the defensive players. The defensive team The major significant difference in the women’s and
uses a number of tactics to respond to the attacking youth game is the absence of body checking. Women,
team. The defensive players can attempt to stand the of- girls, and boys under a certain age are not allowed to
fensive players up on the blue line and not allow them bodycheck in the game of ice hockey. Many recreational
to establish possession in the offensive zone. The de- men’s leagues also prohibit the use of body checking.
fense may also allow the offensive team to gain pos- Most women’s, youth, and collegiate hockey leagues
session in the zone by backing up with them and require players to wear a full cage on their helmets to
waiting for the offensive player to make a mistake and protect the face and head. All ice hockey games are
give up possession of the puck. One player may stall his played on the full-size hockey rink, although rink size
opponent until a teammate who is coming back into the varies between Europe and North America.
zone attempts to steal the puck from the offensive There is also a version of ice hockey that was devel-
player. This tactic is called back-checking. Some teams oped for athletes with a disability. Sledge hockey is
also utilize the neutral zone trap with all five of the play- played on a regulation ice hockey rink and incorpo-
ers on defense located between the center line and the rates many of the rules of ice hockey. It is played on an
defensive blue line making it very difficult for the of- aluminum sled that has two skate blades attached to the
fensive team to move the puck into the offensive zone bottom. The players use two very short fiberglass sticks
and often resulting in the offensive team dumping the with picks on the end to pass, shoot, and maneuver
puck in and giving up possession. their sleds. Sledge hockey is very popular in North
There are a number of rules in ice hockey that impact America, but it is also played in such countries as Nor-
the game. Two violations of the rules that do not result way and Sweden. The Canadian National Sledge
in penalties are icing and offside. Icing is called when Hockey Team is the current world champion, but it fin-
the puck is played from the defensive side of the cen- ished fourth at the 2002 Winter Paralympics in Salt
terline across the end line. Offside is called when a Lake City.
player crosses into the offensive zone ahead of the puck. White upper-class men dominated the first few
Both of these rules attempt to eliminate the opportunity decades of the development of modern ice hockey. The
for teams to score easy goals by having a player stay in last three decades have resulted in many changes within
the offensive zone, behind the defensive team or ahead the sport. The costs of the equipment and ice rental
of the puck. There are a number of other rule violations have continued to limit participation, but programs
that result in penalties to players. Minor penalties are as- now exist that provide opportunities for some children
sessed for a wide range of infractions, including trip- to play hockey who otherwise could not afford it. The
ping, slashing, and hooking, that do not result in injury passage of Title IX in 1972 has facilitated the growth of
How organized are you? Could your life be called a ballet or is it a

hockey game (or a pin-ball machine)? However, even in a hockey game,
good hockey players learn to skate to where the puck WILL BE. ■ UNKNOWN
women’s collegiate sport in the United States and has NHL records for goals (92), assists (163), and points
resulted in more opportunities for women to play ice (215) in the regular season. Gretzky scored at least 100
hockey at the high school and collegiate level. points fourteen times, and he had at least 200 points
four times in his NHL career. He scored at least 50
Competition at the Top goals in nine separate seasons and had at least 60 goals
The IIHF is responsible for most of the major interna- in five other seasons. He had two phenomenal career
tional ice hockey competitions. The IIHF controls seasons where he scored more than 80 goals.
Olympic competitions for both men and women, the
World Championships for men, the World Champi- Governing Bodies
onships for women, the World Under 20 and Under 18 Overseeing organizations include: Hockey Canada
Championships for young men, and the Club Champi- (www.hockeycanada.ca); International Ice Hockey Fed-
onships, which include the European Champions Cup, eration (www.iihf.com); National Hockey League
the Continental Cup, and the European Women Cham- (www.nhl.com); and USA Hockey (www.usahockey.
pions Cup. com).
A number of other international competitions exist
Laura Frances Chase
that are not under the auspices of the IIHF. The World
Cup for men, competitions for Under 22 Women’s Na- See also Lake Placid; Maple Leaf Gardens; Stanley Cup
tional teams, and the Under 18 Junior World Cup for
boys are not controlled by the IIHF. The World Cup of
Hockey began as the Canada Cup in 1976 and was Further Reading
Avery, J., & Stevens, J. (1997). Too many men on the ice:Women’s hockey
held five times until it was replaced in 1996 with World in North America. Victoria, Canada: Polestar Book Publishers.
Cup competition. Diamond, D., Duplacey, J., & Zweig, E. (2003). The ultimate prize: The
Other regional ice hockey competitions or leagues in- Stanley Cup. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishers.
Etue, E., & Williams, M. (1996). On the edge: Women making hockey
clude the Eastern European Hockey League (EEHL), history. Toronto, Canada: Second Story Press.
which has top teams from Latvia, Ukraine, Belarus, and EuroHockey. (2004). Retrieved January 20, 2005, from http://www.
eurohockey.net
Russia. The International Ice Hockey League (IIHL) Falla, J., Batten, J, Hornby, L., Johnson, G., & Milton, S. (2001). Quest
was formed in 1999, featuring teams from Slovenia, for the cup: A history of the Stanley Cup finals 1893–2001. Toronto,
Hungary, Croatia, Yugoslavia, and Slovakia. The Euro Canada: Key Porter Press.
Fischler, S., & Fischler, S. (1996). Great book of hockey: More than 100
Hockey Tour includes a series of events featuring teams years of fire on ice. Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International, Ltd.
from Russia, Czech Republic, Sweden, and Finland. Goyens, C., Orr, F., Turowetz, A., & Duguay, J. (2000). Blades on ice:
A century of professional hockey. Markham, Canada: TPE.
Major national competitions exist in Canada, the Gregg, R. (1999). Hockey: The technical, the physical and the mental
United States, Russia, Sweden, and Finland. All of these game. Stettler, Canada: FP Hendriks Publisher.
countries have a number of hockey leagues and one Harris, C. (2003). Breaking the ice: The black experience in profes-
sional hockey. Toronto, Canada: Insomniac Press.
league that is considered the top league. In Canada Houston, W. (1992). Pride and glory: 100 years of the Stanley Cup.
and the United States, the top league is the National Toronto, Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Jenish, D’Arcy. (1996). Stanley Cup: One hundred years of hockey at its
Hockey League, in Sweden the top league is Elitserien best. Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart/Tundra Books.
Info, and in Finland the top league is the SM-Liiga Info. Leonetti, M. (2001). Cold war: A decade of hockey’s greatest rivalry,
There have been many great hockey players in the his- 1959–1969. Toronto, Canada: HarperCollins Publishers.
McFarlane, B. (1973). The story of the National Hockey League. New
tory of the sport of ice hockey. But arguably the great- York: Scribner.
est player to lace up ice hockey skates was Canadian McFarlane, B. (1999). Stanley Cup fever: More than a century of hockey
greatness. North York, Canada: Stoddart Publishers.
Wayne Gretzky. Gretzky won four Stanley Cups while McKinley, M. (2000). Putting a roof on winter. Vancouver, Canada:
with the Edmonton Oilers. He continues to hold the Greystone Books.
HOCKEY, IN-LINE 745
Pincus, A., Rosner, D., Hockberg, L., & Malcolm, C. (1999). NHL: The With in-line hockey taking off, entrepreneurs saw a
official illustrated history. North Vancouver, Canada: Whitecap
potential moneymaker. In 1992 Joe Mireault founded
Books Ltd.
Scanlan, L. (2002). Grace under fire: The state of our sweet and savage the National Inline Hockey Association (NIHA) along
game. Toronto, Canada: Penguin. with Bob Naegele III, whose father had created
Scott, R. (2000). Ice time: A Canadian hockey journey. Toronto,
Canada: Viking. Rollerblade. That fall, Roller Hockey International
Strachan, A. (1999). One hundred years of hockey. Toronto, Canada: (RHI), an aspiring professional league, had its first ex-
Key Porter Press.
hibition, with Team USA playing Team Canada.
Theberge, N. (2000). Higher goals: Women’s ice hockey and the politics
of gender. Albany: State University of New York. In 1993 David McLane created the World Roller
Vaugh, G. (1996). The puck starts here: The origin of Canada’s great Hockey League (WRHL), which played all of its games
winter game: Ice hockey. Fredericton, Canada: Goose Lane Edi-
tions. at Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida; Roller Hockey
Willes, E. (2004). The rebel league: The short and unruly life of the World Magazine, the first glossy publication to cover the fledg-
Hockey Association. Toronto, Canada: McClelland & Stewart. ling sport nationally, debuted; and RHI concluded its
Young, S. (1989). 100 years of dropping the puck. Toronto, Canada:
McClelland & Stewart. first twelve-team season—the Anaheim Bullfrogs de-
feated the Oakland Skates to win the Murphy Cup,
named after one of RHI’s founders, Dennis Murphy.
Also in 1993 Paul Chapey, a longtime quad roller
hockey player, created the Koho California Cup, a re-
Hockey, In-Line gional in-line hockey series for amateurs. The following
summer, in St. Louis, Missouri, Chapey and his partners
I n-line hockey, based on the rules of ice hockey, is

played on skates designed with their wheels in a
line, unlike traditional four-wheel roller skates or
produced the first North American Roller Hockey
Championships. Nicknamed “NARCh,” the event grew
into the world’s premier amateur in-line hockey tour-
“quads,” which have a pair of wheels in the front and nament.
another in the rear. Other names for the sport include About this time the United States Amateur Confed-
roller hockey, street hockey, and skater hockey. In-line eration of Roller Skating (USAC/RS) became aware of
hockey’s hotbeds are North America and Europe, with the in-line craze. Long having administered quad roller
increasing growth in Australia, South America, Asia, hockey, USAC/RS felt that it was the obvious organi-
and Africa. zation to lead the sport. USA Hockey (which eventually
purchased the assets of the NIHA) and its in-line off-
History shoot USA Hockey InLine, disagreed. Complicating
Roller skating became very popular in the late nine- matters, there were also international governing bodies
teenth and early twentieth centuries, and quad-skate —the Federation Internationale de Roller Skating and
roller hockey quickly developed as a sport. In-line the International Ice Hockey Federation, which both
hockey, however, has a much more recent history and created world championship events in the mid-1990s.
has been played with ever-increasing sophistication In 1998 Bill Raue created Major League Roller
since the mid-1980s. In 1979 Scott Olson of Min- Hockey (MLRH) to take advantage of Roller Hockey
neapolis, Minnesota, found an old pair of in-line skates, International’s one-year hiatus, and after joining the
improved on the design, and marketed the skate as an league, the Anaheim Bullfrogs won its third champi-
off-season training device for ice hockey players. In 1984 onship.
Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele Jr. purchased When in-line hockey first began, the players were al-
Olson’s fledgling company, named it Rollerblade, Inc., most all men, but many more women now play. In
and effectively marketed the skates to the general public. 1998, according to the Sporting Goods Manufacturing
Association, the sport’s participant numbers (3.8 mil- cede the attacking player into the offensive zone, most
lion) surpassed those of ice hockey in North America. in-line hockey leagues do not call offsides, thus opening
Those numbers have since decreased, but there are still up the game for more scoring and excitement.
about 2.7 million in-line hockey players in the United Many of in-line hockey’s first facilities were recre-
States and Canada. That reversal in growth was caused ational roller hockey and/or ice hockey rinks converted
by the demise of the professional leagues RHI and for the purpose by melting the ice and playing on the
MLRH, the focus on elite players by tournament oper- concrete subsurface. A polyurethane substance called
ators, the lack of cooperation between competing tour- Roll-On often was painted on concrete to facilitate
nament organizations and governing bodies, and the wheel grip and stopping ability. As the game moved in-
overproduction of equipment by manufacturers. Since doors, companies like Sport Court and Ice Court cre-
many sporting goods stores found themselves with sig- ated smooth plastic surfaces, and pucks were specially
nificant surpluses in inventory for in-line hockey after the designed for those surfaces. Other important pieces of
downturn of the sport, many stores were caught “hold- equipment include skate frames (chassis), which moved
ing the bag” and were forced to dump inventory, thus in design from steel to plastic to high-quality light-
losing interest in reordering any in-line products at all. weight aluminum; better wheels (designed for grip and
In-line hockey has seen few controversies or scan- durability); and new composite and one-piece sticks.
dals; however, at the 1999 Pan American Games, Steve A player’s size is not as important a factor in the am-
Vezina, the goaltender for Team Canada, tested positive ateur game because of the open space on the playing
for several banned substances and Canada was stripped surface, the prohibition against checking, and the speed
of its gold medal. and ability of many smaller players. As a result skating,
stick handling, and passing and receiving the puck are
Nature of the Sport paramount, making in-line hockey a great game for
In-line hockey is played four on four, plus goalies, un- smaller players, including girls and women.
like ice hockey, which is played with five skaters on a In-line hockey has never been an Olympic sport, and
side. The object is to put the puck or ball past the other its path to any potential Olympic glory is a doubtful
team’s goaltender. With two (total) fewer skaters on the one, because there is not one established world gov-
playing surface, there is more room to maneuver. Puck erning body to represent the interests of the sport and
control is very important; if you have possession of the because the International Olympic Committee is trim-
puck, the other team cannot score. With an emphasis on ming sports from the Olympic program.
offense, shutouts are rare, and goalies rate their play
more on wins than on goals-against average. The Future
While the basic rules of in-line hockey are similar In-line hockey’s skyrocketing growth reached a plateau
wherever it is played, there are variations. Leagues split in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.
the game into two halves, three periods, or four quar- While the RHI and MLRH pro leagues failed in the late
ters. Amateur leagues prohibit checking and have a no- 1990s, semipro leagues continued to attract top players
tolerance attitude toward fighting, while semipro such as Gerry St. Cyr, Rob Laurie, and C. J. Yoder. This
leagues permit both. Another major difference between development of new “stars” offers hope that in-line
in-line hockey and ice hockey is the elimination of ice hockey will grow in the future.
hockey’s blue lines. Ice hockey has three established
zones: defensive, neutral, and offensive, defined by two Governing Bodies
blue lines and a red line at center ice. Inline hockey only International governing organizations are: Federation
uses two zones, separated by a center red line. While ice Internationale de Roller Skating (FIRS, www.roller
hockey has an offsides rule, where the puck must pre- sports.org) and International Ice Hockey Federation
HOLMENKOLLEN SKI JUMP 747
(IIHF) Inline (www.iihf.com/inline.htm). North Amer- 1879, the local skiing club initiated a move to an area
ican governing bodies include USA Hockey InLine situated higher above the city of Oslo in 1892, giving
(USAHIL, www.usahockey.com/inline/main/home), them access to a larger hill and more favorable condi-
USA Roller Sports (USARS, www.usarollersports.org), tions, and ensuring more snow for a longer period of
Canada Inline Hockey (CIH, www.canadianhockeyin time. The longest jumps from the first Holmenkollen
line.com). hill, however, did not measure more than 21.5 meters.
But from then on, a continuous expansion involving all
Richard Neil Graham
areas of the hill has been going on. The landing slope
has been dug deeper, and the in-run to the jump has
Further Reading been made much longer and higher, making the whole
Inline Hockey Central. (2005). Retrieved March 31, 2005, from www. hill larger and steeper. Today’s record for the longest
inlinehockeycentral.com standing jump is 132.5 meters.
National Museum of Roller Skating. (2005). Retrieved March 30,
2005, from http://www.rollerskatingmuseum.com
The discussion that took place concerning the en-
SkateLog. (2005). Retrieved March 31, 2005, from http://www. largement of the hill is illustrative of the way ski jump-
SkateLog.com ing as a sport has been regarded. When the first
scaffolds were built to make the in-run steeper, they
were met with outcries of contempt. The scaffolds were
called “the tower of Babel,” and it was said that their
Holmenkollen presence turned the noble sport of skiing into an acro-
batic competition, not a challenge of how to meet and
Ski Jump master natural obstacles in the winter terrain. How-
ever, the scaffolds were there to stay. They were refur-
T he Holmenkollen Ski Jump, located at Hol-

menkollen, in Oslo, Norway, is the oldest and per-
haps still the most esteemed jumping hill used for
bished and enlarged on several occasions. The hill today
is part of a combined winter sports area, with modern
facilities for cross-country skiing and biathlon as well fa-
modern ski jumping. It is an arena rich in winter sport cilities as for spectators and media representatives.
traditions. Since 1892 the hill has been a venue for the The development of the site has been a steady
winter season’s ski jumping competitions. Holmenkol- process. However, the modernization of the hill has
len never was the biggest of hills, but the site has an been focused on the big international events that have
aura of skiing history as well as a well-known ambience. taken place there. The Winter Olympic Games of 1952
The yearly contests [“Holmenkollen Sunday”] attract had Holmenkollen as a major venue. Although the hill
tens of thousands of spectators. At the Olympic com- is privately owned by the Foreningen til Skiidrettens
petitions that took place here in 1952, more than Fremme (Association for the Promotion of Skiing), it
120,000 spectators were said to have been present. was the Oslo city council that granted funding for the
renewal. Later renovations were also funded by the Nor-
History of the Hill wegian state. In 1952 it was the architect Frode Rin-
The hill was a product of the Norwegian interest in ski- nan’s functionalistic inspirations that were brought to
ing and ski jumping, especially. The location of skiing’s the ski jumping hill. Pure, simplistic, and functional
most important hill in Norway’s capital, Oslo, and Hol- forms were to be the characteristics of the modernized
menkollen’s position as the center of Norwegian ski venue.
sport was also a result of the urban middle classes tak- The World Cups in Nordic Skiing of 1966 and 1982
ing control of the originally rural sport. After having also took place here. From the beginning the Hol-
started on a smaller nearby hill called Husebybakken in menkollen Ski Festival gathered enormous interest and
was a popular end-of-season event both among specta- venue as a special symbol of Norwegian and interna-
tors and athletes. The jump’s status as something spe- tional ski jumping.
cial in Norwegian and international skiing history is Although the hill is not among the biggest or most
demonstrated by the fact that up until recent years, the modern, it is still a symbol of ski jumping, and the
hill could, except for these major events, be used for the competitions held here create an atmosphere that
annual races only. No training was allowed on the hill. makes the yearly contests into a national festival and a
There was also an element of fair play involved: It was multicultural public rejoicing.
felt that local and national skiers should not have any
advantages when the big competitions were held there. The Future
In other words the jump was more a monument than a The size of the hill makes the venue’s future uncertain.
facility for everyday use, “elevating” the hill to a very spe- Expansion of the site seems to have reached its bearable
cial status as a ski jumping hill. Only as late as the limits. According to engineers and other experts, it is
1990s were floodlights installed, making jump training not possible to extend the hill, whether to heighten the
on dark winter evenings possible. tower and the in-run or to make the landing area
The venue also has attractions in the off-season. In- deeper. As the development of competitive ski jumping
side the jump is a restaurant, built in 1952, and at- seems to demand ever bigger hills, the solution could be
tached to this is the famous Holmenkollen ski museum, to build a completely new hill in another place. The
started in 1923, now one of the leading museums of its challenge for the future would then be to keep the name
kind. These attractions have made the jump one of and transfer the atmosphere and the skiing traditions to
Oslo’s main tourist attractions year-round. Modern ski the new venue. The debate about how to do this has just
jumping hills are usually, because of their size, subject begun.
to nature’s changing conditions. Holmenkollen has ex-
Matti Goksøyr
perienced this too. In February and March when the an-
nual races usually take place the weather can be quite
nice, but it can also be quite foggy. However, since its Further Reading
start in 1892, the competition has been cancelled only Breili, M., & Schjelderup, T. (1982). 100 år med ski på bena. Oslo, Nor-
twice. way: Dreyers forlag.
Goksøyr, M., Andersen, E., & Asdal, K. (1996). Kropp, kultur og tippe-
kamp. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
Holmenkollen Today Vaage, J., & Kristensen, T. (1992). Holmenkollen: Historien og resul-
Holmenkollen hill is a national symbol. King Olav tatene. Oslo, Norway: De norske Bokklubbene.
Vaage, J. (1971). Holmenkollen. Oslo, Norway: De norske bokklubbene.
jumped here as a young prince in 1922 and 1923,
something that added immensely to the Danish-born
prince’s image as true Norwegian royalty. The day of the
annual competitions have been called “Norway’s second
national day.” Its hold on the Norwegian people was il-
lustrated in 1946 when more than 100,000 men,
Holmenkollen Sunday
women, and children turned up to watch the first com-
petitions on the hill after World War II. The races had
then been cancelled since the winter of 1940 due to the
H olmenkollen Sunday is the highlight of the Hol-
menkollen Ski Festival held each March at the
Holmenkollen Ski Jump in Oslo, Norway. The day is a
reluctance of Norwegian skiers to compete with local party for all kinds of people, from the Norwegian king
Nazi and German occupation forces. But after the war, and royal family to sports-loving citizens to the world’s
people by their presence supported the image of the best skiers. It has been compared with a Derby Day at
HOLMENKOLLEN SUNDAY 749
Epsom in England or a Grand Prix Sunday in Bois de Race.” The king of Norway, Haakon VII, by then an
Boulogne in France. even more elevated national symbol after having sym-
The presence of the royal family has been a feature of bolized five years of resistance to German occupiers
the day since Norway’s independence from Sweden in during World War II, returned to the hill that he and his
1905. The new royal family vowed to attend the ski- people had been prevented from visiting since 1940,
jumping competition at Holmenkollen every year. The making the competition that year even more special.
crown prince, Olav, twice jumped Holmenkollen hill, During most of the post–World War II era Hol-
adding to his identity as Norwegian royalty and to his menkollen Sunday has remained an important event.
popularity. He never won the competition, but his mas- The number of spectators has varied between thirty
tering the hill and greeting the crowd pleased spectators. thousand and seventy thousand, depending on weather
Although the first Holmenkollen competition in and the quality of Norwegian skiers participating. The
1892 took place on a Sunday, the competition has not postwar Holmenkollen Sunday for many decades was
always been held on a Sunday. From 1893 until 1925 part of a Holmenkollen week or sometimes half-week.
the competition took place on a Monday. Even though By the end of the twentieth century, because the devel-
it was staged on a working day the ski-jumping com- opment of international skiing left less time on the in-
petition remained popular. Spectators arrived by foot, ternational racing agenda, the week was reduced to a
by horse carriages, and by the new Holmenkoll-bane, a Holmenkollen weekend. On this weekend Saturday’s
tram that transported people from the city center to traditional cross-country race of 50 kilometers through
the heights of Holmenkollen. The organizers seem to the forests of Oslo plays a vital part, both as a sports
have hoped to institutionalize the day as a holiday to event and as a popular social event.
celebrate the Norwegian national sport, and some em- From the beginning of the skiing competitions at
ployers were more or less forced to give their employ- Holmenkollen ski jumping attracted the most interest
ees the day off for the occasion. However, as hopes of among spectators. Ski jumping was an integral part of
establishing a national holiday gradually vanished, or- the Nordic combined events. This combination meant
ganizers concluded that compelling employees to miss that skiers had to finish the cross-country race to be al-
a day of work to witness something as ideal as a sport lowed to jump the hill. One tradition that followed the
—especially the national sport—was wrong. combined competition was the presentation of the
After 1926 the Holmenkollen competition was Ladies’ Cup to the best jumper in the combined class—
moved back to a Sunday. However, this move also the skier who best combined the will to struggle
caused a problem because the local priesthood objected through the cross-country course with flair and grace in
to what it saw as a breach of church holiday peace. The the air. However, as ski jumping has developed, giving
operator of the local tram company also objected. These more emphasis to length than to flair and grace, the
objections, however, could not prevent Holmenkollen Ladies’ Cup has lost some of its importance.
Sunday from being a success. A record number of spec-
tators flocked to the competition that year. The Future
Holmenkollen Sunday organizers have experimented
Postwar Celebration with adding competitions to the ski jumping that tra-
Since 1926 Holmenkollen Sunday has been something ditionally has been the principal competition. Both
special for ski jumping and for winter culture. Huge mass skiing races and elite cross-country races have
crowds of spectators have attended, especially in 1946, been staged. Holmenkollen Sunday remains a vibrant
when more than 100,000 attended. After five years of event at which people watch elite ski jumpers and ex-
war and occupation the event was labeled the “Peace perience a gala social event, often dressed in what have
An ardent supporter of the home town team should go to a game

prepared to take offense, no matter what happens. ■ ROBERT BENCHLEY
become traditional Norwegian sports costumes: woolen cent–59 percent, though this can rise to 75 percent for
sweaters, frieze (a heavy, coarse wool and shoddy fab- “special” games like opening day). At the collegiate level,
ric with a rough surface) trousers, rucksacks, and little research finds home advantages in men’s basketball (58
flags. The meaning of Holmenkollen Sunday thus seems percent–78 percent), football (59 percent–60 percent),
to have changed little during the last hundred years. field hockey (56.5 percent), and softball (56 percent),
and women’s basketball (57 percent). Scholastic teams
Matti Goksoyr
in cross-country (54 percent), wrestling (54 percent),
basketball (51 percent–62 percent), and football (52
Further Reading percent–58 percent) also are more likely to win at
Bo, O. (1993). Skiing throughout history. Oslo: Det norske samlaget. home, as are athletes playing club cricket (53 percent–
Kleppen, H. (1998). Holmenkollen. Oslo: Samlaget. 57 percent). There is no consistent explanation for why
Vaage, J., & Kristense, T. (1992). Holmenkollen: Historien og resul-
tatene. Oslo: De norske bokklubbene.
the size of the home advantage varies by sport.
It is difficult to determine levels of the home advan-
tage because the quality of the teams matters: Good
teams playing weaker ones are unlikely to need the edge
of the home crowd (or the boost the crowd provides the
Home Field Advantage weaker home team is unlikely to result in a victory), and
it is difficult to attribute a win solely to the factors
I n sports such as basketball, the home team is victo-

rious in over half the contests. In individual sports,
for example, golf, athletes perform slightly better on
thought to produce the home advantage. Research to
date suggests that the home advantage may be most
consequential when teams are equally matched or when
their home “turf.” International competitors show a sim- the home team is slightly weaker than the visiting team.
ilar preference for familiar territory: Olympic athletes Some studies cast the level of advantage in terms of
and World Cup soccer players perform better than ex- an increased probability that the home team wins. Such
pected in front of the home crowd. All these phenom- studies find that, beyond variables influencing game
ena are grouped under the heading of “The Home Field outcomes, being the home team has a very small posi-
Advantage,” or more generally “The Home Advantage.” tive effect on the chance that the home team will win.
While the home advantage has been studied for over Alternatively, a home advantage is defined by how an
twenty-five years, the reasons for it remain elusive. A full athlete (or team) performs relative to some baseline ex-
range of explanations has been offered and each re- pectation, such as a world ranking, golf strokes in ear-
ceives some empirical support. As a consequence, the lier rounds, or goals scored at away games. Here too the
home advantage turns out to be a rich arena for devel- size of the home advantage is found to be small, but in
oping the social science of sport. the correct direction: Home teams or athletes in indi-
vidual sports perform better than they otherwise might,
The Magnitude of the Home Advantage even if they don’t win the event.
A range of values for the home advantage has been re-
ported. For professional sports the home team wins be- Sociological Explanations
tween 61 percent and 76 percent of the contests in Many explanations start with the presumed influence of
soccer, with lesser levels for hockey (56 percent–64 the crowd. The crowd provides social support for ath-
percent), basketball (64 percent–65 percent), and foot- letes and spurs them on to better performance. Re-
ball (54 percent–63 percent). Professional baseball search suggests that crowd effects are greater for team
shows the lowest levels of home advantage (53 per- sports than individual sports and at indoor venues com-
HOME FIELD ADVANTAGE 751

How to Ensure
pared with outdoor arenas. Crowd noise can increase
the home advantage by interrupting opponent’s on- Trenton, N.J., Oct. 13.—[Special.]—The Prince-
field communications, influencing the perceptions and ton Faculty has declared that after Jan. 1, 1885,
decisions of referees, altering game strategies, and en- no game shall be played with any colleges on
hancing the home team’s performance via the greater grounds other than those of the contesting col-
support of a loud, partisan crowd. leges. This order will probably encounter con-
Social solidarity and the rituals surrounding sports siderable opposition among the alumni students,
are also linked to the home advantage. Athletes can be who regard the Thanksgiving and Decoration-
representatives of the local community, creating a bond Day games in New York as time-honored and le-
between team and fans: The home advantage is greater gitimate institutions.
when teams and athletes are seen as representing col-
Source: A Princeton edict. (1884, October 14). Chicago Tribune, p. 7.
lectives like colleges, cities, or nations. Rituals and cer-
emonies (e.g., opening day or senior night) can also
boost the play of home athletes. The sociological bases
for the home advantage are summed up in the oft-cited
influence of local tradition, identification, and pride. logical explanation, as is the claim that home athletes
protect their “turf” in a manner similar to the territori-
Social Psychological Factors ality displayed by animals.
A home advantage arises in part from the subjective de- Some argue that playing in front of home crowds
cisions made by officials. Studies find that referees in may actually lower athletic performance. Apprehension
college and professional basketball, professional soccer, of performing for an audience may create anxiety. Sev-
and hockey may be more likely to make calls favorable eral studies find a “championship choke,” where the
to a home team. Judges in sports like figure skating home team has a greater chance of losing the deciding
and ski jumping may show a bias toward athletes per- game of a play-off series or a reduced home advantage
forming in front of a home audience. at “crucial stages of the competition.” The extent of
Some decisions do appear to be influenced by the these home disadvantages continues to be debated.
crowd. When spectators engage in behaviors like boo-
ing, officials may call more fouls against the visiting Physiological Effects
team. The visiting team may also engage in more ag- One early explanation for the home advantage—fatigue
gressive behavior that leads officials to call violations. due to travel—incorporates physiological reasons for
The simple presence of crowd noise may make ob- the home team’s better performance. Athletes, espe-
servers more likely to award fouls to the visitors. cially professionals, may be “worn down” from the con-
stant travel required by their sport. Such expectations
Psychological Explanations are not well supported by the evidence. The home team
A mixture of psychological processes and states con- often has to travel to the venue as well, and the home
tributes to the home advantage. Athletes think they play advantage does not seem to get larger as seasons
better in front of a home crowd, suggesting that a progress and travel increasingly takes its toll. Travel
greater confidence, motivation, or self-efficacy is pres- would seem to wear equally on competitors in individ-
ent. The arousal of the home athlete may positively ual sports. Still, the influence of travel has exceedingly
raise performance, while visiting teams may be overly small, but significant, effects on the home advantage,
aggressive and thus commit more fouls. Learning the with more marked influences found as athletes (or
contours of the home court or field is another psycho- teams) travel across larger numbers of time zones.

Root, Root, Root
for the Home Team
fluence the results of a given game. The home advantage
The great Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw is the result of many little effects leading to a better per-
offered this opinion about fans: formance by athletes playing in front of a supportive
crowd.
What is both surprising and delightful is that D. Randall Smith
spectators are allowed, and even expected, to
join in the vocal part of the game . . . There is no See also Fan Loyalty
reason why the field should not try to put the
batsman off his stroke at the critical moment by
neatly timed disparagements of his wife’s fidelity
Further Reading
Courneya, K. S., & Carron, A. V. (1992). The home advantage in sport
and his mother’s respectability. competitions: A literature review. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psy-
chology, 14, 13–27.
Edwards, J., & Archambault, D. (1989). The home-field advantage. In
J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psycho-
logical viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 333–370). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Recent research into the physiological bases of the Nevill, A. M., & Holder, R. L. (1999). Home advantage in sport: An
home advantage investigates hormonal and other bio- overview of studies on the advantage of playing at home. Sports
Medicine, 28, 221–236.
logical changes prior to sporting events. Athletes, espe-
cially those playing on their home court, do show slight
increases in some chemicals (e.g., testosterone) that
may improve performance. Increased aggression has
been found for some athletes facing well-established ri-
vals. However, as with most findings, the evidence is
not consistent.
Homophobia
Future Home Advantage Research
As research develops, a greater variety of sports,
H omophobia is a fear or hatred of homosexuals.
Despite the fact that sport provides a wonderful
venue for positive and healthy experiences, homopho-
leagues, geographic locations, and levels of competition bia exists in sport and is one of a number of reasons
will be added to where a home advantage occurs. The that participants in sport are discriminated against on
list of factors contributing to the advantage will be sim- the basis of sexual orientation. Sport is a gendered ex-
ilarly broadened. One particularly promising line of in- perience, and the sporting context is filled with intimate
quiry looks at changes in levels of the home advantage linkages between sport and masculinity, femininity, and
over time. Studies find the home advantage increases as gender exploration. Over the past two decades, many
athletes learn the contours of a new stadium, decreases authors have embedded discussion about homopho-
as leagues market to a nationwide audience, and fluc- bia in their writings on gender and sexuality in sport.
tuates from moment to moment during the course of Best known perhaps for identifying homophobia as
the athletic event itself. The temporal dynamics of the one of the pressing issues of our time are the following
home advantage are just beginning to be understood. authors: Messner (1992), Tomlinson and Yorganci
We know more about the “what” of the home ad- (1997), Lenskyj (1992), Guttmann (1996), Hargreaves
vantage than its “why”: What produces the home ad- (2000), Pronger, (1990), Griffin et. al. (2002), and
vantage in sport is not one thing, but many things. The Griffin (1998).
outcome of any given contest may hinge on one of the Homophobia takes a number of forms. It can be a
factors listed earlier, but it is highly unlikely that all in- prejudice or negative prejudgment about those who are
HOMOPHOBIA 753
homosexual or thought to be homosexual. It can take sory heterosexuality, heteronormativity, homoeroticism,

the form of a stereotype, where an individual or group the gay gaze, and homonegativity. Perhaps this makes
is thought to have characteristics assumed to be in- homophobia look more complex, but it is essential to
dicative of homosexuality. It can also be a discrimina- understanding the particular discrimination dynamic.
tory behavior toward a person or group being treated
differently, usually negatively, on the basis of sexual ori-
entation. Elimination of homophobia is seen by many
What Is Homophobia?
Here are a few useful definitions:
as an important step in making sport an equitable and
safe place for participants. ■ Sexual orientation or sexual orientation identity
Homophobia has also been located on the contin- (S.O.I.) is one’s sexual attraction to another and how
uum of sexual harassment and abuse in the sporting one identifies oneself as a result of that attraction
context (Brackenridge and Kirby 1997). On one end of (Devor 1989).
the continuum, the authors locate discriminations on ■ Homosexuality is a sexual orientation or sexual at-
the bases of, for example, gender, sex, sexuality, and traction towards a person of the same sex. “Gay”
sexual orientation, and on the other end of the contin- means men who are sexually attracted to men. “Les-
uum are sexual abuses such as assault and sexual vio- bian” means women who are sexually attracted to
lence. Much like the sexual harassment and abuse that women.
participants might experience in other social institu- ■ Bisexuality is a sexual orientation or sexual attraction
tions, victims of homophobia describe it as debilitating, towards people of both sexes.
shaming, isolating, and traumatic (Kirby, Greaves, and ■ Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation or sexual at-
Hankivsky 2000). traction toward those of the other sex. The assump-
What is homophobia and how does it affect girls and tion of heterosexuality, or normative heterosexuality,
women and boys and men in sport? Rowe (1995, 123) determines the experience of most athletes in sport,
writes that there is an intimate linkage between sport including gay men and lesbians, as it does in society
and maleness and that it is women’s increasing involve- generally. This means that athletes may need to de-
ment in sport that has contributed to a destabilization of clare their sexual orientation if they do not want to be
social categories of relationships and identities. In the assumed to be heterosexual (Anderson, et al. 2001).
sport world, this means that hegemonic masculinity ■ Sexual discrimination is behavior that is discrimina-
dominates femininity, and heterosexuality remains the tory towards a person or group based on their per-
organizing discourse rather than homosexuality or any ceived or actual gender identity or sexual orientation.
other forms of sexuality. Further, the principle referent in This includes a general intolerance toward difference
sport is the heterosexual male, followed closely by the (the “chilly climate”), harassing behaviors, and sexual
heterosexual female and only afterwards, perhaps, by abuse.
the gay male or lesbian respectively. Heterosexuality is ■ The chilly climate in sport is characterized by a thriv-
assumed, and persons who are not heterosexual experi- ing sexist environment (Kirby et al. 2000, 46), in
ence active (because they are individually and collec- which athletes and other participants feel less than
tively unable to participate fully in sport) or passive safe. The homophobic chilly climate is characterized
discrimination (because they are made to feel invisible). by verbal abuse that goes unchecked, sexual jokes,
However, since sport is so intrinsically male defined showing of pornographic materials, sexual allusions
and male dominated, it is virtually impossible to write about one’s sexual orientation, use of vulgar lan-
about homophobia without also writing about gender guage, sexual comments about one’s apparel, toler-
boundaries in sport, hegemonic masculinity, compul- ance of heterosexist or homophobic attitudes in
Be bold. If you’re going to make an error, make a doozy,

and don’t be afraid to hit the ball. ■ BILLIE JEAN KING
coaches (even coaches from other teams or other orientation, or scheduling of social events which appeal
nations), unwanted sexual comments, tolerance of only to those who are heterosexual. Messner (1992,
sexual discrimination, and tolerance of sexual ha- 371) wrote that “homophobia and misogyny were the
rassment or abuse. A chilly climate is sustained by key bonding agents among male athletes, serving to
those who tolerate and thus are complicit in such be- construct a masculine personality that disparaged any-
haviors. thing considered ‘feminine’ in women, in other men, or
■ Homophobia is harassment when intolerant attitudes in oneself.”
and behaviors are expressed toward individuals or
groups who are assumed to be homosexual and for Negative Undercurrents
whom the behavior is unwelcome. Note that harass- So boys and men in sport are encouraged to develop
ment is not what the originator intends with an ex- homonegativity or negative attitudes and discriminatory
pressed attitude or behavior, but rather how another, behaviors towards nonheterosexuals. For girls and
on the receiving end, experiences these attitudes and women, homophobia takes on many different forms in-
behaviors. In the sport environment, harassing or cluding internalized homophobia (fear or hatred of
abusing behavior includes taunting or belittling of one’s own homosexuality) and a disparaging of the
others, threatening them, making hurtful comments “masculine” in women or in oneself.
or jokes about them, physically hurting or harming So too, eroticism, and in particular, homoeroticism,
them or assaulting them (including sexually assault- are part of sport. While we can admire the athletic body,
ing them). sport also gives us the opportunity to admire the sexual
body. Rowe (1995) also suggests that lesbianism in
T YPES OF DISCRIMINATION sport attracts much more media attention, and negative
Homophobia is expressed in direct and indirect ways. attention at that, than does homosexuality among men.
Direct discrimination is the treating of oneself (inter- The research on imperatives in sport by Kirby,
nalized homophobia) or others in less favorable ways Greaves, and Hankivsky (2000) provides a useful,
because of homophobic attitudes. It includes keeping though perhaps quite-difficult-to-read, starting place,
one’s sexual orientation secret, taunting self or others with a description of homophobic attitudes and dis-
for their “homosexual manners,” excluding oneself or criminatory behaviors of athletes in sport. They write
others from sport participation, creating reasons for ex- that the pattern of enforced secrecy (or “dome of si-
clusion of self or others that have nothing to do with lence”) over athletes on this issue suggests that the qual-
performance but do have something to do with sexual ity of sport experience for all participants suffers
orientation, refusing to hire someone because of his or because of an environment of intolerance.
her sexual orientation, and abusing self or others for
being homosexual. ROLE OF HETEROSEXISM
Indirect discrimination happens when organizational Of the seven negative undercurrents in modern sport
systems (rules, policies, and practices) negatively im- that may contaminate the experience for some partici-
pact those of one group (e.g., homosexuals) more so pants, identified by Kirby, Greaves, and Hankivsky
than those of other groups (e.g., heterosexuals). It in- (2000), heterosexism/hypersexuality is the one that has
cludes having rules that differentially and negatively af- particular importance in understanding homophobia.
fect gay or lesbian athletes or same-sex couples; for Kirby et al. (2000) report that modern sport reflects, in
example, family membership criteria in clubs where its organization and functions, the patriarchal nuclear
families are defined in traditional ways, lack of access to family model, including its norms and values. These in-
spousal pensions and benefits because of homosexual clude heterosexism (and its accompanying feature of
HOMOPHOBIA 755
compulsory heterosexuality [Rich 1980]) and hyper- promiscuity and a tendency to sexual violence of some
sexuality. They regard sport as a gendered experience in athletes. It may be that some coaches actively contribute
which participants learn “appropriate” gender roles but to a sporting environment that is supportive of the hy-
also where forms of sexism (in particular, heterosexism) persexuality of younger athletes when these coaches
are tolerated. provide stories of their own experiences, condone and
Heterosexism is discrimination based on heterosex- sometimes participate in initiation and hazing rituals,
ual privilege, where heterosexuality is seen as the social and encourage sex talk among male, and sometimes fe-
and sexual norm for all sport participants and sport par- male, athletes (Kirby et. al. 2000). While the existence
ticipants are directed into heterosexuality. This applies of such imperatives may be difficult to accept for those
equally to women and to men and can take overt and of us who participate in sport, many are well aware of
covert forms. Overtly, heterosexism can be seen as offi- the negative and homophobic undercurrents that taint
cially sanctioned discrimination. For example, where sport. It is through confronting these that we can reduce
sexualization of sporting events occurs, sport is glam- or eliminate their effects. Sport will then be able to
orous but in a heterosexual way (see figure-skating pairs guarantee a positive and healthful experience for all.
competition or ice dancing). Female and male athletes In sport, if we discriminate against one group of mar-
compete together in a form of ritualized heterosexual- ginalized people, then we are not offering an equal
ity displayed to the judges and the audience. The ath- chance for all, and the promise of sport is so much
letes are evaluated according to gender-specific and greater than the “chilly” version we have been offering
heterosexually appropriate yardsticks. So too, sport up to now. The challenge is to offer nonhomophobic
cultivates “feminine” and “masculine” positive (read het- sport.
erosexual) images through careful orchestration of per- Sandra Kirby
formance requirements and marketing. As Kirby et. al.
See also AIDS and HIV; Gay Games; Lesbianism
(2000, 114) state:
It is the androgynous woman or lesbian, the “not quite

masculine enough man” or gay who provide obvious
contradiction to the heterosexual imperative (Bracken-
Further Reading
Anderson, L., Healy,T., Herringer, B., Isaac, B., and Perry,T. (2001). Out
ridge, 1993). For example, strategic marketing seeks to in the cold: The context of lesbian health in Northern British Colum-
ensure that successful male athletes, often with a pretty bia. Vancouver, Canada: Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health.
young woman on their arm, are portrayed as masculine, Brackenridge, C. H. and Kirby, S.L. (1997). Playing safe: Assessing the
risk of sexual abuse to elite child athletes. International Review for
heterosexual stars who are competitive, tough minded the Sociology of Sport, 32, 407–418.
and can be counted on when the going gets tough. Devor, A. H. (1989). Gender blending. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Uni-
Successful female athletes are often portrayed as “the versity Press.
Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets. Champaign, IL: Human
girl next door” or with a boyfriend or husband, an as- Kinetics.
surance to the public of the heterosexuality of these Griffin, P., Perrotti, J., Priest, L., and Muska, M. (2002). It takes a
athletes. team!: Making sport safe for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
athletes and coaches. New York: Women’s Sport Foundation.
Guttmann, A. (1996). The erotic in sports. New York: Columbia Uni-
HYPERSEXUALITY versity Press.
Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and
Hypersexuality is present primarily in sport for males.
identity. London: Routledge.
It is a phenomenon in which the ideal image of a suc- Kirby, S .L., Greaves, L., &. Hankivsky, O. (2000). The dome of silence:
cessful male athlete presumes also characteristics of Sexual harassment and abuse in sport. Halifax:, Canada: Fernwood.
Lenskyj, H. (1992, Fall). Unsafe at home base: Women’s experience of
great virility and superactive sexual (and heterosexual) sexual harassment in university sport and physical education.
appetite. There is abundant sex and, by assumption, WSPAJ, 19–33.
Messner M. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of mas- league. Honduran national soccer teams are also active
culinity. Boston: Beacon Press
in international tournaments.
Pronger, B. (1990). The arena of masculinity: Sports, homosexuality and
the meaning of sex. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. CENTRAL AMERICAN GAMES
SIGNS, 5, 631–660.
Rowe, D. (1995). Big defence: Sport and hegemonic masculinity. In A. Honduras participated in the first and third Central
Tomlinson (Ed.), Gender, sport and leisure (Vol. 3, pp .123–133). American Games in Guatemala City (1973 and 1986),
Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.
and hosted the fourth Games in Tegucigalpa (1990)
Tomlinson, A., & Yorganci, I. (1997, May). Male coach/female athlete
relations: Gender and power relations in competitive sport. Journal and the sixth Games in San Pedro Sula (1997). In
of Sport and Social Issues, 21(2), 134–155. 1973, Honduras sent only fifteen athletes; they partic-
ipated in men’s track and field and cycling, winning one
gold medal (50-kilometer walk) and two silver medals
(20-kilometer walk and marathon). Honduras did not
Honduras attend the second Games in El Salvador, but in 1986,
151 men and 46 women participated in twenty sports,
H onduras, the second-largest Central American Re-

public, has a long Caribbean coastline and bor-
ders Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. The
winning three gold medals (track and field, boxing, and
judo), twelve silver medals (track and field, bowling,
boxing, soccer, judo, wrestling, and swimming), and
capital city, Tegucigalpa (and its twin city, Co- twenty-one bronze medals (basketball, baseball, bowl-
mayagüela), is located in the south-central part of the ing, boxing, fencing, judo, weight lifting, wrestling,
country. The nation’s commercial center is San Pedro swimming, softball, and tennis).
Sula, in the northwest corner. The national population As host nation for the fourth Games, Honduras pre-
in 2002 was 6,828,000. sented the largest delegation and built a new sports
complex that included three gymnasiums, stadiums for
History baseball and track and field, tennis courts, a swimming
The prehistoric Mesoamerican ball game reached as far pool, and housing for visiting athletes and officials. Pri-
south as western Honduras, where one of the best- vate facilities were volunteered for other events, and
known ball courts forms a prominent position in the shooting was held in Guatemala. Ana Fortín, a Hon-
archeological site of Copán. This court features the clas- duran, won five gold, two silver, and one bronze medal
sic layout but lacks stone rings. in swimming, setting several records.
Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Cen- Four years later, Claudia Fortín set a new Central
tral American and Caribbean region and has a rela- American Games record in swimming. For the sixth
tively weak sport tradition. It participated in the 1921 Games in San Pedro Sula, new sports facilities were
Centennial games in Guatemala City, but for much of constructed and the Games were dedicated to peace.
the twentieth century, sport development in the country
lagged behind development in other Central American CENTRAL AMERICAN AND
republics. CARIBBEAN GAMES (CA&C)
Although it sent twenty-two athletes to the second
Participant and Spectator Sports Games in 1930, for the next sixty years Honduras par-
The most popular amateur sport in Honduras—and ticipated in only a few Central American and Caribbean
the only professional sport—is soccer. In 2004, eleven Games. In the 1930 Games in Cuba, Honduras won
teams formed the first division of the professional third place in soccer and second place in shot put. In
HONDURAS 757
Honduras
Key Events in Honduras
Sports History
1935 in El Salvador, Honduras sent forty-three male
athletes who participated in track and field, basketball, 1921 Honduras participates in the Centennial
baseball, and soccer. After missing the next two Games, games in Guatemala City.
Honduras sent seventy-seven men and twenty-three
1956 The National Olympic Committee is es-
women to the sixth Games in Guatemala, winning third tablished.
place in soccer and women’s basketball, and partici-
1973 Honduras participates in the first Central
pating in discus, baseball, bowling, and men’s basket- American Games.
ball. Honduras missed all the following Games until the
1975 Honduras participates in the Pan Ameri-
1974 competition in the Dominican Republic, where it can Games for the first time.
sent a small group of athletes and won no medals.
1990 Honduras hosts the fourth Central Amer-
Twelve years later, Honduras sent twenty-four men and
ican Games.
two women, including a marathoner, to the Dominican
Republic and won the silver medal in soccer. 1995 Honduras wins its first medals at the Pan
American Games.
In Mexico in 1990, Honduras participated in
women’s basketball, men’s judo (one bronze), taekwon- 1997 Honduras hosts the sixth Central Ameri-
can Games.
do, table tennis, and volleyball, and men’s and women’s
bowling, racquetball, and swimming (Ana Fortín: silver 2004 The first National Student Games take
place.
in the 100- and 200-meter backstroke; Claudia Fortín:
bronze in the 400-meter medley), as well as equestrian
sport (two women; two silver medals). Through 1990,
Hondurans had won six silver and five bronze CA&C
medals. In 1993 Claudia Fortín won Honduras’ first Honduras won the silver medal in men’s soccer, losing
gold medal in the CA&C Games. In 2002, Honduras the gold to Mexico. Honduras won one bronze medal
won a gold medal in men’s freestyle wrestling; one in the 2003 Pan American Games.
bronze medal each in men’s and women’s judo; two
bronze medals in women’s karate; and four bronze OLYMPIC GAMES
medals in women’s rowing. Honduras has participated very little in the Olympic
Games. Six male track-and-field athletes first partici-
PAN AMERICAN GAMES pated in the Mexico City Games in 1968. Six Hon-
Honduras began to participate in the Pan American duran swimmers competed in the 1984 Olympics.
Games in 1975, finishing in eighth place in the 10,000- Swimmer Ana Fortín carried Honduras’ flag and com-
meter walk and sixth place in the 20-kilometer walk. In peted in the 1988 and 1992 Olympics. Two male swim-
1979 Honduras took eighth place in the women’s mers also competed in 1988, and Claudia Fortín and
3,000-meter walk and fourth place in the 20-kilometer two male swimmers competed in 1992. In 2004 a Hon-
walk. In 1983, Honduras placed seventh in the 20-kilo- duran man competed in the 400-meter race.
meter walk, and in 1987 it placed sixth in the same
event. The same athlete achieved all four of the race- Women and Sport
walk places. In 1991, Hondurans placed eighth in ham- In Tegucigalpa, recreational play and amateur leagues
mer throw and fourth in soccer. The first Pan American exist for women in basketball and softball. Girls are ad-
Games medals for the country came in 1995 (bronze in mitted to children’s baseball leagues, and in 1989, the
boxing, women’s judo, and men’s soccer). In 1999 star pitcher for the Honduran team that defeated Costa
Rica in an international competition for ten- to twelve- mitted to facing challenges, working in teams, and serv-
year-olds was a girl, Kenia Sánchez. ing as examples for future generations. He said that “in
spite of the needs of Honduras’ people, sport is an im-
Youth Sports portant part of my administration, because it builds
All over the country boys are involved in recreational support for Honduras by encouraging national pride.”
soccer play. Streets and any open area, no matter its Maduro also assured his support for national basketball.
small size or its inconvenient location (for instance,
Richard V. McGehee
next to a steep valley slope) serve as playing grounds;
rocks often mark the goals. However, league play in
youth soccer and baseball are available only in the Further Reading
larger cities. Ferreiro Toledano, A. (1986). Centroamérica y el Caribe a través de sus
Sports have not been developed in public schools, juegos [The Central and Caribbean Games]. Mexico City, Mexico:
Artes Gráficas Rivera.
but a few private schools have sports facilities such as Minar, E. (1996). Historia de la natación hondureña [The Story of
playing fields, courts, and gymnasiums. On 4 June Honduran Swimming]. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Solidaridad Olím-
2004, the first National Student Games, organized by pica and Comité Olímpico Hondureño.
the Office of Culture and Sport of the Ministry of Edu-

cation, were inaugurated. Student athletes at this event
represented most of the country’s provinces.
Horse Racing
Organizations
Honduras’ National Olympic Committee was estab-
lished in 1956. However, the nation’s lack of resources
for the support of international sport competition lim-
R acing on horseback, as opposed to riding horses for
travel, probably began about 6,500 years ago
among nomadic peoples of Central Asia. It seems to re-
ited its participation in the Olympic Games. The Na- flect a human propensity to race—on foot—and by
tional Soccer Federation (Federación Nacional de Fútbol other means that spans a good bit of human history
de Honduras; FENAFUTH) administers the country’s and appears in various forms across cultures. People
most popular sport. will apparently race on whatever animals will carry or
pull them—reindeer in Siberia, elephants in Southeast
Future Asia, camels in the Middle East, to name but a few.
Sport developments in Honduras will continue to be Horse racing and chariot racing were events in the an-
limited by competing demands for scarce resources in cient Olympics and became even more popular across
areas of social need such as education and health serv- the Roman empire 2,000 years ago.
ices. In 2004, the National Soccer Federation recog- Modern horse tracing began in England in the twelfth
nized the support of President Ricardo Maduro, whose century, fueled by swift Arabian horses brought back by
government is backing a bank loan of $4 million to ini- returning crusaders from the Middle East. Thorough-
tiate “seedbeds for the future,” a plan to build eighty bred racing remains the most popular form of horse rac-
first-class soccer fields for amateurs, two in each proving today. Other major forms are harness racing,
ince in the country, to establish four pilot centers for soc- steeplechase racing, and quarter-horse racing. Horse
cer development, to conduct training programs for racing is popular worldwide and major racing nations
officials, coaches, and sports managers, and to purchase include Great Britain, the United States, Canada, Aus-
equipment. Maduro believed that by promoting sports tralia, New Zealand, France, South Africa, Japan, and
the country will increase the number of citizens com- Argentina. Harness racing is especially popular in
HORSE RACING 759
North America and steeplechase in Britain. Horse rac-

ing is a multibillion-dollar global business involving a
broad range of industries and people including owners
(nowadays often syndicates), breeders, trainers, jock-
eys, grooms, veterinarians, and others. Television cov-
erage has made several trainers and jockeys wealthy
celebrities. However, for most owners, racing is an ex-
pensive and exciting hobby rather than an economic
venture.
Thoroughbred Racing
Modern horse racing began in the twelfth century in
England when swift Arabian horses were brought to the
island by returning crusaders. Over the next centuries
Arabian stallions were bred with English mares to pro-
duce horses that were swift and hearty and ideal for
racing. In the early eighteenth century horse racing
emerged in England as a major spectator sport for the
nobility, with betting a major enticement to the track. A
proliferation of race courses and the growth of breeding
industry led to the formation of the Jockey Club in
1750, which continues to control the rules, race
courses, and regulation of breeding in Britain.
Although thoroughbred racing is not the prerogative
of the elite, during its formative years in Britain the
sport did depend on upper-class patronage to provide The program for an Exeter Autumn Meeting.
racing stock. Prize money also came mainly from these
upper-class patrons, along with contributions from
those people, such as publicans and politicians, who The greatest financial stimulus to thoroughbred rac-
stood to gain money or praise from their local race ing during the twentieth century was the totalizator
meetings. This style of racing, associated with heats, (tote). The totalizator is a machine for registering bets
matches, and long-distance events, was transported to and computing payoffs in pari-mutuel betting. Under
British colonies throughout the world. Until railways the pari-mutuel system the aggregate pool of bets on all
revolutionized transport for both horses and people in horses is divided among those people who bet on the
the mid-nineteenth century racing remained a local or, winning horse, less deductions to cover operating costs
at best, a regional sport. and to make contributions to the racing industry.
Spectators did not have to pay to view thoroughbred Gate money courses signaled the widespread com-
racing until courses became enclosed during the late mercialization of racing in which courses competed
nineteenth century, at which time entry fees helped swell both for spectators and horses, and, in turn, increased
the purses. Moreover, the structure of racing was changed prize money impinged on those directly involved in sat-
to attract a paying crowd, and sprints and handicaps re- isfying the demands of the owners—the jockeys, train-
placed long-distance, stamina-testing events. ers, and breeders.
Horse Racing
Man O’ War
The extract below tells the tale of the great racing The great Riddle colt has won $166,140 this sea-
horse, Man o’ War: son. This exceeds by more than $100,000 the
amount won by any other horse, colt, filly or gelding.
This is the time of year when the leaves are falling, the
Cleopatra finished second on the winning list with
frost is on the pumpkin and the turf men gather
$45,511, just nipping out Exterminator, who won
round the hot stoves in their stables and spin yarns.
$45,265.
This year the chief topic is Man o’ War, the Riddle
Leonardo headed the list of 2-year-old colts with
colt, of whom the stable owner followers never tire of
$36,078, but Step Lightly, by her victory in the Fu-
talking.
turity, stopped him with $49,221. Step Lightly heads
“I’ve seen ‘em all,” said “Brown Dick” as he poked
the list of winners of the 2-year-olds of the season.
the fire at Churchill Downs, “and this Riddle hoss has
Man o’ War had an unbroken string of eleven vic-
’em all beat to a frazzle.
tories. This is the best showing made by any horse of
“Freeland, Boundless, Rey el Santa Anita, Like
any time. All the other horses, with the exception of
Blackburn, Alan-a-Dale, Miss Woodford, Domino,
Leonardo II. And Tryster, which have clean scores of
Look Out and the bunch—dawgs, I tell you, all
four and five victories, respectively, were beaten at
dawgs compared to dis Riddle colt.”
some period during the season.
And to prove the truth of his statement, “Brown
Cleopatra won six races, was second five times,
Dick” points to the wonderful record of Man o’ War
third twice and unplaced once out of fourteen starts.
this year and last.
Source: Spink, A. (1921). One thousand sport stories (Vol. 2, pp. 110–111). Chicago: The
Man o’ War, sure enough, is just now the king of Martin Company.
the turf, and Cleopatra is the Queen.
Even before the enclosed course, thoroughbred rac- of the first Epsom Derby in 1780, whose success at stud
ing had begun to change as long-distance heats were did much to improve U.S. racehorses. Horse racing be-
generally abandoned, races for heavyweight jockeys came the first truly nationwide sports spectacle in the
were increasingly rare, more two-year-olds were being United States, particularly when a few meetings pitted
raced, and sweepstakes (in which each of many owners horses from the North against champions from the
paid a stake into the prize fund to enter his or her South even before the Civil War.
horses) were replacing matches (in which two horses U.S. thoroughbred racing lagged behind Britain in
raced in a head-to-head contest for a money wager be- development, partly because no overarching adminis-
tween their owners) and races for plates and other non- trative and legislative body existed comparable to the
monetary awards provided by a race committee. All of Jockey Club, founded in 1750 and virtually in charge of
these changes can be explained by a growing commer- British racing by the mid-nineteenth century. However,
cial attitude on the part of owners. turf abuses in the form of race fixing and drug use dur-
Britain introduced thoroughbred racing to all its ing the 1890s brought the imposition of repressive state
colonies. The first organized race meeting in the United legislation that forced U.S. racing to clean itself up and
States was held in 1665 in New York State. By the eve restructure administratively. The United States Jockey
of the American Revolution 150 thoroughbred stal- Club was established in 1894, but, in comparison with
lions had been imported from England. Another one the power of its European counterparts, it has been
hundred followed by 1800, including Diomed, winner weakened by the independence of state racing commis-
HORSE RACING 761
sions, and its main function has been to maintain the seventy-five cents; subsidized prize money means that
American Stud Book, the official record of thoroughbred up to fourteen races will be on the program; and aug-
breeding in the United States and Canada. mented club profits ensure excellent viewing and bet-
One distinctive U.S. innovation was the monkey-on- ting facilities.
a-stick style of riding in which the saddle was pushed
forward and the stirrups and reins shortened so that the Harness Racing
jockey rode with knees bent, crouching along the Harness racing began in rural America during the early
horse’s neck. When U.S. riders invaded British turf dur- 1800s as people faced one another in horse-drawn car-
ing the last decade of the nineteenth century, their suc- riages along country roads, village main streets, and
cess quickly led to an abandonment of the English style even wide city avenues. However, not until the nine-
of riding, modeled on the erect seat of the hunting field. teenth century did people in the United States begin to
Another U.S. innovation has been dirt tracks, often think of it as a sport. People began to use the term har-
much smaller than tracks in Britain, thus offering spec- ness racing at the end of the nineteenth century; until
tators a better view. then it was called “trotting,” a term applied to trotters
In Asia most international racing attention focuses on and pacers alike.
Japan, where the past two decades have brought vast in- The standardbred harness horse either trots or paces.
vestment in bloodstock and in racing itself. The Japan A trotter moves its legs in diagonal pairs—front right
Cup, a weight-for-age event, was inaugurated in 1981 as and rear left together, front left and rear right together.
the richest race in the world. Run at Tokyo’s Fuchu A pacer performs the opposite action: The right front
racecourse on the last Sunday in October, it attracts and right rear legs move at the same time, followed by
high-quality horses from all over the racing world. the left front and left rear legs. The trot or the pace are
With the exception of France, racing in Europe re- inherited by most standardbreds. Training makes them
mained relatively unintegrated until well into the era of able to maintain the gaits at high speed over long dis-
European economic unity. In Paris, however, the Prix de tances. Trotters come in two varieties: line gaited and
l’Arc de Triomphe began in 1920 to attract the best passing gaited. Viewed from the front or rear, a line-
horses in Europe. The main stimulus to rendering Eu- gaited trotter’s front and hind feet are in a direct line
ropean racing more cosmopolitan was the adoption of with each other when the horse is in motion. A passing-
an integrated pattern system in 1971 by Britain, Ire- gaited trotter’s hind feet land outside the front feet.
land, France, and Italy, followed by Germany two years A pacer is readily identified by its side-swaying mo-
later. Essentially this system classifies races according to tion. Whereas a trotter’s body is usually balanced in the
their degree of importance and allows international center, a pacer is constantly shifting its weight from side
comparisons to be made as to the racing ability and to side, which creates the rocking motion that inspired
breeding potential of bloodstock. the nickname “side-wheelers.” Most pacers racing today
Today, the thoroughbred racehorse is little more than wear hopples (or hobbles). A pacer that races without
a mechanism for gambling. Indeed, racing cannot exist them is said to be “free legged.” Trotters and pacers orig-
without gambling. When the South Australian govern- inally were ridden to saddle. However, their gaits lent
ment banned betting during the 1880s, the local racing themselves to being hitched to wagons and racing carts
industry collapsed. In most countries betting has pro- known as “sulkies.” A sulky is a light two-wheeled car-
vided a lifeline for racing in that a portion of the total- riage constructed for a single person. During most of
izator takings has been injected into the sport. This has the nineteenth century sulkies were made with high
been the case nowhere more than in Japan, where sub- wheels. When bike-wheel sulkies were introduced in
sidized admission reduces the cost of entry to less than 1892, high-wheelers immediately fell into disuse.
Pacer’s harness and rigging.

Notice the position of the legs.
Through the years major improvements

have been made in the sulky, including
a single-shaft design created by aero-
nautical engineer Joe King. His design
featured an arched shaft over the horse’s
back connected to the back pad of the
harness. Both the U.S. Trotting Associa-
tion and the Canadian Trotting Associa-
tion banned the single-shaft design. Joe
King went back to his drawing board
and designed the modified sulky, which
was more traditional and less contro-
versial than its predecessor. Its new features appealed to 1830s but did not emerge as generally popular until the
many trainers, and the modified sulky, with variations, late 1860s and has never been as widely popular as ei-
has been the standard. ther thoroughbred or harness racing. Steeplechases in
Unlike thoroughbred racing jockeys, harness drivers the United States are classified as timber or hurdle
are usually full-size adults and often 40 years of age or races. Steeplechase also is popular in Australia and New
older. Driving a horse in a harness race is not only for Zealand, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and France. The
professionals; owners also may participate.The Harness Sport of Kings Challenge is held at several sites, in-
Racing Museum and Hall of Fame is located in Goshen, cluding Morven Park (Virginia), Callaway Gardens
New York. This town, known as the “cradle of the trot- (Georgia), Cheltenham (England), and Leopardstown
ter,” is also home of Historic Track, the first sporting site (Ireland). Other major races are the Grand National,
in the United States to be designated a registered Na- Cheltenham Gold Cup, and the Champion Hurdle.
tional Historic Landmark. The major harness races are
the Hambletonian and that Little Brown Jug. Horse Racing and Society
Horse racing is a leisure activity which provides the
Steeplechase means for people to express what is apparently the uni-
Steeplechase developed from foxhunting in England. versal need to gamble. Horse racing also expresses a tie
Steeplechase is especially popular in Britain, less so in in many societies to an earlier, rural way of life. Horse
the United States. Steeplechase racing takes place on racing represents the rural/urban dichotomy in many
grass, and it involves jumping over barriers. Steeple- nations; breeding and the development of race horses
chase began as informal races between fox hunters and is a rural activity while actual racing more often takes
later became an event between foxhunting seasons. place at tracks in or near urban areas. Horse racing is a
Gradually these races became events independent of major contributor to the economies in nations such as
foxhunting and took the forms of timber racing, hurdle the United States, England, Ireland, Australia, and
racing, and point-to-point races. In the early 1800s they Japan. It can be an important source of income for suc-
became permanent features of British sport, with the cessful owners, trainers, jockeys, and bettors, although
Grand National Steeplechase at Aintree first competed most owners and bettors lose rather than win on their
in 1839 or earlier. Aintree was built to replicate the ob- investments. A survey by the Barents Group LLC in the
stacles encountered during the hunt and allow specta- United States titled The National Impact of the Horse In-
tors to see the start as well as the finish. dustry in the 1990s, which covers both racing and
In the United States races have been held since the breeding, indicates the enormous economic impact of
HORSE RACING 763
Horse Racing
“Hat Pins and Hunches”:
An Old English Song
racing. It provides nearly 500,000 jobs, has a $34 bil-
lion impact on the economy, and pays about $500 mil- Ye lads who love a steeplechase and danger
lion in taxes to state and local governments. Major freely court, sirs,
issues for owners include increasing the size of purses Hark forward all to Liverpool to join the
and reducing taxes on the industry. Expansion of bet- gallant sport, sirs,
ting opportunities through simulcasting of races at The English and the Irish nags are ready for
other tracks, phone betting, and internet betting are all the fray, sirs,
issues for track owners and horse owners and trainers. And which may lose and which may win, ’tis
Supporters of more income opportunities for owners very hard to say, sirs.
point to the number of jobs and support for many other
establishments such as restaurants near race tracks. Rac-
ing remains a major draw at many rural fairs. Horse rac-
ing is, perhaps most importantly, a major source of land to secure her riding license. The United States had
revenue for states and nations who take a percentage of more than sixty registered women jockeys by the early
the betting pool. The control of racing varies from na- 1970s. In England the Jockey Club did not allow
tion to nation. In Britain, the Jockey Club is the central women to race on the flat until 1972 or to compete
authority. In the United States, the Jockey Club mainly against male amateurs until 1974 or against male pro-
governs breeding while control of racing and facilities fessionals until 1976, when it was forced to do so by
rests with state racing boards. In Australia, too, the the Sex Discrimination Act. In Australia federal legisla-
state boards have much authority. tion forced all of the country’s racing authorities to ac-
cept women riders in 1979.
WOMEN IN HORSE RACING The first woman in modern racing to ride against
Horse racing is largely a man’s sport, although there men was the U.S. rider Diane Crump at Hialeah Park
have been notable female owners and jockeys. Nonethe- in Florida in 1969. The first woman to win—possibly
less, the story of women in horse racing has been one the first woman to beat men in a professional sports
of struggle against male control and, paradoxically, of event—was Barbara Jo Rubin aboard the horse Cohe-
resistance to women’s participation by owners and sion at Charles Town, West Virginia, in 1969. In 1971
other women influential in turf affairs. Cheryl White became the first African-American woman
Races between women during the eighteenth and jockey to win a thoroughbred race at Waterford Park,
nineteenth centuries were a novelty. The only event in West Virginia. Harness driver Bea Farber was the first
which women competed regularly against men was woman to win a title at a major track and the first to
point-to-point steeplechasing in nineteenth century break the thousand-win barrier.
Britain. It was an amateur version of steeplechase or- Only a few women riders have won the respect of
ganized by foxhunt clubs. In 1929 the Master of their male competitors. Leading U.S. male jockey Angel
Hounds Committee ruled women ineligible to point-to- Cordero concedes that Julie Krone, winner of nearly
point race except in races confined to women. Since two thousand races during her first decade as a profes-
then parallel races for men and women have been the sional, “don’t ride like a girl, . . . she can ride with any
norm, with only a few races open to both. jockey in the country.”
Legal action and equal opportunity legislation has
opened horse racing to women. The United States was CONTROVERSIES
the first to drop the barrier after Kathy Kusner, an Horse racing has also come in for its share of criticism
Olympic equestrian, took court action in 1968 in Mary- beyond charges of sexism. Because of the gambling
Horse Racing
Reindeer Racing among the Chukchee of Siberia
Their greatest amusement in winter and spring is rac- out—women, children and old folks. Three or four
ing with reindeer. One single man may arrange a sleds are in the lead, the reindeer are straining to the
race for which he offers one or more prizes, or several utmost, urged on to further effort by the drivers, who
living in the same camp may join forces. Among our with arms high in the air, are using the reins as a
nearest neighbors there were fifteen races during the whip on the right reindeer and the “tine” on both
winter. A race is announced a long time ahead, for in- reindeer. The racing is almost as hard on the driver as
stance: “When the next moon is full, there will be a on the reindeer. Soaked with perspiration and with
race at N. N.” As the time draws nearer, every visitor frost in hair and eyebrows, the driver is entirely un-
who comes along is asked when the race is to be held protected from the spray of snow from the hoofs.
at N. N., and at last the answer is “tomorrow.” Most Snow flies about his ears and many a lump of hard
of the guests who live far away arrive a day before the snow hits his face. He can barely keep his eyes open
race and some even bring their reindeer several days and sees little beyond the hind legs of his reindeer.
ahead, so they will be well rested and in good con- He is all covered with snow, but there are many help-
dition for the big day. Every Chukchi has at least one ful hands to brush off the winner—the others have to
pair of swift racers. [ . . . ] take care of themselves. [ . . . ]
And all morning sled after sled whirls into the The Chukchi are very proud of the honor of taking
camp, bringing the nearest neighbors, men and first place, and a couple of swift reindeer are highly
women, old and young, and soon the place is filled prized. At the races that winter a few men were al-
with fur-clad, happy and chattering people, sleds and ways among the winners, and others participated
reindeer. hopefully and faithfully and took turns at being the
At last, towards noon or after noon, the race can last. One man was especially good at breaking his
start. Only men take part, boys of sixteen to old men sled, and repeatedly coming in last on a wreck.
of sixty. They all get their sleds in order and line up It sometimes happens that things do not run off as
anywhere. At the call, “ta-ham!”, they start with the smoothly as they should because some one may
one who is giving the race in the lead, but otherwise come in as winner by taking a short-cut. No fuss is
without order. Some sit calmly waiting and let one made right away so the man takes his prize but he
after another pass them by, but if it should happen may not be allowed to keep it. The rightful winner
that a reindeer balks they all return and wait for the talks to some of the older men, explains what hap-
driver to gain control. The start of the race is most pened, and asks them to look into the matter. Yes, he
disorderly and congenial, there is no order of starting is right, everything did not go off straight, they will
and no time keeper, but the one who reaches home think it over. They talk back and forth and after a cou-
first wins the race, no matter whether he was off first ple of days they make a trip to the one who cheated
or last. [ . . . ] and tell him he had better give his prize to the next
Before the racers are out of sight, the “tines,” those man. I have twice seen such advice followed without
flexible wooden rods with a walrus peg, whine protests, but in both cases the ones who cheated
through the air, the reindeer break into a full gallop, were younger men than the winners, and that makes
and the whole row of sleds, sometimes five or six, quite a difference. Had the case been reversed, I do
other times up to twenty-five, disappear among the not think it would have been any use for the younger
trees. While you wait for their return you talk and man to complain.
smoke and talk some more, until some one shouts, Source: Sverdrup, H. U. (1938). With the people of the Tundra (pp. 79–82). Oslo, Nor-
way: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.
“They’re coming, they’re coming,” and everyone runs
HORSE RACING 765
When you’re riding, only the race in which

you’re riding is important. ■ WILLIE SHOEMAKER
element, the possibility of cheating through fixing races vived by turning themselves with government approval
or enhancing performance through drug use has long into year-round betting establishments, with slot ma-
been a problem and has led to numerous scandals. chines a key element of the formula. And there were
Major efforts at reform—usually by putting racing complaints that the quality of racing at some larger
under a government board—has been the usual re- tracks was less than it had been in the past. At the same
sponse to scandals. Since the 1960s drug use has been time, major thoroughbred stakes races continued to
a regular concern. Controversies continue over the use flourish, offering ever larger purses, often with corpo-
of Lasix, a drug which controls bleeding in the lungs rate sponsorship. Some experts predict a future of far
and is legal in some states; Bute, which masks pain; and fewer tracks and races but much larger purses at major
pain killers such as morphine. The most recent contro- races.
versy concerns the use of “milkshakes,” a bicarbonate of
soda mix that gives horse more stamina. Efforts to con- Governing Bodies
trol drug use include the random testing of horses and Key governing organizations in horse racing include
the use of detention barns for twenty-four or forty-eight the American Quarter Horse Association. (www.aqha.
hours before races to keep horses apart from personnel com); Australian Racing Board (www.australian-racing.
who might administer the drugs. Critics of racing net.au); Canadian Trotting Association (www.trotcan
charge that owners and trainers are not supportive ada.ca); Harness Tracks of America, Inc. (www.harness
enough of these measures. Horse racing is also criti- tracks.com); National Hunt Committee (http://www.
cized by animal rights advocates who see the entire thoroughbredbreedersassociation.co.uk/nationalhunt.
industry as exploitative of animals and specifically crit- htm); National Thoroughbred Racing Association
icize the use of pain-masking drugs, neglect of horses, (www.ntra.com); The Jockey Club (U.S., www.jockey
and the killing of healthy horses who are no longer club.com; U.K., www.thejockeyclub.co.uk); Thorough-
useful for racing or breeding. bred Racing Association of North America, Inc. (www.
Nonetheless, the appeal of horses and horse racing tra-online.com); and United States Trotting Association
goes well beyond the track and stable and is part of the (www.ustrotting.com).
national folklore of several nations. Especially popular
David Levinson, based in part on work
are several legendary racehorses with some, such as
by Ralph B. Ballou Jr., Joyce Kay,
Man o’War, Secretariat, Citation, Seabiscuit, Nijinsky,
Philip A. Pines, and Wray Vamplew
Nijinsky II, and Phar Lap, memorialized in literature,
sports writing, and film. See also Ascot
The Future
Horse racing has always had periods of growth and de- Further Reading
cline. It declined in popularity in Britain in the 1980s Ainslie, T. (1970). Complete guide to harness racing. New York: Trident
and then rebounded in the 1990s. In the 1990s, it de- Press.
Bedford, J. (1989). The world atlas of horse racing. London: Hamlyn.
clined in the United States as a spectator sport and as Cassidy, R. (2002). The sport of kings: Kinship, class and thoroughbred
a venue for gambling. This is due in part to the easy racing in Newmarket. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coates, A. (1983). China races. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
availability of other forms of gambling including off-
Denhardt, R. M. (1979). The quarter running horse: America’s oldest
track betting, casinos and state-sanctioned lotteries of breed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
various kinds. Many small tracks closed as the supply of Fox, K. (1997). The racing tribe. Oxford, UK: Social Issues Research
Centre.
lower-level horses suitable for racing diminished. Oth- Freedman, H., & Lemon, A. (1990). The history of Australian thorough-
ers in states such as Pennsylvania and Delaware sur- bred racing. Melbourne, Australia: Southbank Communications.
Harrison, J. C. (1968). Care and training of the trotter and pacer. dustries. Riders must be physically fit and must there-
Columbus, OH: U.S. Trotting Association.
fore devote time to personal fitness training.
Hill, C. R. (1988). Horse power: The politics of the turf. Manchester, UK:
Manchester University Press. Horseback riding is an amateur sport, and given the
Hillenbrand, L. (2001). Seabiscuit: an American legend. New York: high cost of the horse and its care and training and the
Random House.
Holland, A. (1991). Classic horse races. London: MacDonald. time the rider and horse must devote to training, most
Longrigg, R. (1975). The turf: Three centuries of horse racing. London: participants are relatively affluent. Riding sports are
Eyre Methuen.
governed by strict rules and are often highly ritualized,
Munting, R. (1996). An economic and social history of gambling in
Britain and the USA. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. with stringent clothing and behavior requirements.
Pines, P. A. (1980). The complete book of harness racing. New York: Arco Horseback riding has remained a largely European and
Publishing.
Pollard, J. (1988). Australian horse racing. Sydney, Australia: Angus & North American sport, but there is growing interest in
Robertson. it in South America, New Zealand, and Australia. At the
Smiley, J. (2004). A year at the races: Reflections on horses, humans,
2004 Olympics the nine team medals went to seven
love, money and luck. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Tanner, M., & Cranham, G. (1992). Great jockeys of the flat. London: countries: two each to Germany and the United States,
Guinness. and one medal each to the Netherlands, Spain, France,
Trubiano, E. (1982). The Carolina Cup, 50 years of steeplechasing and
socializing. Columbia, SC: R. L. Bryan. Britain, and Sweden. Riding has been criticized by an-
Vamplew, W. (1976). The turf: A social and economic history of horse imal rights groups, but with far less vehemence than has
racing. London: Allen Lane.
been directed at horse racing and rodeo.
Welsh, P. C. (1967). Track and road: The American trotting horse. Wash-
ington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Woodruff, H. (1847). The trotting horse of America. Philadelphia: John Show Jumping
C. Winston.
Zuccoli, C. (1992). The fields of triumph: Guide to the world of racing.
Show jumping is a sport of speed, power, and precision.
Milan, Italy: Monographic. Riders guide their horse around a course of turns and
jumps in a specified time period. The event takes two
rounds: Those who complete the first round “clean”—
without time or jumping faults—compete in the second
Horseback Riding round on a shorter course that requires more speed. The
horse and rider with the fastest time and fewest penal-
H orseback riding refers to a number of related

sports, the most popular being show jumping,
dressage, and eventing, all three of which are Olympic
ties win the event. Show jumping developed in western
Europe and the United States and remains most popu-
lar there. Jumping classes range from a preliminary level
sports. Other equestrian sports are hunter seat, western up to the Grand Prix.
seat, saddle seat, sidesaddle, endurance, and gymkhana.
Riding sports emerged as activities for the general pub- Dressage
lic in Europe and the United States around the turn of Dressage, French for “training,” is the discipline of de-
the twentieth century. They have become enormously veloping the horse’s three natural gaits of walk, trot, and
popular, both as recreational activities and as competi- canter through years of rigorous day-by-day training
tive sports, especially with girls and women. It is esti- and coaching. It is considered the ballet of horse riding.
mated that about 80 percent of riders are women, who In competition, horse and rider follow a prescribed test
compete with men as equals. The sport involves not just in an enclosed arena. The test measures the degree of
riding but also the purchase, sale, and care of the training observable in movements such as extension
horses, and includes stabling, training, and relation- of the stride or lateral movements. Horses progress
ships with the associated equipment and clothing in- through a series of levels, including four Federation
HORSEBACK RIDING 767
This drawing from Hungary shows assembled cavalry attending a joust.
Equestre Internacionale (FEI) levels. Grand Prix, the ity. Day three is for stadium jumping. The jumps are
highest level, is contested at major competitions, in- lower than in show jumping and the goal is to test the
cluding the Olympics. The Grand Prix contest is judged horse’s fitness, which can easily be measured following
in two parts, the eight-minute Grand Prix test and the the preceding full day of riding.
freestyle, or Kur, which is choreographed by each com- Three-day events are organized by level and use a star
petitor and set to music. system to indicate difficulty: one star (*) indicates a pre-
liminary three-day event, two-stars (**) indicate inter-
Three-Day Eventing mediate difficulty, and three-stars (***) indicate an
Three-day eventing, also known as combined training, advanced event. Four-star (****) events are for interna-
is the most complete test of horse and rider. It began as tionally experienced and successful combinations of
a test of the United States Army cavalry, which needed horses and riders and are limited to the Olympics and
to gallop long distances, negotiate the natural obstacles the World Equestrian Games. The major equine com-
found on cross-country trips, and perform demanding petitions are the Olympics; the World Equestrian
parade movements. The modern three-day event tests Games; Burghley, Blenheim, and Badminton in the
the ability of riders to control their mounts and have United Kingdom; and Essex, Fair Hill, and Radnor in
quick reflexes. Horses are expected to display bravery, the United States.
fitness, obedience, agility, speed, and endurance.
Day one is for dressage, where requirements are Endurance
lower than in Grand Prix dressage. Day two is the four- The equestrian discipline of endurance challenges com-
phase endurance test—two sets of trotting and slow petitors to complete a long and arduous trail ride within
cantering, with steeplechase; and then the grueling a set amount of time. The inauguration of endurance
cross-country event to test endurance and jumping abil- riding as an organized equestrian sport may be traced
Horseback Riding
Extract from Anthony Trollope’s
“The Lady Who Rides to Hounds” (1865)
Women who ride, as a rule, ride better than men. not unnaturally, attached to it, and to bring it within
They, the women, have always been instructed; where- the category of gentle sports. There used to prevail an
as men have usually come to ride without any in- idea that the hunting man was of necessity loud and
struction.They are put upon ponies when they are all rough, given to strong drinks, ill adapted for the po-
boys, and put themselves upon their fathers’ horses as etries of life, and perhaps a little prone to make
they become hobbledehoys: and thus they obtain the money out of his softer friend. It may now be said
power of sticking on to the animal while he gallops that this idea is going out of vogue, and that hunting
and jumps, and even while he kicks and shies; and, so men are supposed to have that same feeling with re-
progressing, they achieve an amount of horsemanship gard to their horses, the same and no more, which
which answers the purposes of life. But they do not ladies have for their carriage or soldiers for their
acquire the art of riding with exactness, as women do, swords. Horses are valued simply for the services
and rarely have such hands as a woman has on a that they can render, and are only valued highly when
horse’s mouth.The consequence of this is that women they are known to be good servants. That a man may
fall less often than men, and the field is not often hunt without drinking or swearing, and may possess
thrown into the horror which would arise were a lady a nag or two without any propensity to sell it or
known to be in a ditch with a horse lying on her. them for double their value, is now beginning to be
I own that I like to see three or four ladies out in understood. The oftener that women are to be seen
a field, and I like it the better if I am happy enough “out,” the more will such improved feelings prevail as
to count one or more of them among my own ac- to hunting, and the pleasanter will be the field to men
quaintances. Their presence tends to take off from who are not horsey, but who may nevertheless be
hunting that character of horseyness, of both fast good horsemen.
horseyness and slow horseyness, which has become, Source: Trollope, A. (1865). The lady who rides to hounds. Hunting sketches. London:
Chapman and Hall.
to 1955 and the first Travis Cup, the Western States Trail stamina, are the most popular breed for endurance com-
Ride. From the United States the sport spread to Eu- petitions. Endurance riding has become popular in part
rope and elsewhere. The first international competition because of the allure of being outdoors on horseback
was held in Rome in 1986 with eleven nations com- and the nostalgic appeal of an earlier, simpler rural way
peting. Races are generally twenty-five, fifty, or one hun- of life. Riders often develop a deep bond with their
dred miles long with careful veterinary supervision at horse and with other riders who share the outdoor
required stops along the course. Riders must be fit and experience.
must carefully gauge their horse’s fitness and set a pace
that will allow them to finish. Each horse’s condition is Sidesaddle
carefully monitored at specific checkpoints, and horses Sidesaddle riding, which was the preferred style for Eu-
appearing in any way unfit to go on are removed from ropean women for at least three hundred years, essen-
competition. tially disappeared in the 1930s when women resumed
Awards are given both for finishing first and for the riding astride. It began to make a comeback in the
most fit horse, based on a physical examination. Ara- 1970s as part of an interest in American history that
bian horses, which are valued for their hardiness and was spurred by the U.S. bicentennial. Old saddle styles
HORSEBACK RIDING 769
were redesigned to fit modern sensibilities and make it troduce young people to riding sports. Gymkhana
easier for women riding sidesaddle to engage in jump- comes from the Hindi gend-khana, meaning “racket
ing and cross-country events. The modern sport was court.” The Hindi derivation of the name is probably
born with the founding of the World Sidesaddle Feder- due to the fact that many of these activities were devel-
ation in 1980. The basic riding position is similar to the oped by members of the British army while they were
astride seat except that the right thigh is pressed against stationed in colonial India during the nineteenth
the upright pommel to maintain a secure seat. The century.
sidesaddle has some significant advantages for those Gymkhana may involve a wide variety of events and
who have injuries and physical limitations. the rules are far simpler than for other riding events. The
The modern sidesaddle rider competes in special most common competition has riders complete a
sidesaddle classes or in open classes against astride rid- straight, meandering, or circular obstacle course. Other
ers. While a majority of the sidesaddle riders show in gymkhana events include best-groomed horse, most
pleasure classes, some riders compete in jumping, con- smartly dressed rider, handkerchief catching, egg bal-
test classes, trail classes, and even team penning. An- ancing, musical chairs, musical rides, and wrestling on
other favorite class of sidesaddle riders is the costume horseback. Winning is less important than giving young
class. riders the opportunity to become comfortable around
horses.
Hunter Seat Riding Gymkhana has gone hand in hand with the rise of
Hunter seat riding, based on the hunting traditions of pony clubs. Today pony clubs, which are open to young
Europe, poses a whole new set of challenges for horse people up to the age of twenty-one, have three primary
and rider. The goal for success is not being the fastest goals: (1) to encourage young people to ride, (2) to
or jumping the highest, but rather displaying correct provide them with an all-around education about horse-
form, balance, control, and seamless transitions, both manship, and (3) to inculcate values regarding sports-
jumping and “on the flat.” manship and correct behavior. The great charm of
gymkhana is that the framework of the competition and
Stock Seat (Western) the contests themselves generate high levels of enjoy-
A style of horsemanship developed to meet the needs of ment.
Western frontiersmen and cattle ranchers, stock seat
riding has nonetheless grown to be an acceptable and Women and Horseback Riding
popular sport for women. With the exceptions of horse racing, polo, and rodeo,
horseback riding is mainly a women’s sport. Women ac-
Saddle Seat count for more than 80 percent of those involved in
Riders of American Saddlebreds and Morgans compete equestrian sports and they win a sizeable percentage of
in saddle seat riding and equitation contests. They ride medals at major competitions. It was not always this
on a small, flat saddle and keep their stirrups very long way. When horses were used primarily for farming and
as they guide their horses through patterns and gait other work, transportation, and to carry cavalry troops
changes, including special gaits unique to the American into battle, riding was a male activity. Although there
Saddlebred breed. are some famous women riders in history—Boadicea,
the widow of the king of East Anglia, Anne of Bohemia,
Gymkhana Catherine de Medici, Joan of Arc, and Queen Elizabeth
Gymkhana is usually a series of contests with ponies I of England—they have been the royal and aristocratic
rather than horses. Such competitions are used to in- exceptions.
Opportunity opened for women in general only shows in America and Europe offer both flat and jump-
when the horse became economically and militarily ob- ing classes for sidesaddle competitors.
solete with the appearance of the automobile and other Female participation in hunting, racing, and Olympic
means of fossil-fuel transportation in the early twentieth competition, which began in 1912, was slow to de-
century. Horseback riding then became a recreational velop. The first female equestrian was dressage rider
activity and a sport. In horseback riding, age, skill, and Marjorie Haines of the United States, who competed in
experience determine at what level of the sport women the 1952 Olympics.
compete, and not their gender.
Women’s success should not be a surprise, because Governing Bodies
women possess several advantages over men in riding Horseback riding is governed by numerous national or-
horses. Women enjoy greater stability in the saddle due ganizations. The primary international organization is
to their wider hips and lower center of gravity. With less the Federation Equestre Internationale (www.aherra.
physical strength, women must rely on important riding com). Major American and British organizations in-
techniques that require balance and finesse. Most im- clude the following: the American Endurance Ride Con-
portantly, women communicate better with horses than ference (www.aerc.org), the American Horse Shows
do most men. As pack animals, horses respond better to Association (www.equistrian.org), the British Eques-
a softer touch, gentle manner, and soothing voice, and trian Federation (www.bef.org), the United States Dres-
effective communication with one’s horse is considered sage Federation (www.usdf.org), the United States
a vital component of success in riding. Equestrian Federation (www.usef.org), the United States
A key event in women’s riding history was the intro- Eventing Association (www.eventingusa.com), and the
duction of the sidesaddle in Europe in the thirteenth or World Sidesaddle Federation (www.sidesaddle.org).
fourteenth century. It is not clear who first introduced
David Levinson, based in part on material by
the sidesaddle, but Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603)
Mary Conti, Linda Bowlby, and Scott Crawford
gets credit for making it the only accepted riding style
for upper-class women (peasant women continued to
ride astride). Soon after this, hunting and cross-country
riding came to be seen as unsafe and not appropriate
Further Reading
Beach, B. (1912). Riding and driving for women. New York: Scribner’s.
for respectable women. The major innovation in the Clarke, J. S. (1857). The habit and the horse. London: Smith, Elder &
sidesaddle came about 1830 with the invention of the Co.
Decker, K. D-C. (1995). Riding: A guide for new riders. New York:
leaping horn, which made it safer to ride face forward Lyons & Burford.
and to jump. Disston, H. (1961). Know about horses: A ready reference guide to
By the late 1800s in the United States, ranch life on horses, horse people, and horse sports. New York: Bromhall House.
Evans, N. (1995). The horse whisperer. New York: Delacorte Press.
the Western frontier necessitated that women ride Friddle, M. C., & Bowlby, L. A. (1994). The sidesaddle legacy. Bucyrus,
astride, and the new style spread to Europe, although it OH: World Sidesaddle Federation.
Haw, S. (1993). The new book of the horse. New York: Howell Book
took time to be generally accepted. However, by 1938 House.
nearly all women were riding astride and the sidesaddle Hitchcock, F. C. (1962). Saddle up. London: Stanley Paul.
seemed to be history. But renewed interest in the United Imus, B. (1992). From the ground up: Horsemanship for the adult rider.
New York: Howell Book House.
States associated with preparation for the 1976 bicen- Kydd, R. (1979). Long distance riding explained. New York: Arco.
tennial led to the founding of the U.S. Sidesaddle As- Micklem, W. (2003). Complete horse riding manual. New York: DK
Publishing.
sociation in 1974 followed by the World Sidesaddle Midkiff, M. D. (1996). Fitness, performance and the female equestrian.
Federation in 1980. Today many of the major horse New York: Howell Book House.
HUMAN MOVEMENT STUDIES 771
Morris, G. (1990). Hunter seat equitation. New York: Doubleday. findings until they have been integrated into some con-
Paulo, K. (1990). America’s long distance challenge. North Pomfret,VT: ceptual whole.” Four years earlier the new journal
Trafalgar Square.
Phillips, M. (1993). Horse and hound book of eventing. New York: Sportwissenschaft had expressed hope that “sport sci-
Howell Book House. ence” might somehow become an integrative science.
Rodenas, P. (1991). Random House book of horses and horsemanship.
New York: Random House. The Journal of Human Movement Studies aspired to
Skelton, B. (1988). Side saddle riding: Notes for teachers and pupils. encourage and make available research by people op-
London: Sportsman Press.
erating in many disciplines, professions, and occupa-
Vernam, G. R. (1994). Man on horseback. New York: Harper and Row.
Wofford, J. C. (1995). Training the three-day event horse and rider. New tions. These included physiological contexts of human
York: Howell Book House. behavior, the development of movement behavior,
movement in a societal context, personality and move-
ment behavior, movement in communication, aesthetic
evaluation in movement, techniques for the analysis of
Human Movement movement, and comparative studies of movement.
Within a year seven hundred subscriptions from thirty
Studies countries had been received.
What Does Human

T he term Human Movement Studies is one of several
now used by higher-education units that once were
called departments, schools, or colleges of physical ed-
Movement Include?
Proponents have repeatedly pointed out that Human
ucation. Other current designations include, but are Movement is concerned with purposeful, or intentional,
not limited to, human performance; exercise science; activity, not “involuntary sensory responses.” Therefore,
sport and exercise sciences; kinesiology; health, physi- its study cannot be restricted to molecular biology and
cal education, and recreation. The largest percentage of physiology. Psychological, social, aesthetic, and other
institutions presently using the designation Human matters need to be involved. The Journal stated that an-
Movement Studies seems to be in Australia. Sportwissen- imal studies would be accepted only if they had impli-
schaft (sport science) appears to be the preferred term cations for the study of human movement.
in German-speaking countries. The title of the twenty-
fifth-anniversary conference of the International Asso- ROOTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
ciation of Higher Schools of Physical Education, held Although some insisted that Human Movement was a
in Lisbon in 1987, was “Human Kinetics —Movement new field of endeavor, others maintained that this was
Humain.” substantially a new term for what historically had been
Human Movement (the term is often capitalized) also known as “physical education,” which during the 1960s
is considered to be a field of study that seeks to bring had begun to establish itself as an academic discipline.
together numerous and diverse research specializations Declarations were made in the 1970s that Human
and interests and to integrate and apply the knowledge Movement Studies constituted an important area of ac-
that is gained for the betterment of humankind. Brooke ademic inquiry that offered significant potential for
and Whiting’s Human Movement—A Field of Study was both research workers and practitioners; these declara-
published in 1973. The inaugural issue of the Journal of tions resonate with Franklin Henry’s assertion, pub-
Human Movement Studies, which appeared in March lished in the Journal of Health, Physical Education, and
1975, declared: “Research findings are inevitably frac- Recreation in 1964, that, “There is a scholarly field of
tionated . . . and it is seldom meaningful to apply such knowledge basic to physical education . . . constituted of
I always know what’s happening on the court.

I see a situation occur, and I respond. ■ LARRY BIRD
certain portions of such diverse fields as anatomy, attention of a growing number of female physical edu-
physics and physiology, cultural anthropology, history cators. Participants at the 1941 conference on modern
and sociology, as well as psychology.” As the Journal of dance held by the Ling Physical Education Association
Human Movement Studies and numerous individuals (founded in 1899 to bring together women who had
would do a decade later, Henry also had declared, “The studied at Bergman-Osterberg’s school or Stockholm’s
focus of attention is on the study of man as an individ- Central Gymnastic Institute) were favorably impressed
ual, engaging in motor performances required in daily with presentations given by Lisa Ullman (who had
life and in other motor performances yielding aesthetic come from Essen to Dartington Hall in 1934) and
values or serving as expressions of his physical and Rudolph von Laban (who recently had found refuge in
competitive nature.” England) and persuaded the board of education to pro-
mote modern dance in English schools.
EMERGENCE OF THE TERM MOVEMENT
Movement, “either by itself or in composite terms such GROWTH OF MODERN DANCE
as ‘basic movement,’ ‘movement training,’ ‘human The Physical Education Act of 1944 moved physical ed-
movement studies’ or ‘art of movement,’” Peter McIn- ucation from the control of the chief medical officer for
tosh (1981, 222) points out, emerged in connection health to the Ministry of Education—a change that re-
with British physical education following World War II. flected broader tendencies within education to empha-
Traditionally, children in government schools had been size social and psychological matters. In physical
exposed to exercise through gymnastics. (At Rugby, education this redirected the earlier physiological/
other elite “public” schools, and those grammar schools health orientation, notably among female physical ed-
that sought to emulate them, games and sports pre- ucators. The uniqueness of each individual, problem
dominated.) solving, and creative approaches to learning received
considerable attention during the 1950s, a period dur-
GYMNASTICS SYSTEMS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES ing which interest in modern dance continued to grow.
The Swedish “system” of gymnastics, which consisted of Laban’s theory of “modern educational dance” (the
specific movements executed to command (and which title of his often-reprinted small 1948 book) featured
had a strong therapeutic dimension), had been intro- creativity, not stylized movements. Effort (“the strivings
duced in England in the mid-1800s.The work was pop- of the body and mind”) was the common denominator
ularized by Martina Bergman-Osterberg, who began of all movement; its four elements were weight, space,
giving classes to female teachers in 1881. Her school, time, and flow. In 1946 Ruth Morison, a tutor at I. M.
which moved to Dartford in 1895, was the country’s Marsh College of Physical Education, began applying
first residential college for training teachers of physical Laban’s principles of movement to gymnastics, with
education. By 1914 there were five other training col- the intent of developing children’s “body awareness.”
leges for women. The quality of physical education for Her small booklet Educational Gymnastics (1956) be-
boys would remain limited until male teachers began to came the basis for her more extensive A Movement
be trained at their own specialized colleges in the 1930s. Approach to Educational Gymnastics (1969) and the
Visits by Niels Bukh and his associates brought Dan- “new gymnastics,” as it sometimes was called, which en-
ish gymnastics, which featured continuity of movement couraged children to solve a problem by moving in
and rhythmic qualities, to the attention of English teach- their own way and their own rhythm to tasks set by the
ers in the late 1920s. During the 1930s “natural” and teacher. To enhance opportunities for creativity, teachers
“rhythmic” gymnastics, then popular in various Euro- used ropes, bars, ladders, boxes, and other equipment
pean countries, as well as modern dance, attracted the that could be moved into various configurations. By the
1960s “movement education” permeated the curricu- In 1926 Margaret H’Doubler, who created the coun-
lum at women’s physical-training colleges. try’s first dance major at the University of Wisconsin,
conducted a workshop dealing with fundamentals of
Movement Education in America movement in relation to dance, sports, and other activ-
American female physical educators learned about ities. In addition, as movement education was coming
“movement education” through contacts with English into being, modern dance was a well-established part of
colleagues.The theme of the March 1964 issue of Quest, the curriculum at many colleges and universities. An ar-
the journal of the National Association for Physical Ed- ticle in the October 1956 issue of the Journal of Health,
ucation of College Women and National College Phys- Physical Education and Recreation endorsed the impor-
ical Education Association for Men (now tance of creative dance and rhythmic move-
the National Association for Physical ment for children and spoke favorably
Education in Higher Education) about the British Ministry of Edu-
was “The Art and Science of cation’s publication Moving
Human Movement.” There and Growing (1952), which
are “few ideas related to featured the new develop-
physical education,” the ments. (Interestingly, dur-
editors observed, that ing the late 1950s and
have had as much im- the 1960s American
pact on professional dis- physical educators also
cussions in recent years. gave extensive atten-
Ideas were quickly in- tion to regulated forms
corporated into pro- of “fitness” exercise.)
grams for children In
Movement Experiences: Criticisms of
Curriculum and Methods Movement
for Elementary School Phys- Education
ical Education (1967), Evelyn Some female and most male
Schurr stated, “In recent years physical educators found the
the physical-education program in extensive and unsupported claims
American elementary schools has of movement education to be ex-
been greatly influenced by programs treme. Pure and Applied Gymnastics
of English physical educators.” (1955) by A. D. Munrow, director
A receptive atmosphere already An exercise routine from of gymnastics at the University of
existed. The playground movement nineteenth-century Europe. Birmingham, raised a number of
and the formation of the Playground questions regarding its unverified
Association of America in 1906 (leading members of assumptions. In chapters dealing with mobility,
the physical-education profession were involved) en- strength, endurance, and skill exercises, Munrow in-
couraged freer types of activities than did gymnastics, cluded relevant information from Schneider and Kar-
which remained the foundation of the curriculum dur- povich’s The Physiology of Muscular Exercise (1948);
ing the early 1900s. Developmental aspects of play, Bovard, Cozens, and Hagman’s Tests and Measurements
games, and sports were given considerable attention in Physical Education (1949); and other sources de-
within the physical-education curriculum by the 1920s. rived from experimental studies. Munrow also referred
Korean rope walking.
to “circuit training,” the exercise program

that instructors at the University of Leeds
recently had created to motivate male stu-
dents to carry out individualized exercise
programs.
Among those who were skeptical of
what were seen as extreme and diffuse
claims was David Best, who had been on
the faculty at Chelsea College of Physical
Education. In Expression in Movement and
the Arts: A Philosophical Inquiry (1974)
and a series of articles in the Journal of
Human Movement Studies, he pointed to
the often unacknowledged “confusion in
the use of the term ‘movement’ . . . a slide
from a very general sense of the term to an
implicitly more restricted sense,” and other
inconsistencies.
INFLUENCES IN THE 1970S

Physical education is one of those fields
that are highly susceptible to broader so-
cial is political events and ideologies. The
spectacular images of athletes, especially
female gymnasts, at the1972 Olympic games focused OPPORTUNITIES FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATORS
attention on high-level performance, which requires Since the late 1800s, a small number of physicians,
specific and rigorous training. In the United States physiologists, and other investigators had been studying
such tendencies were intensified by the enactment of various parameters of human performance. So had a
the 1972 Education Act (Title IX), which mandated few individuals whose field was physical education.
equity for females in intercollegiate and interscholas- Opportunities for the latter were more extensive in the
tic athletics. In spite of what was sometimes claimed, United States, where by the 1920s departments of phys-
there was no evidence that the approaches endorsed ical education with four-year bachelor’s-degree pro-
by “movement education” developed any of the specific grams had been established at universities and colleges.
skills needed to succeed in basketball, field hockey, or By 1942 fifty-four institutions also offered graduate de-
any other sport. The Olympic games and a growing grees. One-third of the contributors to the influential
number of other international competitions prompted Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sport (1960) were
more extensive studies of biomechanical, physiologi- physical educators. The intention of this book was to
cal, and psychological parameters of performance. The bring together authoritative evidence across disciplines
increasing volume of such research was one of several dealing with physical activity and the human organism;
factors that contributed to reorienting many depart- it opened with the statement, “in recent years great
ments heavily toward the biological sciences during progress has been made in the scientific study of exer-
the 1980s. cise and sports.”
Researchers whose faculty appointments were in a ment study on teacher preparation), which declared that
department of physical education (or one of the new teacher training should be preceded by completion of
names these would adopt) grew by remarkable pro- study in an academic area, traditional three-year teacher-
portions over the next four decades. Increasing numbers training colleges began to amalgamate with local poly-
of physical educators also joined the American College technics and universities. For example, Anstey College
of Sports Medicine, which from its inception in 1954 of Physical Education, which offered a three-year course
had been open to individuals in many fields. Sports in movement studies and education, became a part of
medicine organizations in most other countries tended Birmingham Polytechnic in 1975. Dartford College of
to be limited to physicians and perhaps researchers in Physical Training merged with Thames Polytechnic and
certain physiological sciences. became part of the School of Movement and Recre-
The growth of professional sports franchises, fitness ation Studies. Following amalgamation with Brighton
centers, and other for-profit ventures; the advent of ex- Polytechnic, Chelsea College of Physical Education be-
ercise stress testing for cardiac patients; and other came known as The Chelsea School of Human Move-
health, sport, and exercise undertakings expanded em- ment and looked forward to offering a BS Honors
ployment opportunities, led to the development of new degree in sports science as well as a BA in Human
areas like sports management, and resulted in greater Movement. In 1975 Liverpool Polytechnic launched its
specialization within faculties as well as in the under- Honors BS degree in sports science within the Faculty
graduate curriculum. This prompted the creation of of Science, not in association with physical education.
organizations like the International Society of Biome-
chanics in Sports, founded in 1967. Between 1968 and Debate on Nomenclature
1985, in North America alone, at least seven organiza- Perhaps nowhere were debates about what term best
tions dedicated to one of the areas traditionally in- represented a newly configured department more in-
cluded within physical education were created (e.g., tense than in the United States. In 1990 Karl Newell re-
North American Society for the Sociology of Sport, ported sixty-nine different names currently in use. These
1978). Most quickly established their own journals. included Physical Education, Recreation, and Human
These events fostered more—and better—research in Performance; Human Movement Program; Human
the various “subdisciplines” and at the same time in- Movement Studies; Health and Human Performance;
creased the fractioning (or “fragmentation,” a word that Sport and Movement Studies; Kinesiology; Exercise Sci-
was used frequently in the United States) of knowledge ence. The last two were the most frequently adopted.
that the Journal of Human Movement Studies had hoped Newell also noted that this “chaos” had come at a time
to help remedy. Similar events that were occurring else- “when societal interest in physical activity is at an all-
where have been discussed by Renson (1989) and by time high” and made the perceptive observation that,
Haag, Grupe, & Kirsch (1992). “To some degree this chaos has been created and sus-
tained by the prevalence of indifferent and inconsistent
Increase in Status nomenclature in the field of physical activity and the in-
An article that appeared in 1968 in Physical Education ability to articulate clearly and consistently the aca-
(the journal of the Physical Education Association of demic programmatic themes”—the same criticism that
Great Britain and Northern Ireland), while citing several individuals in Europe and Canada were making.
Henry’s 1964 article, stated that the establishment of
university B. Ed. degree programs might be the first step The Future
in giving greater status to physical education in Britain. Within academia the word “science” has more prestige
Following the James Report of 1972 (a British govern- than does “studies.” And theoretical work has more
status than do applied and practical matters. The inter- Renson, R. (1989). From physical education to kinanthropology: A
national journal Human Movement Science was initiated quest for academic and professional identity. Quest, 41(3), 235–
256.
in 1982 to provide “a multidisciplinary forum for the Sweeney, R. T. (1970). Selected readings in movement education. Menlo
presentation and discussion of experimental, method- Park, CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
ological and theoretical studies of human movement . . .
with special focus on motor control, motor learning
and coordination.” The intent was to achieve both in-
tegration of scientific knowledge and integration of
theory and practice. Experimental psychology and bio-
Hungary
mechanics have been the subject of perhaps the great-
est number of articles; contributions dealing with
neurophysiology and neural network modeling also
T he origins of Hungarian sports date back to the set-
tling of the nomadic Hungarian tribes during the
ninth century. These Magyar tribes came to Europe from
have appeared. In some fields the application of re- Russia and roamed on horseback while improving their
search to the world in which human beings live is of riding, archery, hunting, and falconry skills. These skills
very considerable importance. Medicine is one; so is weren’t just a part of everyday life; they played an im-
that which traditionally had been known as “physical portant role in a tribe’s religious practices and beliefs.
education.” It seems of no small significance, therefore, When Hungary adopted Christianity in 1000 (after
to note that the editors of Human Movement Science unification by King Stephen I), the Christian culture was
have stated that there exists “a strong need in applied part of the newly created kingdom both politically and
areas.” economically.
After King Stephen I’s House of Arpad died out in
Roberta J. Park
1301, the House of Anjou assumed the Hungarian
See also Biomechanics; Kinesiology; Physical Education throne. During the years of Anjou reign foreign knights
arrived at the royal court, creating a Western-style cul-
ture. They held lavish jousting tournaments at the re-
Further Reading cently constructed castles and forts (such as Buda,
Best, D. (1974). Expression in movement and the arts: A philosophical Visegrad, and Esztergom). King Matyas (Matthias Corv-
inquiry. London: Lepus Books. inus), who ruled Hungary from 1458 to 1490, sup-
Brooke, J. D. & Whiting, H. T. A. (Eds.). (1973). Human movement—
A field of study. London: H. Kimpton. ported the influences of the Italian Renaissance. This
Burton, E. C. (1977). The new physical education for elementary school era was the glorious time of Hungarian history, when
children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Fletcher, S. (1984). Women first: The female tradition in English physi-
economic prosperity and stable governance endured al-
cal education, 1880–1980. London: The Athlone Press. most a lifetime. Mansions and castles (Buda, Visegrad,
Haag, H., Grupe, O., & Kirsch, A. (Eds.). (1992). Sport science in Ger- and Tata) were rebuilt to resemble those in Italy; Matyas
many: An interdisciplinary anthology. Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany:
Springer-Verlag. also founded baths, libraries, and publishing facilities.
Henry, F. M. (1964). Physical education—An academic discipline. Jour- After his death the country declined for decades. After
nal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 35(7), 32–33, 69.
McIntosh, P. C., Dixon, J. G., Munrow, A. D. & Willetts, R. F. (1981).
its defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohacs
Landmarks in the history of physical education. London: Routledge (1526), Hungary broke into three parts, the largest part
and Kegan Paul. being ruled by the victorious Ottomans, who remained
Morison, R. (1969). A movement approach to educational gymnastics.
London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd. there for 150 years.
Munrow, A. D. (1955). Pure and applied gymnastics. London: Edward The western part of Hungary came under the rule of
Arnold Ltd.
Newell, K. M. (1990). Physical education in higher education: Chaos
the Hapsburgs (who dominated the politics of the coun-
out of order. Quest, 42 (3), 227–242. try until 1921). During the early sixteenth century the
HUNGARY 777
Hungary Olympics Results

Reformation (a religious movement marked by rejection Enlightenment and Education

or modification of some Roman Catholic doctrine and During the second half of the eighteenth century the
practice and establishment of Protestant churches) was ideals of enlightenment spread over the country. The
the biggest influence on physical culture. The Reforma- conservative Hapsburgs tried to slow this spread, but in
tion had the most followers in the third part of Hungary Queen Maria Theresa’s education decree Ratio Educa-
—Transylvania—which retained the national language tionis (1777), physical education was included as an
and culture lacking in the parts held by the Ottomans optional subject. The first writings about modern sports
and the Hapsburgs. Protestants founded schools, where came from western Europe. Wealthy aristocrats (such as
they taught new subjects in the local language. John Istvan Szechenyi and Miklos Wesselenyi) who traveled
Comenius, the Czech-Moravian educator, wrote his ped- through England, France, and the German principalities
agogic work Orbis Sensualium Pictus around 1650– and scientists and doctors promoted the introduction of
1654 in Sarospatak in northeastern Hungary. In it he de- new sports in Hungary. Szechenyi supported horserac-
scribed the importance of physical education and the role ing, swimming, rowing, and sailing and constructed a
of pedagogy (the art of teaching) in protecting health. ballroom. Wesselenyi advocated hunting and fencing.
The first national swimming pool in Pest, Hungary, in 1844.

Source: Hungarian Museum for Sport and Physical Education.
A mounted Hungarian (Magyar) warrior in

the early sixteenth century.
Hungarian sports were heavily influenced by politics.

Through the last quarter of the century the market and
mass media also played an ever-increasing role.
After World War I Hungary became independent
after nearly four hundred years but lost two-thirds of
its territory. More than 3 million Hungarians found
themselves living in neighboring countries (Romania,
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia). That’s why during the
1920s many athletes who had begun their career in
Hungary represented Romania, Czechoslovakia, or Yu-
goslavia at international competitions.
Olympic Games
Both men set an example of the new European “gentle- Between the two world wars the Olympic Games were
man” in the country. The small number of urban middle- especially important in Hungary. However, in 1920
class people, whose number rose significantly during Hungary wasn’t invited to participate in the Olympics
the nineteenth century, favored gymnastics, swimming, in Antwerp, Belgium, but rejoined the Olympic move-
and skating. ment in 1924. Through the 1920s table tennis was the
Beginning in the 1860s Hungarian sports progressed most successful Hungarian sport internationally. At the
rapidly. In 1867 the government enacted compulsory Olympics in Berlin, Germany, in 1936 Hungary won
physical education in schools. After the 1860s new ten gold, two silver, and two bronze medals.
sports such as tennis, cycling, wrestling, and boxing After World War II the Soviet Union occupied Hun-
gained popularity. Modern sports clubs (Nemzeti Torna gary. The Soviet model was enforced on every aspect of
Egylet, 1867; Magyar Athletikai Club, 1875) opened, life, including sports. During the Soviet era sports were
followed by federations such as Magyar Labdarugo used as propaganda to demonstrate the success of so-
Szovetseg (Hungarian Football Federation) in 1901. cialism. During the 1950s a generation of well-trained
Several sports began to hold national championships. At athletes took part in Hungarian sports. At the Olympics
the first tennis championship in 1896 both male and fe- in Helsinki, Finland, in 1952 Hungary won sixteen
male players were allowed to compete. The winner was gold medals. Hungary also performed well in soccer
Countess Paulina Palffy. Around the turn of the century during the 1950s, winning victories at the 1954 World
sports periodicals such as Hercules were established. Championship, but lost in the final against Germany.
As part of the Austro-Hungarian empire, Hungary During the period from the 1960s to the 1990s the
participated in numerous international competitions, government supported mass sports only if they served
particularly in other parts of the empire (Vienna, a political purpose. The government helped finance pro-
Prague) and in Germany. In the first modern Olympic fessional sports to raise their level of support among the
Games in Athens, Greece, in 1896, Hungary partici- people. During the 1980s athletes were allowed to sign
pated with thirteen athletes. Alfred Hajos won two gold contracts with Western clubs. New sports such as base-
medals in swimming. The Hungarian team was led by ball and Asian martial arts came to Hungary, imported
Ferenc Kemeny, who had been elected to the Interna- by students studying abroad. During the early 1990s
tional Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894. aerobics were not for just “Western imitators” anymore.
During the twentieth century, especially after 1945, After the political changes of 1989–1990 the govern-
HUNTING 779
Hunting
H unting is the pursuit and killing of animals for
subsistence, for the ritual of war, and for sport.
The sportsman-hunter did not emancipate himself from
the subsistence-hunter and the warrior-hunter until the
nineteenth century.
The Rise of Hunting as Sport

Humans or something akin to them have hunted game
for more than 1 million years. The use of fire and the
presence of stone tools suitable for dismembering a
carcass and of animal bones at sites inhabited by Homo
erectus identify him as the first hunter. The first hunters
stalked game for food not sport. The domestication of
Hungarian women competing at
plants and animals some 10,000 years ago made pos-
archery in 1889.
sible the accumulation of a food surplus. Humans could
now hunt by choice rather than necessity, a prerequisite
ment largely stopped financing sports and left no ade- of sport. But the hunter was not yet pure sportsman for
quate system of financing in its place. Tax breaks and he was also a warrior and the hunt proxy for war. In
subsidies for foundations and civil organizations dedi- China the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) classified
cated to sports might be the solution, but sports policies hunting within the Ministry of War. In Egypt the
are ever-changing. pharaoh was the alpha warrior-hunter. Amenophis III
Because of the media, the attention is again mainly (1411?–1375 BCE) slaughtered 102 lions, 96 bulls and
on professional sports. The most successful sports are innumerable other animals in a series of hunts. Tutmo-
still the Olympic sports such fencing, swimming, sis III (reigned c. 1500 BCE) killed 120 elephants in a
wrestling, and kayak-canoeing, but the most popular is single outing. Babylonian king Ashurbanipal (seventh
soccer. The most prominent body in Hungarian sports century BCE) styled himself the “hunting king.”
is the Hungarian Olympic Committee, whose presi- So long as the aristocracy held power and prestige,
dent, Pal Schmitt, and general secretary, Tamas Ajan, are the hunt retained a nebulous status between war and
IOC members. sport. Hunting began to tilt toward sport with the wan-
ing of the nobility in the seventeenth and eighteenth
Katalin Szikora
centuries. The English Civil War of the mid-1600s,
the formation of the United States during the late
1700s into a nation without an aristocracy, and the
Further Reading French Revolution (1789) signaled the eclipse of the
Ajan, T. (Ed.). (2000). Magyarok az olimpiai jatekokon. Budapest,
Hungary: Magyar Olimpiai Bizottsag. nobility. At the same time the ideal of the citizen-soldier
Foldes, E.-K., & Laszlo-Kutassi, L. (1989). A magyar testneveles es of the French Revolution gave way to the professional
sport tortenete. Budapest, Hungary: n.p.
Siklossy, L. (1929). A magyar sport ezer eve I-III. Budapest, Hungary:
soldier and officer cadre of Prussia. War no longer
n.p. needed the hunt. Free from its role as provisioner for
Hunting Methods,
Etiquette, and Safety
Hunting involves a range of methods to capture the
prey. An animal will try to elude a hunter as it would
any predator, compelling him to use stealth in recon-
noitering an area for game. The patrol on foot is per-
haps the oldest method of hunting. A hunter takes care
to walk into the wind to prevent it from carrying his
scent ahead of him, a circumstance that would alert an-
imals in his path. Nesting birds—grouse for example—
pose little problem. A hunter may approach a stand of
trees, opening fire when the birds take flight. As an al-
ternative a hunter may use a dog—a pointer is ideal—
to identify a tree with birds, to position itself at the foot
of a tree and to bark on command to startle birds aloft.
Once a hunter has made a kill a dog is invaluable in re-
trieving it. The ease of bird hunting and the opportunity
for several kills in an outing attract large numbers of
hunters. The presence of several hunters in an area de-
mands caution. A hunter should keep his gun perpen-
dicular to the ground as he awaits the approach of a
bird. Upon sighting a bird he may track it, being certain
never to bring the gun below a 45-degree angle with the
ground. This precaution is especially important given
Hunting polar bear in Alaska. that bird hunters tend to use shotguns. Even at 45 de-
grees a shotgun may disperse shot with a horizontal
hunter-gatherers and dress rehearsal for warriors, hunt- rather than upward trajectory. If the hunt is on private
ing became a sport in the nineteenth century. property as is common in Europe, a host has every
Literature traces the evolution of the hunter from right to dismiss from his land a hunter who arcs his gun
warrior to sportsman. The protagonists Theseus from dangerously low. The presence of several hunters poses
antiquity and Siegfried from the Middle Ages were an additional problem. Two hunters may fire simulta-
warrior-hunters. In pursuit of Minotaur and dragon re- neously at a bird, each being unsure whether one or
spectively, Theseus and Siegfried elevated themselves both hit it. Etiquette dictates that the hunter with the
above the common man. They were nobles whose pres- greater number of kills award the bird to the hunter
tige entitled them to the hunt. By the 1800s, however, with fewer.
the warrior-hunter had receded from history and from Big game, bear, and elk, for example, are another
the literary landscape. Natty Bumppo, the protagonist matter. Their keen nose and speed makes a kill difficult.
of James Fenimore Cooper’s Leather-Stocking Tales A hunter should reconnoiter an area for lush vegetation
(1823–1841), has none of the refinement and grace of that entices game to feed, approaching these spots at
the aristocrat. He is a woodsman, the product of a dawn or dusk when animals are likely to feed. A hunter
democracy in which anyone with pluck and initiative does well to approach at dawn with daylight ahead.
can hunt for sport. Bear, elk, and other large animals have small killing
HUNTING 781
Hunting
“Queen of the Chase”: Empress Elizabeth of Austria (1837–1898)
Born in 1837, Elizabeth (nicknamed “Sisi”), a Bavar- Her hunting career lasted less than a decade as
ian princess, married the Emperor of Austria, Franz family crises, ill health, and depression reduced her
Josef, in 1854. After the birth of their four children mobility. On 10 September 1898 she was assassi-
who were removed for a separate formal upbringing, nated in Geneva, Switzerland, by an Italian anar-
she became increasingly discontented with the “golden chist, Luigi Lucheni, who stabbed her to death with
fetters” of one of the most rigid royal courts in Europe a homemade dagger. Sisi has remained a foxhunting
and suffered often from depression. A keen horserider legend and histories of the sport frequently reprint an
since childhood, she spent an increasing amount of anonymous piece of doggerel verse, written after an
time away from Austria in search of freedom and ex- Irish hunt:
citement, often traveling under a pseudonym to reduce
The Queen of the Chase!
formality. She was already a grandmother when she
The Queen! Yes, the Empress!
first encountered foxhunting in England in 1874.Two
Look, look, how she flies,
years later she moved to the British Isles for the hunt-
With a hand that never fails
ing season and returned for several years. She hunted
And a pluck that never dies.
both in the English Midlands and in Ireland.
The best man in England can’t lead her—
A bold, almost reckless rider, she was led through
he’s down!
the fields by a pilot, Captain Bay Middleton, a hand-
“Bay” Middleton’s back is done beautifully
some, enthusiastic cavalry officer ten years her junior.
brown.
The empress found foxhunting a liberating experi-
ence after the rigid Vienna court life. Whatever the ru- Hark horn and hark halloa!
mors about her relationship with male admirers away Come on for a place!
from the hunt, her position in one of the grandest Eu- He must ride who would follow
ropean royal families protected her from ostracism. The Queen of the Chase!
Instead, she became a model for other aristocratic
John Lowerson
women and the socially ambitious. The press pub-
lished engravings of her hunting exploits, and she en-
joyed being painted on horseback.
zones, increasing the chance that a hunter will wound ter view of an area than will one on the ground and will
rather than kill an animal with the first shot. Etiquette be in better position to fire safely. Given the perils of
(and often law) require a hunter to pursue a wounded hunting a prudent hunter will sacrifice the benefit of
animal until the kill has been made. At dusk, however, camouflage to the need for safety by wearing a bright
a hunter must postpone the pursuit until morning. color, orange is ideal, to alert other hunters of his
When the object is big game, a wise hunter will fire only presence.
at a stationary animal to be sure of killing it outright.
This precaution is vital in stalking bear for a wounded Hunting Weapons
bear may turn on a hunter and kill in its fury. As an al- The first hunters, driven by necessity rather than sport,
ternative to stalking big game on foot, a hunter may used whatever was handy: stones, bones, sharpened
take a position above the ground in a seat, either free sticks. Humans invented the spear 15,000 years ago
standing or in a tree. A hunter in a seat will have a bet- and the bow and arrow 10,000 years ago, which had
Though I am an old horse, and have seen and heard a great deal, I never yet could make out
why men are so fond of this sport; they often hurt themselves, often spoil good horses,
and tear up the fields, and all for a hare, or a fox, or a stag, that they could get more easily
some other way; but we are only horses, and don’t know. ■ ANNA SEWELL, “BLACK BEAUTY”
by 3000 BCE spread to hunters throughout the world. the hunt amid plenty. Moreover they rued what they
Since the fourteenth century the gun has been the perceived as tyranny in Europe. As a counterweight to
weapon of choice. absolutism Thomas Jefferson conceived of America as
The type of game dictates the choice of gun. Hunters an experiment in liberty. This experiment played out in
of birds and other small game use a shotgun. Unlike a the context of English philosopher John Locke’s notion
rifle a shotgun radiates its projectiles through space in of individual rights. The individual was capable of reg-
a cone that increases in size with the distance to a tar- ulating his own conduct and needed neither aristocrats
get. The dispersal of shot over an area increases the nor heavy-handed agents of government as interloper.
odds of hitting small, moving game. A shotgun obviates The concepts of individual rights and limited gov-
the need for precision. A hunter does not aspire to be ernment put few checks on hunters, precipitating a cri-
a marksman with a shotgun. It is enough to shoot near sis on the Great Plains. For millennia bison were the
a target to hit it. A hunter may use a double-barreled dominant fauna on the plains, but European Ameri-
shotgun that fires two cartridges at a time, dispersing cans viewed them an impediment to progress. Bison
shot over an even wider area. Its drawback is the need grazed the grass ranchers coveted for their livestock and
to reload after each shot. Should a hunter miss, the sustained Native Americans with their meat. In killing
quarry will escape before the hunter can reload. For this bison European Americans appropriated land for their
reason hunters who favor a fluid action and who do not livestock and crops and deprived the plains Indians of
worry about the accuracy of the first shot prefer re- their livelihood. In the name of progress, hunters
peating shotguns. These carry several cartridges, which swarmed west of the Mississippi River, where they drove
a hunter fires one at a time until a kill has been made. bison to their death from drowning in the Missouri
Although suitable for small game a shotgun is inad- River and shot them from trains that crisscrossed the
equate for large animals. The dispersion of shot in- West. Gunman Billy Tilghman killed 3,300 bison in
creases the odds that a hunter will wound rather than seven months. Buffalo Bill Cody tallied 4,280. During
kill big game, hitting it in several spots rather than pen- the 1870s hunters killed as many as 250,000 bison a
etrating the heart or brain with lethal force. For this rea- month. This savagery bled the population of bison from
son the hunter of big game uses a rifle. The grooves in 60 million in the eighteenth century to little more than
its barrel give a bullet a spin analogous to the spiral of 1,000 in 1893. Naturalists counted only twenty bison
a football, putting it on a straight trajectory. A hunter in Yellowstone National Park in 1894, and the New
must be a marksman with a rifle. A shot near the heart York Zoological Gardens had only fifteen.
may merely wound the quarry; a shot must penetrate
the heart to kill the animal outright. The modern rifle The Regulation of the Hunt
can kill at 400 yards, a distance that allows no margin The massacre of bison coincided with the rise of land-
for error. grant universities, which graduated agriculturalists,
foresters, and biologists sensitive to the need to protect
The Danger of the Hunt game from slaughter. Many of them, particularly agri-
as Unrestricted Sport culturalists, affiliated with the Republican Party, em-
Like other hunter-gathers the Amerindians hunted for boldening its liberal wing and causing a schism
subsistence, preserving the balance between human and between liberals and conservatives. Liberals advocated
animal populations. Europeans and their descendents the passage of laws regulating hunting whereas conser-
upset this balance. The New World was a land of vatives defended the status quo that allowed hunters to
bounty they believed. They thought it foolish to limit do as they pleased. The result was stalemate. In 1871
HUNTING 783
On safari in Africa.
Congress debated but did not pass a bill that would tion Committee. By December 1909 forty-one states
have set a quota on the number of bison hunters could had followed suit with conservation committees of their
kill. Three years later Congress passed a bill to regulate own. The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of
bison hunting, which President Ulysses Grant vetoed. 1937 affirmed the federal-state partnership, giving each
Only in 1894 with bison on the brink of extinction did state $3 for each $1 it contributed to protecting game
Congress with the acquiescence of President Grover and its habitat.
Cleveland outlaw hunting bison on federal land. Liber- Deference to the states has created a patchwork of
als registered a second triumph with the Game and laws. Arizona permits a hunter to kill one bison—on
Wild Birds Preservation and Disposition Act of 1900, state not federal land—during his life with applications
which restricted the sale of feathers and skins and the backlogged for years. Maine limits hunters to four rab-
interstate transport of illegally killed birds in hopes of bits per day in season whereas Arizona allows ten. Cal-
ending the poaching birds in the West and their transit ifornia has forty-one sets of regulations to govern deer
east for sale in the cities of the Midwest and eastern hunting with each set applying to a region of the state.
seaboard. The next year President William McKinley’s In 1989 Utah banned the hunting of elk more than one
assassination brought Theodore Roosevelt to the Oval year old in three regions of the state, leaving hunters
Office. Conservationist, sportsman, naturalist, and his- elsewhere free of this restriction. Arizona divides ante-
torian, Roosevelt sought to balance the right of sports- lope season into thirds, allotting the first to hunters
men to hunt with the duty of government to protect with shotguns and rifles, the second to those with
game for future generations of sportsmen and nature muzzle-loaders and the third to sportsmen with bow
enthusiasts. His belief that sportsmen held the upper and arrow. In 1990 California allowed the killing of
hand led him to ally with conservationists. In 1908 only six bighorn sheep, awarding permits by lottery.
Roosevelt convened the White House Conference of Colorado, Michigan, and Maine all allot different du-
Conservation and established the National Conserva- rations for hunting raccoons.
Hunting
Hunting Clubs
Hunting clubs were established to address the issues of from time to time, assign him. The kennel shall con-
equipment cost and maintenance, as well as to provide tain bear, wolf, deer, and fox dogs.
an opportunity for socializing. The following is the ART 8. All necessary expenses for the purchasing
constitution of the Fort Gibson Hunt Club, published in and feeding of the dogs, building kennel, hiring
June 1835 in the American Turf Register and Sporting keeper, &c. &c. shall be borne at the joint expense of
Magazine. the Club, the Treasurer shall, on the order of the Pres-
ident, pay the accounts, and is authorized to draw
Having duly considered the subject for which we, at
upon the sutler for the necessary funds, for which the
our last meeting, were appointed a committee, beg
Club are pledged.
leave to offer the following as a constitution for the
ART 9. On the withdrawing of a member from the
government of the Club.
Club, all his right, title, and interest in the dogs, ken-
ARTICLE 1. The Club shall be called the Fort Gib-
nel, &c. shall be vested in the Club, and no member
son Hunting Club.
shall, in any way, dispose of or transfer his interest to
ART 2. The officers shall be a President, a Vice
any person whatever.
President, and a Secretary who shall also act as Trea-
ART 10. Members admitted to the Club, previous
surer.
to the 1st January, 1836, shall pay their proportion
ART 3. It shall be the duty of the President to at-
of all expenses previously incurred; members admit-
tend all meetings of the Club and preside in all busi-
ted after that time shall upon admission pay.
ness transactions. He shall call a meeting of the Club
ART 11. All persons wishing to become members
whenever requested to do so by three or more mem-
shall be proposed by a member in proper person, or
bers, and order the Secretary to give notice of such
in writing addressed to the President, and the mem-
meeting the day previous thereto. In the absence of
ber proposed shall be balloted for at the next meet-
the President, the Vice President shall act as Presi-
ing of the Club; two black balls shall exclude him.
dent. A majority of the members present at the post
ART 12. Each member shall sign this Constitu-
shall constitute a quorum to transact business.
tion and be governed by it and such By-Laws as may,
ART 4. The officers of the Club shall be elected an-
from time to time, be adopted by the Club. This Con-
nually; those elected at this meeting shall serve until
stitution shall not be altered but by a majority of
31st Dec. 1835.
two-thirds of the members belonging to the post.
ART 5. It shall be the duty of the Secretary to keep
a book in which he shall make a fair record of all the Major R.B. MASON, of Dragoons, President.
transactions of the Club, and furnish for publication, Lieut. F. BRITTON, 7th Infantry Secretary.
in the American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine,
Resolved, That this Club subscribe for the Ameri-
such accounts of all the interesting hunts, &c. as the
can Turf Register and Sporting Magazine from its
Club may think proper from time to time to publish.
commencement, and its Editor be elected an hon-
ART 6. There shall be a Committee of three ap-
orary member.
pointed by ballot, who shall assess all fines under
Resolved further, That the formation of this Club,
such By-Laws as may hereafter be adopted.
and the proceedings thus far be published in the
ART 7. The dogs shall be under the exclusive man-
American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine.
agement of the President, who shall employ a suit-
Source: Menna, L. K. (Vol. Ed.). (1995). Sports in North America—A documentary his-
able person to take charge of the kennel, and perform tory. Vol. 2: The origins of modern sports, 1820–1840 (pp. 291–292). Gulf Breeze, FL:
Academic International Press.
such duty in relation thereto as the President may,
HUNTING 785
Women as Hunters concentration of wealth in North America and Europe

Historical records and artifacts identify a number of will likely keep farmers and hunters at loggerheads.
women of the aristocratic and royal classes who were Meat consumption rises with income, pressing ranchers
hunters, going as far back as ancient Egypt, Greece, and to increase their pastureland and to graze that land in-
Rome. In later centuries, Charlemagne’s wife Hilde- tensively. Where will game feed?
garde and their six daughters were hunters, who sought At the same time agriculture will continue to shed
wild boar as prey. Elizabeth I of England (1533– workers for machines and chemicals. People who once
1603), Mary Queen of Scots (1542–1587), France’s farmed swell the world’s cities, pressing them to devour
Catherine de Medici, (1519–1589), and Sweden’s habitat as they expand. The affluent exacerbate the
Queen Christina (1626–1689) were all among the problem of urban sprawl by ringing their cities with
ranks of female hunters. And foxhunting has long been suburbs, shopping centers and parking lots, all at the
a sport engaged in by women in the upper classes of expense of game.
European society. As the amount of land suitable for hunting shrinks,
Hunting became more egalitarian—both in terms of and the number of game declines, competition among
gender and class—for women in North America. Pio- hunters should intensify. By its nature competition pro-
neer and frontier women learned how to handle fire- duces few winners and many losers. The few will be an
arms as well as men, and true-life heroines like Annie elite, restoring to hunting a vestige of the elitism it had
Oakley and Martha Jane (“Calamity Jane”) Canary are in antiquity and during the Middle Ages. Most if not all
legendary for their marksmanship in the “Wild West” of hunting may assume the character of safari, with afflu-
the late 1800s. ent Americans and Europeans traveling the globe for
Around the time of World War II, hunting became game. Whether they will find enough to satiate their de-
much more of a male bastion in the United States, with sire for sport remains open to question.
girls and women discouraged from participating in the
sport. However, that trend began to change in the later Governing Bodies
decades of the twentieth century, and in the 1990s, Governing organizations include Boone and Crockett
American women who were hunters grew in number Club (www.boone-crockett.org), International Pro-
from 1 million to more than 2 million. fessional Hunters Association (www.internationalpro
hunters.com); National Rife Association (www.nra.
The Future of Hunting org), and U.S. Sportsmen’s Alliance (www.ussports
As a means of subsistence hunting has been important men.org).
for millennia, though for an increasingly small fraction
Christopher Cumo
of humans. As a sport, hunting must grapple with a
growth in human population that shows no sign of ta- See also Fishing
pering. More than 6 billion people crowd earth, chal-
lenging its capacity to produce ever more abundant
harvests. Even with improvements in crop yields farm- Further Reading
ers can feed more mouths only by increasing the Elman, R. (Ed.) (1980). The complete book of hunting. New York:
acreage under tillage and by using insecticides and her- Abbeville Press.
Hobusch, E. (1980). Fair game: a history of hunting, shooting, and an-
bicides. An increase in farmland comes at the expense imal conservation. New York: Arco.
of uncultivated land and the game on it. Insecticides Mitchell, J. (1980). The hunt. New York: Knopf.
Newton, D. (1992). Hunting. London: Franklin Watts.
and herbicides can accumulate to toxicity in the fat of Robinson, W. L. (1984). Wildlife ecology and management. New York:
wildlife, reducing the game available to hunters. The Macmillan.
been an all-Ireland sport. Thus, the famous Ulster hero,

Hurling Cuchullain, is said to have been an outstanding player.
The idea of the Irish hero as a hurling hero continued
H urling, which many people consider to be the

fastest and fiercest of team sports, is the national
field sport of Ireland. Two teams of fifteen players each
in the tales that outlined the exploits of Finn MacCool
and his Fianna during the second century CE. Further-
more, the centrality of hurling to the Irish could not be
use sticks (hurleys or camans) made of ash to hit a diminished by the raids of the Norsemen nor by the
small, hard ball (slitter or sliothar) through H-shaped coming of Christianity and the influence of St. Patrick.
goalposts that are normally located 137 meters apart England’s invasion of Ireland in 1169 may have re-
on a field 82 meters wide. The broad blade of a hurley sulted in hurling being imported to England because
allows the ball to be hit along the ground and over- traces of such a sport survive in Cornwall and elsewhere.
head. The ball may be caught in the hand and kicked as
well as struck, but it may not be lifted off the ground Development
with the hand. One of the chief skills of hurling is the One might be tempted to speculate that all stick-and-
ability to carry the ball on the blade of the hurley by ball games have common origins, and hurling, cricket,
bouncing it up and down while running at full speed. hockey, and shinty (Scotland’s national sport) possibly
Fitness is vital for success in hurling because of the have a shared genesis but have developed according to
duration and pace, which allow minimal substitutions. context and climate. The context within which the mod-
Games are typically sixty minutes (two thirty-minute ern sport of hurling developed most fully in the south,
halves), although major provincial and All-Ireland rather than the north, apparently has much to do with
games are eighty minutes (two forty-minute halves). the anglicization of Ireland.
Teams consist of a goalkeeper and fourteen field play-
ers arranged in combinations of midfielders, backs, and Modern Innovations
forwards. Substitutions are allowed during the game Whereas technological innovations have influenced the
but generally only because of injury. style of play in many modern sports, hurling has had
Hurling is governed by the Gaelic Athletic Associa- few such innovations. The caman (hurley), which is
tion (GAA), which was founded in 1884 “to bring the 1.07 meters long, and the sliothar, which weighs be-
hurling back to Ireland.” Whereas the Irish have played tween 100 and 130 grams, are still made of traditional
almost every sport in the world, Ireland’s own major na- materials. Some players have adopted helmets for safety
tional sports—hurling and Gaelic football—are played purposes, but such equipment is not compulsory.
virtually exclusively by the Irish. With time the number of players per team has been
reduced from twenty-one to fifteen. A team scores one
History point for hitting the sliothar over the cross bar and be-
Hurling was first mentioned in the Irish Annals in a de- tween the posts and three points for driving the sliothar
scription of the Battle of Moytura (1272 BCE). The in- under the cross bar into the goal. When the ball crosses
vaders first defeated the residents in a game of hurling the sideline, a free hit (puck) is given against the team
and then did likewise in the battle for the lordship of who drove it out at the point where the ball crossed the
Ireland. Hurling is also mentioned in the oldest known line. If the ball is driven over the end line by an attacker,
Irish legal code, the Brehon Laws, providing compen- the defending team pucks it from the 4.6-meter goal
sation for any player injured during a match. area. If the ball goes off a defender over the end line, the
Although today hurling is played largely in the south attacking team pucks the ball 64 meters out from the
(and particularly the southeast) of Ireland, it has always goal at a point opposite where the ball crossed the end
HURLING 787
line. The strongest players can puck the ball 90 meters nally to three points (1896), as it is today. Such changes
or more. have increased the spectator appeal of hurling.
Attackers may not “carry” the ball into their oppo-
Timothy J. L. Chandler
nents’ goal area. If they do so, this act results in a
puck from the goal area from which attackers must re-
treat 12.8 meters. If a defender fouls within the 19.2- Further Reading
meter line, a free stroke is awarded on that line at a Arlott, J. (Ed.). (1975). The Oxford companion to sports and games. Lon-
don: Oxford University Press.
point opposite where the foul took place. Although Carroll, N. (1979). Sport in Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: Department of
shoulder charging is permitted, pulling, tripping, push- Foreign Affairs.
ing, or charging from in front or behind are penalized Gaelic Athletic Association. (1991). Rules. Dublin, Ireland: Author.
Guiney, D., & Puirseal, P. (1965). The Guinness book of hurling records.
by a free hit. Dublin, Ireland: Macmillan.
Originally a goal was greater in value than any num- Mandle, W. (1987). The Gaelic Athletic Association and Irish national-
ist politics, 1884–1924. London: Helm.
ber of points, as was the case with “tries” in rugby’s foot- Maolfabhail, A. (1975). Caman: Two thousand years of hurling in Ire-
ball or “rouges” in Eton’s field game. Thus, results were land. Dundalk, Ireland: Croom Helm.
expressed in the form of “Team A: 1–8, Team B 0–10,” Puirseal, P. (1983). The G.A.A. in its time. Dublin, Ireland: Author.
Smith, R. (1969). The hurling immortals. Dublin, Ireland: Spicer.
indicating that team A, having scored one goal and Sugden, J., & Bairner, A. (1993). Sport, sectarianism and society in a
eight points to team B’s no goals and ten points, was divided Ireland. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press.
Viney, N., & Grant, N. (1978). An illustrated history of ball games. Lon-
the winner. However, through time a goal has been re- don: Heinemann.
duced first to being equal to five points (1892) and fi- West, T. (1991). The bold collegians. Dublin, Ireland: Lilliput.
Iditarod
India
Indianapolis 500
Injuries, Youth
Injury Iditarod
Injury Risk in Women’s Sport
Innebandy D ogsled racing, or “mushing,” is both a way of life
and a sporting competition for participants, most
of whom come from cold, snowy climates in North
Interallied Games
America and Europe. The Iditarod Trail sled dog race,
Intercollegiate Athletics commonly referred to as the “Itidarod” or “The Last
International Olympic Great Race on Earth,” is probably the best-known dog-
Academy sled race in the world. On the first Saturday in March,
mushers from across the world enter the Iditarod, start-
International Politics ing in Anchorage, Alaska, and finishing about 1,100
Internet miles later in Nome. The Iditarod is one of several sled
dog races, which vary by location (for example, the
Interpretive Sociology Yukon Quest, a 1,000-mile race run each year between
Iran Whitehorse,Yukon, and Fairbanks, Alaska), by distance
(for example, the Open North American Sled Dog Race
Ireland Championship for sprint racing, held annually in Fair-
Ironman Triathlon banks since 1936), or by distance covered per day (for
example, the multiday stage races occurring in North
Islamic Countries’ Women’s America and Europe that involve a defined distance
Sports Solidarity Games per day, which are similar to the Tour de France in
Israel cycling).
Italy History
Dogs, typically huskies and malamutes, have been used
traditionally in northern parts of North America to help
pull humans and their equipment over the rugged land-
scape. Competitive racing with dog teams commonly
occurred in Native villages, and in 1908, a 408-mile all-
Alaska sweepstakes race was begun in Nome, Alaska.
But it was a 1925 diphtheria outbreak in Nome, which
required a serum delivery from a town 647 miles away loan for $30,000 of that amount with his home as col-
(Nenana) by dog teams facing blizzard conditions, lateral. Fundraising efforts kept him from competing in
which caught the media’s attention. It is this serum run this first race, which was won twenty days later by Dick
that is commemorated by the modern Iditarod. Wilmarth. Thirty-four teams started on a trail no one
It was Dorothy G. Page (c. 1920–1989), the secre- had used for forty-eight years. Spectators as well as
tary of the Aurora Dog Mushers Association, chair of mushers wondered if anyone could finish it, but twenty-
the Wasilla-Knik Centennial Committee, and mother two teams completed it. The last-place musher, John
of the Iditarod, who promoted the idea of holding a Shultz, took thirty-two days and was awarded the first
sled-dog race in 1967 on the Iditarod Trail as part of the Red Lantern, the prize always given to the last musher
one-hundreth anniversary of Alaska’s purchase from to complete the race. Redington entered the next nine-
Russia. This historic seven-hundred-mile trail had orig- teen races; he completed his last race at the age of 80
inally been used by dog teams to transport supplies, in 1997.
mail, and gold to the inland mining town of Iditarod. The race consists of two routes: the southern route,
Page wanted to celebrate the history of the trail and the which is run in odd years, and the northern route,
important place of sled dogs in Alaskan history. She which is run in even years. The actual race distance
worked with Joe Redington Sr. (1917–1999), a skillful varies with each route and the conditions that prevail
musher from Oklahoma, often called the father of the that year, but it is approximately 1,100 miles. Race
Iditarod, to create a fifty-mile race along this trail. Red- times have come down dramatically since the beginning
ington, who had been using dog teams since he moved of the Iditarod; the first 10-day Iditarod was completed
to Alaska in 1948, was concerned that dog teams were by Martin Buser in 1992. The 2004 Iditarod was won
disappearing from native villages due to the increasing by Mitch Seavey in a time of 9 days, 12 hours, and 20
popularity of snow machines. After this race was suc- minutes.
cessfully held a second time in 1969, Page suggested The race begins in downtown Anchorage at 10 a.m.
that the distance be increased to five hundred miles, fin- on the first Saturday in March. The mushers first race
ishing at the ghost town of Iditarod. Redington and twenty miles to Eagle River as part of a fundraiser called
others extended this idea into a thousand-mile race, the Idita-Rider. Fans bid to ride in a musher’s sled, and
past Iditarod to better-known Nome. This would also this money is used to pay as much as $1,049 to mush-
allow the race to commemorate the 1925 diphtheria- ers who finish from thirty-first place to last place. The
serum run. teams are then trucked twenty-nine miles to Wasilla,
The first Iditarod was run in 1973. Redington guar- where the race begins in earnest the next day. Teams
anteed a $50,000 purse, an enormous amount for a leave at two-minute intervals, and the time difference is
dogsled race at that time. He ended up cosigning a adjusted during the mandatory twenty-four-hour stop.
789
When a man wants to murder a tiger, he calls it sport; when the tiger
wants to murder him, he calls it Ferocity. ■ GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
Racers also have to take two eight-hour mandatory ica to assist in this race—reinforce its importance
stops. through their ongoing involvement. Commonly por-
Numerous en route awards are provided in addition trayed as one of the last great sporting adventures, it is
to the purses. For example, a seven-course gourmet an important cultural event in the lives of Northerners
meal is prepared for the first musher reaching the Yukon and an exciting sporting competition for spectators.
River, who also gets $3,500 in $1 bills. Another award, Most importantly, it provides participants with a way
which includes a trophy and $2,500 in gold nuggets, of life that brings them meaning. The Iditarod may
goes to the first musher to arrive in Unalakleet, on the occur over a few weeks each March, but the dedicated
coast. The Iditarod Hall of Fame was created in 1997 athletes who compete—the mushers and their dogs—
by the Anchorage Daily News to honor those who have live this preferred way of life throughout the year.
contributed to this race, such as mushers, veterinarians,
Victoria Paraschak
and trailbreakers.
Volunteers are an integral part of this event. For ex-
ample, volunteer veterinarians from across North Amer- Further Reading
ica come to monitor the dogs before and after the race Beeman, S. (2003). The Iditarod. Alaska Geographic, 28(4).
and at each checkpoint. They also do random drug test- Brown, T. (1998). Iditarod country: Exploring the route of the last great
race. Fairbanks, AK: Epicenter Press.
ing on the dogs. Other volunteers, including individu- Dolan, E. (1993). Susan Butcher and the Iditarod trail. New York:
als from villages along the route, complete tasks needed Walker Publishing.
to ensure the race runs successfully, such as breaking Freedman, L. (1993). George Attla: The legend of the sled-dog trail. Har-
risburg, PA: Stackpole Books.
trails with snow machines and helping to move trail Freedman, L. (1999). Father of the Iditarod: The Joe Redington story.
supplies to drop spots. Fairbanks, AK: Epicenter Press.
Freedman, L., & Jonrowe, D. (1995). Iditarod dreams: A year in the life
The Iditarod is one sporting event where women of Alaskan sled dog racer DeeDee Jonrowe. Fairbanks, AK: Epicen-
compete on a par with men. The first two women to run ter Press.
the Iditarod both completed the race in 1974. Libby Hood, M. (1996). A fan’s guide to the Iditarod. Colorado: Alpine Blue
Ribbon Books.
Riddles became the first female champion in 1985. Mattson, S. (Ed.). (2001). Iditarod fact book: A complete guide to the last
Susan Butcher is the most successful female champion, great race. Fairbanks, AK: Epicenter Press.
O’Donoghue, B. P. (1999). Honest dogs: A story of triumph and regret
having won the Iditarod four times between 1986 and from the world’s toughest sled dog race. Fairbanks, AK: Epicenter
1990. She ran the race seventeen times, and was the Press.
first woman to place in the money when she came in Wendt, R. (1996). Alaska dog mushing guide: Facts, legends, & oddi-
ties. Wasilla, AK: Goldstream Publications.
nineteenth in the 1978 race.
Significance
The Iditarod, and sled-dog racing in general, are among
the most important sporting activities in Alaska. The Id- India
itarod is Alaska’s official sled-dog race, and at the turn
of the millennium, several of Alaska’s top-ten athletes of
the century were dog mushers. Mushers, the media, and
spectators from around the world contribute to the local
T he seventh largest and second most populous na-
tion of the world, India is formed by several states
and territories; its capital, New Delhi, is located in the
economy. Volunteers—such as members of small com- mid-north of the country. After more than two centuries
munities along the trail, pilots who drop off supplies for of British colonial influence, India became independent
the mushers and fly out injured dogs, and veterinarians in 1947. The homeland of many religions and wel-
who take time from their practices across North Amer- coming to many others, India is overwhelmingly Hindu.
INDIA 791
An Indian man hauls

goods on a bicycle.
Importation of British Sports

Britain, the dominating power from 1755 and the im-
perial ruler from 1858, imported its own sports to
India, a country that, like Britain itself, accepted male
dominance and rigid division by social class. The En-
cyclopedia of Sport, published by the London journal
The Sportsman in 1911, pictured India as the most at-
tractive ground for hunting what is “big game.”
Indian nobles and princes welcomed polo. Two fa-
mous clubs, Royal Calcutta, founded in 1829, and
Royal Bombay, formed in 1842, became popular places
to play, and the Maharajah of Ratlam became a well-
known player. Cricket was played first on Indian soil in
1728, but Indians did not join the game until 1892,
when the Parsi minority began to play an annual match
with the Britons. In 1907 Hindus entered the game
and in 1912 Muslims also entered.
Lawn tennis spread through Indian territory due to
the influence of British civilian and military officers.
But in this country of more than a billion people, Jain- Yearly tournaments were established, including the
ism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Christianity also have nu- Punjab Championship of Lahore (1885), the Bengal
merous adepts. Before 1947, India included what are Championship of Calcutta (1887), and the All Indian
now Pakistan and Bangladesh, both of which have a Tournament of Allahabad (1910). Initially reserved for
Muslim majority. Britons, these tournaments eventually included Indi-
India
The Akhara
In the extract below, Ratan Patodi, who publishes a and where offerings are given and distributed. Its
magazine on the art of Indian wresting, describes the earth is saluted and taken up to anoint one’s shoul-
Indian akhara (gymnasium). ders and head. And then one wrestles and the sound
of slapping thighs and pounding chests fills the air.
What is an akhara? It is a place of recreation for
Grunts and groans of exertion echo ominously. One
youth. It is a shrine of strength where earth is turned
trounces and in turn is trounced. Exercise is done.
into gold. It is a sign of masculinity and the assem-
Laziness and procrastination are drowned in sweat.
bly hall of invigorated youth. Strength is measured
against strength and moves and counter moves are Translated by Joseph S. Alter
born and develop. . . . An akhara is where one prays
India Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics: 1 Silver
ans, who won in 1915 for the first time. In 1905 an greater autonomy in local and regional representations,
Indian entered the All England Championship of Wim- and enlarged their electoral quota. India’s standing in
bledon. the world also increased as a result of the nonviolent re-
Before 1900 an Indian football association domi- sistance to British rule led by Mohandas Gandhi, the
nated by Britons managed a regular seasonal activity. leader of the Congress Party. In sports, too, India ac-
But more attractive than football to the Indian middle quired international recognition. It took part unoffi-
class was field hockey, and in 1920, biennial inter- cially in the Olympic Games in Antwerp in 1920 and,
provincial tournaments were started. Historians attrib- after the foundation of an Olympic committee in 1926,
ute two silver medals for the 1900 Paris Olympic entered the Amsterdam games of 1928 officially. In
Games to India, but the medaled athlete, Norman Amsterdam, India won in field hockey, the first of six
Pritchard, was a British resident, and neither track and straight, and eight total, triumphs. These remain India’s
field nor boxing met with enthusiasm among Indians. only gold Olympic medals.
Long before the British arrived, India had a well- After India defeated an unofficial British team in
developed tradition of wrestling in which the wrestler 1928, the English Hockey Association withdrew its
could hook only the shoulder and trunk. A great Indian entry to the Olympics; fearing to be beaten by a colony,
athlete of the early twentieth century was an undefeated it refused to play with India until the 1948 Olympics.
wrestler named Gama. He toured Europe in 1910 but However, England assumed a different attitude toward
was avoided by many European champions. cricket and lawn tennis. The Board of Control for
Cricket was formed in India in 1929, and three years
Indian Sporting Independence later England played its first official test match against
After Indian troops fought on the British side during India. In lawn tennis, formally organized in 1920, India
World War I, the British government allowed Indians competed for the Davis Cup. During the 1930s, the
India
Key Events in India Sports History
1829 The Royal Calcutta polo club is founded. 1920 India competes unofficially in the Olympic
Games.
1842 The Royal Bombay polo club is founded.
1926 The Indian Olympic Committee is formed.
1892 Indians play cricket against the British for the
first time. 1928 India competes in the Olympics and wins its
first gold medal, in field hockey.
1885 The tennis Punjab Championship of Lahore
is held for the first time. 1929 The Board of Control for Cricket is was
formed.
1910 The Indian wrestler Gama tours Europe.
1951 The first Asian Games are held in New Delhi.
1915 An Indian wins an official tennis tournament
in India for the first time. 1974 India reaches the Davis Cup but refuses re-
fused to play against South Africa in protest
1920 Biennial interprovincial field hockey tourna- against its apartheid regime.
ments begin.
1983 India wins the cricket World Cup.
INDIANAPOLIS 500 793
An early Indian cricket

team with trophy.
against its apartheid regime,

and again in 1987. In recent
years, men’s doubles and
mixed doubles led by Leander
Paes won nine Great Slam
Tournaments; Paes also took
the bronze medal in singles in
the 1996 Olympics.
Indian Sports Today

In the 2004 Olympics in
Athens, India entered a small
delegation. Poverty affects a
majority of the population,
and the culture is more ori-
ented to philosophy and con-
Jaipur polo team was reputed to be one of the best in templation than to sports. The demanding athleticism
the world. of contemporary sports is also not appealing to most
Before its final field hockey match against Germany Indians.
in the Berlin Olympics in 1936, the Indian team paid
Gherardo Bonini
tribute to Gandhi and the Congress Party. After the
match, the Nazi dictator Hitler congratulated Dhyan
Chand, the greatest Indian player ever, and invited him Further Reading
to socialize with his officers. Chand politely refused. Alter, J. (1995). Game the world champion: Wrestling and physical cul-
ture in colonial India. Iron Game History, 2, 3–9.
Sports in Independent India Arlott, J. (1976). The Oxford companion to sports and games. London:
Oxford University Press.
India acted as a catalyst for Asian sports. It launched a India’s Golden Moments. (2004). Retrieved December 15, 2004, from
proposal for Asian Games in 1949, and the games http://www.bharatiyahockey.org/olympics/golden
Mangan, J. A. (2004). The sport in South-East Asia. The International
began in 1951 in New Delhi. The government of Jawa- Journal of the History of Sport (Vol. 21). London: Frank Cass.
harlal Nehru opened gradually to the presence of
women in sports. In the 1930s, Parsis and Jews al-
lowed women to play volleyball, but the fruits of the
new access to sports for women took many years to ma-
ture. In 1964, P.T. Usha reached the finals in the
Olympic 400 hurdles in Tokyo; in the 2003 world
Indianapolis 500
championship meet in Paris, Anju Bobby George took
the bronze medal in the long jump; the women’s na-
tional field hockey team won the Commonwealth
I n 1906 Carl Fisher and his partners Jim Allison,
Frank Wheeler, and Arthur Newby purchased 132
hectares of land northwest of Indianapolis, Indiana, to
Games in 2002. develop an enclosed course that could be used both for
In cricket, India won the 1983 World Cup, while in automotive testing and occasional racing. They con-
lawn tennis it reached the Davis Cup finals in 1974, structed a 4-kilometer-long rectangular track paved with
when it refused to play against South Africa in protest macadam. The first race held at the track on 19 August
Most people never run far enough on their first wind

to find out they’ve got a second. ■ WILLIAM JAMES
1909, was disastrous.The track surface disintegrated, re- than 4.8 kilometers per hour slower than Luyendyk’s.
sulting in crashes that killed two drivers, two mechan- Luyendyk also holds the winning race record, 297 kilo-
ics, and two spectators, and the race was stopped before meters per hour, set in 1990.
its completion. The track was then resurfaced with The first few of the two hundred laps of the race are
paving bricks and reopened in 1910. The first Indiana- hotly contested as the fastest cars and drivers make
polis 500 race took place at the so-called Brickyard on their ways to the front. Mishaps during the race usually
Memorial Day 1911, although not without controversy. bring out yellow caution flags, and drivers then dive
Ray Harroun is listed as the official winner, although into the pits for fuel and fresh tires. Quick pit work by
some people believe that Ralph Mulford actually crews is critical to keep their cars from losing positions.
crossed the finish line first but was denied the victory Given the relative equality of the cars and drivers,
because of errors by lap counters. Harroun averaged most races are closely contested. In the closest finish on
119 kilometers per hour in his win. record, Al Unser Jr. won over Scott Goodyear by .043
In 1916 the race was shortened to 482 kilometers, seconds in 1992. In addition, an accident or mechani-
and, because of World War I, only twenty-one cars en- cal failure can occur at any time and drastically change
tered. The race was suspended in 1917 and 1918 be- situations. In 1912 Ralph DePalma was in the lead on
cause the United States had entered the war. Howdy lap 198 when engine failure ended his day, and in 1999
Wilcox won the 1919 race with an average of 160 kilo- Robby Gordon had to make a pit stop for fuel on lap
meters per hour, becoming the first driver to reach that 199, losing the lead and the race to Kenny Brack.
speed.
The World War I U.S. flying ace Eddie Rickenbacker Indianapolis 500 Race Cars
and a group of associates purchased the track in 1927. Cars used in early Indianapolis 500 races were largely of
Rickenbacker sold the track to Tony Hulman in No- European manufacture, but by the early 1920s U.S. man-
vember 1945 for $750,000. Hulman had it refurbished ufacturers began building cars especially for the race. In-
for racing, including repaving all but a yard of the brick dianapolis race cars have always been of open-wheel
surface with asphalt, for the Memorial Day weekend of design. The famous “Indy car,” a single-seat vehicle pow-
1946. ered by a front-mounted four-cylinder Offenhauser mo-
tor with rear-wheel drive, was developed during the
The Race 1930s and reigned supreme for nearly three decades.
Thirty-three cars compete in the Indianapolis 500 at the Then, in 1961 veteran Formula 1 driver Jack Brabham
Indianapolis Motor Speedway. For the rolling start, the drove an underpowered rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive
cars are arranged in eleven rows of three cars, with Cooper to a ninth-place finish. In 1963 another Formula
their positions determined by qualifying speed. Unlike 1 star, Jimmy Clark, finished second in a rear-engined
qualifying at most races, where the fastest qualifier al- Lotus-Ford behind Parnelli Jones’s traditional roadster.
ways starts at the front, or pole, position, qualifying at Like the initial 500, the finish of this race was contro-
Indianapolis takes place on four days on two weekends versial because Jones’s car was leaking oil badly in the
in mid-May. The fastest qualifier on the first day gets the final laps of the race and, had a European driver in a rad-
pole position despite the possibility that other cars ical European-designed car not been in second place,
could qualify at even faster speeds on subsequent days. Jones likely would have been black-flagged, giving the
Indeed, Arie Luyendyk’s record for the fastest qualifying race to Clark. All Indianapolis 500 race cars now utilize
speed at Indianapolis, set in 1996 with a four-lap aver- the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout.
age of 379 kilometers per hour, was good for only Mechanical failures, tire failures, or the slightest error
twentieth place because he did not qualify on the first by drivers can result in horrendous crashes, and nu-
day. Scott Goodyear’s pole-qualifying speed was more merous drivers, as well as some mechanics and specta-
INJURIES, YOUTH 795
tors, have lost their lives at the track. Both qualifying Further Reading
and race speeds have generally increased through the History of the Indianapolis 500. (2003). Retrieved May 14, 2004,
from http://www.indystar.com/library/factfiles/sports/autoracing/
years, although race-sanctioning bodies, such as Cham- indy500.html
pionship Auto Racing Teams (CART) and the Indy Rac- Indianapolis 500: The greatest spectacle in racing. (n.d.). Retrieved
ing League (IRL), have occasionally attempted to slow May 15, 2004, from http://www.indy500.com/stats/
Reed, T. (2004). Indy: The race and ritual of the Indianapolis 500 (2nd
the cars with rules changes, largely for safety purposes. ed.). Dulles, VA: Brassey’s.
However, technology, particularly in terms of engine Taylor, R. (1991). Indy: Seventy-five years of racing’s greatest spectacle.
New York: St. Martin’s Press.
design, tires, and aerodynamics, advances so rapidly
that speeds have not diminished greatly despite efforts
to slow the cars. Buddy Rice’s 2004 pole-position qual-
ifying speed was 357 kilometers per hour, for example.
Fortunately, racing at Indianapolis Motor Speedway has
been made much safer by the phenomenal handling
Injuries, Youth
and braking of modern Indy cars and by driver protec-
tion afforded by the composite materials used to con-
struct the cars, helmets designed to withstand severe
S ports-related injuries are usually defined as immedi-
ate (acute) or long-term (chronic) traumas resulting
from sports participation that require medical attention
blows, and flame-retardant driving suits. or that force an athlete to discontinue participation for
some time. Sports for youth are presumably intended to
Drivers positively affect their health and well-being, so the
The Indianapolis 500 has been the pinnacle of auto rac- prospect of injuries is a perennial concern. The sheer fre-
ing in the United States since its inception, and many quency of injuries, however, requires those who super-
drivers, such as A. J. Foyt, Mario Andretti, and Rick vise sports to prepare for their occurrence and prevent
Mears, became household names. Several families have them as much as possible. The regularity of sports in-
figured prominently in the Indianapolis 500. Brothers, juries also, importantly, suggests that youth in the
such as Bobby and Al Unser, and fathers and sons, in- process of becoming athletes are socialized to accept in-
cluding Mario and Michael Andretti, have raced suc- jury risks and the possibility of pain and disability.
cessfully at the 500. Among the most important youth sports-injuries ques-
In 1977 Janet Guthrie became the first woman to tions are related to the following:
drive in the Indianapolis 500. Since then several other ■ The frequency and severity of sports injuries
women have entered the race, and Sarah Fisher, who ■ The unique affects on youth
qualified for her fifth Indianapolis 500 in 2004, has the ■ The sports in which injuries most commonly occur
talent to finish at or near the front.Willy T. Ribbs became ■ The causes of sports injuries
the first African-American driver at Indianapolis in 1991. ■ How injuries can be prevented
■ Whether current trends point to a more or less inju-
Prospects rious sports environment for youth
The Indianapolis 500 is one of the world’s major sport- ■ The role of adults and the medical community in
ing events, drawing more than 500,000 enthusiasts sports-injury issues
each year. Despite changes in cars, drivers, and sanc-
tioning bodies and despite challenges from stock car
racing, the Indianapolis 500 should remain “the great-
Youth Sports Injuries
Sports participation is the number one leisure pursuit of
est spectacle in racing” for years to come.
children worldwide. Far more youth than any other age
Garry Chick group participate in sports, so research on injuries is
critical in ensuring healthy and safe sports experiences. have prompted recommendations for changes to train-
Research on sports injuries is conducted both to im- ing routines, rules, and equipment. Examples include
prove injury treatment and to prevent injuries from oc- heat stroke among football players, somersault acci-
curring, with studies ranging in size from one athlete dents in gymnastics, and commotio cordis, a term used
(case study) to entire populations. Epidemiology is the to describe sudden heart failure and death after an ob-
study of rates of injuries (or diseases) in populations for ject hits the ballplayer’s chest wall. The risk of heat
developing prevention efforts. Most epidemiological stroke may be reduced by holding practices during
studies of sports injuries have been conducted within cooler periods, ensuring proper water intake, and mon-
the last thirty years. These studies have used a variety of itoring athletes. Although cases of catastrophic gym-
methods, age groupings, time periods, and sports, so it nastics accidents differ, some athletes are evidently
is often difficult to draw firm conclusions. The most sys- overmatched by increasingly difficult gymnastics ma-
tematic research on the frequency and causes of sports neuvers. Commotio cordis cases in baseball, and other
injuries tends to focus on elite athletes. A relatively traumas related to baseball impacts, have resulted in the
small amount of research exists on the psychology and development and use of softer baseballs for youth.
sociology of sports injuries, although it has similarly
emphasized elite performers. Some national and inter- Unique Group, Unique Circumstances
national organizations, such as the Centers for Disease Youth participants in sport are vulnerable to certain
Control in the United States and the European Home types of trauma, because of their developmental char-
and Leisure Accident Surveillance System of the Euro- acteristics and their dependency on adults to organize
pean Union, as well as sports organizations and private and conduct sports programs. Pre-participation exami-
firms, conduct ongoing sports injury surveillance pro- nations by physicians may identify potential risks. Many
grams to track and respond to injury trends. youth sports injuries, however, are the result of poor
Despite the limitations of the research, some conclu- conditioning, undeveloped sport skills, the changing
sions can be comfortably drawn. Epidemiological stud- nature of young bodies, and elements of the social en-
ies that track injuries arising from all sources show vironments in which they practice and compete. The
sports as consistently among the most common sources ends of long bones in youth ages four to ten are partic-
of injuries to youth, and that youth have higher sports- ularly prone to injury because they are weaker than the
injury rates than adults do. Most studies also show boys remaining bones and the sites of bone growth. During
sustaining injuries at higher rates than girls do. The puberty, youth of the same age may differ significantly
most common traumas are to the musculoskeletal sys- in height, weight and strength, yet may be grouped to-
tem and include such injuries as muscle bruises, liga- gether for competition, creating risk to smaller, less ma-
ment strains, and bone fractures. Some sports also ture athletes. Most youth sports also depend on parents
involve repetitive motions or impacts that may result in and adult volunteers who, though perhaps well mean-
overuse injuries to joints, such as the shoulders of base- ing, may be unaware of the developmental characteris-
ball pitchers and the elbows of gymnasts. Athletes in tics of children or may be overly devoted to competitive
these sports often learn to ignore chronic pain, and the success. In some cases, the social and psychological en-
consequences of their injuries are not fully realized until vironments created by adults may result in youth being
years of participation have passed. Injuries to the head, encouraged to play while injured, or return to play be-
spine, and trunk are generally less common are dis- fore fully recovering from an injury. Burnout, depres-
turbing because they involve vital organs. sion, and eating disorders among young athletes have
Catastrophic injuries and fatalities, though rare, have also been documented. Finally, adult leaders may not be
unfortunately taken place in some youth sports and fully versed in safety guidelines and equipment use and
INJURY 797
Pain is only weakness leaving the body. ■ UNKNOWN
might not hold basic first aid knowledge and skills. the activity, and social rewards of meeting people. How-
Hence, they may not recognize unsafe conditions and ever, in competitive sports, particularly at the elite level,
may not be able to respond to emergencies in a skilled the health costs can outweigh the health benefits, most
or timely manner. notably in the increased incidence of injury.
The development of year-round training and special- Attempts to quantify the amount of injury that is
ization in youth sports, as well as the popularity of al- caused by participation in sports are thwarted by the
ternative sports that feature high-risk activities, represent difficulty in defining what people mean by “injury.” For
new challenges in efforts to reduce youth sports injury. example, injuries are often recorded only if the athlete
Even though most sports injuries are minor, the human is hospitalized or submits an insurance claim. How-
and financial costs can be substantial. The financial ever, athletes also suffer injuries that do not require
costs of youth sports injuries have been estimated at such action but that may still lead to a reduction in
$1.8 billion annually, but perhaps the most common training and, often, to some medical treatment. There-
and significant human cost is an inactive and unhealthy fore, we can broadly define injury as “the outcome of
life. some stress that causes damage to the body and that the
body is unable to immediately adapt to.” Most regular
Stephan Walk
participants in physical activity can expect to experience
some kind of injury. The severity of the injury can be
Further Reading judged according to the duration or permanency of the
Adirim, T. A., & Cheng, T. L. (2003). Overview of injuries in the young damage, the time taken off sports and/or work, and the
athlete. Sports Medicine, 33(1),75–81. economic costs of treatment and any loss of earnings.
Belechri, M., Petridou, E., Kedikoglu, S., & Trichopolous, D. (2001).
Sports injuries among children in six European Union countries. Eu-
Additionally, social costs can include having to suspend
ropean Journal of Epidemiology, 17(11),1005–1012. participation in an activity that is central to a person’s
Caine, D. J., Caine, C. G., & Lindner, K. J. (Eds.). (1996). Epidemiol- lifestyle.
ogy of sports injuries. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Damore, D. T., Metzl, J. D., Ramundo, M., Pan, S., & Van Amerongen, We can classify sports-related injuries in two ways.
R. (2003). Patterns in childhood sports injury. Pediatric Emergency First, injuries can be acute (traumatic) or chronic (over-
Care, 19(2),65–67.
Garret, Jr., W. E., Kirkendall, D. T., & Squire, D. L. (Eds.) (2001).
use or recurrent). Acute injuries are the outcome of a
Principles and practice of primary care sports medicine. Philadel- specific traumatic event, whereas chronic injuries de-
phia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. velop slowly by overuse or by training with a previous
Hambidge, S. J., Davidson, A. J., Gonzales, R., & Steiner, J. F. (2002).
Epidemiology of injury-related primary care office visits in the injury. The most common sports-related injuries are
United States. Pediatrics, 109(4),559–656. chronic in the form of contusions and sprains. How-
Lateef, F. (2000). Commotio cordis: An under appreciated cause of sud-
den death in athletes. Sports Medicine, 30(4),301–308.
ever, these injuries are activity dependent, and in some
sports, such as horse riding and skiing, acute injuries
such as fractures are the most common. Second, in-
juries can be primary or secondary. Primary injuries are
the result of a direct stress on a body part. However,
Injury sometimes a person receives a primary injury that goes
unnoticed because the injured body part is particularly
P articipation in physical activity has many benefits,

including the physical responses to exercise that
may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, some
robust and able to mask the symptoms. The injury will
not be noticed until a referred pathological response
from a less robust body part occurs. This is a secondary
forms of cancer, and obesity, along with psychosocial injury. For example, a person may injure his or her back
benefits of improved self-image, pleasure derived from but will not notice the pain until some tightness from
the primary injury is carried down into the legs, which chronic injuries are most likely to occur are endurance
the person may experience as hamstring pain. The ham- sports such as distance running and swimming or those
string injury is secondary, the “real” injury is the primary requiring repetitive movement such as weightlifting and
injury to the back. gymnastics. Acute injuries are most prevalent in contact
sports, where the nature of the activity presents the pos-
Causes and Prevalence sibility of traumatic damage. Where the environment is
The main causes of injury incorporate both internal particularly unpredictable, the risk of fatal injuries is
and external factors. Internal factors include a high highest, such as in climbing and air sports. The highest
body mass index placing strain on joints and muscles, actual numbers of injuries occur among young males,
anatomical imbalance predisposing the athlete to par- but these numbers are highest because young males
ticular injuries, lack of flexibility, and muscles failing to are the population most likely to participate in physical
contract and relax appropriately. If the athlete’s body activity. When injury incidence is calculated against the
has not been adequately prepared for the coming ac- amount of participation, no difference exists in overall
tivity by gradually becoming fit in an appropriate train- injury rates between male and female participants or be-
ing program and warming up before performance, the tween age groups.
athlete increases the risk of becoming injured. Athletes
may have more difficulty controlling for external factors Who Is Susceptible?
because these originate outside their own body. These Although gender and age might not seem to be factors
factors include a poor environment or adverse weather in the relative incidence of injury, males and females and
conditions, collision with another player or equipment, children are prone to particular types of injuries. For ex-
and the vulnerability to injury from training with poor ample, males seem to experience more acute injury,
technique or when fatigued. whereas females experience more chronic injury, prob-
Some injuries are caused by wearing inappropriate ably related to participation patterns. Children’s injuries
clothing, such as poorly designed or ill-fitting trainers are often attributable to undertaking at a young age
and clothes or jewelry that might catch on equipment training programs that are too strenuous for an imma-
or by not wearing protective clothing such as shin pads ture body. In particular, during growth spurts bone
or gum shields. Indeed, so-called improvements in some length may increase much quicker than muscle devel-
equipment include changes that are designed to im- opment, creating a loss of flexibility. Simultaneously,
prove the performance of the athlete but actually in- the training program may mean that children’s muscles
crease the risk of injury. For example, streamlined are strong relative to their bone strength, leaving them
clothing enables skiers to travel faster but does not pro- vulnerable to fractures. Young athletes may suffer per-
tect them if they crash at high speed, and padding en- manently stunted growth if their growth plates are
ables players in contact sports to deliver harder tackles damaged.
and blows to an opponent but will not necessarily pro- Regardless of the gender or age of athletes, suscepti-
tect their body from the impact of such contact. In- bility to injury may also be the result of personality dif-
juries caused by such external factors are likely to be ferences and the social context in which athletes
more severe than injuries caused by internal factors be- perform their sport. Athletes who are more extroverted
cause the body is designed to restrict damage and so is may become injured because they crave excitement and
better able to regulate internal injuries than those out of so take risks. They are also likely to have a high pain
its control. threshold, which means they may tolerate the “warning
The prevalence of injury is dependent on the type of signs” that pain gives to indicate damage to a body
injury and the nature of the activity. The sports in which part. In addition, they may become bored by rehabili-
INJURY 799
An injured hockey player is attended to on the ice by the team doctor.

Source: istockphoto/jtomason.
tation if they do get injured and so may not complete strong support network of family and friends and good
their treatment. Introverts are likely to be more hesitant personal coping resources.
in performing their sport and more pessimistic if they
are injured. This fact means that any injury may take on Social Context
an inflated significance and will be perceived to have a Injury is socially constructed because the culture in
negative effect on their lives. which athletes perform and the interaction with other
Several other personality characteristics are likely to people may contribute to athletes’ choice about whether
increase the chance of injury. These include being highly to take risks and also to the experience of being in-
anxious and countering this anxiety with overly ag- jured and the recovery process.
gressive play or being a risk taker and displaying injury The growing competitiveness of sports in recent
as a mark of courage and, particularly, masculinity. Ad- decades has meant that athletes may train harder and
ditionally, athletes who lack self-confidence because of adopt a “win at all costs” attitude. This attitude has cre-
competitive failure may feel the need to punish them- ated a culture in which taking risks and enduring pain
selves for their lack of success or to punish others for and injury become an accepted aspect of participation in
the pressures caused by their high expectations and do sports. As a result, health is sometimes sacrificed in the
so in a way that risks injury. Other negative life stresses interests of athletic glory. Certainly those people most at
may also affect the athlete’s risk of injury. These stresses risk of injury appear to be those who are involved in
include the death of a loved one, the break-up of a re- sports clubs because in this context participation tends
lationship, or simply daily hassles at home or work. to be competitive rather than recreational. Such trends
Such stresses can distract the athlete’s attention or cause may also explain why injury incidence is higher among
fatigue, so increasing the possibility of injury. The effect middle-class athletes than working-class athletes because
of such stresses may be reduced if the athlete has a club membership tends to be higher in the middle class.
participate when they have an injury. Such pressure is

most likely to come from coaches, whose own per-
formance as coaches will be judged by the standard of
their players, and so they will want their athletes to
perform at the highest level, even if risking injury and
playing hurt are the price to be paid. In some cases
An injured bullfighter being helped coaches deliberately inconvenience injured players to
from the ring. encourage them to return to play as quickly as possible.
Tactics used include requiring injured athletes to spend
more time at the club than is required of fit athletes,
When competitive sports take place in a professional often not allowing injured athletes to leave until traffic
context and when athletes’ livelihoods are dependent has built up, necessitating a longer journey home, and
on their sports participation, economic and commercial isolating injured athletes from the rest of the team, for
interests can take precedence over the well-being of ath- example, during meals. Athletes also may feel pressured
letes. The income of professional athletes is likely to be by teammates to place the interests of the team above
determined by the level of their performance, and so their personal bodily well-being. Sometimes even train-
they may take risks and play with injuries in order to ers and physical therapists may pressure athletes to re-
maintain their salary. When sports events are given turn to play quickly after an injury, even if they are not
media coverage, an athlete who takes such risks will be fully rehabilitated, because this behavior is seen as evi-
celebrated as an exemplar of appropriate behavior. For dence that trainers and therapists are able to provide ef-
example, during the men’s rugby union world cup in fective treatment and so legitimates their own skills.
2003, a photograph of the English player Neil Back,
with a head wound and blood flowing down his face, Implications
appeared in a national newspaper under the headline The importance of sports in many athletes’ lives means
“Bloody Marvellous.” This trend has a twofold effect. that an injury and any subsequent need to take time out
First, the athletes themselves learn that other people ex- from sports create feelings of despondency, frustration,
pect them to tolerate pain and injury. Second, those anger, and even guilt. As a result, athletes will often
viewing the media spectacle learn that injury is the price take extreme measures to maintain their athletic exis-
to be paid if they wish to participate at the same stan- tence and identity. Most notably, these measures take
dard as the athletes they are watching. the form of consuming pain-killing drugs to mask the
The elite professional sports are not the only ones pain of injury and to enable continued participation.
that perpetuate risk-taking behavior. In less popular The choice of continuing to participate while injured
sports, the fact that fewer people participate means that carries the likely consequence of the injury becoming
those who do have an increased chance of success. Ath- more severe or permanently disabling or, in some cases,
letes participating in such “minority” sports may, there- even causing death. Certainly in sports such as U.S.
fore, also take risks because they strive for athletic football players can expect a shortened life expectancy
accomplishment. as a consequence of the stress placed on their body
Whether a sport is professional or amateur, elite or during their playing career. The costs of sports-related
recreational, the performance likely takes place in in- injuries can, therefore, include the financial burden of
teraction with other people. These people may put pres- health care and the loss of income in either the short or
sure on athletes to perform in such a way that they long term, as well as potential loss of self-esteem and a
may become injured or feel that they should continue to sense of social isolation.
INJURY RISK IN WOMEN’S SPORT 801
The legal profession has long intervened in sports to Harries, M., Williams, C., Stanish, W., & Micheli, L. (Eds.). (1998). Ox-
serve the interests of public health and to protect injured ford textbook of sports medicine. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
victims of sports-related violence. In 1993 the World Heil, J. (1993). Psychology of sport injury. Leeds, UK: Human Kinet-
Medical Assembly produced ethical guidelines to help ics.
Howe, P. (2004). Sport, professionalism and pain: Ethnographies of in-
physicians meet the needs of injured athletes. However, jury and risk. London: Routledge.
a cultural gap remains between the rules of sports and Hutson, M. (2001). Sports injuries: Recognition and management. Ox-
the laws of society, whereby some violent activities that ford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Nicholl, J., Coleman, P., & Williams, B. (1991). Injuries in sport and ex-
are unlawful outside of sports are legitimated within ercise. London: Sports Council.
sports, such as the harm that has been caused to many Norris, C. (1998). Sports injuries: Diagnosis and management. Ox-
ford, UK: Butterworth Heinemann.
boxers. When a national law is broken, a person may Pargman, D. (1999). Psychological bases of sport injuries. Morgan-
face criminal prosecution, with a consequence of im- town, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
prisonment and payment of damages or compensation. Pike, E., & Maguire, J. (2003). Injury in women’s sport: Classifying key
elements of “risk encounters.” Sociology of Sport Journal, 20(3),
However, players who break the law of sports are likely 232–251.
to receive a lesser penalty, such as a suspension or fine, Renstrom, P. (Ed.). (1993). Sports injuries: Basic principles of preven-
tion and cure. London: Blackwell Scientific Publishing.
unless a civil prosecution is brought against them for as- Waddington, I. (2000). Sport, health and drugs: A critical sociological
sault. Additionally, medical professionals may be liable perspective. London: Spon Press.
for prosecution for misdiagnosis or withholding of in- Young, K. (Ed.). (2004). Sporting bodies, damaged selves: Sociological
studies of sports-related injury. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Press.
formation about the true extent of a medical condition.
Sometimes this situation arises because medical pro-
fessionals find themselves in a position in which team
managers, and even the players themselves, pressure
them to declare fit an injured player when their medical
opinion would suggest otherwise. As a result, coaches
Injury Risk in
and other members of the sports network have also
been confronted with charges of negligence.
Women’s Sport
The causes of sports-related injury are multifaceted,
and the consequences for the injured athlete, the world
of sports, and the broader society are far-reaching. In
T he concept of risk is used to describe a situation in
which a person engages in an activity whose out-
come is uncertain. Sometimes the activity is pleasurable,
considering the evidence of the physical, psychological, since risk is experienced as exciting, challenging, and
and social aspects of the injury experience, this dimen- leading to self-improvement, particularly when taking
sion of sports participation presents a challenge to the the risk ends in gain. However, because risk taking has
oft-proclaimed assumption that the relationship be- no certain result, it can also be a negative experience, re-
tween exercise and health is wholly positive. sulting in fear and leading to harm. In sport, taking risk
is often an integral part of the activity. Risk may result
Elizabeth C. J. Pike
from doing sports in unpredictable environments where
See also Medicine, Sports; Pain there is an element of personal danger, such as moun-
taineering; or from performing a “risky” move that may
not work, such as trying for an ace in tennis, but risk-
Further Reading ing a double fault. Risk in sport also takes the form of
Bird, S., Black, N., & Newton, P. (1997). Sports injuries: Causes, diag- an athlete pushing the body to the limits of physical
nosis, treatment and prevention. Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes.
Grayson, E. (1999). Ethics, injuries and the law in sports medicine. Ox-
ability: for example, running faster, jumping higher, lift-
ford, UK: Butterworth Heinemann. ing heavier weights than ever before; tackling a bigger
Ankle guards worn by early

women field hockey players.
player; or simply taking part in it also resulted in women’s

sport while feeling unwell or sport being seen as inferior
in pain. In these cases the ath- compared with the men’s.
lete is taking a chance that he The perceived superiority of
or she may achieve sporting male sport forms has meant
success but, in the process, they that males are more active in
risk injury, disability, and some- sport than females, which is re-
times even death. flected in higher injury incidence
Where injury is the outcome of for male athletes. In addition, in avoid-
sporting activity, this takes the form of ei- ing any association with female sport
ther an acute or a chronic, injury. Injury is de- forms and their perceived inferiority, males have
marcated from pain, since pain may be related to the also tended to do sports in ways that pay less attention
exertion of engaging in physical activity, while injury is to self-preservation and so are conducive to injury risk.
an indication that there is damage to the body, which This tendency particularly involves participating in in-
may prevent continued participation in the sport. An tensive training and body-contact sports such as foot-
acute injury tends to be more dramatic, most commonly ball and rugby. However, when injury incidence is
in the form of fractures, concussion, and/or lacerations. measured against participation rates, it becomes ap-
Chronic injuries tend to be more long-term and are parent that female athletes are just as likely to become
often related to overuse, in the form of sprains and in- injured as male athletes.
flammation. Male athletes have higher incidence of in- By way of explaining this trend, it seems that, for
jury and, in particular, seem to be more subject to acute women to be taken seriously and gain legitimation for
injuries, while female athletes seem to experience more their sport, they have to participate on men’s terms. This
chronic injury. This is likely to be related to the types of means that in more recent times women have become
sport and style of play of male and female participants. incorporated into a system that normalizes risk of in-
Such patterns of participation have partly been deter- jury. In particular taking bodily risks and playing in
mined by the history of men’s and women’s involve- pain may be seen as indicators of commitment to their
ment in sport. sport and their team.
The History of Women’s Sport Factors Contributing to Injury Risk

Women’s sport has developed in the context of a strug- The tradition of channeling females into sports that are
gle over what is considered “appropriate” behavior for consistent with societal expectations of femininity does
females. In particular, ideologies of the late nineteenth not eliminate any risk of injury. For example, gymnas-
and early twentieth centuries presumed that women tics has an integral aesthetic element, consistent with
were frail and vulnerable. As a result, sporting activities feminine norms. However, in order to succeed in elite
were differentiated into gender-appropriate categories. gymnastics, female competitors, unlike their male coun-
For example, women’s events would cover shorter dis- terparts, are in a race against the biological clock. This
tances or have restricted movement compared with is because the judging criteria means that they are most
men’s events. Women’s sport has also tended toward likely to be successful between the ages of twelve and
more aesthetic activities, such as gymnastics and dance- eighteen, before their bodies have been fully affected by
based activities, rather than power and body contact the developments related to puberty. There are two
sports. This diminished physicality served to minimize main implications to this. First, the training that these
the challenge to a female athlete’s femininity. However, young athletes undertake is so intensive that they will
Injury Risk in
Women’s Sport
develop muscle at a faster pace than their bone is de- Training in Pain
veloping. This means that they are prone to such injuries
This extract from an interview with Nicky, an
as stress fractures, and they may damage their joints per-
elite female rower, reveals how she and other fe-
manently, such that they will never grow to their full
male rowers refuse to “give in to the pain,” even
height. The intense training also means that puberty
if it means training with an injury:
may be delayed, resulting in reduced bone density, pre-
mature osteoporosis, and curvature of the spine. Sec- I had all these men next to me . . . I was just de-
ond, in starting their training at such a young age, these termined that I was going to keep my score
athletes learn that pain and injuries are normal, and down and not give in to the pain . . . I think the
that resting an injury is wasting the little time that is only time really that the training does stop is if
available to them to be at the peak of their careers. someone is actually physically ill or maybe if
Athletes who have ventured into sports that have tra- they had a serious enough injury to stop them
ditionally been male domains continue to experience training. It’s not often the case that people will
constraints related to their gender that contribute to stop when they’ve got an injury if they think
the risk of injury. The grounding of some sports in a his- they can carry on with it . . . There is a girl down
tory of male-only participants means that the equip- at the club who has problems with a stomach
ment that the women use is often that designed for ulcer and she still trains with it . . . I’ve had one
men. For example, in rowing the shoes that are fitted to girl lying on the floor . . . dragging her by the
the boat are often in men’s sizes, which means that fe- arms trying to stretch her back out because she
male participants find that their feet are not securely fas- was in pain.
tened. This situation presents these competitors with a
sporting environment that carries an inherent injury
risk. In ice hockey females are often not taught to body-
check since this sport, like many others, was adapted to multaneously exposed to, and increasingly adopting,
be “appropriate” to women. The result of this is that the masculine trait of viewing their bodies in instru-
body checking has been eliminated, at least in part, in mental ways. Thus, many female athletes accept that
some women’s leagues. However, this has led players to bodily sacrifice is the means to pursuing the end of com-
adopt other tactics to compensate, and these tactics are petitive sporting success, mirroring their male counter-
sometimes both illegal and dangerous, creating a situ- parts. As a result, while it is often suggested that women
ation in which the potential injuries from body check- are more concerned than men with preserving relation-
ing have been replaced by alternative injuries from ships with other athletes, and so are less likely to engage
adaptive, creative play. It is possible that these injuries in behavior that may harm another player, female ath-
may be avoided if players actually received training in letes are still subject to the legitimation of pain and in-
“safe” body checking. jury in sport. They learn to take risks and play hurt to
Women who participate in competitive sport often demonstrate character, consolidate group membership,
find themselves needing to expose themselves to physi- and avoid being dropped from a team. It seems that this
cal risk and, if injured, to play hurt, in order to gain le- is particularly the case for women in higher socioeco-
gitimation for their sport. In other words, to be treated nomic groups.These women tend to be more actively in-
as equal to male athletes means playing by normative volved in sport (due, at least in part, to having more
male standards. It is, perhaps, something of a paradox available money and time free from domestic responsi-
that at the same time as women receive better training bilities), and they also have higher sport-related injury
and improved material conditions in sport, they are si- rates than women in lower socioeconomic groups.
A female athlete examines a shoulder injury.

Source: istockphoto/lovleah.
particularly related to lumbago in her back. Other fe-

male former athletes from Communist societies are
known to have taken anabolic steroids (sometimes with-
out knowing they were doing so, as a result of strategic
coaching practices) and ended up with overtraining in-
juries and signs of virilism. However, it is not difficult
to find female athletes with injury careers from other na-
tions, one of the more famous examples being the USA
track and field athlete, Mary Decker Slaney who, during
the 1990s, had nineteen sport-related surgeries and
lived in constant pain.
While elite athletes may normalize injury risk due to
the financial and media status that high-level perform-
ance sport offers, it is less easy to understand why non-
elite female athletes are prepared to accept injury risk.
This acceptance may be explained by what would ap-
pear to be contradictory reasons for participating in the
first place. For many women involvement in physical ac-
tivity is to develop and maintain an ideal body shape,
consistent with social norms of femininity (slender and
toned). For others sport may be an environment in
which a body that is inconsistent with femininity (large
and muscular) can become its own success story, en-
abling sports performance. In both cases the sport be-
comes so central to maintaining the female athlete’s
In combination with this is the fact that there are gen- identity that it is more important to continue to be in-
erally fewer competitors in women’s sports than in volved in the sport than to discontinue participation as
men’s. This means that those who do participate have a result of pain or injury. Indeed, for many women,
an increased chance of succeeding, and so any sacrifice while injuries may be seen as unattractive according to
may be deemed worthwhile. Indeed, the sporting suc- feminine norms, they are actually often positively valued
cess of the former Communist societies of the Soviet and displayed as a physical sign of their commitment to
Union (USSR) and German Democratic Republic training.
(GDR) has often been explained by suggesting that
these countries recognized the potential for interna- Medical Care for Injured
tional sporting success due to the relative lack of com- Female Athletes
petitors in women’s events. We now know something of In keeping with the trend of women’s sport developing
the long-term health damage that the female athletes later than the men’s counterparts and continuing to be
competing under these regimes suffered as a result of taken less seriously, so it is also the case that female ath-
the “win at all costs” attitude. For example, Olga Kor- letes often do not have access to the same level of med-
but, the former Soviet gymnast who won gold at the ical support that male athletes do. The lack of medical
1972 Munich Olympics, said that her strongest mem- care may be, in part, because it is not only women’s
ories of her competitive days were of fatigue and pain, sport, but also women’s pain and injuries that are taken
less seriously. As indicated earlier, women tend to be dition the treatments involve the client as a more active
prone to chronic, rather than acute, sport-related in- participant in their own recovery, rather than simply
juries. The very nature of such injuries is that they are suggesting the “rest and pain killers advice” that are
less dramatic, and so are often regarded as less “inter- seen as staples of orthodox medicine. This practice is
esting,” by medical practitioners, who prefer to deal also consistent with an athlete’s need to maintain a
with more acute injuries. Additionally, chronic injuries sense of self as someone who is active, and so it reduces
are often viewed as less serious injuries. This situation the threat an injury poses to the athletic identity.
is exacerbated because women are more likely than
men to display the emotions associated with pain, since Dilemmas and
emotional display is less consistent with masculinity. Future Developments
This means that when male athletes do complain about It is clear that as women’s sport has developed, so fe-
pain, they are taken seriously, whereas women’s injuries male athletes have learned that gaining equality means
become normalized and even ignored. The end result of playing by the same standards as their male counter-
this is that women learn that their injuries, as with their parts. This development, in turn, has created a culture
sport, are less important than men’s and to play in in which performance sport carries the requirement that
pain, with the potential implications of long-term injury the risk of injury be accepted. As a result, in contem-
and even disability. porary sport both male and female athletes learn to
In addition, the lack of medical care means that fe- tolerate high levels of pain and disregard injury. Many
male athletes have to find alternative sources of help athletes have normalized injury to such an extent that
with their injuries. Most commonly, women will turn to they go so far as to deny that their sport is risky. Most
their coaches and/or their teammates for advice. This is say that the pleasure in sports participation makes
clearly problematic, since they are seeking advice from the pain worthwhile, and, on retiring from elite com-
the very people who benefit from an injured player repetition, that they miss their sport and would do it all
turning quickly to sports participation. Indeed, most again.
female athletes indicate that the greatest source of pres- It is clear that these findings leave those working
sure to take risks and play while injured comes from with female athletes with a dilemma: how to develop
other players and their coaches. Furthermore, it is un- women’s sport without sacrificing the well-being of the
likely that the people offering the medical advice will individual performer for improved sporting achieve-
have the medical qualifications to enable them to offer ments. Research is ongoing to review the pressures on
informed help. The relative underdevelopment of athletes to continually improve standards and to con-
women’s sport means that those in coaching positions sider whether it is possible in contemporary society to
are not always even qualified to coach and are certainly promote a more positive image of cooperative partici-
not qualified to offer medical support, particularly at pation, rather than merely competitive performance. In
amateur levels of participation. addition investigations are being undertaken into how
Many female athletes have turned to complementary best to encourage and support injured performers to
and alternative forms of medicine in order to gain help gain effective medical care. As women’s sport moves to-
that takes their injuries seriously. In particular practices ward greater equality with men’s, further research needs
such as physiotherapy, osteopathy, chiropractic, and to be conducted to understand more fully female ath-
various forms of massage have become popular with letes’ experiences of their sporting activities and to help
those women able to afford such treatment. In their inform appropriate health-care practices for injured
use of massage and fragrant oils, these treatments offer athletes.
medical practice more consistent with femininity. In ad- Elizabeth C. J. Pike
Further Reading for new players to master, and the equipment is mini-
Coakley, J. (2004). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. London: mal, making it attractive for club and youth team spon-
McGraw-Hill.
Hoberman, J. (1992). Mortal engines. New York: Free Press.
sorship.
Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L., & Bradley, J. (2002). Sport worlds: Whereas in North America floor hockey remains a
A sociological perspective. Leeds, UK: Human Kinetics. recreational game primarily played in physical educa-
Nicholl, J., Coleman, P., & Williams, B. (1993). Injuries in sport and ex-
ercise. London: The Sports Council. tion classes, innebandy is played both at the recreational
Nixon, H., & Frey, J. (1996). A sociology of sport. Belmont, CA: level and at the competitive level—including interna-
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Pike, E. (2004). Risk, pain and injury: “A natural thing in rowing”? In
tional competition between national teams throughout
K. Young (Ed.), Sporting bodies, damaged selves: Sociological stud- Scandinavia and the rest of Europe. In Finland the sport
ies of sports-related injury. (pp. 151-162). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Sci- is called “salibandy,” and in Switzerland it is called “uni-
ence Press.
Pike, E., & Maguire, J. (2003). Injury in women’s sport: Classifying key hockey.” The International Floorball Federation,
elements of “risk encounters.” Sociology of Sport Journal, 20(3), founded in 1986, regulates international play. The first
232–251.
Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes. New York: Warner Books.
national teams competition outside of Europe was
Sparkes, A. (2000). Illness, premature career-termination, and the loss played in 1999 in Singapore, where the Europeans were
of self: A biographical study of an elite athlete. In R. Jones & K. Ar- joined by teams from the host country and from Aus-
mour (Eds.), Sociology of sport: Theory and practice. (pp. 13–32).
Harlow, UK: Longman. tralia and Japan.
Theberge, N. (2000). Higher goals: Women’s ice hockey and the politics The history of innebandy crosses the oceans between
of gender. Albany: State University of New York.
Thing, L. (2004). Scars on the body: The risk management and self care
Scandinavia, the rest of Europe, and North America
of injured female handball players in Denmark. In K. Young (Ed.), several times; first references to the sport date back to
Sporting bodies, damaged selves: Sociological studies of sports-related the early 1500s. The original game perhaps was a game
injury. (pp. 195-209). Oxford,UK: Elsevier Science Press.
Tulloch, J., & Lupton, D. (2003). Risk and everyday life. London: called “bandy” that people played on ice with sticks and
Sage. a softball-sized ball. Bandy is still popular in Scandi-
Waddington, I. (2000). Sport and health: A sociological perspective. In
J. Coakley & E. Dunning (Eds.), Handbook of Sports Studies. (pp.
navia and is thought to have led to the development of
408–421). London: Sage. ice hockey in North America. Historians think floor
Waddington, I. (2000). Sport, health and drugs: A critical sociological hockey developed from ice hockey as a way for players
perspective. London: Spon Press.
White, P., & Young, K. (1999). Is sport injury gendered? In P. White & to practice during the off season. People originally
K.Young (Eds.), Sport and gender in Canada. Oxford, UK: (pp. 69– played floor hockey indoors with either a puck or a
84). Oxford University Press.
lightweight plastic ball. When the sport was adopted by
Swedish visitors to the United States during the 1950s,
a whiffle ball became standard (because Swedish bandy
used a ball rather than a puck). Although people know
Innebandy the sport by a variety of names throughout Scandinavia
and the rest of Europe, the name “floorball” achieved
I nnebandy—arguably the most popular sport in Swe-

den—is almost unknown in the United States, even
though it developed there from a game called “unihok”
dominance with the founding of the International
Floorball Federation.
during the 1950s. Innebandy is similar to what North Rules and Play
Americans know as “floor hockey,” but players use a Because innebandy is a relatively new sport, the rules,
whiffle ball instead of a puck, creating a faster game. As equipment, and rink and goal sizes have changed sev-
in floor hockey, innebandy players use sticks that are eral times. Today the international rink measures 40 by
similar to ice hockey sticks. Innebandy is relatively easy 20 meters with a goal on each end measuring 160 by
INTER-ALLIED GAMES 807
Men playing innebandy.
115 centimeters. In recreational play the rink dimen- Sweden won the 2003 women’s world championship,
sions vary, but they generally adhere to the rule that the 2004 men’s world championship, and the 2004
length equals two times width. A team has six players, U19 women’s world championship.
one of whom is a goalkeeper. As in other similar sports,
Linda S. Stanley
the object is to score more goals than the opposing
team. Innebandy has three twenty-minute periods.
Perhaps a major difference between bandy, ice Further Reading
hockey, and floor hockey and innebandy is the level of International Floorball Federation. (1998). The international floorball.
participation by women. Innebandy is the only sport Solna, Sweden: Author.
Olsson, C., & Persson, P. (1996). Innebandy. Stockholm, Sweden:
among these four that has supported national-level Raben & Sjogren.
teams and international competition by women since its
beginning. Women’s and men’s national teams followed
similar paths of development, with the first major com-
petition, the European Cup, held in 1993 in Finland for
women and in Sweden for men. The first European
championships were held for men in 1994, followed by
Inter-Allied Games
the first women’s European championship in 1995.
The first world championship for men was held in
1996 in Sweden, and the first world championship for
T he Inter-Allied Games were organized in France
out of an American initiative. They took place in
Paris from 22 June to 6 July 1919, just a few months
women was held in 1997 in Finland. The champi- after the armistice of 11 November 1918. In these
onships are held every year: in odd years for women games (described by the press as “military Olympic
and in even years for men. games”), soldiers from the different Allied forces waiting
to return to their home countries competed against one
Competition at the Top another. Eighteen delegations out of the thirty-one that
According to the International Floorball Federation, had been invited participated in the games. With the ex-
Finland won the 2002 men’s world university champi- ception of Great Britain, most of the great sporting na-
onship and the 2003 men’s U19 world championship; tions were there. The program, similar to that of the
The minute you start talking about what you’re

going to do if you lose, you have lost. ■ GEORGE SHULTZ
Olympic Games, included a dozen different sports, with volved in the competitive events that took place in the
a total of seventy-six events. There were a few war- months before the final games was tallied up, George
specific events, such as a hand grenade throw, how- Wythe (1919) was able to announce that there were 28
ever. The American and French delegations were by far million participants in all (since each man participated
the largest; when it came to sports results, the Ameri- a number of times), and at least that many spectators in
cans came out well ahead of the French. Although the the grandstands for all the mass events.
Inter-Allied Games were presented again in 1946 at a France seemed to be the only country ready to take
more modest level, the 1919 Inter-Allied Games did up the American challenge, for reasons of prestige. Mar-
constitute a unique event, for a number of reasons. shall Philippe Pétain, the French commander in chief,
declared that “the Americans attach considerable im-
History portance to this meeting. France must be represented
The initiative for the Inter-Allied Games originated with there with dignity.”
Elwood S. Brown, a young chief athletic officer in the
American Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), Significance
well known for its success in promoting sports in the Terret (2002) showed that the Inter-Allied Games can
Far East. General “Black Jack” Pershing, the American be analyzed through four different but complementary
commander, was made aware of the proposal in No- perspectives: military, cultural, political/diplomatic, and
vember 1918, and placed Colonel Wait C. Johnson of sports. From the military point of view, preparing for
the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in charge of the games was a way to contribute to the men’s physi-
organizing the games, along with Brown and the cal and mental training during the last months of the
YMCA, which also was the major financer for the event. war. The general view among the American military au-
The French authorities, anxious not to oppose the thorities was that sports could help to keep the morale
United States (which had just tipped the course of the of the Allied troops from eroding. The Inter-Allied
war), agreed to have the games take place in France. Games themselves were presented as an example of
Since there were no facilities available for the competi- fraternity among the Allied populations. As William
tive events, the Americans built a stadium in the Paris Taft said in 1922, “They symbolized the ends for which
suburbs, which was completed in three months. The sta- the war itself was fought.” The demobilization period
dium was officially presented to France during the clos- was also considered to be fertile ground for all sorts of
ing ceremony to commemorate the entente between the misconduct and temptation. The games addressed the
two countries. fear provoked by the fact that the energy (notably sex-
For the American soldiers, the games were a logical ual) of the millions of demobilized soldiers still in Eu-
follow-up to the military training they had received be- rope was no longer being channeled.
fore they entered the war in 1917 and continued to re- From the cultural viewpoint, the Inter-Allied Games
ceive on the front, where they trained in camps or in the paved the way to promoting a sports culture—
Foyers du soldat, run by the YMCA’s French-American particularly through YMCA activities—in countries
Union. The announcement of the Inter-Allied Games where modern sports were still in the early stages of in-
provided a further objective for AEF’s athletic training. troduction. It was thanks to the games that certain
In spring 1918, 300 YMCA instructors were sent to sports activities (basketball, for example) became well
France, and two million dollars was set aside to be in- established in France and Italy. The YMCA also aimed
vested as soon as an armistice went into effect. Within to use sports to help spread certain models, not only of
a few months, a full program of sports activities was masculinity (boxing was the main vehicle for this, as
proposed to the AEF. When the number of men in- Wakefield, 1997, showed), but also of education and
INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS 809
Christianity, in conformity with the vision of society al- that had been tested in the United States. As a matter
ready developed for the United States. The Americans in of fact, a number of American specialists stayed in Eu-
charge of the AEF were aware of the issues involved: rope after the games as technical advisors. And in coun-
“While America played, Europe, not forgetting how tries like France, where political authorities still had a
America had fought, watched” (Colver et al. 1919, very low opinion of sports, the games had a veritable
127). The Allies were just as aware, as the French pub- impact by raising public awareness of the diplomatic
lication la Vie au Grand Air indicated in its 15 June importance of sports.
1919 issue when it wrote that the Inter-Allied Games
Thierry Terret
were “an admirable means of propaganda for the
United States.”
From the political point of view, the Inter-Allied Further Reading
Games were inseparable from the concurrent proceed- Colver, J., Unmack, W., Johnson, W., & Brown, E. (Eds.). (1919).
ings around the peace conference. In that sense the Official athletic almanac of the American Expeditionary Forces 1919:
AEF championships. New York: American Sports.
games were an extension of the “Wilsonian” policy of in- Pope, S. (1992). Patriotic games. New York: Oxford University Press.
terventionism in Europe being carried out by the United Taft, W. H. (Ed.). Service with fighting men: An account of the work of
States. One aim was to reduce the role that France the American Young Men’s Christian Associations in the World War.
New York: Association Press.
might be led to play in continental Europe after the fall Terret T. (2002). Les jeux interalliés de 1919: Sport, guerre et relations
of Germany. The political stakes help to explain why, internationales. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Wakefield, W. (1997). Playing to win: Sport and the American military,
during the Inter-Allied Games, the sports events setting 1898–1945. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Americans and French against one another were par- Wythe, G., & Hanson, J. (Ed.). (1919). The Inter-Allied Games: Paris 22
ticularly rough. Speaking for the AEF, Newton Colver June to 6 July 1919. Paris: Société anonyme de publications péri-
odiques.
acknowledged this: “Contests in which American sol-
diers were competitors rarely attracted the same intense
enthusiasm as those in which a Frenchman and an
American scrapped it out. As soon as ‘La Guerre’ was
‘fini’ another ‘Guerre’ started, France against America”
(Colver et al. 1919, 129).
Intercollegiate Athletics
From the sports viewpoint, the games helped to con-
firm, a year before the Summer Olympic Games at
Antwerp, Belgium, that the Olympic machine could rise
I ntercollegiate athletics refers to varsity sport pro-
grams conducted at U.S. colleges and universities
that are controlled and operated by college and univer-
from the ashes of the canceled 1916 Berlin Games. sity athletic departments. Many intercollegiate athletic
Furthermore, a number of the athletes present later par- team members, particularly on the Division I level (the
ticipated in the Antwerp Olympics, several winning highest level college athletic competition), receive ath-
medals (for example, Charles Paddock in track and field letically related financial aid from their institutions to
and Norman Ross in swimming). The disagreement be- participate in athletics. According to the National Col-
tween Pierre de Coubertin and Elwood Brown con- legiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing
cerning the use of the term Olympic was rapidly settled. body for many intercollegiate athletics for four-year col-
In 1920 Mr. Brown even was granted a status as repre- leges and universities, a student-athlete is “a student
sentative of the International Olympic Committee whose enrollment was solicited by a member of the
(IOC) in certain capacities, in addition to his YMCA re- athletics staff or other representative of athletics interest
sponsibilities. The Inter-Allied Games also contributed with a view toward the student’s ultimate participation
to spread new forms of physical training and practice in the intercollegiate athletics program” (2004, 70).
NCAA member institutions are separated into three University), John Thompson (Georgetown University),
separate divisions. According to the NCAA (2004): Bo Schembechler (University of Michigan), Joe Paterno
(Penn State University), Nolan Richardson (University
■ Division I institutions must sponsor at least seven
of Arkansas), and Pat Summitt (University of Tennessee)
sports for men and seven for women or six for men
have become household names during the past few
and eight for women. Division I institutions must
decades. Former college student-athletes such as Joe
also offer a minimal number of athletically related
Montana (University of Notre Dame), Hershel Walker
scholarships to sport participants.
(University of Georgia), Grant Hill (Duke University),
■ Division II institutions must also offer a minimal
Michael Jordan (University of North Carolina), Earvin
number of athletically related scholarships, but fewer
“Magic” Johnson (Michigan State University), Larry Bird
than Division I institutions offer.
(Indiana State University), Peyton Manning (University
■ Division III institutions are prohibited from offering
of Tennessee), Mia Hamm (University of North Car-
athletically related financial aid to student-athletes. In
olina), Rebecca Lobo (University of Connecticut), and
addition, Division III athletic departments are funded
Dawn Staley (University of Virginia) helped give their
as other university or college departments are. This
respective alma maters national exposure.
concept is drastically different from the Division I
philosophy, which requires that athletic departments
raise most if not all of their own money from sources
Intercollegiate Athletics:
outside the institution.
The Early Period
Today’s intercollegiate athletic programs differ greatly
Other non-NCAA institutions throughout the coun- from athletic programs of yesteryear. Early athletic pro-
try also sponsor intercollegiate athletics; for example, grams on most college campuses were part of student-
the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics created extracurricular programs that developed as a
(NAIA) and the National Junior College Athletic Asso- reaction to the rigorous academic curricula of the time.
ciation (NJCAA) institutions sponsor college athletic Established at many institutions during the late 1800s,
programs. NAIA institutions espouse dedication to ac- extracurricular programs included debate clubs, literary
ademic achievement of student-athletes above their societies, fraternal systems, and athletics.
athletic performances. Through its “Champions of Char- Before these programs, faculty members and campus
acter” program, the NAIA “seeks to create an environ- administrators frowned on athletic activities. At the
ment in which every student-athlete, coach, official, and time, athletics was considered a major deterrent to stu-
spectator is committed to the true spirit of competition dent learning and achievement (a notion still popular).
through five tenets: respect, integrity, responsibility, ser- Despite opposition, the intercollegiate sports phenom-
vant leadership, and sportsmanship” (NAIA 2004, 2). ena began to develop with the increased immigration of
The NJCAA is the governing body of intercollegiate German-born citizens, who brought the concept of
athletics for two-year institutions. Many student-athletes gymnasiums and the sport of gymnastics to the United
who compete on the junior college level seek to trans- States. According to Rudolph (1990), there were at
fer to four-year institutions after completing degree re- least sixty German gymnastic clubs in American cities
quirements at their respective junior colleges. by 1853. Until the late 1870s, most intercollegiate
Many influential individuals have been involved in in- sport activities were organized by students in athletic
tercollegiate athletics since its inception. Coaches such clubs that were similar to today’s intramural sports
as Dean Smith (University of North Carolina), Eddie systems.
Robinson (Grambling State University), Paul “Bear” Gymnastics and intramural sports systems did much
Bryant (University of Alabama), Mike Krzyzewski (Duke to change the minds of Americans regarding sports.
Tossing the ball to start a

women’s basketball game
at Smith College in 1904.
Source: Smith College Archives.
jects made of rubber or leather have

been played since ancient Egypt”
(Ashe 1988, 89). From the begin-
ning, football quickly began to
dominate both the American ath-
letics scene and campus life. During
the late 1800s, the game became
so widely accepted that for the first
time since the founding of Harvard
College in 1636 (America’s first
institution of higher learning), col-
leges began to recognize the exis-
tence of intercollegiate athletics.
Other college presidents and fac-
Despite the increasing popularity of intercollegiate ath- ulty members, however, opposed the relationship be-
letics during this time, however, nothing could match tween higher academe and athletics.
the overall impact of football on society and the Amer- Despite football’s immense popularity, it was also
ican higher education system. very brutal and inhumane. The equipment was made of
cloth padding instead of hard plastic, and leather hel-
Birth of Football mets did little to protect against massive head injuries.
After the Civil War, colleges saw only minimal increases Without established rules and regulations, career-ending
in student enrollments. According to Chu: injuries and even deaths occurred. During the 1905
season, the Harvard football team played in only two
Without guarantees of steady monies, faced with public
games in which concussions did not occur. In that same
indifference towards the value of higher education and
year, a total of eighteen football athletes were killed
uncertain of short-term enrollment trends, college lead-
while playing the sport, prompting President Theodore
ership constantly searched for means to attract the funds,
prestige, and enrollments that meant survival for their
Roosevelt (a devoted fan of the sport whose son played
schools. (1989, 22) football at Harvard during the early 1900s) to summon
college athletics leaders to the White House to discuss
To increase institutional funding, intercollegiate ath- reforming rules and regulations governing the sport.
letics soon became the program to which university Taking President Roosevelt’s threat to abolish football
and college presidents turned. Although the first “offi- in the United States seriously, coaches and physical ed-
cial” intercollegiate athletics contest took place in 1852 ucation directors from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton
in the sport of crew, no sport contributed more to the were charged with getting “the game played on a thor-
financial growth experienced by American institutions oughly clean basis” (Morison, cited in Rudolph, 1990,
of higher learning than football. “Few movements so 376).
captured the colleges and universities” (Rudolph 1990,
374). Born as an offspring of the English game of soc- Governing Bodies
cer, football officially arrived on college campuses in The year 1905 also marked the formation of the Inter-
1869 in a contest played between Princeton and Rut- collegiate Athletics Association of the United States
gers, although the game had existed in some form for (IAAUS, and later, the NCAA), which became the offi-
thousands of years. “Team games involving round ob- cial governing body of intercollegiate athletics. Students
When a team outgrows individual performance and learns

team confidence, excellency becomes a reality. ■ JOE PATERNO
who had managed athletic programs were soon re- Ashe (1988), despite the passing of the second Morrill
placed by university administrators who assumed the re- Act of 1890, which provided federal funding for his-
sponsibilities for hiring and paying coaches, arranging torically black land grant schools (BLGs), the BLGs
and financing contests, organizing team travel, building never received their fair share of the funding.
new stadiums, and promoting athletics in general. With Very few African-Americans participated in varsity
these changes, intercollegiate athletics had officially athletics during the late 1800s; however, that changed
“arrived.” with the “birth” of American football. The first African-
During its early stages, the NCAA had to persuade American athletes began participating in college ath-
member institutions to join; however, by the 1920s, letics at PWIs about the same time as athletics became
many schools were actively seeking membership. By important at HBCUs. William Henry Lewis was per-
1930, the presidents at several prestigious universities haps the first accomplished, nationally known African-
including Michigan, Columbia, Princeton, and the Col- American football player at a PWI. Lewis played
lege of New York had publicly defended college athlet- football at Amherst and Harvard and was named to the
ics. Many schools of the era were poorly endowed and All-America team in both 1892 and 1893. Other great
received minimal, if any, foundation grant funding. Ad- African-American student-athletes such as Paul Robe-
ministrators also had little confidence in their ability to son, Fritz Pollard, Jesse Owens, Jerome “Brud” Holland,
generate more income for their respective institutions. and Jackie Robinson followed Lewis. During the
Therefore, many relied on athletics to generate funding 1930s, many institutions had new stadiums to fill,
for their universities and colleges. By 1945, the NCAA thus, more African-Americans were recruited to play.
boasted 210 members. After World War II, an even larger influx of African-
Americans attended colleges under the Servicemen’s
Arrival of the African-American Readjustment Act (known as the GI Bill of Rights);
Student-Athlete from then on, the list of African-American student-
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, along with the athletes (AASAs) grew exponentially. According to a
changes to the sports programs themselves, the “face” of study conducted by Northeastern University’s Center
college athletics and American sports in general began for the Study of Sport in Society, during the 1998–
to change as more African-Americans began to partici- 1999 academic year, 56 percent of Division I men’s
pate in organized sports and college athletics. Despite basketball players and 46 percent of football players
intercollegiate athletics becoming an important part of were African-American. In many instances, AASAs make
American society during the early period, African- up an even larger percentage of starters (those who are
American athletes played no major role in the growing on the field or on court when a contest commences) or
sports phenomena. Discriminatory laws ensured that major contributors to their teams.
very few African-Americans attended predominantly
white institutions (PWIs) during the late 1800s. In- Women’s Involvement in
stead, most African-Americans attended historically Intercollegiate Athletics
black colleges and universities (HBCUs). By 1892, how- A milestone in women’s intercollegiate athletics was
ever, students at HBCUs began competing in varsity the first intercollegiate women’s basketball game be-
athletic events. Biddle (now Johnson C. Smith) Univer- tween Stamford and the University of California in
sity and Livingstone College played in the first HBCU 1896. Although not embraced as quickly by the public
football game on 27 December 1892. Unlike PWI ath- as men’s sports programs, sports involving women ad-
letic programs of the era, however, funding for HBCU vanced steadily over the following decades. However,
athletic programs was extremely deficient. According to such advances did not come easily.
The leaders of various women’s college sports pro- student-athletes have also brought lawsuits against their
grams established the Association of Intercollegiate Ath- respective institutions for discrimination. Title IX will
letics for Women (AIAW) in 1971. Because of Title IX, surely continue as a strong force in college athletics.
a provision in the 1972 Education Amendments that
mandated equal access and opportunities for women in Trends and Controversies
education, institutions of higher learning experienced a Surrounding College Athletics
massive increase in young women participating in From the time athletics was introduced to American in-
sports. Although Title IX led to increased opportunities stitutions of higher learning, it has been challenged and
for women to participate in sports, the law also played criticized, often with good reason. Throughout its his-
a major role in the demise of the AIAW and the de- tory, intercollegiate athletics has simultaneously served
crease in the number of women athletic coaches and adas both the pride and the ultimate embarrassment of in-
ministrators. Institutions were forced to create more stitutions across the country. Forced into an inauspi-
opportunities for women athletes, so the NCAA sought cious relationship, the marriage between academe and
to combine the AIAW with its membership. The NCAA athletics has not always been healthy or stable. Some of
was eventually successful in engulfing the AIAW, and as the controversies related to today’s college sports pro-
a result, men replaced many women coaches and ath- grams are the following:
letic administrators.
■ Student-athlete graduation rates
NCAA institutions have moved slowly toward true
■ Increased academic requirements for student-athletes
gender equity since the passage of Title IX. Under the
■ Unethical behavior by athletic staff members, coaches,
“effective accommodation test,” which is more com-
and student-athletes
monly known as the “three-prong test,” established by
the U.S. Department of Education, an institution will be
found to comply with Title IX if it satisfies any one of STUDENT-ATHLETE GRADUATION RATES
the following criteria (Suggs 2003a): Student retention and degree attainment have long been
major topics of concern for many constituent groups.
1. The institution has the same proportion of women
Students and their parents have an obvious interest in re-
on sports teams as it has women in the student
tention, because attending college is of little value in ca-
body.
reer development unless the student is able to persist
2. The institution has demonstrated a history of and
through completion of some degree. College and uni-
continued efforts toward program expansion for fe-
versity faculty and student affairs departments care
male student-athletes.
about degree attainment because it signifies that their
3. The institution has otherwise demonstrated that the
work with students has been successful. Legislators and
school’s current athletic program effectively accom-
policy makers are increasingly focused on an institu-
modates the interests and abilities of the school’s fe-
tion’s graduation rate because they see it as a measure
male student-athletes.
of institutional performance or accountability. Intercol-
University and athletic administrators have learned legiate athletic departments are also feeling the increased
that Title IX will not be easily ignored. Many women demands of accountability placed on institutions of
student-athletes have filed lawsuits against their alma higher education. Thus, because of the increased atten-
maters because of discriminatory practices or lack of tion and scrutiny placed on college athletic programs,
athletic opportunities. In addition, several men’s graduation has evolved as the main measure of student-
student-athletes and coaches who have had their sports athlete success or failure for NCAA member institutions
eliminated to create more opportunities for women (Watt and Moore 2001).
Intercollegiate Athletics
Keeping it Pure
Keeping professionals out of college sports has always ball for hire, unless we extended similar privileges to
been a major interest of supporters of college sports. In other sports, we should have vastly more cases of de-
the following statement, sports pioneer Amos Alonzo ception in other sports than we now have in baseball
Stagg makes the case for amateurism. under the present rule. The reason why there have
been as few lapses as there have been from ama-
The discussion of allowing members of college base-
teurism is because of the rule against using one’s
ball teams to play baseball in the summer for money
skill in athletics for gain.
as brought out in various interviews of athletic di-
Once extend the privilege openly to baseball men
rectors, strikes me as having developed some shallow
to play for money, the foundations on which college
thinking. Most of the men interviewed seemed to
athletics are built have been fatally weakened and
make a distinction in favor of the baseball player.
the whole system has collapsed.There would then be
I can see no logic in granting permission to stu-
numerous cases of professionalism in which events
dents to play baseball for money and not extending
there already is a market for college athletes, and that
the same privilege to men to play football, basketball,
market would multiply immeasurably. The inevitable
or any other sport through which a student can earn
logical result would be a compelling demand that all
money. The inevitable result of granting such privi-
college athletes be extended the same privilege to
leges to baseball men would be a legitimate demand
use their athletic skill to make money. Our college
for similar privileges to men in other sports who
sports would then be thoroughly professionalized,
wished to capitalize on their skill. There can be no
and we should have the spectacle of our colleges and
other logical result. All college athletics, therefore,
universities lending the prestige of their name to Tom,
would become totally professionalized.
Dick and Harry for advertising purposes.
While we now have lapses of adherence to the am-
Source: Spink, A. (1921). One thousand sport stories (Vol. 2, pp. 298–300), Chicago: The
ateur rules because of men cheating by playing base- Martin Company.
Some experts warn of the dangers of comparing cused on graduation rates of all Division I college and
student-athlete graduation rates to the rates of student- university student-athletes. Benson (1996) later com-
athletes at other universities and believe that comparing pared the graduation rates of student-athletes who at-
one institution’s student-athletes to its student body is tended public institutions and those who attended
a better test of how that institution is doing in educat- private institutions. The NCAA has also compared the
ing its student-athletes than is comparing that institu- graduation rates of student-athletes to the graduation
tion to another one (Naughton 1996). The NCAA rates of the general student body on their respective cam-
began tracking student-athlete graduation rates in 1983. puses and has formulated race-specific analyses that com-
NCAA graduation rates are based on a comparison of pare AASA graduation rates to African-American student
the number of students who enter a college or university graduation rates. Suggs (1999) indicates that in 1999
and the number of those who graduate within six years. student-athlete graduation rates were at their lowest level
For example, if one hundred students enter college and in seven years for football and basketball players.
sixty graduate within six years of initial enrollment, the African-American football and basketball players con-
graduation rate is 60 percent (NCAA 2000). sistently graduate at lower rates (often much lower
The NCAA published the first comprehensive study of rates) than do other students and student-athletes at
student-athlete graduation rates in 1992. That study fo- their respective institutions. Thus, even though African-
American student-athletes make up the majority of Di- controversial as its predecessor, Proposition 16 was
vision I football and basketball players, their institutions also opposed by those who felt that the previous legis-
continually fail to support them academically. Because lation provided enough safeguards for student-athlete
of student-athlete academic underachievement, in 1991 academic integrity. Proposition 16 specifies that in-
the NCAA established a directive requiring all Division coming student-athletes must meet standards for high
I institutions to establish academic support for student- school GPA and standardized test scores on the Initial-
athletes (known as Student-Athlete Support Programs Eligibility Index to be eligible to compete in college
or SASPs). Despite this, many still debate whether athletics during their first year.
SASPs are viable components of American higher edu-
cation and whether SASPs are truly effective. However, UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR
according to Underwood (1984), a well-designed, com- American culture has created a “win at all costs” men-
prehensive academic support program can help student- tality among coaches, student-athletes, students, and
athletes solve their personal problems, can lead to sports fans alike. Unethical behavior such as illegal cash
graduation, and can help unlock doors to future em- payments to student-athletes, improper student-athlete/
ployment and personal success. professional sports agent relationships, and academic
improprieties have plagued intercollegiate athletics for
INCREASED ACADEMIC STANDARDS decades.
FOR STUDENT-ATHLETES Intercollegiate athletic scandals are not new phe-
In 1983, the NCAA membership again passed new leg- nomena, however. Athletic improprieties led to both
islation to strengthen initial eligibility standards for in- the 1929 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
coming first year student-athletes. Proposition 48, Teaching (Carnegie Foundation) Report and the Sanity
which became effective in the fall of the 1986–1987 ac- Code of 1948:
ademic year, required the incoming prospective student-
■ The Carnegie Report concluded that popular college
athlete to have a 2.0 grade point average, on a 4.0
athletes were recruited through deception and dis-
scale, while taking at least eleven core subjects consist-
honesty.
ing of English, mathematics, social science, and physi-
■ The Sanity Code was viewed as an extension of the
cal or natural science. The prospect would also have to
Carnegie Report and was the first national endeavor
score either 700 on the combined verbal-mathematics
to require college control of intercollegiate athletics,
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or 15 on the American
a concept reinforced by the 1991 Knight Founda-
College Test (ACT) to qualify for athletic aid and com-
tion’s report.
petition in his or her first year at the institution.
Despite its good intentions, Proposition 48 has been During the 1980s, newspapers and magazines pub-
one of the most controversial and reviled pieces of leg- lished numerous stories about the serious abuses in
islation to be passed by the NCAA membership and has the athletic programs at major universities, including
been branded as racist legislation that negatively af- Tulane, Virginia Tech, Kentucky, Maryland, Oklahoma,
fected a disproportionate number of African-American Oklahoma State, Illinois, Minnesota, Southern Metho-
prospective student-athletes. Despite initial opposition dist, Georgia, Florida, Texas Christian, Clemson, and
to the rule, however, Proposition 48 has been credited San Francisco. More recently, allegations of academic
with raising student-athlete graduation percentages. improprieties involving student-athletes have surfaced at
In 1996, the NCAA membership adopted Proposi- the University of Minnesota and the University of Ten-
tion 16, which further strengthened the academic stan- nessee . At Minnesota from 1994 to 1998, a former sec-
dards established with Proposition 48. Though not as retary in the athletics academic counseling office was
involved in preparing approximately 400 pieces of fund-raising. Such decreases in funding may ultimately
course work for as many as eighteen men’s basketball lead to a decrease in the number of intercollegiate
student-athletes. Unfortunately, allegations such as sports institutions sponsor in future years. Divisions
these are not uncommon occurrences. I-AA and II athletic departments will be affected greatly
Although scandals involving college student-athletes, by decreased institutional funding.
coaches, and institutional staff members create national In what many feel was an attempt to shield itself
headlines, most college sport improprieties are unin- from future lawsuits filed by minority students, the
tentional, inadvertent, or minor in nature. The minor NCAA membership voted to extend the previous slid-
improprieties are referred to as secondary violations. ing scale established by Proposition 16, thus allowing
Major violations, which occur far less frequently, make prospective student-athletes who scores as low as 400
local and national headlines and center around such ac- on the SAT or a sum score of 37 on the ACT to attend
tivities as the following: college and participate in varsity athletics during their
first year. “Athletes now can score the equivalent of zero
■ Gambling
on the SAT or ACT as long as their high school grades
■ Academic fraud
are very high” (Suggs 2003b, A-35). Many fear that the
■ Illegal contact with professional sports agents or ath-
new initial eligibility rules will lead to grade inflation on
letic boosters
the high school level, thus increasing the number of
■ Recruiting improprieties
marginal or less prepared prospective student-athletes
admitted to colleges and universities.
The Future Conversely, even though initial-eligibility standards
Intercollegiate athletics will continue to play a dominant for incoming athletes were weakened, continuing eligi-
role on college and university campuses. Many athletic bility regulations were strengthened greatly, making it
administrators and coaches predict that several of the much more difficult for student-athletes to maintain ac-
top-rated Division I-A athletic programs will break away ademic eligibility in subsequent years after their initial
from the NCAA and form their own “Super Confer- enrollment. Other concerns are the following:
ence.” This mentality has already been displayed through
■ The new rules pertaining to continuing eligibility will
the formation of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS),
hamstring the student-athletes because they will not
the system in which Division I-A “Big Six” college ath-
be able to change their majors as other students on
letic conferences—the Atlantic Coast Conference, the
campus do; thus, student-athletes may be placed in
Big East Conference, the Big Ten Conference, the Big
less difficult majors to preserve athletic eligibility.
Twelve Conference, the Pacific Ten Conference, and the
■ Student-athletes will simply not be able to meet the
Southeastern Conference—compete in multimillion-
enhanced academic standards required to maintain
dollar-generating postseason football games. Although
academic eligibility while in college. Ultimately,
a portion of the funds generated by the BCS are dis-
lesser-prepared students will be admitted to institu-
tributed throughout the NCAA membership, Big Six
tions but they will be subjected to greatly increased
conference institutions and their conference offices keep
academic standards once in college.
most of the funds.Those involved in intercollegiate ath-
■ Student-athlete support staff members who monitor
letics predict further separation between the “haves” and
student-athlete academic progress will be terminated
the “have-nots” in the future.
if student-athlete academic failure rates increase.
In addition, because of decreased state funding for
colleges and universities across the country, athletic pro- Although intercollegiate athletics has been criticized
grams at smaller institutions will have to rely less on throughout its history, one cannot ignore the positive
subsidies from the institution and concentrate more on factors associated with college sports. Traditionally, ath-
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY 817
When you’re are playing for the national championship, it’s not a
matter of life or death. Its more important than that. ■ DUFFY DAUGHERTY
letics has provided many student-athletes, who may not 7 years for athletes in football and basketball. Chronicle of Higher
have otherwise attended college, an opportunity to fur- Education, A-58–A-59.
Suggs, W. (2002, July 26). Who’s going to play? Coaches and advisers
ther educate themselves. Many student-athletes receive fear racial impact of the NCAA’s proposed academic standards.
athletically related financial aid, which allows them to Chronicle of Higher Education, A-43.
Suggs, W. (2003a, February 7). Smoke obscures fire in Title IX debate
pursue a college education. Winning programs often as federal panel adjourns. Chronicle of Higher Education, A-31.
serve as a source of great pride for alumni, students, Suggs, W. (2003b, September 12). Athletes’ graduation rates set a
fans, and institutional staff members. Most importantly, record. Chronicle of Higher Education, A-35.
Thelin, J. (1994). Games colleges play. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni-
student-athlete graduation rates are now at an all-time versity Press.
high. Despite the problems, many intercollegiate ath- Underwood, C. (1984). The student-athlete: Eligibility and academic in-
tegrity. Lansing: Michigan Statue University Press.
letic programs have promising futures. Watt, S. K., & Moore, J. L. (2001). Who are student-athletes? New Di-
rections for Student Services, 93, 7–18.
Derrick Gragg Wiggins, D. K. (1991). Prized performers, but frequently overlooked
students: The involvement of black athletes in intercollegiate sports
See also Amateur vs. Professional Debate; College Ath- on predominantly white campuses, 1890–1972. Research Quar-
letes; Drake Group; Scholar-Baller; World University terly for Exercise and Sport, 62(2), 164–177.
Games
Further Reading
Ashe, A. (1988). A hard road to glory: A history of the African-American
International
athlete. New York: Amistad Press.
Astin, A. W., & Oseguera, L. (2002). Degree attainment rates at Amer-
ican colleges and universities. Los Angeles: University of California,
Olympic Academy
Los Angeles, Higher Education Research Institute.
Benson, M. T. (1996). Graduation-rates data (1986–87, 1987–88,
1988–89, and 1989–90 entering classes), undergraduate enroll-
ment data (fall 1995), [and] student-athlete admissions data (1992–
T he International Olympic Academy (IOA), the in-
tellectual center of the Olympic Movement,
emerged out of the concerns of eminent sports person-
95 entering freshmen classes). NCAA Division I Graduation-Rates
Report. Overland Park, KS: National Collegiate Athletic Association. alities in the international community. In the late 1920s,
Byers, W. (1995). Unsportsmanlike conduct: Exploiting college athletes. concern for the Olympic Movement led those who were
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Chu, D. (1989). The character of American higher education & inter-
inspired by the ideas of the French educator and sports-
collegiate sport. Albany: State University of New York Press. man Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937)—first Ioannis
Fleischer, A., Goff, B., & Tollison, R. (1992). The National Collegiate Chrysafis and then Carl Diem and Ioannis Ketseas—to
Athletic Association: A study in cartel behavior. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. develop a plan of operation for the IOA. The Hellenic
Naughton, J. (1996, July 12). Athletes lack grades and test scores of Olympic Committee accepted this plan in 1938. In its
other students. Chronicle of Higher Education, A-37–A-38.
National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. (2004). Coming home:
forty-fourth session in 1949, the International Olympic
The new NAIA, a proud past, a dynamic future. Retrieved August 14, Committee (IOC) approved the establishment of the
2004 from National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Web IOA by the Hellenic Olympic Committee under IOC
site: http://www.naia.org/campaign/history/history.html
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2000). 2000 NCAA auspices. The Hellenic Olympic Committee undertook
Division I, II & III graduation-rates summary. Indianapolis, IN: the operation and all the expenses of the IOA.
National Collegiate Athletic Association.
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2004). What’s the
The aims of the IOA, as reported in article 3 of the
difference between Divisions I, II, and III? Retrieved August 14, Regulation for the Organisation and Operation of the
2004 from National Collegiate Athletic Association Web site: http:// IOA, are the following: (a) the foundation and opera-
www.ncaa.org/about/div _ criteria.html
Orr, J. (1969). The black athlete: His story in American history. New tion of an international intellectual center in Ancient
York: Lion Press. Olympia that will see to the preservation and propaga-
Rudolph, F. (1990). The American college & university: A history.
Athens: University of Georgia Press.
tion of the Olympic idea, (b) the study and application
Suggs, W. (1999, September 10). Graduation rates hit lowest level in of the pedagogical and social principles of the Olympic
Movement, (c) the foundation and operation of na- ■ Seven joint international sessions for directors of
tional Olympic academies all over the world, and (d) national Olympic academies, members and staff of
the organization of international educational sessions national Olympic committees, and international fed-
and conferences to propagate the Olympic ideal. erations (1992–2004) in which 806 officials of the
International Olympic Movement participated.
Facilities and Programs ■ Twelve international seminars on Olympic studies
The IOA has pioneered Olympic education. In 1961 it for postgraduate students (1993–2004) in which
began its educational activities in tents, and today its ac- 443 young academic scientists from 76 countries
tivities are carried out in modern facilities that include participated.
four conference halls, volleyball, basketball, and tennis ■ Ten international seminars for sports journalists
courts, football fields, and a swimming pool. There is (1986–1999) in which 434 journalists of print and
also a well-equipped library on the IOA premises with electronic press from all over the world participated.
approximately fifteen thousand books and magazines
and a wide range of videotapes about the Olympic Olympic Education
Movement. The IOA’s Olympic education programs focus on four
Every year approximately 2,500 persons participate main areas:
in the international and national educational activities
1. Scientific academic training, which includes lectures,
of the IOA. Eminent personalities specializing in letters,
discussions, and presentations by Olympic medal-
culture, and sports present study results and new ideas
lists;
about the Olympic Movement. Since 1961 the follow-
2. Artistic activities, which include painting, sculpture,
ing sessions have been organized on the IOA’s premises
dance, music, poetry, literature, and photo work-
in Ancient Olympia:
shops;
3. Sport activities, which include men and women par-
■ Forty-four international sessions for young partici-
ticipating in common sports activities and tradi-
pants (1961–2004) with 7,745 participants from
tional games;
169 countries.
4. Social activities, which include traditional dances,
■ Nine international sessions for educators from insti-
songs, and costumes from many different countries.
tutes of physical education (1978–1991) in which
approximately 505 university professors participated. Through its educational and cultural programs, the
■ Three international sessions for directors of physical IOA plants the seeds of international peace and pro-
education (1986–1990) in which 147 directors par- motes solidarity, mutual understanding, and tolerance.
ticipated. During the sessions, friendships and relationships are
■ Six joint international sessions for the staff of insti- built that contribute to the formation of a more peace-
tutes of physical education (1993–2003) in which ful world. The IOA also collaborates with the Interna-
566 persons from approximately 75 countries par- tional Center for the Olympic Truce, to which the IOA
ticipated. has symbolically assigned offices at the premises in An-
■ Eight international sessions for the members and cient Olympia.
staff of national Olympic committees and interna-
tional federations (1978–1991) in which 954 per- Cultural Diversity and
sons from 119 countries participated. Gender Equality
■ Six international sessions for directors of national One of the main goals of the IOA is furthering the ideal
Olympic academies (1986–2003) in which 348 per- of gender equality. At the request of the IOA, Olympic
sons from 121 countries participated. Solidarity agreed to help cover the transportation cost
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY 819
for participants in order to ensure that an equal num- 2004 Olympic Organising Committee and the Greek
ber of young men and women participated in sessions. Ministry of Education on the development of a com-
The rule of equality is also meticulously observed in the plete series of educational books for teachers and for
selection of the coordinators of the discussion groups pupils of all ages, from six to nine, nine to twelve, and
and of the participants in the international seminar on twelve to fifteen.
Olympic studies for postgraduate students. The long-
term goal is to increase the number of women serving Collaboration with National Olympic
as officials in the Olympic Movement. Academies and Universities
There is also an emphasis on ensuring that lecturers With the IOA’s support, 126 national Olympic acade-
come from all cultures and that both genders are mies have been founded to diffuse the Olympic ideal.
equally represented. Since these students will eventually Members and officials of the 126 national Olympic
constitute the international scientific community spe- academies have participated in educational seminars
cializing in Olympic issues, this education will ensure sponsored by the IOA to learn about issues in Olympic
that gender differences will be gradually overcome. education, and many academies have developed their
own Olympic education programs. In collaboration
Reports and Internet Dissemination with these national academies, the IOA has also or-
To promote scientific research on Olympic studies, the ganized art competitions and Olympic literary compe-
IOA publishes Reports of the Sessions, which are avail- titions worldwide.
able at www.ioa.org.gr. By 2004 the IOA had pub- For the last fourteen years, the IOA has also collab-
lished forty-three Reports on the Sessions for Young orated with universities all over the world to organize
Participants and nine Reports on the Special Sessions. In postgraduate seminars, and seminar students now con-
1995, on the initiative of IOA president Nikos Filaretos, stitute a rich source of research and knowledge for the
the IOA published the handbook Keep the Spirit Alive Olympic Movement and the Centers of Olympic Stud-
(1995) under the auspices of the IOC Commission for ies around the world.
the IOA and Olympic education. It also created an ed-
ucational tool in the form of a small museum that can The Future
be used in schools. During the last forty-four years, the IOA has completed
The International Olympic Academy has made two a great amount of work in Olympic education, the re-
changes that will allow more people to be informed sults of which can be measured by the fact that the
about its activities and to have direct access to its sci- term “Olympic education” is now recognized on an in-
entific work: (1) On the website of the Academy (www. ternational level and Olympic education is now part of
ioa.org.gr), there is a database where researchers have educational curriculums in many different countries.
free access to twelve thousand pages of scientific books The future seems auspicious.
(the site is frequently visited by researchers from all
Kostas Georgiadis
over the world), and (2) for five consecutive years, IOA
sessions have been transmitted directly through the In-
ternet. About five thousand people each day follow the
sessions lectures. Further Reading
In collaboration with the Internet coordinator of the Georgiadis, K. (2001). International Olympic Academy: International
understanding through Olympic education. The journal of the In-
IOA, young people from different parts of the world ternational Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport
also have the opportunity to question session lecturers and Dance. Special Olympic Issue XXVII(2).
International Olympic Committee. (1995). Keep the spirit alive:You and
directly. In the framework of the program on Olympic the Olympic Games. Lausanne, Switzerland: IOC Commission for
Education, the IOA also collaborated with the Athens the IOA and for Olympic Education.
Müller, N. (1975). Die Olympische idee Pierre de Coubertins und Carl However, this hadn’t been the case with gymnastics
Diems in ihrer Auswirkung auf die Internationale Olympische and physical and military training. Gymnastics soci-
Akademie (IOA). Bd I (Textband) Bd II (Quallenband). Graz. Diss.
Pappas, N. (1979). History and development of the International eties, for example, were the pedagogical and political in-
Olympic Academy 1927–1977. Report of the Eighteenth Session of struments for building a national identity. To learn to
the International Olympic Academy at Olympia. Athens: IOA.
put one’s body at the service of one’s country stems
from a strategy of acculturation of the common people
in the same way as was the learning of language and na-
tional culture.
After World War I, however, all this began to change.
International Politics Particularly in Europe, there was an extraordinary up-
surge in the sports phenomenon and, more especially,
T he Europeanization and universalization of sport

were the remarkable features of the post–World
War I world. This was a new phenomenon by its sheer
a constant rise in the number of international tourna-
ments. Sport and sporting spectacle became a near-
universal phenomenon. The press, both general and
magnitude and impact on the public. specialized, contributed powerfully to this expansion.
Modern sport entered the twentieth century largely as From the 1920s, sport was winning a national and
the private fiefdom of the new social classes born of in- international audience, and the relationship between
dustrialization and urbanization. It was a social inno- sports and geopolitical events was posing an auton-
vation, confined to national boundaries, that had its omy problem for the national and international
roots in the emergence of new forms of social activity. sports movement, for its capacity to override petty
Engendered thus by private initiative, the new sports as- prejudices and divergent ideologies. This growing in-
sociations and clubs pursued goals that were essentially ternationalization and politicization of sport in-
commercial and pleasurable. What it more, for the most evitably drew in broader issues, like religion, social
part they excluded women, laborers, and certain ethnic class, women, and race. Sometimes these issues en-
minorities. gendered a split in the movement, with various
What was interesting about these early sports devel- groups playing among themselves and developing
opments is that in all European countries (apart from new sporting values,and sometimes modes of playing
Russia) and the United States, the state displayed a total suited to themselves (British games exported to the
lack of interest in the new movement. Modern sport in its colonies, like cricket in the West Indies; worker non-
institutionalized and competitive forms (the setting up of competitive sports; specifically female sports and
national and international federations, the organization competitions, as examples).
of international competition between national teams, As the century progressed, there was a mounting
the reinvention of the Olympic Games) did not show any tension, especially in Europe, between amateur-elitist
sign of their immediate utilization for political ends. sport for rich, privileged males and commercial spec-
The defenders and promoters of sport could hardly tator sport for the mainly middle classes, with the lat-
have imagined that after the turn of the century sport- ter finally winning out.
ing competition would have an impact on public opin-
ion and become an instrument of international policy. Initial Stages of
Sport, “sportsmen,” sports associations and clubs up to Internationalization
that time hadn’t been seen as potential actors in social of Sport
and cultural life, in politics and economics, in interna- The spread of sport internationally was the result of the
tional affairs. following major developments:
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 821
Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred,
jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing
violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting. ■ GEORGE ORWELL
■ The creation of international federations ensured nastics in 1903. Then, after World War I, fencing and
that sport rules would be consistent and respected cycling had their federations in 1921, bobsledding
the world over. Until 1914 there were only thirteen and ice hockey in 1924, table tennis in 1927,
of these, which is evidence of how weak the growth wrestling in 1929, football in 1930, and skiing in
of sport worldwide had been up to this point. After 1937. Swimming and athletics world champi-
1918 the number increased to twenty-one, eight new onships were not inaugurated until after World War
federations being set up between 1924 and 1932. II and were for a long time considered unnecessary
However, often these organizations were set up with- because of the Olympic Games. The major national
out the knowledge or against the will of the British. competitions whose participants came from all over
A number of these federations were created through the world are also worth noting. Many of these
French initiative. Thus, the Federation Internationale events were sponsored by the press, and they in-
de Gymnastique was founded with the support of cluded such events as the Tour de France, which was
Charles Cazalet, chairman of the Union des Societes created in 1903 by the French newspaper L’Auto,
de Gymnastique de France; similarly, the Federation and the Tour d’Italie (the “Giro”), which was set up
Internationale de Ski was set up on the initiative of in 1909 by the Italian Gazetta dello sport, and was
the Club Alpin Francais, and the Federation Inter- based on the Tour de France.
nationale de Football Amateur in 1904 by Robert
Guerin, despite England’s opposition. Fencing and However, the spread of international sport did not
horse riding also had their international headquar- automatically lead to events being organized between
ters in France. national teams; the first events were arranged be-
■ Setting up major international competitions put tween clubs. The idea of making up a team represen-
sport in the public eye. As mentioned above, a num- tative of an entire country could only happen if there
ber of these competitions were the result of French was a sufficient number of clubs and sporting asso-
enterprise, in particular the modern Olympic ciations for each event. That was essential if playing
Games, revived in 1892 by Baron Pierre de Cou- and watching sport were to become mass phenom-
bertin, which took place for the first time in Athens ena. In this respect the British took the lead. The very
in 1896, and later the Coupe du monde de football first international event had been between the Eng-
(the Football World Cup), which was founded by land rugby team and its Scottish counterpart on 27
Jules Rimet in 1928, the first competition taking March 1871, the match taking place in front of ap-
place in 1930 in Uruguay. Jules Rimet was chairman proximately three thousand spectators. In 1877 Ire-
of the International Federation of Football at the land played against England, and in 1881 England
time. Moreover, the World Cup was founded during played Wales.
the Amsterdam Olympic Games, where football fea- By the early 1900s, national teams were competing
tured among the events for the second time. It is true against each other on a regular basis (leaving aside
that in football, as in many other sports, the grant- the Olympic Games). As far as the Olympics is con-
ing of autonomy to a World Cup resulted from an cerned, the number of participating countries in-
evident desire to avoid the restrictive protection of creased with each Olympics: 13 in the first modern
the Olympics. The Olympic Games were reserved for games of 1896, 29 at the 1920 games, and 44 by the
amateurs, whereas the World Cup allowed amateurs Paris Olympics of 1924. By the time of the Berlin
to compete against professionals. Most of the world Games of 1936, the number was 49. By 1920, the In-
championships were set up before 1939: ice skating ternational Olympic Committee, founded in 1894,
in 1896, shooting in 1897, tennis in 1900, gym- represented thirty-five different nationalities.
There were many factors that hampered the organi- ■ Sport was taken under first state, then party control,
zation of sports events, one of which being the means thereby eliminating all private clubs and organiza-
of transportion available. The success of the national tions, whether religious (like Catholic or YMCA,) or
and then international championships was dependent traditional, like the German Turnen and worker
on the expansion of communication links, most no- sports groups in Germany, the pan-Slav Sokol in the
tably those of the railway system. Similarly, the lack of Soviet Union, or bourgeois clubs and local associa-
sports facilities seriously hindered the development of tions in Italy. By linking sport ideologically and even
playing and watching sports. If sport was to become an organizationally with the ruling political party, the
expanding social phenomenon, it was at least partly de- leadership and its agencies could better supervise,
pendent on the few enterprising towns and cities that control, and “rationalize” the sporting and leisure-
built stadiums, swimming pools, and velodromes that time activities of the population.
could house both athletes and spectators. This expan- ■ State-controlled sport pursued certain utilitarian func-
sion of facilities really took effect only after 1925. tions on behalf of the ruling party, above all to pro-
The rapid growth of sports competitions also owes mote a togetherness, a “culture of consent,” involving
much to the advertising and business opportunities that all sections of the population (once “undesirables”
they presented to constructors, manufacturers, and had been removed—like Communists, Jews, Gyp-
salespeople. This was especially the case for “merchan- sies, the disabled, and homosexuals in Nazi Ger-
dized” sports, such as cycling and car racing, as well as many; and “enemies of the people” in the Soviet
sports that required material accessories, such as tennis. Union).
As one example, the French newspaper L’Auto saw the ■ The totalitarian state put great store by a “theatrical-
promotional possibilities when it founded the Tour de ization” of sport, using ritual, symbol, and pageant
France in 1903; other sports journals followed suit. played out in vast stadia (and, in Spain, in bullrings).
Where possible, such rituals were attached to inter-
The Advent of Authoritarian Regimes national sporting spectacles, like the Olympic Games
As the numbers of international sports competitions in- (with the Nazi-introduced torch relay, heightened em-
creased and became established, countries became phasis on the playing of national anthems, raising of
aware of the extraordinary social, cultural, economic, flags, contingent marching into the stadium, etc.). In
and political scope of sport.The phenomenon only took the Soviet case, this was epitomized before World
on real significance after 1918. It was not until 1925 War II in the spartakiads, and after the war in the
that journalists started keeping records of each country’s Olympic Games, which the USSR set out (success-
total number of victories or medals in these competi- fully) to dominate in the full glare of world publicity.
tions so as to compare their respective national sports ■ A militarization of sport occurred, with military and
policies. From that time on, it was no longer the British paramilitary organizations providing sponsorship op-
or the French or the Americans who were considered to portunities for full-time training. Authoritarian soci-
be the paragons of virility and vitality, but the Italians eties also introduced national fitness programs with
(1922–1944), then the Germans (1933–1945), and a bias toward military training.
later, after 1945, the Soviet Union (up to 1991), for ■ After an initial period of uncertainty about com-
whom sport—and sporting success internationally— petitive sport (in the Soviet Union, Italy, and Ger-
was to become a reflection of their political regimes. many), the state realized its potential for diversion
The following were the principal features of this new and unity at home and recognition and prestige
state-controlled sports system in which sport played a abroad. It therefore established the most efficient
functional, utilitarian role: state-controlled system of spotting, nurturing, and
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 823
International Politics
British Versus U.S. Sports
In the preface to a book about Olympic history by failed. The result is that we build on a much narrower
famed Olympic coach F. A. M. Webster, Sir Arthur base than the United States, which has twenty ath-
Conan Doyle—author of the Sherlock Holmes mys- letic clubs to our one, and widespread municipal fa-
teries—compares British versus American support for cilities by which every man has a chance of finding
their respective athletes. out his own capacities. The country is full of great
sprinters and shot-putters who never dream of their
My dear Webster,
own powers, and have no possible chance of devel-
I read the proofs of your book with the greatest in-
oping them. We sorely need also some methodical in-
terest. You have certainly done more than any single
spection of our public-school athletes, to put them on
man I know to preach enthusiasm, methodical en-
the right lines and save wasted or misapplied effort.
thusiasm, in the matter of national athletics. I sin-
I know how much you, Flaxman, and others have
cerely hope that your efforts will bear fruit, and that
done in this direction; but no man who has his own
we shall make a better showing in the future as com-
work to do can spare the time which is needed for
pared with the best of other countries. We know that
such a task. What you have done is, however, re-
we have the material. There is no falling off there. I
markable, and in 1916, when we shall have some na-
think the human machine is at its best in these Is-
tional heart-searchings, your conscience at least will
lands. But we have got into the way of doing things
be at ease.
rather less thoroughly than they might be done, and
Yours sincerely,
that is the point that wants strengthening. It is a very
ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE
deplorable thing that we were not able to raise the
May 1914
money which would have made athletics more dem-
Source Webster, F.A.M. (1914). The evolution of the Olympic Games 1829 B.C.–1914
ocratic, and put the means of practicing them within A.D. London: Heath, Cranton, & Ouseley.
the reach of the bulk of the people. We tried hard and
rewarding talent through a hierarchy of rankings, re- dei Trionfi. Four years later, Italy retained the World
muneration, sports schools, sports medicine, and sci- Cup. This success, allied to Italy’s Olympic, boxing.
ence. This system also involved the elite athletes’ and cycling achievements, attracted many visitors to
sponsorship as “state amateurs,” so that they could Italy to study Italian sport, especially the sports acade-
take part in international tournaments where student mies where young athletes were trained more or less
or amateur regulations barred professionals. full-time.
Both before and after the Berlin Olympics, Nazi Ger-
To illustrate the emphasis given to winning interna- many used sport explicitly to break the country’s cul-
tional tournaments for the greater prestige of the Fascist tural isolation. Between 1920 and 1930, Germany had
or Communist systems, Fascist Italy came second to the taken part in fewer than twenty international sports
United States in the Los Angeles Olympics of 1932 meetings annually. In preparation for the 1936
and third behind Germany and the United States at the Olympics (which it won), however, there were as many
“Nazi” Olympics in Berlin in 1936. In 1934 Italy staged as seventy-eight in 1935 alone. As was the case with
and won the football World Cup; this victory did more Italy, participation in international events ensured that
than anything else, before fanatical home supporters, to Germans were appointed to leading posts in interna-
ensure Mussolini’s popularity: He greeted the team, tional sports federations. Small wonder that most fed-
made speeches, and led the sporting parade in the Via erations supported participation in the Berlin Games
This cartoon from a 1923 issue of Sport Life points to the role played by sports in uniting
the United States and Europe.
(only the United States and the Netherlands expressed cess of the football club Real Madrid that greatly con-
strong reservations). While the 1932 Los Angeles tributed to Spain breaking its international isolation.
Olympics were the first to attract a million spectators, Recognizing the value of football, the regime provided
Berlin could boast more than 3 million. Germany also citizenship for foreign stars who came to play profes-
played host to the Winter Olympics at Garmisch- sional football in Spain (Di Stefano from Colombia,
Partenkirchen in 1936. Both the Summer and the Win- Gento from Brazil, Kopa from France, Puskas from Hun-
ter Games had more participating nations, more gary), and they were amply remunerated. Real Madrid’s
athletes, and more journalists than ever before. Ger- success can be judged by its dominance of the European
many’s unexpected victory at the Berlin Olympics Champions Cup, which was introduced in 1955: Real
demonstrated to the German people and the world won the Cup five years in a row, 1955 to 1960.
what a strong unified Germany could achieve under With the conclusion of World War II, the Soviet lead-
National Socialism and Adolf Hitler. ership set out to demonstrate the preeminence of sport
While Franco’s Spain was not strong enough to cul- in Soviet society. Success was intended to advertise the
tivate the wide range of Olympic sports, it was the suc- advantages of Soviet socialism and to win over Third
INTERNET 825
On Tuesday, September 5 [1972], the Olympics finally died in the blood of seventeen
people. I would not have written that line that day, but now, some time after, it seems
clearer and clearer that this is precisely what happened . . . ■ JOEL OPPENHEIMER
World countries in what was seen as the battle of the Further Reading
ideologies, capitalism versus socialism. In weightlifting, Allison, L. (Ed.). (1994). The changing politics of sport. Manchester,
UK: Manchester University Press.
wrestling, and volleyball, Soviet teams quickly won Arnaud, P., & Riordan, J. (Eds.). (1998). Sport and international poli-
world championships. But it was the Olympic Games tics: The impact of Fascism and Communism on sport. London: Spon
that most vividly demonstrated Soviet sports success: Press.
Coubertin de, P. (1966). The Olympic idea: Discourses and essays.
From its debut in the Summer Games of 1952 until it Cologne, FDR: Carl-Diem-Institut an der Deutschen Sporthoch-
competed as the “Unified Team” in Barcelona in 1992, schule Koln.
Dunning, E., Maguire, J., & Pearton, R. (1993). The sports process, a
the USSR “won” every Olympics, Summer and Winter, comparative and developmental approach. Champaign, IL: Human
with the sole exception of 1968. Kinetics.
Guttmann, A. (1992). The Olympics: A history of the modern games.
Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
Posttotalitarian Developments Hoberman, J. (1984). Sport and political ideology. Austin: University of
The approaches to sport under Fascism and Commu- Texas Press.
Holt, R. (1989). Sport and the British: A modern history. Oxford, UK:
nism have been taken to new heights by many nations Oxford University Press.
in the post-Fascist and post-Communist world: the pre- Ilmarinen, M. (Ed.). (1984). Sport and international understanding.
selection of talented athletes, their nurturing in special Berlin, FRG: Springer Verlag.
Kruger, A. The role of sport in German international politics, 1918–
academies, the application of science and medicine for 1945. In P. Arnaud & J. Riordan (Eds.), Sport and international pol-
enhancing performance, extensive state support, the de- itics (pp.–96).
MacAloon, J. (1981). This great symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the ori-
mise of amateurism and acceptance of full-time, well- gins of the modern Olympic games. Chicago: University of Chicago.
remunerated professionals, the encouragement of Murray, B. (1996). The world’s game: A history of soccer. Urbana and
women’s sport, even the widespread use of drugs. All Chicago: The University of Illinois Press.
Peppard, V., & Riordan, J. (1992). Playing politics: Soviet sport diplo-
these aspects of elite sport, which had occupied a cen- macy to 1992. Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
tral position in the sports systems pioneered by totali- Riordan, J. (1977). Sport in Soviet society. London: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
tarian states, are now common in the international Riordan, J. (1991). Sport, politics and Communism. Manchester, UK:
politics of sport. Manchester University Press.
The use of sport as a symbol of vigor and for the sake Riordan, J. (2002). Sport under Communism and Fascism. Stadion In-
ternational Journal of the History of Sport, 28(2), 267–274.
of national representation certainly as not been absent Riordan, J., & Kruger, A. (Eds.). (1999). The international politics of
from Britain, France, and the United States in the twen- sport in the 20th century. London: Spon.
Riordan, J., & Kruger, A. (Eds.). (2003). European cultures in sport: Ex-
tieth and twenty-first centuries. Nor has a culture of amining the nations and regions. Bristol, UK: Intellect Books.
consent. These have been present, but the issue is one
of degree. Under totalitarian regimes, the state-driven
priority given to these objectives was infinitely higher.
Yet, given the tentacular nature of today’s mass media,
the pharmaceutical and genetic possibilities, and the
commercial and professional principles that dominate
Internet
sport in the modern world, the opportunities for ex-
ploiting sport for political and nationalistic purposes
are vast and beyond the wildest dreams of any dictator.
T he Internet is systematically changing the global
face of sports. Whether through rendering the tra-
ditional sports pages obsolete, blurring the lines be-
What is certain is that the globalization of sport and the tween fan and competitor, or offering a space to discuss
role sport plays in international politics are greater sports with a friend from the other side of the world, the
today than they have ever been. Internet is fueling a shifting relationship between fan
and game as it further globalizes the world of sports.
James Riordan
The Internet does not merely offer fans “courtside seats,”
See also Sport Politics; Sports and National Identity from the privacy of one’s home, but also the opportunity
to bet on those games, while you play those games via On the Web, the live is much less important than the
online gaming. Regardless of the specific manifestation, nearly live—the real value is the Monday morning syn-
the Internet has forever altered the nature of sports in its drome, when you come into work and catch up with the
media coverage, fan participation, and overall industry goals you missed at the weekend. The secret, in my opin-
development. ion, is a comprehensive and up-to-the minute news sports
offering that gives you all the background and TV and
radio can’t give you what you want. (Rowe 2001, 169)
Information and Dialogue
Newspapers provided information about the favorite
team/player of those living in the 1950s, and ESPN’s Sports websites dedicated to news and information
SportsCenter served the same purpose for a generation are immensely popular. In 1998, David Rowe found
of sports fans in the 1980s and 1990s. Now, the Inter- that the Yahoo UK & Ireland search engine offered
net offers information and spaces of dialogue for sports 4,271 categories and 14,591 sites devoted to sports. In
fans in the twenty-first century. Stephen McDaniel and 2004, a U.S. Google search found 165,000,000 sports
Christopher Sullivan argue the importance and popu- websites.
larity of sports websites on the Internet. In comparing The different types of websites range from traditional
USA Today and CBS SportsLine.com, McDaniel and sports news sites to team pages and more niche-
Sullivan found far greater activity on the sports site: oriented pages. ESPN, USA Today, Sports Illustrated,
CBS SportsLine.com, ABC, Fox Sports, and numerous
■ In March 1995, the online version of USA Today re-
other media outlets all use the Web as an extension of
ceived 103,399 hits compared with 338,709 at CBS
their efforts in print and television. All the major sports
SportsLine.com.
leagues host their own webpages, which provide statis-
■ Four months later, traffic increased at both locations,
tics, standings, stories, tickets, merchandise, multimedia
with almost 270,000 hits at USA Today, compared
interviews with players, and game clips.
with almost 750,000 at CBS SportsLine.com.
A website like soccer.net receives 100,000 hits on an SEXUALITY AND CRIMINALITY

average day, amassing 8,000,000 during peak events. The Internet also contains fringe sites concerned with
Like most sports websites, soccer.net offers: everything related to sports:
■ The latest soccer news ■ Trade rumors

■ A soccer store ■ Political activism of athletes
■ Pages specific to the World Cup ■ Naked photos of athletes
■ Analysis concerning professional leagues ■ Criminality among athletes
■ Indexes linking to home pages of national teams
The latter two types are crucial for understanding
from countries ranging from Chile to the Nether-
the full scope of sports and the Internet, in that the
lands
medium allows for greater sexualization of female ath-
Other sites follow suit, sometimes offering access to letes. Numerous unregulated sites focus on female ath-
pictures, audio, or video clips, including press confer- letes as little more than sexual objects. Some contain
ences and postgame interviews, and actual game foot- sexy pictures endorsed and promoted by players them-
age. Whether users seek information on a trade or an selves, but many others feature underground photos, or
injury, the Internet is slowly rendering newspaper sports those from athletic contestants that highlight “the as-
pages insignificant, given the quick, immediate avail- sets” of female athletes. For every website facilitating in-
ability of information. formation gathering or allowing fans to follow their
INTERNET 827
The only place where success comes before

work is in the dictionary. ■ VIDAL SASSOON
team from any place in the world, an equal number are fusal to compete against an Israeli during the 2004
dedicated to the body parts and sexuality of Anna Olympics. Revealing the interactive nature of sports
Kournikova, Lauren Jackson, Maria Sharapova (still a webpages, online discussions of sports encompass part
minor), Brandy Chastain, Amy Acuff, and numerous sports commentary, part fan bravado, and part arm-
others. That comparable sites are not dedicated to male chair managing, in which fans assert their knowledge
athletes is revealing, demonstrating the masculine ori- about the problems and solutions associated with con-
entation of sports and the Internet. temporary sports.
The Internet has also fueled almost an obsession A related dimension to the sports website and chat
with the criminality of athletes. A number of white na- room is the fantasy sports league. Throughout the In-
tionalist websites are dedicated to uncovering the crim- ternet, fans accept the challenge of becoming a general
inal activities of athletes, but the mainstream press, manager, drafting their own team in preparation of the
Internet commentators, and self-proclaimed feminists forthcoming season. With team in hand, players com-
also use the Internet to give voice to the “dark side of pete against one another via player statistics. The phe-
sports.” Websites are dedicated to uncovering the sup- nomenon of fantasy sports exists outside of virtual
posed problem of overindulged athletes who lack dis- reality, yet its growth has been facilitated by the Inter-
cipline, and thus commit crimes without regard for net as another medium that allows fans to become part
anyone but themselves. The Associated Press, like other of the action.
websites, recently sent out a wire story that merely listed
athletes, all but one of whom were black, accused of
various crimes. Not mentioned in the article is that five
Globalization
In recent years, many discussions within sports litera-
out of the seven were never charged with a crime or
ture have concerned the globalization of sports. From
were found innocent. The tag line for badjocks.com,
ESPN and Sports Illustrated to numerous academic
“when Cops meets SportsCenter,” reflects this ideologi-
texts, sports commentators ubiquitously celebrate the
cal agenda. The focus of these websites is on the crimi-
shrinking world of sports in the erasure of borders. Ab-
nality of black athletes, replicating the practice of using
sent from these discussions is any recognition of the im-
the Internet as a space of the most transparent forms of
portance of the Internet in both generating interest in
American racism.
sports throughout the globe and in facilitating the
movement of athletes around the world.
INTERACTIVE OPPORTUNITIES
Regardless of location, fans can now follow a par-
Another significant dimension of Internet sports web-
ticular team or player for statistics, player movement, or
pages is the chat room or discussion Listserv. Virtually
any news related to the team. In the United States, the
every website offers fans the opportunity to converse
Internet allows fans to follow Real Madrid, David Beck-
about their favorite teams or players. Some sites even
ham, cricket matches in India, and the next Nigerian
give fans the opportunity to communicate with players,
basketball start—and actually watch contests via the
coaches, and owners. On any given day at the National
Web. The Internet allows fans to experience athletic
Basketball Association’s site (NBA.com), for example,
contests throughout the globe regardless of the avail-
fans debate the merits of a particular trade, usually of-
ability of television coverage and has facilitated an in-
fering an alternative that would have enhanced their
creased popularity of
team. Similar discussions are found throughout the
Web, with topics ranging from whether college athletes ■ Sports—such as basketball, extreme sports, football
should be paid and if professional athletes are overpaid, ■ Teams—such as Los Angeles Lakers, New York Yan-
to the Kobe Bryant case and the Iranian Olympian’s re- kees, Manchester United
■ Athletes—such as Yao Ming, Michael Jordan, Barry lookers to active participants. The Internet provides fans
Bonds, Ichiro Suzuki, Patrick Sapp with instant information about a particular play or
game, even offering fans game-time polls or spaces to
It is no coincidence that the increased popularity of
voice anger or disgust about a referee’s call or a coach’s
Michael Jordan around the globe—so much so that in
decision in the midst of a game.
the early 1990s he was determined to be the most rec-
The Internet, with online game broadcasting, pro-
ognized face throughout the globe—corresponded with
vides access to otherwise unavailable sporting events
the Internet’s growth. Whether through web advertising
and determines the nature of its coverage. Through the
or sites dedicated to sports or webcasts, the popularity
Web, fans can alter camera angles or points of focus, of-
and profitability of the sports enterprise throughout the
fering viewers the ability to produce individualized
world is the result of Internet opportunities.
sports programming. A contributor to a men’s maga-
The Internet has been crucial in the scouting and re-
zine captures this dynamic relationship, revealing the
cruiting of players from throughout the world, even the
shifting relationship between fan, sports, and the media,
most remote locations. Before the Internet, NBA scouts
as well as illustrating the specific links between Internet
or those from major league baseball faced difficult ob-
activity and sexualization within sports.
stacles securing information about players in Asia,
Africa, or Latin America. The NBA, basketball leagues Imagine you’re watching one of your favorite sports, like
around the world, the National Football League (NFL), female mud wrestling. With the Internet, you’ll be able to
professional soccer and baseball leagues, and even Ul- zoom in on a contestant, bring up her statistics (includ-
timate Fighting in Asia now use the Internet to gather ing bust size), and even monitor her pulse and body tem-
information about potential athletes as the basis of re- perature (so you know just how hot she is) . . . But the
cruitment. The result is an increasing number of inter- biggest advantage the Internet will offer is viewer shot se-
national athletes competing within the United States lection. While we already have things such as race cam,
and a growing number of American athletes taking their you’re at the mercy of program director as to when it’s
shown.
skills to Europe, Asia, and Latin America. In 1999–
With Internet broadcasting, however, you’ll be able to
2000, 11 percent of the NBA players were international
choose which camera you want to look through at any
players, mostly from Europe. The 2001–2002 NBA
one time, meaning that when a car crashes and burns
draft included seventeen players drafted from overseas. during the Grand Prix, you will be able to look through
The Internet gives these players visibility to NBA teams the race cam to watch the medics arrive.
and their fans, brings basketball to the rest of the globe, If that doesn’t tickle your fancy, then there’s set to be
and is leading to a shift in the balance of power within another development within the not too distant future—
the NBA. athlete cam. Thanks to miniature cams strapped to the
athlete’s body, you’ll finally get close enough to the action
to almost smell the sweat.
A Fan or Competitor? And when virtual reality arrives, you’ll be able to feel
The Internet blurs lines between fan and athlete, the real the blows of a hard tackle in a rugby match, provided
and virtual world, by providing Internet users the op- both you and the footballer wear virtually reality body-
portunity to interact with the game more directly. Even suits. (Rowe, 2001, 169)
though the increased availability of the Internet and
greater number of sports websites has already affected The Internet provides the tools to transgress or vio-
the sports world—game playing and media coverage— late conventional mores inside and outside of sports.
future innovations will further expand the agency and Soon, fans will be able to experience a 100-mph fastball
power of fans. We are already seeing the beginning im- from Eric Gagne, or a Jerome Ignalia slap shot through
pact with the systematic shift of fans from passive on- “athlete camera,” elucidating the powerful ways in
INTERNET 829
Internet
On Gaming
The advent of Internet gaming and gambling has wor- a practice which produces nothing. He who makes
ried many people who see it as a serious problem two blades of grass grow where but one grew before,
among college students. Although the cautionary has usually been admitted to be a public benefactor;
words below were written in 1836 by William Alcott, for his a producer. So is he who combines or
a popular author of the time, the concerns expressed arranges these productions in a useful manner,—
are still relevant. I mean the mechanic, manufacturer, & c. He is
equally a public benefactor, too, who produces men-
Even Voltaire asserts that “every gambler is, has been,
tal or moral wealth, as well as physical. In gaming, it
or will be a robber.” Few practices are more ancient,
is true, property is shifted from one individual to an-
few more general, and few, if any, more pernicious
other, and here and there one probably gains more
than gaming. An English writer has ingeniously sug-
than one loses; but nothing is actually made, or pro-
gested that the Devil himself might have been the
duced. If the whole human family were all skilful
first player, and that he contrived the plan of intro-
gamesters, and should play constantly for a year,
ducing games among men, to afford them temporary
there would not be a dollar more in the world at the
amusement, and divert their attention from them-
end of the year, than there was at its commencement.
selves. “What numberless disciples,” he adds, “of his
On the contrary, is it not obvious that there would be
sable majesty, might we not count in our own me-
much less, besides even an immense loss of time?
tropolis!”
[Every man who enjoys the privileges of civilized so-
Whether his satanic majesty has any very direct
ciety, owes it to that society to earn as much as he
agency in this matter or not, one thing is certain; -
can; or, in other words, improve every minute of his
gaming is opposed to the happiness of mankind, and
time. He who loses an hour, or a minute, is the price
ought, in every civilized country, to be suppressed by
of that hour debtor to the community. Moreover, it is
public opinion. By gaming, however, I here refer to
a debt which he can never repay.]
those cases only in which property is at stake, to be
Source: Alcott, W. A. (1836). On gaming. In The young man’s guide. Boston: Perkins and
won or lost . . . Marvin.
Gaming is an evil, because, in the first place, it is
which the Internet is blurring or otherwise destroying as fans trade their lounge chairs and newspapers for
the division between fan and competitor. The expanded keyboards and monitors that offer greater realism, arm-
powers of Internet users, coupled with increasing real- chair control, and access to virtually every sport, in
ism of the Internet broadcasts, are slowly replacing every nation, and at any time.
both stadium visits and the television as a means for
fans to watch sports. The Internet offers power and
control unlike television, and privacy, close-ups, and in-
Video Games
In addition to allowing users to compete against others
teractive information not available during in-person
(including professional athletes), the Internet has been
sport watching. Because it is cheaper, easier, and pro-
crucial in the development of the sports video-games in-
vides means to become “part of the game,” the Internet
dustry, which is the crown jewel of the video-games
will continue to alter the relationship between fan and
world:
game. Just as television and the satellite dish diminished
the power and importance of radio broadcasts or at- ■ Video games are a one billion dollar per year industry.
tending games in person, the Internet is lessening the ■ Sports games account for more than 30 percent of all
significance of newspaper sports pages and television, video games sales.
■ Since 1989, more than 19 million units of John Mad- seys, talking trash, and working from excessive levels of
den football have been sold. testosterone, these virtual sporting competitors use the
■ In 2002 alone, EA Sports sold 4.5 million units. Internet to elevate their celebrity or status within the
(Ratliff, 2003, 96) sports gaming community. The creation of Cyber Ath-
letic Professional Leagues, which use the Internet to or-
Virtually every game now offers an online component ganize tournaments and to advertise the prowess of
in which players can compete against one another via their athletes (results, statistics, scores), is a testament to
the Internet. Players can challenge opponents through- the relationship between the Internet, cyber gaming,
out the globe to a game of John Madden Football or and the world of sports.
NBA Live. The realism of these games is enhanced by
the competitive, trash-talking elements associated with Gambling
Internet-based sports games. The possibility of com- In 2004, gambling on sports within the United States
peting against actual athletes via the Internet, which was legal in only two states: Nevada and New Jersey.
ESPN has reported as increasingly common, reflects With the advent of the Internet, bets can now be placed
the power of this medium. from any state. Although it is illegal to run an Internet
Beyond advertising (ESPN.com has an entire Web gambling operation within the United States, it is legal
section dedicated to video games that functions as a to operate an online gambling website in countries that
source of advertisement), the Internet provides ample permit it. Although it’s illegal to solicit bettors from the
opportunities for fans to talk about sports video games United States, under the federal Wire Wager Act, the
through Listservs, chat rooms, and numerous websites. number of websites available from a quick Google
Almost all these websites are dedicated to providing sta- search is a testament to the expansive online wagering
tistics and information about the top video game play- industry. Taken from the back alley or a local bookie,
ers in addition to information about the games. The offshore-bettor and online sports-gambling sites have
elevation of video game players to cyber athletes is but ushered in a new era of sports gambling.
another signifier of the ambiguous relationship between Similar to online video gaming, where spectators can
the actual world of sports and the Internet-driven world become participants in cyber-athletic competition, on-
of virtual sport. In 2004, Sports Illustrated on Campus line sports betting offers an opportunity for fans, oth-
published an article on college cyber athletes that began erwise passive participants in sports, a chance to play.
with the following description: Unlike sports video games, however, Internet sports
betting can have tangible consequences to bettors. U.S.
At 20, Jeremy Deberry surely is the best football player at
Central Piedmont Community College in Charlotte, N.C.
government officials and Internet industry insiders es-
He practices six days a week, plays both ways and is gen- timate that the financial losses of Americans to online
erally regarded by his peers as among the nation’s elite gambling in 2003 were more than $3 billion (Weir,
performers, having earned the moniker the Champ. Few 2003). Because the Internet is a relatively new media
address the sophomore as anything but. (Sports Illus- phenomenon, research centering online sports betting
trated on Campus, February 5, 2004, 17) is still in its infancy. Preliminary evaluations in online
gambling in general, and sports betting in particular,
These accolades were not directed at a high school point toward several trends:
all-American or even a finalist for the John Wooden
award, but at a video game player. Jeremy Deberry is 1. Most of the sites are officially headquartered in Cen-
one of many talented virtual athletes, cashing in on tral America and the Caribbean, where online sports
hand-eye success with fame and fortune. Donning jer- betting is legal.
INTERNET 831
2. These sites are accessible to anyone in the world, de- payoff of gambling, has taken the relationship between
spite the legality of online gambling in the bettor’s sports and the Internet in a potentially hazardous
country. direction.
3. Most of these sites are owned or managed by Amer-
icans. The Future
4. It is an increasingly popular industry among col- Today, a sports fan can log onto the Internet to check
lege students. the scores, read an article on the problems of college
sports, examine the latest rumors of the Kobe Bryant
Internet sports books, as they are referred to by the case, and enter into a chat room to discuss the most re-
U.S. Department of Justice, reach potential American cent Los Angeles Lakers’ or Manchester United trade.
gamblers through sports magazines and college news- These fans can order a New York Yankees hat and a Lon-
papers. Because of the anonymity inherent on the In- don Monarchs’ T-shirt as they search for tickets for the
ternet, proclamations of legality on Internet sports French Open. Before turning off this hub of sports in-
books “precludes meaningful control of gambling by formation and activities, the fan can place a bet on
minors, much less by persons who are intoxicated, or Monday Night Football, compete in the online version of
by persons with gambling addictions,” said Joseph NASCAR 2005, and watch a web broadcast of a
DeMarco, Assistant United States Attorney for the women’s beach volleyball match in Brazil and a cricket
Southern District of New York (DeMarco, 2001). The match in India, controlling camera angles while solicit-
ambiguity of online sports bettors, be they legal to gaming the desired information about each competitor. Of-
ble or not, coupled with the offshore locations of fering an endless range of possibilities, the Internet is
Internet sports book headquarters, poses a challenge altering the face of sports by bringing the best and
to the enforcement of the Wire Wager Act within the worst of sports into homes throughout the world. The
United States. Internet is simultaneously shifting (or altering) the
The National Collegiate Athletic Association has meanings of sports media, game, and fan as it allows
emerged as an opponent of Internet sports book oper- unlimited information, access, and power to all those
ations, and an ardent supporter of the Wire Wager Act with any means to log online.
and the Internet Gambling Prohibition Act of 1999
David Leonard
(Saum 1999). In testimony before the Senate Subcom-
mittee on Technology, Terrorism and Government In-
formation, Bill Saum, Director of Agent and Gambling Further Reading
Activities for the NCAA, proclaimed his support for Clark, T. L., McBride, D. K., & Reece, D. (2002). All but war is simu-
banning Internet sports gambling because of the rising lation. In A. Miah & S. Eassom (Eds.), Sports technology: History,
numbers of students gambling, legally or otherwise, philosophy and policy, as part of C. Mitcham (Ed.), Research in phi-
losophy and technology (pp. 215–224). Amsterdam: JAI.
and called sports gambling a “potential danger” on col- DeMarco, J.V. (2001, March). Gambling against enforcement—Internet
lege campuses (Saum 1999). Internet sports’ betting is sports books and the Wire Wager Act. United States Attorney’s USA
Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
currently the foremost gambling problem among col- Fairweather, N. B. (2002). Disembodied sport: Ethical issues of virtual
lege students, and is likely to remain so: Most college sport, electronic games, and virtual leisure. In A. Miah & S. Eassom
residence halls across the country are wired for Internet (Eds.), Sports technology: History, philosophy and policy, as part of
C. Mitcham (Ed.), Research in philosophy and technology (pp. 235–
access, and approximately 65 percent of undergraduate 252). Amsterdam: JAI.
students have credit cards, and 20 percent own four or Miah, A. (2002). Immersion and abstraction in virtual sport. In A.
Miah & S. Eassom (Eds.), Sports technology: History, philosophy and
more. The anonymity and burgeoning popularity of In- policy, as part of C. Mitcham (Ed.), Research in philosophy and tech-
ternet sports books, coupled with the risk and potential nology (pp. 225–234). Amsterdam: JAI.
Ratliff, E. (2003, January). Sports rule. Wired, 94–101. pretation. Scholars have a general recognition that so-
Rowe, R. (2001). Sports, culture and media. Philadelphia: Open Uni-
ciety is something that both is produced by humans
versity Press.
Saum, B. (1999, March 23). NCAA testimony on Internet gambling— and serves to constrain human behavior.
Testimony of Bill Saum, director of agent and gambling activities, Interpretive sociology includes what have been called
NCAA, before the Subcommittee on Technology, Terrorism, and
Government Information, Senate Judiciary. Retrieved from http:// the “sociologies of everyday life”—Blumer’s symbolic in-
www.ncaa.org/gambling/19990324 _ testimony.html teractionism, Goffman’s dramaturgical sociology,
Weir, T. (2003, August 22). Online sports betting spins out of control;
Becker’s labeling theory, Garfinkel’s ethnomethodol-
Ease of use attracts young people, athletes to illegal gambling. USA
Today, p. A.01 ogy, and the phenomenological sociology of Schutz
Wenner, W. (Ed.). (1998). MediaSport. New York: Routledge. and Berger and Luckmann. Implicit in these approaches
is an answer to the fundamental question in sociology,
“How is society possible?”—how do people limit their
own selfish desires in order to form and maintain com-
Interpretive Sociology munities? Interpretive sociology provides a way of un-
derstanding the emergence of the “social self” and the
I nterpretive sociology has produced a number of strik-

ing insights that further our understanding of the re-
lationships between sports and society. Insights into
dynamics of interaction between people.
Origins
phenomena such as identity and character; masculinity, The sociologies of everyday life were developed prima-
femininity, and gender relations; athletes’ careers and rily in the United States. During the early 1920s
career contingencies; and group dynamics in sports Charles Cooley adapted the Scottish economist Adam
have resulted from interpretive sociology. Smith’s notion of “the looking-glass self” to describe
Of course, the processes of interpretation are funda- the way that a person’s sense of self (the “social self”)
mental to all sciences. The term interpretive is used in depends on the perceptions and perceived responses of
a more specific sense in sociology to refer to a particu- others. We understand ourselves, our behavior, and the
lar group of sociologies that has as its basis the inter- situation by using the responses of others as a “mirror.”
pretations—meanings—of people’s actions and the At around the same time W. I. Thomas developed his
ways in which those meanings combine to produce concept of “the definition of the situation,” a funda-
society. mental dictum of interpretive sociology—”if men define
Interpretive sociology is one of what has been called situations as real, they are real in their consequences,”
the “two sociologies.” The first focuses on social struc- and George Herbert Mead began to adapt the looking-
tures and systems and is concerned primarily with the glass self into his concept of role-taking (“taking the
ways in which society constrains human behavior; the role of the other”).
second focuses on social action and interpretation and According to Mead, in order for us to interact, we
is concerned primarily with the ways in which society must interpret the meanings and intentions of others.
is a product of human behavior. The “two sociologies” We do this by placing ourselves in the position of the
are sometimes called “macrosociology” and “microso- person with whom we are interacting (role-taking). Peo-
ciology” (with “microsociology” referring to interpretive ple achieve a sense of self as they continually engage in
sociology) and, with reference to preferred research a process of role-taking, and this process is fundamen-
methods, “quantitative sociology” and “qualitative so- tal to human socialization. Mead identifies “play” and
ciology” (with “qualitative sociology” referring to in- “games” as two stages of this socialization. In the play
terpretive sociology). Currently few approaches to stage children role-play and role-take by playing both
sociology adhere exclusively to structure or to inter- themselves and, for example, a parent or a teacher and
INTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY 833
learning the difference between themselves and the those methods. The exceptions are obvious theoretical
parts they are playing. In the game stage Mead uses a critiques from the forms of sociology that take a social
team sports analogy to show the maturation process as structures and systems approach rather than an inter-
children learn to see themselves as others see them. pretive approach. More serious are the critiques of crit-
The team symbolizes the community (“the generalized ical sociologists who point out that interpretive
other”) whereby people develop their social selves and sociologists fail to take into account the powerful struc-
learn to interact in more complex social settings. tures within which people live their lives. People are not
Through these processes of socialization and commu- completely free agents in their ability to construct soci-
nication (symbolic interaction) people develop their ety—they are subject to limitations associated with
self-consciousness as human beings and make society characteristics such as gender and race, and they are
possible. also limited (or enabled) by the material conditions of
In a backlash against the more rigid and structural their lives. This important limitation began to be re-
forms of sociology, interpretive sociologies began to solved during the 1980s as interpretive and critical so-
flourish during the 1960s and 1970s. Herbert Blumer ciologies began to merge into fields such as cultural
(1969) outlined the three tenets of symbolic interac- studies.
tionism: Many of the founders of interpretive sociology were
associated with the University of Chicago, which de-
1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the
veloped a form of urban sociology that flourished be-
meanings that things have for them.
tween the two world wars. An important contribution
2. The meanings arise out of social interaction.
of the Chicago School was the development of urban
3. Social action results from the fitting together of in-
ethnographic fieldwork as a methodology. As in an-
dividual lines of action.
thropology, this methodology involves observation and
The works of Goffman (dramaturgy—use of theatre in-depth interviewing, which became the basic method-
as an analogy for everyday life—‘performance,’ ‘role,’ ologies of the sociologies of everyday life.
etc.) and Garfinkel (ethnomethodology—focuses on The main methodological critique, again from the
the ‘methods’ people use to make sense of their social more traditional sociologies, is that the methods are
reality) were beginning to gain recognition. In 1967 nonscientific. Collecting data by systematic observa-
Berger and Luckmann developed Thomas’s “definition tions of human behavior (often when the observer is
of the situation” into the concept of “the social con- also a participant on, for example, a sports team or in
struction of reality” in order to better describe how peo- an extreme sports subculture) and in-depth interviews
ple construct and reconstruct their social worlds. with subjects led advocates of the scientific method to
Although the emergence of a distinct sociology of question why sociologists’ interpretations were any
sports was coincident with the flourishing of interpre- more valid than any other person’s interpretations. In
tive sociology, few sports sociologists employed the per- addition, the research reports of interpretive sociolo-
spective. Not until interpretive sociology combined with gists were described as “journalistic,” of being no better
more critical sociologies into the field of cultural stud- than in-depth reporters’ accounts of the population
ies during the 1980s did any real development take under study. Because the research was time consuming
place. and often involved only one researcher, the results were
rarely replicated (a key standard of reliability in the sci-
Methods and Limits entific method). Researchers were often accused of
Most of the critiques of interpretive sociology concern “going native”—of losing their objectivity by empathiz-
research methods and the assumptions associated with ing with their subjects. Because interpretive sociologists
often emphasize the ways in which people construct volved, the questions changed slightly, and many rich
and reconstruct their worlds, this emphasis creates a insights were made into the process of becoming an
type of relativism in which those worlds might be un- athlete.
derstood only on the individual person’s terms. As noted in the discussion of Mead, socialization is
Although scholars still debate the issue of relativism, an active process of social development, of becoming a
interpretive sociologists have confronted the other crit- “social self” by learning from interaction with others. As
icisms directly. For example, Anthony Giddens pointed Coakley and Donnelly note: “We are not simply passive
out that sociology is not like the natural sciences; the learners in the socialization process. We actively partic-
standards of the scientific method do not apply be- ipate in our own socialization as we influence those
cause, unlike inert matter and chemicals, human sub- who influence us. We actively interpret what we see
jects interact with researchers and are aware of and able and hear, and we accept, resist, or revise the messages
to react to the results of research. Therefore, we must we receive about who we are, about the world, and
see sociology as a subjective or reflexive science. Re- about what we should do as we make our way in the
searchers frequently declare their subjectivity and deal world” (2004, 84). Interpretive sociologists have also fo-
reflexively with the ways in which their own back- cused directly on the process, and many examples of
grounds and personal interests influence their interpre- these studies are presented in Coakley and Donnelly’s
tation of data. They also may openly acknowledge (1999) book, Inside Sports.
“going native” if engaged in research designed to affect Early involvement in sports and other physical activ-
social policy or draw attention to social injustice. Al- ity has been examined in studies of school playgrounds,
though acknowledging that similarities exist between Little League baseball, and Pee Wee hockey. These stud-
in-depth journalistic accounts and the research reports ies go well beyond the actual processes of involvement
of interpretive sociologists, such sociologists also rec- to show how sports and other physical activity are
ognize that important differences exist in terms of major sites for the production and reproduction of tra-
technique and in the ways in which theoretical and ditional and stereotypical notions of gender. Other stud-
methodological assumptions are made explicit. ies remind us that socialization is a two-way process
when they show how children’s participation affects
Interpretive Sociology in their parents.
the Sociology of Sports Socialization continues after people become involved
Sports studies employing interpretive sociology fall into in sports. Studies have shown how rookie athletes con-
two distinct, though overlapping, types: studies of so- struct appropriate identities for themselves that are con-
cialization in sports—how people become involved, firmed (or rejected) by established athletes in the
how they develop as athletes (their careers)—and the subculture; how adolescents make the decision to con-
process of retirement; and descriptions and analyses of tinue or not continue sports participation; how inter-
the distinct cultural worlds (subcultures) that develop national athletes began to focus on their particular
around specific sports (including overlapping studies of sport; and the meaning of success and relationships in
careers in those sports). the lives of elite male athletes. Socialization continues
Questions about who becomes involved in sports, to be a two-way process even when athletes become in-
how they become involved, and the effect that sports volved, as shown in a study of the way in which the
have on them have always been important in the soci- involvement of husbands and children in tennis affects
ology of sports. Early research was based on survey re- the lives of their wives and mothers.
search and on structures and systems approaches to Desocialization—retirement from sports—has also
sociology. When interpretive sociologists became in- been the focus of research ranging from studies of burn-
INTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY 835
It may be that all games are silly.

But then, so are humans. ■ ROBERT LYND
out among adolescent athletes to studies that have high school soccer as a career. Researchers also con-
found both positive and negative outcomes of retire- ducted studies of sports subcultures that did not focus
ment from professional sports. Other studies have pro- on the analysis of careers (e.g., studies of youth ice
vided striking insights into the ways in which male and hockey, rugby, surfing, rock climbing, and bicycle racing).
female athletes deal with sports injuries that lead to During the 1980s the study of sports subcultures
temporary or permanent retirement. changed again. Finally responding to the critique that in-
New methodologies are providing more in-depth terpretive sociology failed to take account of powerful
data and further insights into the process of socializa- forces in people’s lives, many interpretive sociologists
tion. These methodologies include such biographical made a “critical shift” to take account of such forces in
techniques such as case studies, life histories, and nar- their analyses. Subcultural studies of sports now show
rative sociology. how some sports are involved in the reproduction of so-
The Chicago School began to study subcultures, cial inequalities, and others are radical and challenging
specifically youth subcultures, as part of an attempt to attempts to transform those social inequalities. Research
understand delinquency and deviance. Chicago School reflecting the influence of this change includes studies of
researchers found that subcultures emerged among British soccer hooligans, bodybuilders, baseball players
youth who interacted because of their shared social cir- in developing nations, U.S. high school football, U.S.
cumstances and were a way for those youth to respond university basketball players, women professional
to their social environment. By the 1960s the tech- golfers, boxing, male locker rooms, women’s softball,
niques and interpretations developed to examine de- women’s ice hockey, skateboarding, and aerobics.
viant subcultures and “careers” were adapted to the Although most of these studies have been conducted
study of nondeviant subcultures and careers, including in English-speaking countries, a slightly different school
those in sports. of critical subculture research (following the sociology
Between the early 1950s and the early 1970s re- of Pierre Bourdieu) emerged in France with studies of
searchers conducted subcultural studies of the careers of boxing, running, rock climbing and other “extreme”
professional boxers, professional wrestlers, pool hus- sports, rugby, martial arts, and tennis.
tlers, professional ice hockey players, and the various ca-
reers associated with horse racing. This early period Perspectives
culminated in 1975 with the publication of Donald Ball Interpretive sociology is concerned with the way in
and John Loy’s Sport and Social Order, which included which the social world is not only something that is to
theoretical work on occupational subcultures in sports, be confronted by people but also something that is
an analysis of the career patterns and career contingen- continually constructed and reinvented by people. In-
cies of professional baseball players, and two striking terpretive sociology also is concerned with meaning,
comparative studies: of hockey players and Hollywood and the sociology of sports is beginning to develop a
musicians and of professional wrestlers and physicians. sense of what sports mean and how sports take on
Although subcultural research of this type continued those meanings in the lives of human beings.
after 1975 (e.g., a study of women professional golfers Interpretive sociology also enriches our understand-
and a comparative study of women gymnasts and pro- ing of more traditional forms of data such as surveys.
fessional wrestlers), a subtle change occurred in the no- Thus, for example, we know from surveys that boys
tion of “career.” A career in sports came to be thought and men are more involved than girls and women in
of less as the work of a “professional” and more as a per- sports and other physical activity.Various speculative in-
son’s period of involvement in sports. Thus, we could terpretations were offered, but not until interpretive so-
consider a youth’s involvement in community and/or ciology began to reveal how sports are implicated in
Iran Olympics Results

gender socialization and how females and males make Polo and Wrestling
decisions about participation have we been able to bet- The royalty and aristocracy of pre-Islamic Iran (500
ter interpret the survey results. BCE–650 CE) valued physical education, but little is
Although studies using an interpretive sociology ap- known about popular athletic practices from that pe-
proach are time consuming, the commitment of re- riod. The most enduring legacy of pre-Islamic Iran is the
searchers has paid off in the sociology of sports with a game of polo, which probably originated in the rough
number of rewarding studies. In fact, a critical inter- equestrian games of Central Asia and was turned into
pretive approach has now become the leading para- a refined game with a well-defined set of rules under the
digm (framework) in the sociology of sports. Parthian dynasty (250 BCE–226 CE), which was famous
throughout the ancient world for its horsemanship.
Peter Donnelly
With the influx of Central Asian Turks beginning
around 1000 CE and the Mongol conquest of the 1250s,
Further Reading a new sport gained popularity: wrestling. Itinerant
Ball, D., & Loy, J. (Eds.). (1975). Sport and social order. Reading, MA:
wrestlers, called pahlavans, took part in tournaments
Addison-Wesley.
Birrell, S., & Donnelly, P. (2004). Reclaiming Goffman: Erving Goff- sponsored by local rulers. The tournaments covered a
man’s influence on the sociology of sport. In R. Giulianotti (Ed.), vast regional space from North Africa to India and Cen-
Sport and modern social theorists (pp. 49–64). Basingstoke, UK: Pal-
grave Macmillan.
tral Asia. Iranians revere the memory of one such
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. wrestler, Purya Vali (d. 1322), a Central Asian who al-
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. lowed himself to be thrown by a lesser Indian opponent
Coakley, J., & Donnelly, P. (Eds.). (1999). Inside sports. London: Rout-
ledge. whose family desperately needed the prize money, thus
Coakley, J., & Donnelly, P. (2004). Sports in society: Issues and con- attaining a victory over his selfish impulses that is more
troversies (1st Canadian ed.). Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Donnelly, P. (1985). Sport subcultures. In R. L. Terjung (Ed.), Exercise valuable than a championship. PuryaVali embodies Iran-
and sport sciences reviews (pp. 539–578). New York: Macmillan. ian athletes’ spiritual aspirations, and many sports halls,
Donnelly, P. (1993). Subcultures in sport: Resilience and transforma- clubs, and tournaments are named after him.
tion. In A. Ingham & J. Loy (Eds.), Sport in social development: Tra-
ditions, transitions and transformations (pp. 119–145). Champaign, Under the Safavids—the dynasty (1501–1722) that
IL: Human Kinetics. made Shiite Islam the official religion of Iran and cre-
Donnelly, P. (2000). Interpretive approaches to the sociology of sport.
In J. Coakley & E. Dunning (Eds.), Handbook of sports studies (pp.
ated the Iranian state known today—both polo and
77–91). London: Sage. wrestling flourished, but the two had very different so-
Donnelly, P. (2001). George Herbert Mead and the development of an cial bases. Polo was an elite game enthusiastically
interpretive sociology of sport. In J. Maguire & K.Young (Eds.), Per-
spectives in the sociology of sport (pp. 83–102). London: Reed El- played by the kings themselves. Wrestling, in contrast,
sevier Science. was a popular entertainment, and wrestlers came
Donnelly, P., & Young, K. (1988). The construction and confirmation
of identity in sport subcultures. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5(3),
mostly from the lower classes. They trained in the
223–240. zurkhaneh (“House of Strength”), a building containing
a pit about one meter deep and surrounded by specta-
tor stalls. Zurkhaneh exercises were highly ritualized
and imbued with the spirit of Shiism. At the end of each
Iran session, athletes would pair off and wrestle.
Sport in Modern Iran

A lso known as Persia, Iran is a predominantly Mus-
lim country located in Southwest Asia, at the cross-
roads of the Near East, Central Asia, and the Indian
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, many edu-
cated Iranians became aware of their country’s back-
subcontinent. Iran’s sports culture results from the in- wardness compared with the West, and started to look
tegration of national, regional, and Western traditions. for ways to reform the country. These modernists gained
IRAN 837
Iran
Key Events in Iran Sports History
c. 250 BCE Polo is established as an important 1974 The national soccer league is founded.
sport.
1979 The new, Islamic government repress
c.1250 CE Wrestling becomes popular and re- sports.
gional tournaments are held.
1987 Televised broadcasting of men’s sports
1919 Physical education is made compulsory is permitted.
in the schools.
1989 A new soccer league is established.
1920s Women are allowed to participate in
physical education and sports. 1993 A sports channel is established.
1934 The National Organization for Physical 1993 The first Islamic Countries’ Women’s
Education is founded. Sports Solidarity Games are held in
Tehran, Iran.
1939 The first national sports championships
are held. 1998 Iran qualifies for the World Cup.
1948 Iran competes in the Olympics for the

first time.
1968 Famous wrestler Gholamreza Takhti, a
critic of the Pahlavi dictatorship, either
commits suicide or is killed by the gov-
ernment.
control in the 1906 constitutional revolution that ended graduate of Columbia University’s Teachers’ College,
the traditional monarchy. Physical education played an was invited to Iran to revitalize Iranian sports. Gibson,
important role in the modernists’ reform plans because who stayed until 1938, set up varsity teams in soccer
they believed that the nation’s vigor depended on its and other team sports in the schools of the capital
members’ physical fitness. Teheran and major provincial cities and organized an
European games, particularly soccer, were introduced elaborate system of leagues. In 1939, the first national
to Iran by Christian missionaries, European military of- championships were held in several disciplines.
ficers working for the Iranian government, British oil World War II ended most state sponsorship of varsity
company officials, and Iranians who had spent time in sports, but in 1948, Iran participated in Olympic games
Europe. In 1919, physical education was made obliga- for the first time. Subsequently, Iranian athletes began
tory in public schools under the impetus of Mir Mehdi winning international medals in two disciplines whose
Varzandeh (d. 1970s), widely considered the father of practitioners came out of the old zurkhaneh tradition:
modern sport in Iran. Varzandeh had studied physical wrestling and weightlifting. The zurkhaneh survived into
education in Sweden, Belgium, and the Ottoman the contemporary era, but efforts to keep traditional
Empire. Religious traditionalists opposed the new dis- wrestling alive as pahlavani wrestling met with only
ciplines for being frivolous and indecent, but the secu- limited success. The most admired wrestler of twentieth
larist dictatorship of the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) century was Gholamreza Takhti (1930–1968), who
silenced those voices. In the 1920s and 1930s, women won a number of Olympic and world medals in the
were first allowed to engage in sport and physical 1950s and 1960s. An opponent of the Pahlavi dicta-
education. torship, he embodied the noble ideals of Purya Vali, and
In 1934, the official National Organization for Phys- when he committed suicide in 1968, it was widely be-
ical Education’s founding heralded heightened state lieved that he had been killed by the government’s
attention to sport. Thomas R. Gibson, an American orders.
Iran
The Values of Purya Vali
The Central Asian wrestler Purya Vali (d. 1322) including polo, were deemed elitist and deprived of all
is a legendary figure in Iran, known for caring support. Women’s sports became the biggest victim of
more for a fellow athlete’s well-being than for the revolution. Islamic law mandates that women cover
winning a victory over his competitor. A quat- their whole bodies with the exception of the face,
rain attributed to him encapsulates traditional hands, and feet in public, which made it impossible to
Iranian notions of chivalry and fair play: hold women’s sports competitions outdoors and in the
If you can dominate your own self, presence of men.
you’re a man Another major controversy erupted in the mid-1980s
If you don’t find fault with others, over television broadcasts of sports events. State televi-
you’re a man sion broadcast soccer and wrestling tournaments, but
It is not manly to kick one who is down conservatives, who objected to women viewing the un-
If you take the hand of the one who is covered thighs and arms of male athletes, deemed even
down, you’re a man these unacceptable. Finally, in late 1987, Khomeini is-
sued a fatwa authorizing television to broadcast men’s
sports provided viewers watched without lust. After
this, coverage increased such that a special sports chan-
Takhti’s death portended the eclipse of freestyle nel was set up in 1993, but swimming events and most
wrestling as Iran’s most popular sport and its replace- women’s sports are still not shown.
ment by soccer. The national league established in 1974 After Khomeini’s death in 1989, President Akbar
generated popular passions that regularly boiled over Hashemi Rafsanjani (r. 1989–1997) adopted more
when the two perennial rivals, Persepolis and Taj (the pragmatic policies aimed at defusing mounting dis-
“reds” and the “blues”), met in Teheran’s stadiums. Soc- satisfaction with official puritanism. State support for
cer players were the only professional athletes in Iran. sport increased, and Iran began sending teams to more
In 1978, Iran qualified for a soccer world cup for the international events. A new soccer league was set up in
first time, but in 1979, the Islamic revolution under the 1989. In 1990, the Iranian team won the gold medal
leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini dramatically changed in soccer at the Asian Games in Beijing. Television in-
the face of Iranian sports. creased soccer broadcasts, the national Iranian team’s
performance gradually improved, and in 1998, Iran
Sport in the Islamic Republic again qualified for the world cup. Most significantly, the
The Iranian revolutionaries of 1979 had a puritanical president’s energetic daughter, Faezeh Hashemi, took
streak that led them to dismiss prerevolutionary sport the initiative in reviving women’s sports. Women were
policies as manifestations of a Godless regime’s at- trained as referees, officials, and coaches, and all over
tempts to corrupt the nation. Moreover, the war against the country, special facilities were set aside or newly
Iraq (1980–1988) severely limited the state’s ability to built for women only, so that they could compete ac-
spend on sports. Soccer culture was interpreted as cording to international norms but in the total absence
symptomatic of Western decadence. The soccer league of men. Faezeh Hashemi set up the international Mus-
was suspended. lim Women’s Games in Teheran, from which all male
Given the popularity of soccer throughout Iranian so- spectators and officials are excluded. Women’s partici-
ciety (even Ayatollah Khomeini’s son had played semi- pation in sports, both as athletes and as officials, is
professionally before the revolution), the Islamic actually higher today than it was during the more per-
republic could not completely eradicate it. Other sports missive days of the Pahlavi shahs.
fared less well: Tennis, bowling, and equestrian sports, Despite the Islamic revolutionaries’ attempts to com-
IRELAND 839
Ireland
Key Events in Ireland
Sports History
bat Western cultural influence and bring about a ren-
aissance of traditional values, young Iranians continue 1854 The Irish Rugby Football Union is
to partake in global sports culture. Soccer remains pop- formed.
ular both as a spectator and a participatory sport, and,
1880 The Irish Football Association is
even cricket and baseball have found a few adepts. Ira- founded.
nians have increasingly turned to East Asian martial
1884 The Gaelic Athletic Association is
arts, especially taekwondo, in which Iran began winning founded.
international medals in the 1990s.
1905 The Cumann Camogaíochta (Camogie
H. E. Chehabi Association of Ireland) is founded.
1924 The Irish Republic competes as a sepa-
rate nation at the Olympics for the first
Further Reading time. Patrick O’Callaghan wins a gold
Arasteh, A. R. (1961). The Social Role of the Zurkhana (House of medal in the hammer throw.
Strength) in Iranian Urban Communities during the Nineteenth
1990 The Irish team reaches the quarter-finals
Century. Der Islam, 36,256–259.
Bromberger, C. (1998). Le football en Iran. Sociétés & représentations,
in the World Cup.
101–115.
Brooks, G. (1995). Nine parts of desire: The hidden world of Islamic
women, 201–211. New York: Anchor Books.
Chehabi, H. E. (1995). Sport and politics in Iran: The legend of Gho-
lamreza Takhti. International Journal of the History of Sport, 12(4), of the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty, which created the south-
48–60.
Chehabi, H. E. (2002). The juggernaut of globalization: Sport and
ern Irish Free State (subsequently becoming the Irish
modernization in Iran. International Journal of the History of Sport, Republic in 1948) as a nation independent from the
19(2–3), 275–294. United Kingdom; Northern Ireland continued to be a
Chehabi, H.E. (2002). A political history of football in Iran. Iranian
Studies, 35(4), 371–402. part of the United Kingdom. The majority of the re-
Chehabi, H. E., & Guttmann, A. (2002). From Iran to all of Asia: The public’s population is Catholic (97 percent), whereas
origin and diffusion of Polo. International Journal of the History of
Sport, 19(2–3), 384–400.
Northern Ireland is divided between Protestants (60
Gerhardt, M. (2002). Sport and civil society in Iran. In Eric Hooglund percent) and Catholics (40 percent).
(Ed.), Twenty Years of Islamic revolution: Political and social trans- The nature of sectarian division and the history of
formation in Iran since 1972 (pp. 36–55). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
University Press. partition in Ireland have led to an intense period of civil
Rochard, P. (2002). The identities of the Zarkhonah. Iranian Studies, disobedience and violence since the late 1960s, costing
35(4), 313–340.
Schayegh, C. (2002). Sport, health, and the Iranian modern middle
more than three thousand lives in North Ireland, and
class in the 1920s and 1930s. Iranian Studies, 35(4), 341–369. few aspects of life have remained unaffected. Irish na-
Titley, N. M. (1979). Sports and pastimes: Scenes from Turkish, Persian tionalism prompted the revival or creation of non-
and Mughal paintings. London: British Library.
British sports, including camogie, the national game
for women.
Sporting Past
Ireland The presence of conflict between the nationalist and
unionist strands of belief has profoundly affected the
T he island of Ireland is split between the Republic of

Ireland, which covers twenty-six southern counties,
and Northern Ireland, which covers the six northeastern
sporting history of Ireland. During the period before
Ireland’s great famine (prior to 1846), Irish sporting
events were based around fairs and festivals held on
counties. The partition of Ireland took place as a result saints’ days. At such events physical activities included
This cover from the 17 October 1874 issue of Harper’s Weekly uses a rifle competition to
comment on the relationship between Ireland and the United States.
IRELAND 841
Ireland Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics: 1 Gold
folk football, a form of hurling, strength demonstrations, Twentieth Century

and dancing competitions. In accordance with the nature During most of the twentieth century the sports of the
of Irish society at that time, the majority of people tak- GAA were most popular in Ireland. The association
ing part in these events were men, although some evi- had attached itself to the cause of nationalist sepa-
dence suggests that women participated. The famine of ratism, and many of the sports that people identified
1846–1851 led to the deaths of 2 million Irish people, with Britain developed slowly. After the partition of Ire-
and a similar number immigrated to distant shores, an land between Northern Ireland (as part of the United
important part of the Irish diaspora (scattering) that, Kingdom) and the Irish Republic (as an independent
among other things, spread Irish sport around the world. state) in 1922, football split into two national associa-
In the postfamine chaos, however, such activities as sport tions for Northern Ireland and the Republic, whereas
became unimportant. Sporting events were also seen as the GAA and rugby union continued to operate across
frivolous by the church and were often outlawed by the both sides of the border treating Ireland as a single ge-
British authorities who occupied Ireland at that time. ographical entity. In addition to team field sports, Ire-
After the mid-nineteenth century modern codified land has had a long and rich history in horseracing,
sports spread the short distance across the Irish Sea show jumping, boxing, and golf, among others. Indeed,
from Britain and found favor in Ireland among the so- many people consider horses bred in Ireland to be
cial elites. The most popular sports were soccer, rugby, among the best in the world, and the horseracing in-
hockey, and cricket. The Irish Rugby Football Union dustry has been a major export industry.
was formed in 1854 and the Irish Football Association After the partition athletes from the southern twenty-
in 1880. As a result of their faithful following among six counties, now the Irish Republic, competed as a
members of the British army stationed in Ireland, Irish separate nation at the Olympics, whereas athletes from
nationalists gave these sports the generic title “garrison the six counties of Northern Ireland competed as part
games.” The nationalists resented the presence of the of Great Britain. The southern team first attended the
British in Ireland and opposed the detrimental influence Olympics in 1924 and collected its first gold medal in
that British pastimes had on Irish culture. In 1884 the 1928. This medal was won in hammer throwing by
Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) was founded as part Patrick O’Callaghan, and he defended his title in 1928.
of a general reawakening of Irish nationalist sentiment. Until the controversial four medals (three gold and one
The GAA was responsible for promoting three main bronze) won by swimmer Michelle Smith at the
sports: hurling, Gaelic football, and handball. Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1996 (Smith was even-
The GAA was central in the success of political na- tually banned for tampering with a urine sample),
tionalism in Ireland, but more importantly, in the con- O’Callaghan remained Ireland’s most successful Olym-
text of sport, the GAA was the key element in pian.
preserving an identifiable native culture. During its ear- During the 1980s Irish sport was galvanized by the
liest years the GAA was interested solely in men’s success of the Irish football team at successive World
sports. This narrow interest changed in 1905 with the Cup finals. The team, managed by Englishman Jack
foundation of Cumann Camogaíochta (Camogie Asso- Charlton, reached the quarter-finals in Italy in 1990,
ciation of Ireland). Based on the men’s game of hurling, and both the national team and the sport of football re-
camogie is a fast and forceful ball-and-stick game played ceived a huge upsurge of support. The GAA has sought
by two teams of fifteen players each. Camogie was the to meet the challenge of football by improving the qual-
single most important women’s team sport in Ireland ity of its stadiums, most notably the rebuilding of Croke
until the 1980s, when Gaelic football was developed as Park in Dublin, now one of the finest stadiums in Eu-
a women’s sport. rope, and promoting the sport through the media. The
Croke Park, Ireland’s largest stadium. Source: istockphoto/maccers.
important difference between GAA sports and others is

still the strict adherence to amateurism by the associa-
tion. In an age of professionalism and the pursuit of
Ironman Triathlon
high wages, which tempts many of the country’s best
athletes to leave the country, the GAA’s successful sup-
port of amateurism remains the most important symbol
A n estimated fifty thousand athletes worldwide vie
annually to be one of the fifteen hundred competi-
tors in the Ironman Triathlon World Championship,
of Ireland’s sporting heritage. which is billed as the toughest race in the world. Con-
sisting of a 3.8-kilometer swimming race, a 180-kilo-
Mike Cronin
meter bicycle race, and a 41-kilometer marathon race,
See also Camogie; Hurling; Football, Gaelic all of which must be completed within seventeen hours,
the Ironman Triathlon is held in October at the Hawai-
ian village of Kailua-Kona. The prize purse for 2004 to-
Further Reading taled $430,000, including a $100,000 first prize for
Cronin, M. (1999). Sport and nationalism in Ireland: Gaelic games, soc- each male winner and each female winner.
cer and Irish national identity since 1884. Dublin, Ireland: Four
Courts Press.
Begun a quarter-century ago as an informal idea with
Hayes, L., Hogan,V., & Walsh, D. (1995). Heroes of Irish sporting life. an impromptu following, the Ironman Triathlon has
Dublin, Ireland: Medmedia. grown into a well-established corporate institution pro-
Healy, P. (1998). Gaelic games and the Gaelic Athletic Association.
Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press. moted year around through Triathlon-branded prod-
Houlihan, B. (1997). Sport, policy and politics: A comparative analysis. ucts ranging from sports drinks and nutrition bars to
London: Routledge.
Naughton, L., & Watterson, J. (1992). Irish Olympians. Dublin, Ire-
running strollers, tires, and cars. The World Triathlon
land: Blackwater. Corporation (WTC), based in Tampa Bay, Florida,
IRONMAN TRIATHLON 843
owns the Ironman Triathlon trademark, administers the 1980, and its reputation got a further boost in 1982
championship race, and oversees qualifying races when TV viewers saw leading woman Julie Moss, a col-
worldwide. Outside the qualifying races, in keeping lege student who had entered the race to gather infor-
with a pledge to include nonelite athletes, a lottery ad- mation for a research paper, collapse from exhaustion
mits 150 U.S. contestants and 50 non–U.S. contest- and dehydration 18 meters short of the finish, then
ants, although they are required to provide a history of crawl on her knees to finish second. Kathleen McCart-
their triathlon activities over the previous year. ney’s twenty-nine-second margin of victory remains the
The idea for a three-part race emerged during the narrowest for the race. Winning times these days break
mid-1970s, and the Ironman Triathlon was introduced nine hours. Luc Van Lierde, who holds the men’s record
as a summer Olympics event at Sydney, Australia, in of 8 hours, 4 minutes, and 8 seconds, became the first
1996 using distances of 1,500 meters for the swimming European Ironman Triathlon world champion in 1996
race, 40 kilometers for the bicycle race, and 10 kilome- (the next year German men won the top three spots).
ters for the foot race. The more grueling Ironman Paula Newby-Fraser of South Africa—eight-time winner
Triathlon variation is attributed to John Collins, who as in Hawaii between 1986 and 1996—set the women’s
a U.S. Navy commander stationed in Hawaii issued a record of 8 hours, 55 minutes, and 24 seconds. Aus-
challenge to settle an argument over whether bicyclists tralia’s John MacLean was the first official finisher in the
or runners are in better shape. The race he proposed physically challenged division in 1997, using a hand-
combined the local Wakiki Rough Water Swim, a bicy- cranked bicycle and a wheelchair. NBC Sports has cov-
cle race around the island of Oahu, and the Honolulu ered the world championships since 1991, televising an
Marathon. edited version, and the Outdoor Life Network and
The inaugural race in February 1978 drew fifteen ESPN International broadcast numerous U.S. and in-
men, of whom ten finished, including Collins; Gordon ternational qualifying events.
Haller, a taxi driver, won with a time of 11 hours, 46 Various rituals precede the Ironman Triathlon cham-
minutes, 58 seconds. The first woman participant was pionship in Hawaii, including a benefit race featuring
Lyn Lemaire, who finished fifth in 1979 with a time of athletes, both men and women, who wear only their un-
12 hours, 55 minutes, and 38 seconds. Including Le- derwear, and a “carbo-loading party” for competitors
maire, only sixteen people took part that second year— and fans. Race contestants are required to shave their
the race had been postponed a day because of rough legs, which is said to keep contestants cooler, allow
weather and lost some potential entrants to a golf them to don and doff wet suits for the swimming por-
game. In 1980 participation swelled to 106 people. tion more easily, and facilitate care of any cuts, bruises,
When Collins was transferred,Valerie Silk kept the race or rashes on the legs. Through the years medical pro-
going, moving it in 1982 from Oahu to the less- tocols for the race have been refined, largely by physi-
populated Kona, which meant less traffic but more dif- cian Bob Laird, known to many as “Dr. Bob.”
ficult terrain and weather conditions. Having directed
the Ironman Triathlon championship for a decade, Silk Tensions Surface
sold the name in 1990 to Jim Gills, who went on to Occasionally tensions have surfaced between the Iron-
found the WTC. man Triathlon establishment and the international and
U.S. governing bodies for the conventional triathlon,
Out of Obscurity the International Triathlon Union (ITU) and USA
The Ironman Triathlon’s obscurity ended when ABC’s Triathlon. During the mid-1990s WTC leaders objected
Wide World of Sports program began covering it in to numerous ITU proposals for triathlon-rule changes
that WTC leaders thought would undermine the in-

tegrity and individualistic traditions of the sport, in-
cluding the idea of allowing drafting (staying close
Islamic Countries’
behind another racer to take advantage of the reduced
air pressure created by the leading racer) in the bicycling
Women’s Sports
portion. Another rift was evident in Triathlete Maga- Solidarity Games
zine’s founding of the Triathlon Hall of Fame in 1998,
five years after the WTC had founded its Ironman Hall
of Fame, which admits one inductee a year. Its first in-
ductee, in 1993, was six-time Hawaii winner Dave
W hen examining the Islamic Countries’ Women’s
Sports Solidarity Games and the question of
how women’s participation in sports is compatible with
Scott; Julie Moss was the second in 1994 for her few the teachings of Islam, one must remember that Islamic
moments of struggle that drew such broad attention to law (sharia) does not prohibit sports for men or
the race; Collins, Silk, and Dr. Bob have been inducted women. Islamic sports scientists, both men and women,
as well. stress that health and fitness are important for men and
WTC events are sometimes called the “long course” women alike and should be sustained by sports. Schol-
triathlon, with Olympic-distance ITU events being ars point out that the Prophet Muhammad, in the ha-
called the “short course”—although longer events not dith (narrative record of the sayings or customs of
organized by WTC may be held under the name of Muhammad and his companions), advocated living a
“iron distance triathlon.” Although still associated with healthy life and recommended running, horseback rid-
extreme endurance sports, Ironman Triathlon races also ing, swimming, and archery.
are recognized as tests of personal commitment and Scholar Leila Sfeir and others also have concluded
achievement, and their promoters insist that everyone that Islam is positively inclined toward women’s sports.
who crosses the finish line is a champion. The races According to such scholars the exclusion of girls and
have given rise to a small group of elite professional women from sports and other physical activities has to
men and women who make careers of the races and re- do not with Islam but rather with patriarchal values and
lated coaching and lecturing. traditions. However, whenever sports are played, in
many Islamic countries Islamic precepts must be fol-
Judy Polumbaum
lowed, which means above all that the body and the
hair must be covered and that men and women must
Further Reading practice sports separately because according to Islam
Babbitt, B. (2003). 25 years of the Ironman Triathlon World Champi-
control over sexuality is not the result of internalized
onship. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer Sport. moral precepts but rather is the result of separating the
Brooks, J. (2004, July 20). Ironman: A fight to the finish. USA Today, sexes. In countries that are governed by the sharia (Is-
p. 1-D.
McDermott, B. (1979, May 14). Ironman. Sports Illustrated, 50, 88– lamic law), such as Iran, girls and women can partici-
92. pate in sports and other physical activities.
Moore, K. (2003). Grin and bear it. Sports Illustrated, 99(16), 38.
Plant, M. (1987). Iron will: The heart and soul of the triathlon’s ultimate
challenge. Chicago: Contemporary Books. Women and Sports in Iran
Thom, K. D. (Ed.). (2002). Becoming an Ironman: First encounters
The Islamic Countries’ Women’s Sports Solidarity
with the ultimate endurance event. Halcottsville, NY: Breakaway
Books. Games are a result of the Iranian women’s sports move-
Tinley, S. (1998). Triathlon: A personal history. Boulder, CO: Velo- ment led by Faezeh Hashemi, daughter of former Iran-
Press.
Zieralski, E. (1982, October 11). Julie Moss’s agony in defeat was ap-
ian President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. She and other
palling, but love’s labor made her a star. People, 18, 110–111. influential women motivated Iranian women to get “on
ISLAMIC COUNTRIES’ WOMEN’S SPORTS SOLIDARITY GAMES 845
Before you can win a game,

you have to not lose it. ■ CHUCK NOLL
the move” and contribute to the public and official ac- At these Women’s Games the athletes marched into
ceptance of women’s sports.The embassy of Iran states: the stadium wearing the hijab for the opening ceremony,
“Sports play an important role in our social life because watched also by male spectators. Afterward the women
it helps women perform their maternal duty and nurture competed in events wearing the usual sports attire but
the new generation in the best manner within the sphere not exposed to the view of men. The female judges,
of the great Islamic system” (www.salamiran.org). journalists, doctors, and coaches proved that such events
During the 1980s Iranian women became increas- can be successfully held without men present.
ingly interested in physical activities, and thus a At the first Women’s Games competitors came from
women’s committee within the Ministry of Education, almost a dozen countries; however, those countries
a national sports association, and federations for nu- whose women athletes might have profited from a
merous sports were established. Today several million “women only” sports meeting, such as Saudi Arabia or
Iranian women are active in sports, and thousands of the Gulf States, could not send teams to Tehran be-
women coach and referee. In countries such as Iran cause those countries had no organized women’s
women have two ways of practicing sports: either in sports. The majority of competitors came from countries
public, wearing the appropriate clothing, or in private of the former Soviet Union and so had never worn a
areas to which men have no access. hijab. Most of them had already competed in interna-
Since the early 1990s Iranian women’s competitions tional competitions; these athletes won most of the
have been organized in shooting, and leagues have also medals. For the 122 women making up the Iranian
been set up for ball games such as volleyball, handball, team—with the exception of the sport shooters—this
basketball, table tennis, and, in 1998, even women’s was their first international meeting, and they enjoyed
football. being in the limelight and competing with women ath-
However, Hashemi and her fellow activists also ad- letes from other countries.
vocated international sports meetings, pointing out that In 1997 the second Women’s Games were to be
such meetings might demonstrate the superiority of hosted by Pakistan. Pakistanis, however, voiced strong
Islam. Thus, Iranian women have been allowed to com- opposition to the competition and to women’s partici-
pete in international sports meetings, such as the pation in sports in general. Thus, the ICWSSC decided
Olympic Games, since the early 1990s but only in again to hold the second Women’s Games in Tehran.
events in which Islamic regulations concerning dress Competitors came from sixteen countries; eight Islamic
can be complied with. Because women cannot compete countries failed to send any athletes.
in many competitive sports while wearing the hijab,
the head-to-toe covering required of Iranian women, an 2001 Games Again in Tehran
alternative was developed—the Islamic Countries’ In 2001 the Women’s Games again were held in
Women’s Sports Solidarity Games (Women’s Games), Tehran. Delegations from forty countries announced
which were held in Tehran, Iran, in 1993, 1997, and their participation, but after the terrorist attacks of 11
2001 and from which men were barred as spectators. September 2001 in the United States and the war in
The games were developed by the Islamic Countries’ Afghanistan the number of competing countries sank to
Women’s Sports Solidarity Council (ICWSSC), found- twenty-seven. Nevertheless, more than six hundred
ed during the first Islamic Countries’ Sports Solidarity women competed, including Muslim athletes from Eng-
Congress for Women, which was an initiative of Hash- land. The women from Afghanistan, however, attracted
emi in 1991. Hashemi became president of the council, the most attention.
and in 1993 she welcomed participants from eleven The games began on 24 October with the running of
countries to the first Women’s Games in Tehran. a torch relay and the lighting of the flame, followed by
performances and the procession of the athletes into the Zan (Woman), which is run by Hashemi. “Radio and
stadium, all dressed in compliance with the regulations television never report on women’s sport . . . and this is
concerning Islamic dress. A performance by a woman a serious block to the development of women’s sport,”
singer was a novelty because until then women were al- is the conclusion of a report on women’s sports by an
lowed to sing only before a female audience. During the Iranian woman journalist.
opening ceremony people also made an appeal for sol- Meanwhile, on the international front, the contro-
idarity with the women of Afghanistan. In 2001, too, all versy over Muslim women’s participation in interna-
the work of staging the competitions was done by tional sports competition intensified in 1992 when two
women who had been trained in the run-up to the Frenchwomen, attorney Linda Weil-Curiel and women’s
games. The program consisted of fifteen events, which rights activist Annie Sugier, discovered that thirty-five of
included taekwondo, karate, and futsal (indoor five-a- the participating countries in the 1992 Barcelona
side football). Special rules applied to gymnastics, in Olympic Games had no women in their delegations.
which equipment that is not internationally recognized Many of these countries were Muslim. These two
was used, such as the side-horse and parallel bars. Partly women formed an organization, Atlanta Plus, to lobby
on account of its superior numbers, the Iranian team of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to pro-
159 athletes won the most medals. hibit countries without women delegates from partici-
The events were accompanied by meetings of the pating in the Atlanta Games in 1996.
host organization, the Islamic Countries’ Women’s Atlanta Plus petitioned the IOC to fight “gender
Sport Federation, including an annual general meeting apartheid” and to enforce its own Olympic Charter,
of members, at which Hashemi was reelected president. which declares that “all forms of discrimination with re-
The events were also accompanied by an international spect to a country or a person, whether for reasons of
scientific conference. race, religion, politics, sex or any other are incompati-
ble with the Olympic Movement.” Atlanta Plus empha-
Questions and Problems sized that this issue was one of human rights, not simply
Although people in Iran greeted the Women’s Games as “a cultural/religious issue nor a women’s only issue.”
a great opportunity for women’s sports and as an al- While pressing for the inclusion of Muslim women on
ternative to the Olympic Games, many athletes (and previously male-only teams, Atlanta Plus also registered
also many women and women’s organizations in the its disapproval of the notion of games for women only.
West) pointed out that events of this kind would only However, the IOC appreciated the women-only games.
legitimize the exclusion of women from the world of IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch stated: “IOC
sports. According to them the Women’s Games only re- and all its members admire the high values of this move-
inforced the marginalization of women’s sports. A great ment and will never forget it.”
problem—and one that especially the athletes com- The Women’s Games are closely connected with dis-
plain about—is the lack of spectators. The lack of in- courses about values and about approaches to cultural
terest in women’s sports that is familiar in the West is relativity and cultural universalism. One of the key is-
worsened by the Islamic precept of covering the body, sues is whether people must accept culture-specific val-
that is, women athletes can be shown in photos or on ues even if they contradict principles such as equality
film only if they wear the hijab. As a result, the reports and democracy and whether universal human rights
and photos of women’s sports cannot compete with exist and, if so, who defines them. Suffice it to say that
those of men’s sports. Indeed, the only publication to Iranian women athletes and coaches as well as girls
report regularly about women in sports, and thus per- and women in all sports are taking advantage of the cur-
haps to motivate girls and women to take up sports, is rent favorable conditions to demand more sports facil-
ISRAEL 847
Israel Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics: 1 Gold, 1 Bronze
ities and more personal and material resources. To a unions were founded during the British Mandate
high degree they decide women’s sports issues au- (1920–1948), which preceded the establishment of the
tonomously. In addition, the Women’s Games give ath- State of Israel. The Football Union, Sports Union, and
letes who observe Islamic principles as defined in the the Land of Israel Olympic Committee were all estab-
sharia their only chance to compete. lished. At this time, the “Maccabia,” the Jewish Olympic
Games competition, was initiated as well. The estab-
Gertrud Pfister
lishment of the State of Israel in 1948 did not bring
about a dramatic change in sports and their institutions,
Further Reading other than their becoming state owned and sovereign.
Agha, T., & Schuckar, M. (1991). Frauen im Iran. Berlin, Germany: The historical development of sports in Israel was in-
Parabolis. fluenced by several factors. The most significant are im-
Bauer, J. L. (1985). Sexuality and the moral “construction” of women
in an Islamic society. Anthropological Quarterly, 58(3), 120–129.
migration and Israel’s position in the international
Brooks, G. (1995). Nine parts of desire: The hidden world of Islamic arena. The Jewish settlement grew mainly as a result of
women. New York: Doubleday. immigration waves that brought with them modern
Daiman, S. (1995). Women in sport in Islam. Journal for the Interna-
tional Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and training methods (most recently in swimming) and ex-
Dance, 32(1), 18–21. ceptional athletes who have represented Israel in the
De Knop, P., Theeboom, M., Wittock, H., & De Martelaer, K. (1996).
Implications of Islam on Muslim girls’ sport participation in west-
various individual sports, especially track and field. The
ern Europe: Literature review and policy recommendations for sport geopolitical stand of Israel and its hostile relations with
promotion. Sport, Education and Society, 1(2), 147–164. neighboring Arab countries have resulted in the isola-
Elnashar, A. M., Krotee, M. L., & Daiman, S. (1996). Keeping in stride
with the games: An Islamic impression. ICHPER Journal, 32(4), tion of Israel within its region and have forced it to
17–21. struggle for its position in Asia and Europe. (A salient
Lindsay, K. , McEwen, S., & Knight, J. (1987). Islamic principles and
physical education. Unicorn, 13(2), 75–78.
expression of this was the murder of eleven Israeli ath-
Sfeir, L. (1985). The status of Muslim women in sport: Conflict between letes in the Munich Olympic Games in 1972.)
cultural tradition and modernization. International Review for So-
ciology of Sport, 20(4), 283–304.
Walseth, K., & Fasting, K. (2003). Islam’s view on physical activity and Participant and Spectator Sports
sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38(1), 45–60. Israel’s greatest successes in the international arena to
date have been in judo and sailing, where it has won
Olympic medals and has succeeded in both interna-
tional and continental competitions. In the Barcelona
Israel Olympics, Yael Arad won a silver medal for judo and
Oren Smadja a bronze one. In the 1996 Olympics in
S ports in Israel began in the early twentieth century

during the new Jewish settlement in the Land of Is-
rael. The Zionist movement aimed to create a new,
Atlanta, Gal Friedman won a bronze medal for mistral
surfboarding, and in the 2000 Olympics in Sydney,
Michael Kalganov was awarded a bronze medal for
strong, and muscular Jew to contrast with the image of kayaking. At the Olympic Games in Athens (2004) Gal
the Diaspora Jew. Sports activities were one way to Friedman, who participate in the sailing competition,
achieve this goal. However, most of the Jewish immi- won Israel’s first Olympic gold medal, and Arik Zeevi,
gration to the Israel came from Eastern Europe where the judoist, won a silver medal.
such sports awareness was less developed. As a result Despite Israel’s success in these branches of sports,
sports and body culture did not win a high place on the football and basketball enjoy the greatest popularity. A
list of national priorities. football league has been in operation since 1932. Mac-
The majority of the competitive leagues and sports cabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa, and
The Coliseum at the ancient city of Caesarea, Israel. Source: istockphoto/rlebow.
Beitar Jerusalem are the leading teams in Israel. These last thirty years. This team is also considered one of the
teams have won the majority of the national champi- strongest teams in Europe and has won the Europe
onships and draw the largest number of spectators. Is- Cup four times thus far, while reaching the finals six
rael’s national football team’s highest achievement has other times.
been its participation in the Mondial, which took place
in Mexico in 1970. In recent years Israeli teams have Women in Sport
taken part in the various European championships and Prior to the establishment of the State of Israel, an ethos
have made some impressive achievements, with the of the equality of women with men in all aspects of life
peak being Maccabi Haifa’s participation in the Europe was nurtured. This concept is more theoretical than
Cup finals in 2003. Basketball is the second most pop- real, and the “equality gap” between men and women in
ular sport in Israel, but in terms of achievement it su- Israel is evident.The number of women who participate
persedes football. The Israeli National Team participates in competitive sports and in sports unions is low in
in the European Championship regularly and in 1978 comparison with their counterparts in the Western
won second place in the championship. Maccabi Tel- world. Although volleyball, handball, and water polo
Aviv is the strongest basketball team in the country and leagues, among others, do exist, the level of play is low
has won virtually every national championship in the and the leagues enjoy almost no media exposure. The
ISRAEL 849
Israel
Key Events in Israel
Sports History
participation of women’s national teams in interna-
tional competitions is rare. The only women’s game rel- 1920– Many sports competitions and
atively successful is basketball. The Women’s Basketball 1948 associations are established during the
League enjoys both public and media exposure, and the British Mandate.
level of the play in the league is higher than in other 1932 A professional soccer league is formed.
leagues, due to the many players from other countries
1932 The first Maccabiah Games are held in
who play in the league. Several Israeli women’s basket- Israel.
ball teams participate in European competitions as well.
1952 Israel competes in the Olympics for the
In light of the dismal situation of women’s sports in first time.
Israel, it is rather surprising that it is women who have
1972 Israeli athletes and coaches are killed by
made some of the most impressive achievements in the
Palestinian terrorists at the Olympics in
country: Yael Arad, the judoist mentioned earlier, and Munich.
Esther Roth Shahamorov, the short distance runner
1978 The Israeli basketball team wins the
and long jumper, have compiled a long list of achieve- European Championship.
ments. Among other successes, Shahamorov was re-
1994 The Sports Service establishes a unit for
sponsible for Israel’s highest achievement in track and the Advancement of Women in Sports
field when she reached sixth place in the 100-meter in Israel.
hurdle finals in the Montreal Olympics in 1976. Also
2004 Gal Friedman wins a gold medal in
noteworthy are the achievements of two women who windsurfing at the 2004 Olympics.
emigrated to Israel after successful personal careers
abroad and whose contributions have been especially
important in the fields of training: Angelica Roseano
from Romania, world champion in table–tennis, and ture of sports foundations, the distribution of resources,
Agnes Kelty from Hungary, world champion in Olym- as well as fan groups.
pic gymnastics. In recent years these ideological differences have be-
come less marked as Israeli society undergoes a process
Sports Unions and Society of privatization. The political centers of the past have
The society that first developed in Israel was sectarian not disappeared, yet they have lost their clear political
and divided into different political camps. Each camp identity, and many competitive sports, which were am-
fought to influence the character of the society in for- ateur and later became semiprofessional, are becoming
mation. Each established its own institutions and more professional.
unions. Correspondingly, the sports unions were polit-
ical and reflected the political structure of Israeli society. The Future
The Hapoel (Workers) Union was founded as part of Israeli sports stand today at several turning points that
the socialist workers group in society. The Maccabi will pave the way to important changes in the future.
Union reflected the bourgeoisie; Elitzur, the religious The declining power of political unions and the transi-
camp; and Beitar, the national right. tion of competitive sports from amateur to professional
The establishment of the state did not put an end to have brought about a more professional approach,
the organizational politicization of Israeli sports, which which will ultimately raise the level of Israeli sports.
in turn influenced the structure of the various leagues, Nevertheless, this change has so far been witnessed in
representation on the various national teams, the struc- competitive teams that strengthen themselves with out-
side players, and less in the national teams. This more

professional approach can also be seen in the distribu-
tion of additional resources to the Olympic Committee,
Italy
which nurtures athletes more scientifically in prepara-
tion for the Olympics as part of a trend that began in
the 1990s when Israel began winning Olympic medals.
I taly, a country in Southern Europe, comprises a
peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea, two large is-
lands (Sardinia and Sicily), and several small islands and
In 1994 the Sports Service established a “Unit for the archipelagos, for a total of 301,000 square kilometers;
Advancement of Women in Sports in Israel,” with the 42 percent of it is hilly and 35 percent of it is moun-
purpose of closing the gap between men and women in tainous. Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and
sports (with regard to athletes and representation of Slovenia. The population is about 58 million people,
women in sports organizations, media, etc.). Since the and the capital is Rome, which includes Vatican City.
group’s establishment, the “inequality” gap has been Most Italians adhere to Catholicism; other religions are
gradually closing. practiced by only 0.4 percent of the population.
It is Israel’s hope that peace will be achieved in the
Middle East. Among all the other advantages of peace, History
Israel will be able fully to integrate in its natural milieu, In foreign kingdoms and in the states that composed
which will further advance the development of sports in Italy before its unification in 1861, Italians were often
the country. considered masters of dueling, horse racing, and a kind
of archery practiced with balestra. Some ritual games of
Haim Kaufman
the Middle Ages were played then (and are still played
See also Maccabiah Games now)—for instance, the Palio (horse race) in Siena,
Pisa’s Gioco del Ponte (a team fight that aims to elimi-
nate opponents), and Florence’s calcio storico (a kind of
Further Reading football).
Ben-Avraham, N. (1968). Israel sport. Tel Aviv, Israel: Dekel.
Horse racing and trotting were acclaimed sports in
Ben-Porat, A. (2002). From a game to a commodity: Israeli football, the Kingdom of Tuscany and in Lombardy when both
1948–1999. Beer Sheba, Israel: Ben-Gurion University. states were under Austrian domination. The Kingdom
Ben-Porat, A. (1998). The commodification of football in Israel. Inter-
national Review of Sociology of Sport, 33(3), 269–276. of Piedmont, later the driving force that freed Italy from
Galily, Y. (2003) Playing hoops in Palestine: The early development of foreign dominance, introduced gymnastics for both
basketball in the Land of Israel (1936–1952). International Journal
of the History of Sport, 20(1), 143–151.
sexes in 1836. Swimming appeared in the Kingdom of
Harif, H., & Galili, Y. (2003). Sports and politics in Palestine between Two Sicilies in southern Italy in the late eighteenth cen-
1918–1948: Football as a mirror reflecting the relations between tury; in 1828 the Military Academy of Naples organized
Jews and Britons. Soccer and Society, (1), 56–41.
Kaufman. H. (2000). Israel. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann, & G. Pfis- some competitions that followed the teaching of
ter (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women and sports (Vol. 2, Oronzio De Bernardi, whose 1794 treaty L’uomo gal-
pp. 595–596). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group.
Kaufman, H. (2002). Continuity and changes in the processes which leggiante (Floating man) was translated into many lan-
shaped sports in Israel during the 20th century. In: A. Kruger & W. guages.
Buss (Eds.), Transformations: Continuity and change in sport history Other individuals who contributed to the develop-
II Hoya: NISH 17, 77–85.
Kaufman, H., & Harif, H. (Eds.). (2002) Body culture and sports in Is- ment of sports in Italy were Gioacchino Otta, who
rael in the 20th century. Jerusalem: Wingate Institute and Yad Ben taught physical education in Finland in the early nine-
Zvi.
Zimri, U. (1978). Thirty years of sports in Israel. Tel–Aviv, Israel:
teenth century, and Carlo Marchelli, who competed in
Ramdor. London in the mid-nineteeth century. During this same
ITALY 851
I really lack the words to compliment

myself today. ■ ALBERTO TOMBA
period, the weight lifter Felice Napoli exhibited suc- shooting, hunting, and rowing, and the middle and
cessfully abroad, and other weight lifters, especially lower classes preferred gymnastics, cycling, wrestling,
Lazio and Emilia-Romagna, were very popular in Vati- and walking.
can City. Sports were organized only gradually. The federation
of target shooting came into being in 1862, a federation
Sports in Unified Italy for gymnastics was formed in 1869, and governing
With its capital at Turin, the Kingdom of Italy was pro- bodies were also formed for yachting (1879), shooting
claimed on March 17, 1861. In 1870, the state grew to (1882), cycling (1885), and rowing (1888). National
include Rome, which quickly became the new capital. gymnastics meets began in 1873 and more inclusive tri-
The government faced grave problems, such as illiteracy ennial festivals were inaugurated in 1889. In these com-
and a low standard of public services, and it struggled petitions, national titles were awarded for running,
to industrialize and to reform. In 1878, the law ruled jumping, throwing, gymnastics, weight lifting, and
that physical education in schools was obligatory and wrestling, and later for football and swimming.
must be open to both sexes. During this period, aristo- At the end of the nineteenth century, many Italians
crats were dedicated to horse racing, pigeon and target emigrated from the impoverished south of the country
Canoeing down the Sesia River in Italy. Source: istockphoto/binabina.

Italy Olympics Results

seeking jobs and better conditions in the United States. in 1906, won the first world championship for Italy in
Included in this group were a famous trio of strong track cycling that same year. The IOC chose Rome to
men—Cosimo Molino, Giacomo Zafarana, and Luigi host the Olympic Games in 1908, but after an initial ac-
Borra. On March 28, 1891, in London, Zafarana took ceptance, the capital refused the honor because of eco-
second place in the first world weightlifting champion- nomic inadequacy. The Comitato Olimpico Nazionale
ship, thus achieving Italy’s first international honor. Italiano (CONI) was first organized in 1908.
During this period, two Italian scientists, Angelo The best Italian athlete of the prewar period was the
Mosso and Paolo Mantegazza, successfully advocated gymnast Alberto Braglia, winner of the individual event
modern sports for women, especially swimming. The in the Olympics in 1908 and again in 1912. A man of
first championship games for athletics and lawn tennis humble origins, he later became a popular actor in the
were held in 1897, and those for swimming and foot- circus.
ball in 1898. A lifesaving society was constituted in
1899. Rugby came to Italy in the 1910s through the in- Sports and Fascism
fluence of French players and coaches. When World War I ended, Italy was in a very difficult
Until World War I, some Italian towns remained state. The flu epidemic of 1918–1919 added 600,000
under Austrian domination, and local gymnastic soci- victims to the 650,000 who had fallen in the War.
eties acted as repositories of patriotic values. Having un- While industrial production increased, agriculture lost
derstood the importance of sports for the consolidation workers. Social tensions increased and in 1922 the
of national identity, the press emphasized them by wel- King gave control of the country to Benito Mussolini,
coming the sporadic visits of sports teams from other leader of the Fascist movement. Fascist squads elimi-
countries. Following the success of the French staged nated political opponents, and by 1925 the process of
road race, the Tour de France, the journal Gazzetta dello dictatorship was complete. Remaining tensions with
Sport initiated a corresponding event, the Giro d’Italia, the Catholic Church were solved in 1929 with an agree-
in 1909, which contributed to the immense popularity ment called “Concordato.” In 1938, Mussolini joined an
of cycling in Italy. Sales of bicycles increased enor- alliance with Nazi Germany.
mously from 1890 to 1910, leading to a boom in re- The Fascist government used sports to control the
lated industries—for instance, a company called population, organizing the youth for military purposes
Campagnolo patented a type of cycling gear. and spreading a cult of strength. Mussolini presented
Noblemen represented the nation abroad. The Mar- himself as a good example, swimming in open water,
quis Lucchesi Palli and Count Carafa were cofounders driving automobiles, playing tennis, and attending
of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in sports events. Fascists organized the Opera Nazionale
1894. The Count Capuccio chaired the international Dopolavoro (OND), which also managed volleyball,
federation of rowing (FISA), which was organized in considered a minor sport and not under the direct con-
Turin in 1892. The Marquis Monticelli Obizzi founded trol of CONI. In 1928, CONI’s role as a superfedera-
the Italian federation for heavy athletics in 1902 and tion governing all sports was strengthened.
was the driving force behind an ephemeral interna- Women were encouraged to play sports, but they
tional union from 1905 to 1907. were always reminded that their primary roles were du-
In Paris in 1900, Italy took its first Olympic medals, tiful spouse and tender mother. To appease the Church,
one gold and one silver in equestrian sports, but it had the Fascist government agreed to the Church’s request
achieved its first unofficial European title in trotting in to forbid the participation of women athletes in the
1895 and an official one in rowing in 1901. Francesco 1932 Olympics. The Fascists eventually relented: In the
Verri, triple winner at the Intercalated Games of Athens hurdles in the Berlin Olympics of 1936, Ondina Valla
ITALY 853
Italy
Key Events in Italy Sports History
1878 Physical education is made compulsory in 1909 The Giro d’Italia cycling road race is held for
the schools and open to boys and girls. the first time.
1889 Triennial festivals including sports competi- 1930s Under the fascist government sports is politi-
tions are started. cized and promoted.
1891 Italy gains its first international sports honor 1933 Primo Carnera wins the heavyweight boxing
when Giacomo Zafarana finish second in the title.
world weightlifting championship in Lon-
don. 1950s Soccer becomes the most popular sport.
1892 The International Federation of Rowing is 1956 Italy hosts the Winter Olympics.
founded in Turin. 1960s Ferrari becomes a major force in Formula 1
1900 Italy competes in the Olympics for the first racing.
time and wins its first medals. 1960 Italy hosts the Summer Olympics in Rome.
1908 The Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano 1965 Foreign players are barred from the soccer
is founded. league; the ban is lifted in 1980.
1982 Italy wins the soccer World Cup.
won and Claudia Testoni, who came in fourth, broke credited as a Fascist collaborator. The government, led
the world record in 1938 and won the European title. by Alcide De Gasperi until 1953, anchored Italy to the
During the Fascist Era, Italian sports entered a Western alliance led by the United States. Italy also
Golden Age with their media-amplified triumphs in benefited from the Marshall Plan, which helped to re-
World Cup football (soccer) in 1934 and 1938, their construct the country, including the industrial sector,
second place in 1932, and their third place in 1936 at which boomed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
the Olympic Games. In 1933 Primo Carnera won the Popular symbols of this reconstruction period were
heavyweight title in professional boxing; he became an two cyclists, Fausto Coppi and Gino Bartali. Their re-
icon for Italian youth and inspired a cartoon character peated victories in staged and one-day races fed the
called Dick Fulmine. Another idol was Tazio Nuvolari, Italian ambition for a new self-image based on genuine
who is still viewed as one of the all-time greats in motor achievement. These two cyclists represented the two
sports. faces of Italy: When Coppi was tried for his extramari-
During this period, Augusto Turati, the leading Fas- tal love affair, he evoked the sympathies of the anti-
cist exponent of a traditional team game called volata, clerical, liberal part of the population. Bartali, on the
tried and failed to make the game the Italian national other hand, was a fervid Catholic, and was several times
sport. The Fascist regime then tried to use rugby to received by the Pope. However, the two cyclists had a
shape good soldiers, calling the game a repository of friendly relationship.
masculine virtues. However, “rugby” was misspelled as The government eventually withdrew its financial
rugbi, which then came to be pronounced “roogbe.” support for sports, and since 1947 CONI has financed
Olympic sports with one-third of the income earned by
Postwar Sports a popular football forecasting game, which is managed
Mussolini was shot on 25 April 1945, three days after by a private company. Football became the national
the Allied victory in Italy, and on 2 June 1946, a ballot sport and still keeps this role. In the 1950s, most Italian
proclaimed the country a Republic and the king was dis- football clubs recruited foreigner players and offered
them luxurious contracts. Subsequently, some of those because of some international achievements in these
players, especially those from South America, were Ital- practices.
ianized. However, both policies created problems, sep- Italy won the World Cup in football 1982. Many
arating the rich clubs from the poor ones and people celebrated for many days, confirming and dis-
weakening dedication to the nation. from 1965 to 1980 playing Italy’s new sense of national identity and unity.
foreigner players were barred. Alberto Tomba became the greatest idol of Italian sport,
In 1956 Italy hosted the Winter Olympics at Cortina not only for his astounding triumphs in Alpine skiing,
d’Ampezzo in the Dolomiti mountains, and in 1960 but also for his bizarre and outspoken behavior as a
it hosted the Summer Games in Rome. Italy achieved a media star.
remarkable success with thirteen gold medals and
thirty-six medals overall. In Tokyo, four years later, it Women in Sports
confirmed its ranking, but in three successive Summer The success of Italian women in the Winter and Sum-
Games, the Italian teams did not do as well overall, mer Olympics of 1992 pushed Italy ahead in both
notwithstanding good performances in fencing, that Games. Deborah Compagnoni was the first skier to
permanent reservoir of honors, and the triumphs of win three Olympic gold medals, Antonella Bellutti and
Klaus Dibiasi, the first diver to win three straight gold Paola Pezzo won two Olympic gold medals, in track cy-
medals in platform diving. On the other hand, in Alpine cling and mountain biking, respectively. The fencers
skiing, the 1970s saw the magic moments of valanga Valentina Vezzali and Giovanna Trillini still dominate
azzurra (“blue avalanche”—blue is the color worn by all their events. The rivalry in cross-country skiing between
Italian teams). Gustav Thöni and Piero Gros, Olympic the two Olympic champions Stefania Belmondo and
and World Cup winners, led other Italian skiers to dom- Manuela Di Centa was reminiscent of the competition
inate World Cup stages and standings. between Bartali and Coppi.
In professional sports, Italy succeeded with several These champions created a new image of women—
boxers—Nino Benvenuti, Bruno Arcari, Sandro Mazz- self-confident, determined, reflective, and tastefully
inghi, and Carmelo Bossi, who were in 1970 simulta- handsome—which is very far from the popular image
neously world champions in their categories—and with of “vice boy,” which marks the Italian male sporting
the motorcyclist Giacomo Agostini, who from 1966 to star. Moreover, by winning top titles in team sports
1975 won fifteen world titles—still an unbeaten such as volleyball and water polo, Italian women
achievement. The automobile racing company Ferrari, demonstrated the results of the enormous improvement
led by a self-made engineer called Enzo, became leg- of sports culture among young women.
endary during these years as it won several world titles
in Formula 1 racing. Current Situation
In the 1970s and 1980s, perhaps because increasing While winning important victories in the Olympics,
numbers of Italians began to watch sports on television, most notably in fencing, Italy also leads the world in
track cycling, athletics, and rowing became less popular. motor sports, with motorcyclist Valentino Rossi and
Young people began to practice martial arts rather the Ferrari company in Formula 1 racing. Italy further
than boxing, and to play reduced forms of football, enjoys a worldwide reputation in sports manufacturing
such as the calcetto (five-player football). Municipali- and fashion.
ties increased their expenditures for the promotion The main problem with Italian sports today is the
and diffusion of sports among youth, but children prob- economic crisis of football, which lost many specta-
ably became interested in swimming and lawn tennis tors, as well as money and credit, because of team bank-
ITALY 855
ruptcies and doping allegations. The battle for television Ferrara, P. (1992). L’Italia in palestra. Rome : La meridiana.
rights between public clubs and private networks also Freccero, R. (2002). Relation entre le sport et l’éducation physique au
XXième siècle en Italie. In K. Szikora (Ed.), Proceedings of 6th
impacted the budgets of clubs negatively, because they ISHPES Congress: Sport and politics (pp. 234–242). Budapest:
have to manage the player contracts. CONI fought hard ISHPES.
Gori, G.(1996). L’atleta e la nazione. Rome: Panozzo.
against doping, and successfully brought charges Gori, G. (1997). Sports festivals in Italy between the 19th and the 20th
against internationally famous medical teams. centuries: A kind of national Olympic Games?. In R. Naul (Ed.),
Contemporary studies in the National Olympic Games movement
Gherardo Bonini (pp. 19–52). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Gori, G. (2001). Italy. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann, & G. Pfister
See also Coliseum (Rome); Foro Italico; Rome, Ancient (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women and sports. (Vol. 2, pp.
597–601). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group.
Pivato, S. (1994). L’era dello sport. Florence: Giunti.
Porro, N. (2000). Italian sports: Between government and society. In L.
Further Reading Chalip, A. Johnson, & L. Stachura, National sports policies: an in-
Bonini, G. (2001). Europa, Mitteleuropa, Vaste Land. Florence: Rile- ternational handbook (pp. 253–285). Westport, CN: Greenwood
gatoria Cecchi. Press.
Jamaica
Japan
Japanese Martial Arts,
Traditional
Jogging
Jousting
Jamaica
Judo
Jujutsu
J amaica, one of the larger West Indies islands, is
about 160 kilometers south of eastern Cuba. The
capital city, Kingston, is located on its southeast coast.
The national population in 2002 was 2,621,000. With
its prior status as a British colony (it gained independ-
ence in 1962) and its current membership in the British
Commonwealth, Jamaica has developed a sport tradi-
tion that reflects that of Great Britain.
History
The indigenous Taino people of Jamaica and neighbor-
ing islands played a bat and ball game known as batos.
In colonial Jamaica soccer and cricket were popular
with white planters and city dwellers who organized
private clubs and match play. Later, soccer and cricket
became popular sports for all segments of society.
Participant and Spectator Sports

Participant sports in Jamaica include soccer, cricket,
table tennis, netball, tennis, golf, swimming, and deep-
sea fishing. Jamaican soccer teams have participated in
international competitions since the early twentieth cen-
tury, and the Reggae Boyz soccer team has achieved in-
ternational recognition in recent years. Jamaican sport
took a twist with the entry of a bobsled team in the
1998 Winter Olympics. Jamaica claims more success
per capita in international track and field than any
other country in the world; many of its athletes honed
their skills while attending universities in the United
States.
J
cent of total medals (Jamaica is in seventh place in both
categories).
CENTRAL AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN GAMES PAN AMERICAN GAMES

Beginning with thirty-five athletes in the second Games Jamaica has participated in all Pan American Games
in 1930, Jamaica has participated in all but one (1935) since the first Games in 1951 in which Herb McKenley
Central American and Caribbean Games. Kingston won bronze medals in the 100-meter, 200-meter, and
hosted the 1962 Games. In 1930 a Jamaican man 400-meter events. Through the 1999 Games, Jamaicans
won the silver medal in high jump, and since then had competed in men’s track and field (winning nine
Jamaican athletes have competed in track and field gold, twelve silver, and fifteen bronze medals), women’s
events, men’s and women’s badminton, baseball, track and field (winning four gold, five silver, and four-
boxing, cycling, men’s and women’s field hockey, teen bronze medals), boxing (winning two silver and
weightlifting, water polo, swimming, tennis, table ten- seven bronze medals), cycling (winning one silver and
nis, women’s softball, men’s volleyball, shooting, soc- two bronze medals), weightlifting (winning one silver
cer, and yachting. For most editions of the Central and eight bronze medals), water polo (winning one
American and Caribbean Games, Jamaica has spon- silver medal), yachting (winning one bronze medal),
sored from thirty to seventy male and female athletes, shooting, men’s field hockey, women’s field hockey,
but as host country in 1962, one hundred fifty-eight men’s soccer, men’s swimming, women’s swimming
men and twenty women participated. (winning three silver medals), men’s badminton (win-
Jamaicans have won medals in all sports they en- ning one bronze medal), and mixed badminton (win-
tered except for baseball, men’s field hockey, men’s vol- ning one bronze medal).
leyball, and soccer. Through 1990, most medals have Outstanding performances include winning all three
been in men’s and women’s track and field (forty gold, medals in the men’s 400-meter event and gold in the
thirty-two silver, and eighteen bronze), boxing (three 4 ✕ 400-meter event in Chicago in 1959, Donald Quar-
gold, four silver, and six bronze), and weightlifting (two rie’s 100-meter and 200-meter gold medals and the
gold, seven silver, and three bronze). Jamaicans have gold medal in the women’s 400-meter event in 1971.
also won gold medals in tennis, women’s field hockey, Also outstanding were the winning of gold medals in
cycling, shooting, water polo, and yachting. Through the men’s 110-meter and 400-meter hurdles in 1987, in
1986, Jamaicans held the men’s 400-meter record the women’s 4 ✕ 100-meter event and the long jump in
and a tie for the women’s 80-meter hurdles record, 1991, and in the men’s 400-meter and 4 ✕ 400-meter
two cycling records, and 3 percent of gold and 3 per- events in 1999. In 2003 Jamaica won five gold, two
857
Jamaica
Key Events in Jamaica
Sports History
The 2002 Games produced a record total of seventeen
1930 Jamaica participates in the first Central medals for Jamaica, including four gold. Common-
American and Caribbean Games. wealth Games records held by Jamaicans include the
women’s 100-meter hurdles and the 200-meter and
1934 Jamaica participates in the Common-
wealth Games for the first time. 400-meter events, and the men’s 120-yard hurdles, the
400-meter event, and the 4 ✕ 400-meter relay.
1936 The National Olympic Committee is
formed.
OLYMPIC GAMES
1948 Jamaica competes in the Olympics for
the first time. Jamaica first participated in the Olympic Games with
nine men and four women in 1948. Arthur Wint and
1951 Jamaica participates in the first Pan
Herb McKenley won first and second place, respec-
American Games.
tively, in the 400-meter event, and Wint won second
1962 Jamaica hosts the Central American and place in the 800-meter event. Since then, the country
Caribbean Games.
has sent mainly track and field athletes every year to the
1966 Jamaica hosts the Commonwealth Games (it did not send any athletes to Rome in 1960).
Games.
In 1952, McKenley won silver medals in the 100-meter
1966 The Women’s Cricket Association is and 400-meter events, Wint won the silver medal in the
founded.
800-meter event, and George Rhoden won the gold
1970s Jamaica is established as a major force medal in the 400-meter event; the Jamaican team (McK-
in international track. enley, Leslie Laing, Rhoden, and Wint) won the 4 ✕ 400-
1980 Sprinter Merlene Ottey competes in her meter event. L. Miller won the silver medal in the
first of six Olympics for Jamaica. 100-meter event in 1968 and the bronze medal in
1998 Jamaica enters a bobsled team in the 1972. Four years later Donald Quarrie won the silver
Winter Olympics. medal in the 100-meter event and the gold medal in the
200-meter event; in 1980 he won the bronze medal in
the 100-meter event.
Merlene Ottey won the bronze medal in the women’s
silver, and six bronze medals (putting the country 200-meter event in 1980. In 1984 Jamaican men won
in tenth place overall in gold medals and in total the silver medal in the 4 ✕ 100-meter event, and Ottey
medals). won the bronze medal in the women’s 100-meter and
200-meter events. Jamaican medals in 1988 included
COMMONWEALTH GAMES silver in the men’s 4 ✕ 400-meter relay and Grace Jack-
Jamaica has taken part in thirteen Commonwealth son’s silver in the 200-meter event. In 1992 Jamaicans
Games (first called British Empire Games), from the won silver medals in the women’s 100-meter and 200-
1934 Games held in London through the 2002 Games, meter events (Juliet Cuthbert won both), the bronze
and Kingston hosted the Games in 1966. Powerhouses medal in the women’s 200-meter event (Ottey), and
in track and field, Jamaicans enjoyed medal success in the silver medal in the men’s 400-meter hurdles.
all the Games they entered. Overall, the country has In the 1996 Olympics, Jamaican men won the silver
won a total of eighty-three medals (thirty gold) across medal in the long jump and the bronze medal in the
seven sports disciplines, including athletics, swimming, 4 ✕ 400-meter event; Deon Hemmings won gold in the
boxing, cycling, netball, shooting, and weightlifting. women’s 400-meter hurdles and Ottey won silver in the
JAPAN 859
Jamaica Olympics Results

women’s 100-meter and 200-meter events; women also Division, established in 1895 in the United States, has
won bronze in the 4 ✕ 100-meter event. Medals won in included many winners from Jamaica.
2000 include the bronze in the men’s 400-meter and
4 ✕ 400-meter events; silver in the women’s 400-meter, Organizations
4 ✕ 100-meter, 4 ✕ 400-meter, and 400-meter hurdles The Ministry of Local Government, Community De-
(Hemming), and bronze in the women’s 100-meter velopment and Sports, the Institute of Sport, and the
event. National Council on Sports, chaired by the Prime Min-
In 2004, Jamaicans participated in several track ister, are the main government entities responsible for
events and won gold in the women’s 200-meter event sport. The National Olympic Committee, which was
(Veronica Campbell) and the women’s 4 ✕ 100-meter established in 1936 and formally recognized by the In-
event, silver in the men’s 400-meter hurdles, and bronze ternational Olympic Committee in 1962, oversees Ja-
in the women’s 100-meter (Campbell) and 4 ✕ 400- maican participation in Olympic-type international
meter events. The nation tied for thirty-fourth overall in competitions. The Jamaica Football Federation governs
gold and for thirty-seventh overall in total medals; it soccer competitions.
was seventh in gold and tied for fifth place in total
track and field medals. Jamaica’s Prime Minister The Future
planned to offer financial incentives to winners of A 2004 ministerial speech stated that “the endeavors of
Olympic medals in 2004. sport will be oriented to goals of both social and eco-
nomic development.” Jamaica’s government thus favors
Professional Sport the strong future development of several sport disci-
Jamaican cricket includes professional players. Black plines, such as track and field, soccer, swimming, bad-
cricketers became increasingly prominent in the sport minton, and netball.
during the twentieth century. Many Jamaicans have par-
Richard V. McGehee
ticipated on West Indies teams in international compe-
titions. Jamaica’s best-known cricket ground is Sabina
Park in Kingston. Further Reading
Anderson, B. J. (1990). Sport, play, and gender-based success in Ja-
Women and Sport maica. Arena Review, 14(1), 59–67.
Beckles, H. M., & Stoddart, B. (Eds.). (1995). Liberation cricket: West
Track athlete Merlene Ottey has won more Olympic Indies cricket culture. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
and International Amateur Athletic Association medals Carnegie, J. (1993). Norman Manley: Sporting hero and more. Jamaica
than any other Jamaican. Through 2000 she had par- Journal, 25(1), 38–43.
Sankar, C. (1998). The Reggae Boyz. Americas, 50(3), 40.
ticipated in six Olympic Games. In 1966 Jamaican
women established a Women’s Cricket Association and
were soon playing international matches. The Carib-
bean Women’s Cricket Federation was formed in 1975,
and Jamaican women played on the first West Indies
team the following year.
Japan
Youth Sports
There are national Boys and Girls Championships for
M ade up of a number of islands, Japan is located
off the east coasts of Russia, Korea, and China,
with a population of 128.1 million (2005). Japan’s
high school students. The Penn Relays High School blend of the traditional and the modern has influenced
Japan
Key Events in Japan Sports History
821 CE Sumo tournaments are sponsored by the 1922 The first Women’s Federal Athletic Meeting
imperial court. for Women’s Higher Normal Schools is
held.
1868– Many Western sports are introduced during
1912 the Meiji period. 1924 The Japan Association of Women’s Physical
Education is formed.
1872 Sports are added to the school curriculum as
part of the Education Order of 1872. 1925 The Ski Association of Japan is formed.
1874 The first track and field meet is held in 1925 The sumo association Dainihon Sumo
Tokyo. Kyokai is established.
1878 The first formal Japanese baseball team is 1926 The Japan Women’s Sport Federation is
formed. founded.
1878 The Taisodensyujo, the training institute for 1949 The All Nippon Kyudo (archery) Federation
gymnastics, is established. is formed.
1882 A standard system for judo is established. 1964 The Summer Olympics are held in Tokyo.
1895 Greater Japan Society of Martial Virtue is 1972 The Winter Olympics are held in Sapporo.
founded.
1991 The Japan Professional Soccer League is
1911 The Japan Amateur Sports Association is formed.
formed.
1998 Japanese Association for Women in Sport is
1921 The Japan Football Association is estab- formed.
lished.
1998 The Winter Olympics are held in Nagano.
its people’s participation in traditional martial arts the Education Order of 1872, and since then most
(budo) and in modern sports. Japanese participation in sports in Japan have been developed at all levels of the
modern sports began during the last quarter of the education system.
nineteenth century, although not many women partici-
pated at first. Later, however, both men and women par- BASEBALL
ticipated, especially after World War II. Professional One of the modern sports that the Japanese became en-
spectator sports also draw large crowds to stadiums in thusiastic about during the early stages of the Meiji pe-
Japan. The Japanese have been successful in many in- riod was baseball (yakyu). In 1873 Horace Wilson, a
ternational sports and hosted the Summer Olympics at U.S. teacher, introduced baseball at Kaisei Gakko
Tokyo (its capital) in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in (Tokyo University). Five years later Hiroshi Hiraoka,
Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998. an engineer returning from Boston, assembled the first
regular baseball team from members of the Shinbashi
History Athletic Club, formed for personnel of the Shinbashi
Foreign teachers, residents, and servicemen and Japan- Railroad.
ese intellectuals returning from study abroad introduced Soon after, several college baseball teams were
most Western sports to Japan during the Meiji period formed in Tokyo. Yakyu, however, was soon modified
(1868–1912). The modern education system also was according to the Japanese way of playing team sports,
important in the development of Japanese sports. The which required a traditional ethos (distinguishing char-
formal Japanese education system was established by acter, sentiment, moral nature, or guiding beliefs) of
JAPAN 861
An ancient Japanese football game.
harsh training and self-sacrifice. After World

War II professional baseball developed to the
extent that it may be thought of as the national
sport. Shigeo Nagashima is a national hero,
and Sadaharu Oh, who is believed to have held
the world record of 868 home runs, was
awarded “the national honor prize.” In recent
years Hideo Nomo (1995 rookie of the year
from the Los Angeles Dodgers in U.S. Major
League Baseball), Kazuhiro Sasaki (2000
rookie of the year from the Seattle Mariners),
Ichiro Suzuki (2001 rookie of the year and
Most Valuable Player from the Seattle
Mariners), Hideki Matsui of the New York Yan-
kees, and others have played as professionals in the became popular. Because an imported standard ball
United States. was expensive, Gendo Tsuboi (1852–1922), a teacher
at Tokyo Higher Normal School, ordered a rubber com-
GYMNASTICS pany to produce a softer rubber ball for tennis in 1890.
In 1878 the Japanese Ministry of Education established Tennis using the softer ball has developed and spread
Taisodensyujo, the training institute for gymnastics. Dr. from Japan to other countries such as South Korea, the
George Adams Leland (1850–1924), a U.S. citizen and Philippines, Taiwan, Venezuela, Brazil, Hong Kong,
medical doctor who graduated from Amherst College Zaire, and the United States (Hawaii).
and studied medicine at Harvard University, taught
gymnastics there to teachers selected from all over the SKIING
country. Gymnastics taught at the institute seemed to After 199 Japanese infantrymen were lost on snow-
have been influenced by Dio Lewis (1823–1886), who covered Mount Hakkoda in Aomori Prefecture (district)
initiated the “new gymnastics” in U.S. physical educa- in 1902 the Japanese army began to consider the need
tion. More than 250 teachers finished the training for skiing skills. Theodor Von Lerch (1869–1945), an
course and diffused Western-style gymnastics to the Austrian general, introduced skiing to the Japanese
local areas of Japan by the time the institute closed in army at Takada in Niigata Prefecture in 1911 and
1886. During the Taisho period (1912–1926) Swedish taught skiing to civilians, too. The inhabitants of Takada
gymnastics and games became widely practiced in most soon formed a ski club. The Ski Association of Japan
schools. (SAJ) was formed in 1925 and joined the Federation In-
ternationale de Ski (FIS) in 1926. Alpine skiing and
TENNIS AND SOFT TENNIS Norwegian skiing were introduced, and skiing devel-
Dr. Leland also taught tennis using rackets and balls im- oped as one of the major winter sports in Japan.
ported from the United States. Sometime before 1909
a tennis club had been established at Doshisha Uni- ATHLETICS (TRACK AND FIELD)
versity in Kyoto, and in 1913 Keio University in Tokyo Athletics (track and field) was introduced by Frederick
began to use the standard ball and to follow interna- William Strange (1853–1889), an English teacher at the
tional rules. Many other colleges followed suit. How- Tokyo Daigaku Yobimon (an institution attached to the
ever, a type of tennis that uses a softer rubber ball also present Tokyo University). He also published Outdoor
School Gymnastics by Chikanobu Yoshu, 1886.
Games in 1883. This book, written in English, included against the foreigners of a sport’s club called the Yoko-
explanations of children’s games, hockey, football, lawn hama Athletic Club in 1885. The fixed match between
tennis, cricket, baseball, and track and field events such the teams of Waseda University and Keio University
as races, high jump, long jump, hammer throw, and began in 1905.
hurdles. An athletic meet was held at Tokyo University
in 1883 when Strange’s Outdoor Games was published. ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL (SOCCER)
Track and field events had been introduced to Japan by Association football (soccer) was introduced in 1873
the 1870s from England and the United States. The when Archibald Lucius Douglas, an English lieutenant
first meet had been held in 1874 at the Tsukiji Naval commander, came to Tsukiji Naval Academy and taught
Academy in Tokyo. students soccer with thirty-three officers of his subordi-
nates. Rammel Jones, an English engineer teaching at
ROWING the Kogakuryo School of Engineering (Faculty of Engi-
Foreigners living in Yokohama were participating in neering, Tokyo University), introduced his students to
rowing by 1867 and formed the Yokohama Rowing soccer about 1873 or 1874. However, more than
Club during the early Meiji period. However, organized twenty years passed before people established a system
races were developed by the reinforcement of naval for clubs, diffused the rules, and formed a Japanese
forces and Strange’s coaching at Tokyo University. A association.
boat club formed there was modeled on those at Ox- On 4 October 1903, the Shukyu (Football) Club of
ford and Cambridge Universities. The club’s team raced Tokyo Higher Normal School published a book entitled
JAPAN 863
A thousand days of training to develop, ten thousand

days of training to polish. ■ MIYAMOTO MUSASHI
Association Football in Japanese (revised in 1908), and BASKETBALL

a match was held between the Shukyu Club and YCAC, Basketball is one of the sports that the Young Men’s
the foreigners’ soccer club in Yokohama, in February Christian Association (YMCA) helped to diffuse in Asia.
1904. Not until 1907 did the Japanese teams (the In 1908 Hyozo Omori (1876–1913), a graduate of
Shukyu Club of Tokyo Higher Normal School and the the YMCA Training School (Springfield College) in
club of Aoyama Normal School) meet. The national Massachusetts, returned to Tokyo and taught basket-
federation (Dainihon Shukyu Kyokai, the present Japan ball at the Tokyo YMCA. He also taught in the Japan
Football Association) was formed in 1921. The federa- Women’s University and trained Japanese athletes for
tion was admitted into the Federation Internationale de the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm, Sweden, but
Football Association (FIFA—the world governing body died on the way home from this tour. The next year a
of soccer) in 1929. Japanese teacher of English who had graduated from
Wisconsin University introduced basketball at a sec-
RUGBY ondary school in Kyoto in 1913. In 1911 a graduate of
E. B. Clark of Keio University, an English teacher who the YMCA Training School became an executive direc-
was born in Yokohama and studied at Cambridge Uni- tor of Kobe’s YMCA. In 1913 the popularization of bas-
versity, introduced rugby in 1899. Ginnosuke Tanaka, ketball in Kobe was reinforced by Franklin H. Brown,
a Japanese student, returned from Cambridge and co- who had graduated from the YMCA George Williams
operated with Clark in his teaching of rugby. Ten years College in Chicago, and the Japanese YMCA invited
later Keio University published the first book on rugby. him to train the directors of physical education. Brown
In 1910 a rugby team was formed at Daisankotogakko taught in Kyoto, Kobe, and Tokyo. Kyoto YMCA beat
(Kyoto University) in Kyoto, and Doshisha University in Kobe YMCA in the finals and participated in the third
Kyoto followed suit the next year. Keio University, Far Eastern Games held in Tokyo in 1917. In the same
Daisankotogakko, and Doshisha University held rugby year a modern gymnasium was constructed by Tokyo
matches in 1911. These matches became annual events YMCA. Brown’s instruction there made Tokyo YMCA’s
and became the first national meetings for the champi- basketball teams superior to others. Students trained at
onship of rugby, sponsored by the Osaka Mainichi the YMCA gradually formed teams at colleges during
newspaper company in 1918. On 30 November 1926, the 1920s, and the University Association was formed
the governing body, the Japan Rugby Football Union, in Tokyo in 1923. College games thrived during the
was established. 1930s.
BADMINTON VOLLEYBALL
The traditional shuttlecock game called “battledore and Hyozo Omori also brought volleyball from the YMCA
shuttlecock,” brought by the Dutch, had been played in Training School in 1913. However, volleyball was not
Japan as early as the eighteenth century. The Japanese popularized so quickly. A Japanese team participated in
played modern badminton at least by 1918. In that an international volleyball tournament and competed
year rackets were produced in Niigata Prefecture. Mem- with teams from China and the Philippines at the third
bers of YCAC were playing badminton as a winter sport Far Eastern Games. However, the Japanese team was
by the 1930s. The clubs in Kanagawa stimulated the es- composed of soccer players, track and field athletes,
tablishment of the Kanagawa Prefecture Badminton and so forth.
Association in 1939. In 1947 the Nippon (Japanese) A national association was formed in 1927 and uni-
Badminton Association was set up, and all-Japan cham- fied local organizations. Afterward matches gradually
pionship matches began in 1948. developed to the international level.
Winning is a habit. Unfortunately,

so is losing ■ VINCE LOMBARDI
Modernized Indigenous Martial Arts the bushi class. In 1543 the gun was introduced to
People in Japan practice many modernized indigenous Japan, and when it replaced the bow, people used kyu-
martial arts, including judo, kendo, and kyudo. jutsu, the preceding arts of Japanese archery, to train
both mind and body. Before archers can advance with
JUDO deliberate steps to the shooting line and shoot at a tar-
Judo is classified among the budo, the Japanese tradi- get, a ceremony, which is partly influenced by Zen (re-
tional martial arts. Its development, however, took place lating to a Japanese sect of Mahayana Buddhism)
after the Meiji period (1868–1912). Kodokan judo was practices, is held. This ceremony is treated as part of the
developed by Jigoro Kano (1860–1938). A kodokan is form, on which kyudo places much emphasis. In mod-
the gymnasium and school for judo. Kano improved ju- ern times kyudo was reorganized by the Dai Nippon
jutsu, one of the ancient martial arts techniques, and in- Butokukai. In 1949 the All Nippon Kyudo Federation
vented the rational system of judo in 1882. He devised (ANKF) was formed. The role of the federation is to pro-
a system of training, fostered many disciples, and es- mote kyudo, organize national and international com-
tablished a free style of judo. With judo a smaller per- petitions, and assess the titles and categories of archers.
son can overcome a larger person by scientifically
designed techniques. However, Kano’s system is based Traditional Sports
not only on rationalization but also on ethical values Sumo wrestling and kemari (a ball game) are two im-
and spiritual discipline. portant traditional sports still practiced today.
KENDO SUMO
Kendo is derived from the Japanese traditional martial Sumo is one of the popular spectator sports in Japan.
art of swordsmanship, kenjutsu, which had a long his- Its origin is uncertain. However, from a historical-
tory among Japanese feudal lords. Schools of kenjutsu anthropological view, experts believe that it is similar to
existed before the Edo period (1600/1603–1868), but an earlier form of wrestling that existed in Asia and was
modern kendo was developed after abolition of the performed at gala feasts to celebrate a good harvest or
bushido (relating to a feudal-military Japanese code of at funerals involving divinity. Sumo, with its traditional
behavior valuing honor above life) class. Eventually the religious ceremony, may seem antiquated. However, it
Tokyo Metropolitan Police and the Academy of Military appeals to modern Japanese people who do not asso-
Training helped to reorganize the different styles of ciate it with the original divine elements.
swordsmanship into a standardized form. This process Sumo became professional about three hundred
of standardization was reinforced by the Dai Nippon years ago during the early Edo period. Professional
Butokukai (Greater Japan Society of Martial Virtue), es- sumo wrestlers are governed by the Nihon Sumo Kyokai
tablished in 1895. The standard kendo kata (a set com- (Japan Sumo Association), established as Dainihon
bination of positions and movements performed as an Sumo Kyokai in December 1925 and mostly composed
exercise), the formal attack and parrying exercise, was of ex-wrestlers who have competed in twenty-four tour-
established by a committee of leading fencers in 1912. naments in the Juryo division or in a tournament in
Makuuchi. Tournaments are held every other month in
KYUDO four cities: January, Tokyo; March, Osaka; May, Tokyo;
Kyudo, Japanese archery, is one of the oldest sports in July, Nagoya; September, Tokyo; and November, Fuku-
Japan. Japanese archery developed from ancient times oka. The Kokugikan (National Sport Arena) in Tokyo is
through medieval aristocratic society and the culture of to a great degree the home of professional sumo.
JAPAN 865
Japan
The Bushido Ideal, 1899
In the Bushido ideal of woman, however, there is lit- not for use in the field; it was twofold—personal
tle mystery and only a seeming paradox. I have said and domestic. Woman owning no suzerain of their
that it was Amazonian, but that is only half the truth. own, formed her own bodyguard. With her weapon
Ideographically the Chinese represent wife by a she guarded her personal sanctity with as much zeal
woman holding a broom—certainly not to brandish as her husband did his master’s. The domestic utility
it offensively or defensively against her conjugal ally, of her warlike training was in the education of her
neither for witchcraft, but for the more harmless uses sons, as we shall see later.
for which the besom was first invested—the idea in- Fencing and similar exercises, if rarely of practical
volved being thus less homely than the etymological use, were a wholesome counterbalance to the other-
derivation of the English wife (weaver) and daughter wise sedentary habits of women. But these exercises
(duhitar, milkmaid). Without confining the sphere were not followed only for hygienic purposes. They
of woman’s activity to Küche, Kirche, Kinder, as the could be turned into use in times of need. Girls,
present German Kaiser is said to do, the Bushido when they reached womanhood, were presented with
ideal of womanhood was pre-eminently domestic. dirks (kai-ken, pocket poniard), which might be di-
These seeming contradictions—domesticity and rected to the bosom of their assailants, or, if advis-
Amazonian traits—are not inconsistent with the Pre- able, to their own. The latter was very often the case;
cepts of Knighthood, as we shall see. and yet I will not judge them severely. Even the Chris-
Bushido being a teaching primarily intended for tian conscience with its horror of self-immolation,
the masculine sex, the virtues it prized in woman will not be harsh with them, seeing Pelagia and Do-
were naturally far from being distinctly feminine. minina, two suicides, were canonized for their purity
Winckelmann remarks that “the supreme beauty of and piety. When a Japanese Virginia saw her chastity
Greek art is rather male than female,” and Lecky adds menaced, she did not wait for her father’s dagger.
that it was true in the moral conception of their art. Her own weapon lay always in her bosom. It was a
Bushido similarly praised those women most “who disgrace to her not to know the proper way in which
emancipated themselves from the frailty of their sex she had to perpetrate self-destruction. For example,
and displayed an heroic fortitude worthy of the little as she was taught in anatomy, she must know
strongest and bravest of men.” Young girls, therefore, the exact spot to cut in her throat; she must know
were trained to repress their feelings, to indurate their how to tie her lower limbs together with a belt so
nerves, to manipulate weapons,—especially the long- that, whatever the agonies of her death might be, her
handled sword called nagi-nata, so as to be able to corpse be found in utmost modesty with the limbs
hold their own against unexpected odds. Yet the pri- properly composed.
mary motive for exercise of this martial character was Source: Nitobe, I. (1899). Bushido: The soul of Japan.
KEMARI it had the same root as the game refined after the
Kemari is a traditional ball game that has been contin- twelfth century and enjoyed by the nobility. The game
ued by the Kemari Preservation Society. The earliest ref- is played by four, six, or eight people who form a circle
erence to people playing kemari at the imperial court and kick a ball that must not fall to the ground. Tradi-
dates from the mid-seventh century. However, no details tionally the mariba (playground) was marked out by a
of the method of play exist, and no evidence exists that willow, a cherry, a pine, and a maple tree at each of the
Athletic Meeting of School Students in Tokyo, by the painter Ikuhide Kobayashi, 1888.
four corners, which signifies the points of the compass, in 1903. The games included the marching game,
which have symbolic meaning. The distance between hagoita (a traditional girls’ game played with a shuttle-
the trees was from 6 meters to 7.5 meters, according to cock and flat boards), croquet, and lawn tennis. During
the Naigesanjisyo, a textbook written in 1291. Players, the Taisho period education for women was encour-
wearing leather shoes, kicked the mari, a deerskin ball aged, and women’s gymnastics and games were more
about 20 centimeters in diameter and weighing 100 to widely accepted. On 27 May 1922, the first Women’s
120 grams. Recent study reveals that kemari included Federal Athletic Meeting for Women’s Higher Normal
rallying that was divided into stages. Each stage re- Schools was held at the Tokyo Women’s Higher Normal
quired a different skill. The ball was kicked up into a tree School, which was supported by the Tokyo YMCA. In
so that it could not come back into play easily. 1924 the Japan Association of Women’s Physical Edu-
cation was formed, followed by the Japan Women’s
Women and Sport Sport Federation (JWSF) in 1926. This federation was
Since the Education Order of 1872, most women’s to become a member of the Federation Sportive Femi-
sports in Japan have been developed at all levels of the nine Internationale (FSFI) by 1930. In 1924 the first
education system. However, change came slowly and meeting of the Women’s Olympic Games of Japan was
not without resistance. The Regulation Act for Women’s held in Osaka. Also held in 1924 was the Meijijingu
Upper Secondary Schools was enacted in 1895, and Athletic Meeting, at which women competed in track
gymnastics and games were included in the curriculum and field, basketball, volleyball, and tennis.
JAPAN 867
Japan Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 1 Silver, 1 Bronze
EARLY ELITE WOMEN ATHLETES The Future

In 1926 Kinue Hitomi (1908–1931) participated in the Many amateur sports have developed in Japan (the
International Women’s Games in Goteborg, Sweden. Japan Amateur Sports Association was formed in
She was the only Japanese woman at the games and the 1911). In professional sports baseball and sumo have
first to succeed in an international sports competition. been two of the most popular. In 1991 the Japan Pro-
She won gold medals in the long jump and the stand- fessional Soccer League was established under the chair-
ing long jump and silver medals in the discus and the manship of Saburo Kawabuchi. Acquiring professional
100-yard sprint. In 1928 Hitomi also won a silver status symbolizes soccer’s substantial increase in pop-
medal in the 800-meter race at the Olympic Games in ularity as Japan discovers the value of regional sports.
Amsterdam, Netherlands. The swimmer Hideko Mae-
Keiko Ikeda
hata (1914–1995) succeeded Hitomi as Japan’s leading
woman athlete, winning Olympic silver medals in the See also Japanese Martial Arts, Traditional; Sumo; Sumo
200-meter breaststroke in Los Angeles in 1932 and in Grand Tournament Series
Berlin in 1936. Because of extensive media attention,
she became a celebrity.
Further Reading
BUDO FOR WOMEN Abe, I., & Mangan, J. A. (2002). “Sportsmanship” English inspiration
and Japanese response: F. W. Strange & Chiyosaburo Takeda. The In-
Kyudo and naginata (Japanese halberd—a weapon con-
ternational Journal of the History of Sport, 19(2–3), 99–128.
sisting typically of a battle-ax and pike mounted on a Encyclopedia of Japan. (1983). Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Author.
handle) were added to the physical education curricu- Kodansha Publishing.
Guttmann, A. (1994). Games and empires: Modern sports and cultural
lum in women’s normal schools, upper secondary imperialism. New York: Columbia University Press.
schools, and training schools, and kendo and judo were Guttmann, A., & Thompson, L. (2001). Japanese sports: A history.
required for men in 1936. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Hitomi, K. (1929). Supaiku-no-ato [The traces of her spikes]. Tokyo:
Heibonsha.
P OSTWAR DEVELOPMENTS Imamura,Y. (1968). Lirando-hakase [Dr. Leland]. Tokyo: Fumaido Pub-
lishing.
The Olympic Games were held in Tokyo in 1964, and Imamura, Y. (1970). Nihon-taiikushi [The history of Japanese physical
by 1970 Japanese women were competing in rugby, ice education]. Tokyo: Fumaido Publishing.
hockey, bodybuilding, yacht sailing, boxing, and karate. Kaminuma, H. (1959). Kindai-nihon-joshi-taiikushi-josetu [Introduc-
tion to the Japanese history of women’s physical education]. Tokyo:
In later years Japanese women won gold medals: Kyoko Fumaido Publishing.
Iwasaki in the 200-meter breaststroke (Barcelona, Kinoshita, H. (1970). Supotsu-no-kindai-nihonshi [The modern Japan-
ese history of sports]. Tokyo: Kyorin-Shoin Publisher. Kishino, Y.
Spain, 1992); Yoko Emoto in judo, 61 kilograms (At- (Ed.). (1973). Kindai-Taiiku-Supotsu-Nenpyo [The chronology of
lanta, Georgia, 1996); Tae Satoya in the freestyle mogul modern physical education and sports].Tokyo: Taishukan Publishing.
in skiing (Nagano, Japan, 1998); Ryoko Tamura in Kishino,Y. (Ed.). (1987). Encyclopedia of sports. Tokyo: Taishukan Pub-
lishing.
judo, 48 kilograms, and Naoko Takahashi in the Koshimizu, H. (Ed.). (1981). Kindai-nihon-joshi-taiikushi [Modern
marathon (Sydney, Australia, in 2000). Japanese history of women’s physical education]. Tokyo: Sports and
Physical Education Publishing.
Nihon-shukyu-kyokai. (Ed.). (1974). The progress of soccer in Japan.
ORGANIZATION OF GENDER AND SPORT Tokyo: Kodansha.
Nose, S. (1965). Meiji-taiikushi-no-kenkyu [The study for the history of
The Japanese Association for Women in Sport was
physical education in the Meiji era] (Vol. 37). Tokyo: Shoyo Shoin.
formed in 1998, and in 2001 the first Asian Conference Obayashi, T., Kishino, Y., Sogawa, T., & Yamashita, S. (Eds.). (1998).
on Women and Sport was held in Osaka. In the aca- Encyclopedia of ethnic play and games. Tokyo: Taishukan Publishing.
Raita, K. (1999). The movement for the promotion of competitive
demic area the Japan Society for Sport and Gender women’s sport in Japan, 1924–35. The International Journal of the
Studies (JSSGS) was established in 2002. History of Sport, 16(3), 120–134.
Strange, F. W. (1883). Outdoor games. Tokyo: Z. P. Maruya. was one of the original primary skills of the early Japan-
Watanabe, T. (1990). A study on kakari-no-ki’s from a viewpoint of
ese warrior. Battlefield archery was strategically impor-
sport history: Based on three secret books on shukiku in the Mid-
dle Ages. Japanese Journal of Sport History, 3, 1–13. tant from the perhaps the tenth century until the
Yamamoto, T. (2004). Kemari—A traditional sports culture in Japan. In introduction of firearms in 1543. By the beginning of
G. Pfister (Ed.), Games of the past—Sports for the future?: Globali-
sation, diversification, transformation (pp. 74–78). Sankt Augustin, the Tokugawa era (1600–1868), archery, always popu-
Germany: Academia Verlag. lar for hunting, became primarily a gambling sport,
with wagers being made on accurately shooting num-
bers of arrows at targets set at distances. This sporting
aspect of Japanese archery paralleled, but did not nec-
Japanese Martial Arts, essarily contradict, its development as a practice un-
dertaken for self-improvement, an idea that had its roots
Traditional in ancient China. These parallel interests continued until
the beginning of the twentieth century, when teachers
O f the many Japanese martial arts, three continue to

stand out today for their long, rich history. They
are kyudo (longbow archery), naginatado (halberd), and
promoted kyudo as good exercise, particularly for
women. At the end of World War II, all martial arts
practices were banned by the U.S. occupation. How-
iaido (drawing the long sword). In the twentieth cen- ever, kyudo was allowed to resume in 1949, in advance
tury, sport styles of these traditional forms have devel- of other martial practices, apparently because of the
oped, though the old styles—koryu—continue to be enthusiasm for archery expressed by some the members
practiced. For many years, kyudo, naginatado, and iaido of the U.S. armed forces.
were rarely seen outside Japan; today, people practice Today, kyudo is practiced as a competitive, target-
them throughout the world. shooting sport by both men and women under the
auspices of the All-Japan Kyudo Federation and its in-
History of the Traditional Arts ternational affiliates, while archers (called kyudoka) also
Kyudo, naginata, and iaido all have their origins as bat- pursue the more martial and spiritual aspects through
tlefield or combat weapons techniques. the study of koryu, or “old school” practices.
KYUDO NAGINATADO
It is unclear when the first bows arrived in Japan, Perhaps no other martial art has as varied a history as
whether they were introduced from China, made by in- naginata (also known as naginatado). The naginata is a
digenous people, or possibly both. Evidence of re- long pole, usually oval-shaped, with a long, curved
curved, composite Japanese bows dates to the Jomon blade attached to the end. Though some martial arts
culture (10,000 to 250 BCE). Longer bows appeared lore has referred to the naginata as a “broken sword,”
about 1,000 years ago. It is clear, however, that the naginata blades were specially, and individually, made.
yumi, or Japanese longbow, is unique in design, with no The length of the pole and blade varied according to
equivalent to be found elsewhere in the world. The con- use. Overall length could be eight feet or longer (a six-
temporary Japanese longbow is a recurved design made foot pole topped by a two-foot blade was one of many
from a laminate of bamboo and other materials. Its variations). The earliest naginata were battlefield
unique characteristics include its length (seven feet long weapons wielded in sweeping arcs by foot soldiers. The
or longer) and that the grip is set in the lower half of the technique was intended to cut the legs from under a gal-
bow, rather than in the center as with most other bows. loping horse in order to fell the rider, who could then
Archery, along with horsemanship and use of the spear, be finished off by other means.
JAPANESE MARTIAL ARTS, TRADITIONAL 869
Many groups who

practice iaido also
practice partner forms
(kenjutsu or kumitachi).
Source: Deborah Klens-Bigman.
At the end of the Warring

States Period (c. 1467–1568),
a smaller, lighter version of
the naginata became a pri-
mary weapon of women of
the samurai class. Women
practiced for health and stam-
ina and also to defend their
homes and personal honor
when necessary. At this point
the blades and poles became
shorter, perhaps to an overall length of seven feet. The hard edge. Though Japanese swords were worn on the
weapons were also made more beautiful, with fancy in- battlefield, using them there was considered a tactic of
lays and patterns on the blades. A naginata was in- last resort. Swordsmanship did not become prominent
cluded in a samurai woman’s dowry, and she was until the establishment of peace under the Tokugawa
expected to understand its use. Koryu styles emphasize shoguns, beginning in 1600. Swords retained their
a naginata in combat against a sword. The practitioner curve, but became somewhat shorter, easier to use while
(called a naginataka) has the advantage of length and walking. Swords were both a badge of honor for the
leverage over the swordsman. Many of the kata (forms) samurai class and a way of keeping order and settling
in these styles end with the naginataka eviscerating the disputes.
swordsman with the hooked end of the blade. At around the same time, however, Hayashizake
Atarashii (“New”) Naginata developed as a sport Jinsuke Shigenobu (c. 1546–1621) conceived that
form in the 1950s, one primarily practiced by women. swordsmanship could be practiced for spiritual self-
The sharp steel blade was replaced by a pair of curved improvement, and the idea for iaido was born.
bamboo staves, with protective armor similar to kendo Hayashizake’s school and its many descendants devel-
gear worn for competitive practice. Today the All-Japan oped and practiced swordsmanship consisting of kata
Naginata Federation and its international affiliates reg- that began and ended with the sword seated in its
ulate matches for women (and, increasingly, men) sheath, as opposed to person-to person combat with
around the world. Like kyudo, many groups also prac- swords already drawn (kenjutsu). Though hundreds of
tice koryu styles, such as Tendo ryu (founded in the styles of iaido have been lost over time, many styles sur-
1560s) and Jikishinkage ryu (developed in the 1860s). vive as new ones have evolved. The word iaido was
In contemporary practice, a one-piece combined shaft first used to describe the art form in 1932.
and blade of white oak has replaced the deadly steel Modern iaido consists primarily of solo forms per-
blade and wooden shaft. formed with either a real sword (a shinken or katana)
or an alloy blade specifically designed for practice
IAIDO (iaito). The basic pattern of movement is to simultane-
The earliest swords found in Japan were straight-bladed ously draw and cut an opponent, often, but not always,
examples originally from China. Like the yumi, the in reaction to a threat. The initial cut is followed by a
Japanese long sword evolved in a way unknown else- larger, finishing cut. The sword is then ritually cleaned
where, a product of differential tempering that allows and returned to its sheath. Many schools also include
for a curve along the back, a flexible center, and a sharp, partner forms, using wooden swords. Though modern
A group of kyudoka perform

a kata together.
fined by who could fire the most ar-

rows accurately at a target in a spec-
ified length of time, or how fast an
archer could accurately fire a set num-
ber of arrows. Due to the growth of
kyudo internationally, the rules for
competition are not currently stan-
dardized, and there is an effort un-
derway by the All-Japan Kyudo
Federation to determine the number
of shots and type of scoring needed
to clarify international competition.
In addition to the basic outfit de-
scribed earlier, the kyudoka wears a
iaido is not a competitive or sporting style of martial reinforced glove, generally made of soft deerskin, on the
arts, internationally recognized ranking is offered right hand. A groove in the glove allows the kyudoka to
through the All-Japan Kendo (Fencing) Association and pull the string of the bow. The kyudoka also wears
its affiliates worldwide, while independent schools have white tabi, traditional Japanese socks. Women often
their own ranking systems. An iaidoka may enter a wear a flexible fabric or leather chest protector. Some
mixed martial arts tournament in the kata competition, styles also wear a glove on the left hand. There is no
and competitions among iaidoka in kata have taken other protective equipment.
place. There are also related competitions in cutting Kyudoka practice technique at close range, using
straw or bamboo targets, using real katana or Chinese- straw-stuffed bags set about a bow’s length away from
made katana-style swords. the archer. Ranges (azuchi) are long, narrow corridors
set at 26 meters, with small, paper targets set at the end,
Practicing the Traditional Arts backed with hay bales. The targets are roofed over to
Basic dress for kyudo, naginata, and iaido is the same: protect them from the weather.
a loose-fitting jacket (keikogi), pleated, wide-legged While many kyudoka use traditional laminate bows,
trousers (hakama), and a belt (obi). The colors and de- fiberglass bows are also being used. The strings can be
tails of this basic outfit vary somewhat depending on made of a variety of materials; they are reinforced off-
the discipline and the style being studied. Kyudo, nagi- center, where the arrows are nocked to take the extra
nata, and iaido are all practiced right-handed, regardless wear. Arrows have shafts made of traditional bamboo
of whether the participant is actually right-handed or or aluminum. The tips are made of steel and are
left-handed. The rules for men and women are the same. bullet-shaped for hitting the straw target. Arrows used
While the goal of iaido remains self-improvement for close-in target practice have no fletches (feathers),
and it is essentially noncompetitive except for individ- but arrows for distance shooting have them. (Turkey
ual kata competition, both kyudo and naginata have feathers are currently popular.) The pull strength of
sporting aspects. bows can be as low as 6 kilograms to accommodate
Kyudo competitions consist of shooting a certain beginners. The length of arrows is determined by the
number of arrows with the goal of striking the center of archer’s arm length. The archer shoots two arrows per
the target. In the old days, competitions were often de- round.
JAPANESE MARTIAL ARTS, TRADITIONAL 871
Iaido is philosophy. ■ YOSHITERU OTANI
Koryu kyudo consists of kata according to whatever art schools, such as Kashima Shinto ryu also practice
old style is being practiced. Heki ryu, Honda ryu, and naginata techniques.
Ogasawara ryu are the most common styles. It is said Iaido also consists only of forms. Most of the forms
in particular that Heki ryu retains some of the old com- are for a solo practitioner, owing to the danger of prac-
bative sense of being a martial art, rather than a target- ticing person to person with a sword; however, most
shooting sport. Competitive kyudo consists of standard styles also have partner forms, which are practiced
kata established by the Kyudo Federation, which is prac- with wooden swords only. There is no “freestyle” aspect
ticed all over the world. The archer shoots two arrows to iaido practice. Forms often consist of three levels:
per round in most kata, and also in competition. the shoden (beginner), the chuden (middle), and the
In Atarashii Naginata both players wield naginata. okuden (advanced). The iaidoka wears the basic outfit
The targets and scoring are similar to kendo. The head, described earlier; kneepads are also recommended. No
forearms, and body above the waist are targets, along other protective gear is worn. Most beginners start
with a straight hit to the throat. In addition Atarashii with a wooden sword, progressing to an iaito after a
Naginata recognizes the shins as a target. Each of these few months. Senior practitioners who can afford them
targets is worth one point. Matches are timed, and the may opt for a real sword, either a Japanese katana or
naginataka who gets three hits on an opponent is the a Chinese-made blade, when their teacher determines
winner. The naginataka must also call out the strike as they are ready. The All-Japan Kendo Federation, how-
it is being made in order for the score to be legitimate. ever, stresses that only iaito may be used for official
The Atarashii Naginata player wears body armor simi- grading sessions.
lar to that used in kendo: a helmet, breastplate, padded Rankings for kyudo, naginatado, and iaido follow
gloves, padded protection for the lower torso, with the the kyu-dan system: Players begin at kyu level (often
addition of shin guards. Atarashii Naginata is equated with colored belts) and advance to
always practiced barefoot. dan (black belt) level. In dojo where
Koryu styles of naginatado are koryu is practiced exclusively, the
not practiced for competition, teacher may issue certificates of
though they may be demon- expertise (menkyo) instead.
strated as a point of interest Progress is slow; it may take
during an Atarashii Nagi- as long as 15–20 years be-
nata tournament. Koryu fore a practitioner achieves
naginatado consists en- the status of teacher (usu-
tirely of forms, with the ally fifth or sixth dan).
naginata pitted against a The general consensus is
sword (the naginata side that practice improves
always wins). Since there is with age. It is not unusual
no “freestyle” aspect to to find seventy- and even
koryu naginatado, protec- eighty-year-olds practicing
tive armor is not worn. all the above styles.
Tendo ryu and Jikishinkage Iaido, kyudo, and nagi-
ryu are the best known koryu natado appeal to nearly all age
naginatado styles, though some groups and to both sexes. Mid-
more comprehensive old martial Japanese men practice wrestling. dle school or even elementary
school students may start naginatado. High school walks of life. The meditative and spiritual aspects of
kyudo teams are increasingly popular in Japan. Iaido practicing these art forms provide a deep sense of sat-
generally appeals to people less interested in sporting isfaction that goes beyond the excitement of competi-
competition. tion, toward a deeper understanding of oneself and the
world.
Competition at the Top Deborah Klens-Bigman
Neither kyudo, naginatado, nor iaido are Olympic
sports. Elite competition consists of championship com-
petitions among practitioners who have worked their Further Reading
way up through prior tournaments. Kyudo and Atara- Amdur, E. (2002). Women warriors of Japan: The role of arms-bearing
shii Naginata have regional and world champion com- women in Japanese history. Retrieved May 14, 2004, from http://
www.koryubooks.com/library.
petitions. Kata competitions in iaido have likewise been DeProspero, D., & DeProspero, J. (1996). Illuminated spirit: Conver-
held at the regional and international level, though sations with a kyudo master. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
much of the emphasis at iaido gatherings is placed on Draeger, D. F., & Smith, R. W. (1980). Comprehensive Asian fighting
arts. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
learning new material and kyu-dan ranking examina- Hurst, G. (1998). Armed martial arts of Japan: Swordsmanship and
tions. archery. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Kapp, L., Kapp, H., & Yoshihara, Y. (1987). The craft of the Japanese
Though there are modern sport aspects to kyudo and sword. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
naginatado, their structure, along with that of iaido, is Kent, S. (1996). Southern California Naginata Federation. Retrieved
basically hierarchical. Koryu styles follow the head- May 14, 2004, from http://www.scnf.org.
Klens-Bigman, D. (2001). My heart is the target: An interview with
master (soke) system, in which one individual has archer Shibata Kanjuro. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 10(1), 75–83.
inherited the right to teach the style. In some iaido sys- Onuma, H., DeProspero, D., & DeProspero, J. (1993). Kyudo: The
essence and practice of Japanese archery. Tokyo: Kodansha Interna-
tems, there is no soke, so major teachers are the leaders tional.
of the style. Shibata Kanjuro XXI is the current head of Sato, H. (1995). Legends of the samurai. Woodstock, NY: Overlook
the Heki ryu Bishi Chikuren ha, a koryu style of kyudo. Press.
Warner, G., & Draeger, D. F. (1982). Japanese swordsmanship: Tech-
Mitamura Takeko is headmistress of Tendo ryu nagi- nique and practice. Tokyo: Weatherhill.
nata. Mitsuzuka Takeshi is a major teacher of Muso
Shinden ryu iaido. Though the most senior teachers are
still only to be found in Japan, there are now well-
qualified teachers elsewhere as well.
Jogging
Martial Arts Governing Bodies
Many iaido dojo are affiliated either with the All-Japan
Kendo Federation (www.kendo.or.jp) through its many
international branches, or, less commonly, with the
N o consensus exists on the precise sporting defini-
tion of the term “jogging” as a mode of human
ambulation and exercise, but most discussions in a
All-Japan Iaido Federation. Kyudo is governed by the sports context hinge on intent and practice more than
All-Japan Kyudo Federation (www.kyudo.com), and on the specific biomechanics of the activity. Literal dic-
naginatado by the All-Japan Naginata Federation (www. tionary definitions emphasize speed and character—as
naginata.org). Individual koryu dojo also exist, espe- Merriam-Webster’s online puts it, to jog is “to run . . . at
cially for kyudo and iaido styles, some of these dojo are a slow trot” and “to go at a slow, leisurely, or monoto-
quite large and have their own governing bodies. nous pace.” Colloquially, jogging may be seen as a
Kyudo, naginatado, and iaido all provide exercise slower form of running—both running and jogging
and enjoyment for people of all ages and from many being distinguished from walking in that both feet are
JOGGING 873
My doctor recently told me that jogging could add years to my life.

I think he was right. I feel ten years older already. ■ MILTON BERLE
off the ground simultaneously between strides, which shoes and apparel to the family-friendly business of
requires more muscle activity and effort. Debates running strollers. U.S. sales of running and jogging
among runners yield a variety of verdicts: Some attempt clothing amounted to about $650 billion in 2003 and
to demarcate jogging by duration of the endeavor (e.g., continue to grow, according to the U.S. National Sport-
five miles or less per workout) or by speed (e.g., eight ing Goods Association. Jogging helped give rise to
minutes per mile or slower). Others associate running portable CD players designed to withstand runners’
with more seriousness of purpose than jogging (e.g., a pavement pounding. Fashion designers offer jogging
jogger avoids inclement weather, whereas a runner will belts with compartments for electronic music players,
continue in a thunderstorm) as well as more rigorous credit cards, and water bottles. Jogging strollers, intro-
training and participation in competitive events. The duced in the 1980s, now come in high-performance
late cardiologist George Sheehan, a running guru and models with such features as lightweight frames, fast-
author, is often quoted as saying the difference between rolling wheels, and parking brakes.
a runner and a jogger is a race-entry form.
Certainly, elite runners are never labeled joggers; the High-Profile Inspiration
word carries an inescapable connotation of amateurism In the early 1970s, high-profile runners provided in-
or at least casualness.Yet, runners may also be amateurs spiration—notably Frank Shorter, winner of the gold
or part-timers. Ultimately, there is no clear distinction medal in the 1972 Olympics marathon and silver in
when it comes to nonprofessionals working out and 1976; Bill Rodgers, who won the 1975, 1978, 1979,
even competing; jogging has become virtually synony- and 1980 Boston Marathons; and Alberto Salazar, who
mous with running for health, for fun, and for testing won three consecutive New York City Marathons in the
oneself against time, terrain, and other runners. Runner early 1980s. Complementing their feats were educa-
and writer David Holt insists, “Society may call you a tors spreading enthusiasm for running as a pastime,
jogger, but for whatever speed or distance you are in- such as Sheehan, who had given up training after col-
termittently floating over and stepping gently onto the lege but resumed running in his early sixties. Sheehan
planet, you are in fact a runner” (http://home.sprynet. advocated running for both fitness and peace of mind
com/~holtrun/jog.htm). Nevertheless, jogging in refer- and urged individuals to find a pace that suited one’s in-
ence to running for personal gratification and exercise, ternal comfort level rather than trying to meet external
rather than in pursuit of athletic excellence, has entered goals. His 1978 book Running and Being spent four-
the lexicon as a centerpiece of a grassroots fitness move- teen weeks on the New York Times best-seller list, and
ment that emerged in the United States in the mid- Sports Illustrated deemed him the country’s most im-
1970s and spread in Europe during the 1980s. Jogging portant “philosopher of sport.” Other important run-
remains a recommended method for ning advisors of the period were Kenneth Cooper, also
a physician, who spread his convictions that regular
■ Developing strength and endurance
exercise and good diet could extend a person’s lifespan
■ Fostering cardiovascular fitness
by six to nine years; and Jim Fixx, author of The Com-
■ Losing weight
plete Book of Running (first published in 1977), which
■ Improving mental outlook
eventually sold over a million copies, and a proponent
Regular running as a hobby and a route to physical of running as a key to longevity—ironically, he died
and mental well-being, once viewed as either frivolous while jogging at age fifty-two, of a massive heart attack
and adolescent or somewhat eccentric, is now widely caused by blocked coronary arteries.
accepted as a routine activity. Indeed, it has become an The U.S. running environment through the 1960s
industry in itself and a boon for other industries, from was dominated by the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU),
which policed amateur running quite strictly and or- many, Belgium, Spain, South Africa, the Netherlands,
ganized most races outside of school and collegiate Sweden, and Australia-New Zealand.
competition. Considerable tension existed between the Although jogging is relatively cheap and convenient
AAU and the forerunners of today’s myriad running —requiring no equipment beyond appropriate footwear
clubs throughout the United States—the Road Runners and needing no partners or teams—its prerequisite for
Club of America, founded in 1957, and its affiliates. popularity seems to be a certain level of affluence and
Since the 1970s, however, running clubs have prolifer- leisure time. The London Marathon, first held in 1981,
ated, and their original focus of supporting small num- helped spread interest in running in the U.K., and run-
bers of local or regional outstanding athletes has ning for health and exercise is now usual in Western and
changed to a much broader participatory mission—the Northern Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. In other
Road Runners Club of America now claims more than parts of the world, however, including regions that pro-
600 local clubs and 130,000 members, and many other duce elite runners such as eastern Africa and increasingly
clubs and associations exist worldwide. Races open to East Asia, recreational running is not nearly as wide-
all comers, many held to raise money for charitable spread. Some observers see the emergence of a “second
purposes, likewise have multiplied. American Sports running boom” in the United States, propelled by role
Data calculates that about 10.5 million Americans are models ranging from former President Bill Clinton, a
“frequent runners,” meaning running more than 100 sometime jogger, to TV personality Oprah Winfrey, who
days a year, with about 40 percent of them women. lost 70 pounds and then ran a marathon in 1994.
Other surveys put the number of U.S. runners and jog-
Judy Polumbaum
gers at 35 million. According to tallies from USA Track
& Field, the governing body for running, finishers in
U.S. races grew from 4.8 million in 1993 to 7.7 million Further Reading
in 2003, with the proportion of women also increasing Burfoot, A. (Ed.). (1999). Runner’s world complete book of running. Em-
from 28 percent to 52 percent. maus, PA: Rodale Press.
Fixx, J. F. (1977). The complete book of running. New York: Random
House.
Reports and Variations Henderson, J. (1980). The running revolution. Tallahassee, FL: Cedar-
Scientific studies have probed the physiological benefits winds Publishing.
Kolata, G. (2004, August 10). Why joggers labor and Olympians fly.
of running and the sources of the so-called runner’s New York Times, F1.
high, usually attributed to increased production of en- Noakes, T. (2002). Lore of running, 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Ki-
netics.
dorphins by the brain. Although positive research find- Ross, L. (2000, August 21). Jogging. New Yorker, 75(24), 82.
ings far outstrip the negative, scholars also have looked Sheehan, A. (2001). Chasing the hawk: Looking for my father, finding
at problems of compulsive running and connections myself. New York: Delacorte.
Sheehan, G. (1978). Running and being. New York: Simon & Schuster.
with eating disorders. Running or jogging and their
continuing spread and enduring results also have been
exhaustively chronicled and promoted in manuals,
memoirs, and coffee-table books, with classics still in
print and new additions published each year. The Road
Runners Club’s original mimeographed newsletter
Jousting
evolved into the mass-circulation magazine Runner’s
World, founded in 1966; circulation of the U.S. edition,
published by Rodale, exceeds half a million, with joint
J ousting was part of a hastilude, a tournament of
games fought with lances or spears. The word joust-
ing probably derives from the Old French verb joster,
venture editions published in the United Kingdom, Ger- meaning “to come together and fight with lances.” Joust-
JOUSTING 875
Knights jousting in France in the late fifteenth century.
ing as performed with coronels (three-pronged, blunted and cudgel were constantly required. Although always
lance heads) was a direct descendant of the tournament an element in any form of hastilude, the joust became a
à plaisance (i.e., with blunted weapons, for entertain- sport in its own right as early as the fourteenth century.
ment). The joust was a straight charge in which two Jousting had a special relationship to the chivalric ro-
knights or men at arms on horseback met each other mances of the day, which were dominated by the French
with lances only; it was a single combat for exercise and language. These romances perpetuated the French
sport. If the joust was performed with sharp lances, as chivalric code of honor and extended French cultural in-
in border tournaments, judicial duels, feats of arms, and fluence all over Europe (an influence already well es-
chivalric combats, it perpetuated the tournament à out- tablished with the Norman invasion of Britain and
rance (with sharp weapons, as in warfare). In both in- other military exploits). Practice on the lists (the pal-
carnations the joust consisted of several courses isades enclosing the jousting area) and in fiction mutu-
between two men or of a whole set of courses between ally influenced one another: Romances offered an
several challengers and answerers. As a discipline on idealized conception of partly idealized feats of arms,
horseback, this straightforward attack differentiated the and the knights in turn tried to imitate the legendary he-
joust from the tournament per se, in which “turns” (from roes of the romances as best they could. English knights
Old French tournoi) and withdrawing movements to (chevaliers) often rode into the lists as Lancelot or even
new positions for a better application of sword, mace, as King Alexander of Macedon and adopted French
allegorical names such as “Coeur Loyal” and “Valiant household and battlefield, binding the “purchase” by in-
Desire” until late in the sixteenth century. At the Acces- dividual contract.
sion Day tournaments in the Westminster Tiltyards par- In the Norman-French Statutes of England, the words
ticularly, these French traditions flourished. tournament and behourd were often used interchange-
ably during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. English
Origins kings were constantly prohibiting the two contests on
Jousting emerged from hastiludes, which were of French the grounds that no license had been purchased prior to
origin and remained largely confined to Western Eu- the events. By imposing licensing, the Crown not only se-
rope, later spreading to Bohemia and Hungary as well cured a considerable source of income, but also fore-
as the Scandinavian countries. To the southeast they stalled possible rebellions; after all, the contesting parties
even reached Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Early known would arrive with bands of fifty or more men at arms. As
as “conflictus gallicus” (Gallic encounter), the hastiludes early as 1194 King Richard I allowed tournaments in
had a specific terminology for participants, weapons, only five English locations, and the tournaments were
forms of combat, and so on that was generated in still considered specifically as preludes to war.
France, and even in the countries to which hastiludes In addition to the tournament à outrance and the
spread, the vocabulary remained basically French. tournament à plaisance, as early as 1223 another form
Hastiludes, and thus jousting, were a product, no had developed: the Round Table, in which Arthurian
doubt, of real warfare. The knight on horseback as well legends, the Holy Grail, and their heroes were imitated.
as the troops on foot required training. An Angevin Centered around a wooden castle or pavilion (which
gentleman, Geoffrey of Preuilly (a small town in the often housed a damsel to be freed) defenders, or
Touraine, France region) is said to have invented tour- “venants,” would challenge all comers, or “tenants,” to
naments for this purpose in Tours, France, around fulfill chivalric feats with blunted weapons specified in
1066. Thus, the tournament became a more or less regulations devised for the occasion and fixed to the
peaceful mirror of an actual battle, involving mounted challenge tree, an artificial, decorated tree to which a
knights and armed squires, as well as personal atten- poster with the regulations was fixed.
dants (garçons) on foot, all in the tiltyard at the same Such events became grandiose spectacles for the
time. This format was known as a “mêlée,” in which women, great numbers of whom watched the combat-
two mixed sides skirmished in an enclosed field. By ants from a grandstand. In the year 1331 such a berfois
the end of the fourteenth century the mêlée was super- (grandstand) broke down because it held too many
seded by chivalric encounters with the lance, the sword, spectators, and in 1342 five hundred women were sum-
the battle ax, and the dagger. moned to attend. Round Tables mostly ended with ban-
The behourd (a variation of the mass tournament queting, singing, and dancing. The German verb gröhlen
with blunted weapons and lances armed with coronels (to bawl) derives from the loud noise of the drunken
instead of sharp points) emerged alongside the mêlée in participants in such “Holy Grail” festivities. An event
twelfth-century France. It, too, prepared the soldier for similar to the Round Table was the Pas d’Armes, which
war, offering him an opportunity to obtain the chival- originated in fourteenth-century France but did not ob-
ric qualifications necessary for knighthood. Indeed, be- tain its fully fledged form in England until the middle of
hourds were often staged in conjunction with initiations the fifteenth century. In the Pas d’Armes a challenger
into knighthood, marriages, and coronations. Blunted (tenant) would erect a pavilion and defend a narrow
weapons were used, including the lance, the cudgel, passage. Those men who wanted to pass through the
and the rebaited (blunted) sword. At tournaments and passage had to answer the challenge and to fulfill the
behourds a knight would recruit his retinue for both conditions in the challenge proclamation. Only blunted
JOUSTING 877
A modern knight preparing to go to battle in a joust. Source: istockphoto.com/FocusOnYou.
weapons were allowed, and the challenger could fix same length (lance, sword) and caliber (mace). The com-
elaborate regulations listing details such as ten courses bat lasted until defeat was signaled or until one of the
with the lance, shields without metal armament, no parties incurred fatal wounds. As would have been the
visor, twenty blows with the sword on horseback and case had court proceedings been conclusive, the de-
ten blows with the ax on foot, all in an armor of the an- feated was subsequently executed in public.
swerers’ choice.
Partly originating from the judicial duel were two se- Development
rious versions of hastiludes that were fought with sharp Although part of any hastilude, the joust was increas-
weapons: the feat of arms and the chivalric combat. The ingly staged as a separate event. Gradually the joust
feat of arms was used by two conflicting parties to set- freed itself from the garçons on foot and the bulk of ac-
tle hostilities and was always staged in the lists and was companying horsemen, the squires, whose object was
used by larger groups with standardized weapons su- to unhorse the jousters to gain booty and enact ran-
pervised by an official judge. All sorts of sharp weapons soms, as they had done in real warfare. The English king
could be used according to prior agreement, and every Edward I’s Statuta Armorum, statutes regulating the use
feat of arms resulted in casualties and deaths. The of weapons, (1292) only disciplined and reduced the
chivalric combat had the character of an ordeal under- number of these “turbulent” squires and riotous garçons,
taken when one party had assailed the personal honor who met with severe restrictions on their functions and
of the other, and the matter could not be resolved in armaments. Not until 1466 were separate regulations
court. Sharp weapons agreed upon had to be of the for jousters set up. Until then the joust had shared the
If you can’t accept losing,

you can’t win. ■ VINCE LOMBARDI
general development of the hastiludes in all aspects. In from other parts of Europe showed up in London: com-
its early stages, however, the joust was often exempt petitors from Brittany, Flanders, and Brabant. Even
from royal prohibitions and restrictions because it of- Spaniards and Germans came to England.
fered less danger of rebellions.
Both forms of the joust—with sharp weapons and Practice
with blunt weapons—flourished in England during the Until the 1420s the joust was customarily run in an
late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. During the open field, a practice that was still called “at random”
reigns of Edward I (1272–1307) and Edward III (1327– and “at large” even if it took place within the lists. In
1377), it started to outrun its counterparts, the various 1430 a joust in Bruges, Flanders, was staged in the
forms of hastiludes. By the fourteenth century the joust “Portuguese fashion”: The lists had been removed, and
had definitely overtaken the mêlée. Single combats be- the mounted knights coursed on both sides of une seule
tween knights in full armorial splendor charging with liche à travers (along a single rope). The French word
their lances in rest won the day. Special armors for joust- liche or lisse came from Vulgar Latin licium (a cord); this
ing were devised; heralds set up regulations, proclaimed cord was hung with strong cloth as high as the shoul-
the challenges, and organized the jousts; judges graded ders of the horses. This device was also used at that time
the individual performances and pageantry before and in France, where the cord was hung with “toile” (strong
after the event. The joust came to be featured as the linen). Scholars still debate whether the word tilt (mean-
central event in nearly all chivalric meetings of the four- ing “to joust”) came from the English word tilt (mean-
teenth century. Although jousters were experts in han- ing “canvas,” as in “boat tilt”), which is possibly derived
dling their horses and directing their lances, the joust from the French toile, or whether it sprang from the “tilt”
itself had become absolutely removed from actual of the horses in the open field trying to avoid the front-
warfare. to-front clash by swerving sideways. In German regula-
Jousting remained a male-dominated sport; although tions for the joust prior to that time this sort of “body
women formed the audience and distributed the prizes, check” had secured the rider a first-class ranking.
they were in no way involved in judging. Jousting was In England and France, the partition originally con-
also extremely expensive. The English king Henry IV sisted of a cloth hung on a cord. Later it was replaced
(1399–1430) staged spectacular jousts at the English by a wooden barrier across the tiltyard. Both forms
court, but they had become so costly for challengers (with and without the partition) were often staged at
and answerers by that time that only the highest and one and the same event for the next 150 years. In 1466,
wealthiest echelons of chivalric nobility were able to at- in an effort to harmonize divergent practices and local
tend. The lower ranks had almost no chance of partici- customs throughout the country as well as to quantify
pating because in the joust they had no chance of performance and rank competitors properly, King Ed-
seizing the rider, unhorsing him, and securing his horse ward IV entrusted John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester and
or saddle to exact ransom—formerly a profitable source constable of England, to draw up the “Ordinances for
of income. On the contrary, jousting during the later Justes of Peace Royal,” which remained valid to the
fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries required partic- year 1596. Tiptoft devised the sample score check, often
ipants to spend money: No one could make a living full of faults in later transcripts, which was a rectangle
from the yields of the prizes. Even the rich lords could with an extended middle line to record the number of
no longer afford to stage jousts and left the initiative to courses. The upper line was reserved for “attaints” (hits)
the Crown. By the middle of the fourteenth century and lances broken on the head; the line in the middle
jousts had become international events. Itinerant was used to record “attaints” and lances broken on the
jousters from France answered challenges, and knights body. The lower line was for the entry of faults. The goal
JUDO 879
became to break the lance on the opponent, the higher Further Reading
the better. Anglo, S. (1961). Archives of the English tournament: Score cheques
and lists. Journal of the Society of Archivists, 2(4), 153–162.
A “lance” was the unit for counting, and six courses Anglo, S. (1968). The great tournament roll of Westminster. Oxford, UK:
each became the average number run. When a joust was Clarendon.
to be staged the herald and his staff would set up check Arthur, H. (1898). Tilting in Tudor times. Archaeological Journal, 55,
296–320.
lists by juxtaposing the names of the challengers (on the Barber, R., & Barker, J. R. V. (1989). Tournaments: jousts, chivalry and
left side) and answerers (on the right side). After each pageants in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
Barker, J. R.V. (1986). The tournament in England, 1100–1400. Wood-
name the herald would draw a score check in which he bridge, UK: Boydell Press.
carefully entered hits and broken lances achieved as Clephan, R. C. (1918). The tournament: Its periods and phases. Lon-
soon as the courses had begun. After the event broken don: Methuen.
Cripps-Day, F. H. (1919). The history of the tournament in England and
lances and hits were counted, and challengers and an- in France. London: Bernard Quaritch.
swerers were ranked in their own groups. Denholm-Young, N. (1948). The tournament in the 13th century. In R.
Hunt (Ed.), Studies in medieval history (pp. 240–268). Oxford,
If jousters scored the same number of lances, further UK: Clarendon.
elaborate provisions determined the best three jousters Ffoulkes, C. (1912). Jousting cheques of the 16th century. Archaeologia
for the prizes. All in all, seventy scored and unscored or miscellaneous tracts relating to antiquity. Second series. 8(2),
31–50.
check lists have come down to us, nicely drawn up by Fleckenstein, J. (ed.) (1985). Das ritterliche Turnier im Mittelalter. Göt-
the heralds at court.The best ones are those of the jousts tingen: Vanden hoeck & Ruprecht.
Keen, M. (1984). Chivalry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
at Westminster of the years 1501, 1511, 1570, and Maximilian, I. (1875). The triumph of the emperor Maximilian I (A. As-
1596. In 1596 Queen Elizabeth I’s favorite, the thirty- pland, Ed.). London: Holbein Society.
year-old earl of Essex, destroyer of the Spanish fleet off Meyrick, S. R. (1824). A critical inquiry into ancient armour. London:
R. Jennings.
Cadiz, Spain, challenged eighteen answerers on two Rühl, J. K. (1989). Preliminaries to German tournament regulations of
days and scored ninety-seven broken lances in his 108 the 15th century. British Society of Sports History Bulletin, 9, 90–
101.
courses. (The earl was later declared a traitor and exe- Rühl, J. K. (1990). German tournament regulations of the 15th century.
cuted in 1601.) The joust in its spectacular form at court Journal of Sport History: Special Issue: German Sport History, 17(2),
survived him by only another fifteen years.The chivalric 163–182.
Rühl, J. K. (1990). Sports quantification in Tudor and Elizabethan
splendor had vanished. More popular all over Europe times. In M. Carter & A. Krüger (Eds.), Ritual and record: Sports
were tilting at the ring, (armed with a short[er] lance, a records and quantification in pre-modern societies (pp. 65–86). New
York: Greenwood.
rider aimed at a ring which was held in a device so that Segar, W. (1602). Honour, military and ciuill. London: Barker.
ir could be “speared” with the riders’ lance) running at Strong, R. C. (1958). Elizabethan jousting cheques in the possession of
the quintain (a post with a revolving crosspiece that has the College of Arms I, II. The Coat of Arms, 5(34), 4–8.
Vale, J. (1982). Edward III and chivalry. Chivalric society and its con-
a target at one end and a sandbag at the other end), and text: 1270–1350. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
competing in the newly developed form of the carousel Vale, M. G. A. (1981). War and chivalry. London: Gerald Duckworth.
(a tournament in which horsemen execute evolutions).
The Eglinton Tournament in Ayrshire, Scotland, in
1839 was a last attempt to revive the tournament in
Britain. Today the joust has become a prominent feature
of nostalgic shows and pageantry. As in the Middle
Judo
Ages, small groups of expert stuntmen offer their serv-
ices to the owners of historic castles all over Europe,
making quite a fortune for themselves.
J udo (ju, gentle, in the sense of to give way, to yield;
do, way) was originally a method of physical, intel-
lectual, and spiritual education founded by Kano Jigoro
(1860–1938) in Japan in 1882. Today, judo is a mod-
Joachim K. Rühl
ern contest sport and a valued tool of education.
History the International Olympic Committee (IOC), Kano de-

The history of judo is the history of the shift from a mar- voted himself to the diffusion of his method.
tial art to a modern sport. Kano realized the potential-
ities of the traditional arts of self-defense for educating JUDO SPREADS WORLDWIDE
youth. Thus, he reoriented martial techniques, blending The military and the police were highly influential in
traditions and modernity, and using individual prowess spreading the Japanese method. The Boxer Rebellion in
for collective benefits. In Western countries, self-defense China (1900) and the victories of Japan in the war
and education trends coexisted with the Oriental mys- against Russia (1904–1905) revealed the prowess of
tique until the 1960s when judo entered the world of Japanese soldiers. Puzzled by Japan’s feats, observers
Olympic sports. pointed out the spirit of the warrior, bushido, and an
unknown method of combat, jujutsu, as the keys to
KANO AND THE BEGINNINGS victory. Efficient in hand-to-hand combat, used to keep
OF THE J UDO MOVEMENT fit, and used to reinforce the values of effort and disci-
As a boy, Kano was frail but quick-tempered. Being ex- pline, the Japanese method was almost immediately in-
tremely gifted, he studied with boys who were older and cluded in the training program of officers and special
bigger, and he soon understood the need to find a way forces in the military and the police academies of nu-
to defend himself. In 1877, as a student of the Tokyo merous countries (for example, in 1905: the U.S. Naval
Imperial University, he decided to learn about jujutsu Academy; Paris, France, police; the Portsmouth, Great-
(ju, gentle; jutsu, art) the art that enabled the weak to Britain, admiralty; and in 1906: the Berlin, Germany,
overcome the strong. In 1882, Kano was appointed military school, the Sydney, Australia, police). Later,
lecturer in politics and economics at Gakushuuin (the during World War II, many army personnel were taught
then-private school for the nobility). The same year, he jujutsu or judo throughout the world as a means of
started his judo academy, the Kodokan (ko, teaching; self-defense, a weapon of resistance to the enemy, or “a
do, way; kan, hall). Getting rid of all dangerous, killing, basic escape training.”
or maiming jujutsu waza (techniques), Kano restricted Early in the twentieth century, a different type of im-
violence by forcing opponents to grapple with one an- petus was also given, indirectly, by music halls and pri-
other. He modified falling techniques to make them vate physical culture clubs. Because it appealed to the
safer. Whereas the Japanese art of wrestling had always British aristocracy and to the anglophile Western elite,
been understood as a means of crushing opponents, it the very people who appropriated sports and physical
now became a means of building people’s characters. activities and turned them into symbols of status, ju-
Kano liked to explain judo techniques scientifically, jutsu had become more than just another type of
studying attitudes, forces at play, problems of equilib- wrestling. It rehabilitated the use of fair force. Used
rium, and center of gravity moves. His method pur- with anatomical precision, this useful and aesthetic
posely referred to science and rationalism. As an strength was seen as superior to toughness and rash
educator, Kano advocated the “three culture principle.” brutality. Distinctive and efficient, jujutsu was presented
He designed judo as a way of developing harmoniously as essential because the rate of urban criminality had
the intellectual, moral, and physical aspects of the edu- been steadily rising. The first promoters were the apos-
cation of young people. The number of his students tles of physical culture Edmond Desbonnet in Paris,
swelled rapidly. Kano’s method was subsequently William “Apollo” Bankier in London, and Bernarr Mc-
adopted by the police and the navy and introduced to Fadden in Chicago. “Health builders” hired jujutsu
schools and universities. In 1909, chosen as member of teachers to enlarge their offerings to a wealthy clientele.
JUDO 881
A 1905 ad for a Parisian martial

arts school.
Western world during the first half of the

twentieth century, the general public was
mainly impressed by the self-defense aspect
of the Japanese method of fighting and did
not make any difference between jujutsu and
judo. Efficiency in individual combat was the
main concern. In Japan, the influence of Jig-
oro Kano and the prevalence of the Kodo-
kan judo upon other jujutsu schools made
the confusion impossible. Because of this,
the shift from jujutsu to judo occurred earlier
and in a more distinctive way to be instru-
mental in the understanding of the differ-
ences between the goals and the means of
the method of Kano and the techniques of
self-defense.
As a rule, judo was found in the immedi-
ate vicinity of Japanese communities and
spread across the world because of Japanese
emigration. In the United States, judo ap-
peared in Hawaii and on the Pacific Coast
in the early 1900s. Such early evidence
is also found in Brazil and in Canada.
The post–World War II diffusion of judo
throughout the United States is another ex-
ample of the specific role of Japanese com-
munities. After the Japanese bombed Pearl
Harbor in 1941, 120,000 Americans of
Japanese jujutsu experts toured European capitals as Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast were up-
professional wrestlers. Based in London, they regularly rooted from their homes and sent to “relocation centers.”
performed on the stages of Paris, Madrid, Lisbon, and The principles Kano taught—discipline, patience, re-
Berlin. Their music-hall appearances certainly blazed spect for others—helped many to bear idleness and
the trail for the establishment of jujutsu schools. Fash- confinement in the makeshift shacks and old barracks
ionable among the elite, jujutsu soon became part of where they were housed. After the war, the resettlement
popular culture. Songs, postcards, cartoons, and other of the Japanese American population contributed to the
objects of daily life testify that the Japanese method diffusion of judo all around the country.
fascinated the whole spectrum of social classes. Most The history of judo is also the history of judo experts
important, this phenomenon was not restricted to the who traveled the seas and the highways, dedicating
main European cities but, rather, spread rapidly to themselves to teaching their art. Masters and guides of
smaller towns and countries and was largely responsi- generations of judo players, they are famous all over the
ble for the fame of judo and black-belt holders. In the world for both their expertise and the respect they have
inspired. Gunji Koizumi, Mikinosuke Kawaishi, Ichiro its media revolution. Efforts are being made to explain
Abe, Haku Michigami, Shozo Awazu, Kiyoshi Koba- the essence of the art and the principles developed by
yashi, Teizo Kawamura, Han Ho San, and many others Kano. Colored judogi (uniforms) help make contests
have pupils in the five continents who devotedly keep more intelligible for referees and spectators.
teaching judo techniques and principles.
What Is Judo?
Modern Judo There are two major groupings of judo techniques: nage
After World War II, the nation members of the Euro- waza or throwing techniques and katame waza or grap-
pean Judo Union (founded in 1948) were Great Britain, pling techniques.
Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Austria and, The various throwing techniques of judo are them-
Switzerland. On 12 July 1951, because of Argentine’s selves organized into four distinct categories: hand tech-
desire to join, the delegates organized the International niques (te waza), hip techniques (koshi waza), foot
Judo Federation (IJF). Aldo Torti from Italy was elected techniques (ashi waza), and sacrifice techniques (sutemi
president. Soon a great schism occurred in the judo waza). In sutemi waza, you sacrifice your balance by
world between “traditionalists” and “modernists” over throwing your entire body to the mat to unbalance your
the issue of the sport orientation. The decision to in- opponent.
troduce a weight-class system (–68 kg; –80 kg; +80 kg) The katame waza includes osae waza or pinning tech-
was linked to judo’s inclusion in the Olympic program. niques, shime waza or choking techniques and kansetsu
Many saw this weight system as a transgression from waza, or joint lock techniques. In judo, students are
the essence of judo, however, at that time the Japanese taught to apply these techniques in a manner that al-
Federation refused to consider weight categories. André lows one’s opponent to submit without injury by tap-
Ertel, chairman of the European Judo Union, and Paul ping the ground or the attacker two or three times.
Bonét-Maury, then president of the French Judo Feder- There are many different types of nage waza and
ation, were most influential. katame waza; however, judo champions are famous for
The 1964 Tokyo Olympics were the first televised their tokui waza, which literally means “special” or “fa-
games. For the general public and for most judo play- vorite” techniques. At such a high level of technical ex-
ers, the Japanese judo players seemed unbeatable. pertise, a good grip (kumi kata) is often synonymous
Therefore, people were amazed when Dutch Anton with success because it gives the attacker better control
Geesink, who had already won the 1961 world cham- of his opponent’s body and makes the throw easier to
pionship in Paris, defeated Japanese judo champions. perform. Refereeing rules are aimed at developing at-
His victories cracked Japanese hegemony. Geesink gave tacking judo. Defensive behaviors, false attacks, and
hope to Western judoists. Judo no longer was restricted passive judo are strictly penalized. Tactics combine
to the Japanese. Its Olympic status boosted judo in nu- straight attacks and follow-ups. Clear-mindedness and
merous countries. Slowly, the number of judo players in- rapidity, anticipation and adaptation are the keys for
creased all over the world. victory.
Today, the judo world has matured and the abuses of The time duration of a match is five minutes (for
the sport orientation are now compensated by an equal both men and women). A judo contest starts when the
interest in the educational aspects of judo. More par- referee announces hajime (start). When an ippon is
ticularly, since the 1990s, teaching methods specially scored, the fight is over. The referee announces ippon
designed for youngsters—adapted to their physiology when a contestant, in a controlled movement, throws
and psychology—have been issued in various countries the other contestant in a way that answers three crite-
and used on a regular basis. Judo as a sport has started ria: (1) largely on his or her back with (2) considerable
JUDO 883
Believe deep down in your heart that you’re

destined to do great things. ■ JOE PATERNO
force and (3) speed. Lower scores include waza ari, recognition as an Olympic sport waited for two more
yuko, and koka, which can be described as throws lack- decades. In July 1960, at the fifty-eighth IOC session in
ing one or more of the previous criteria. When a con- Rome, the IJF was accepted as an Olympic international
testant holds the other contestant with a grappling federation by 32 to 2 votes. Thus judo was included in
technique for 25 seconds or when a contestant gives up the program beginning with the 1964 Tokyo Olympic
because of a strangling or arm lock technique, the ref- Games.The consequences were crucial for judo. During
eree announces ippon. If the hold lasts less than 25 sec- the 1960s, sports results contributed more and more to
onds, a lower score is awarded (waza ari: 20 seconds, national prestige, and more and more countries made
yuko: 15 seconds, koka: 10 seconds). There are also two numerous efforts to train elite judo squads, thus leading
levels of penalties: shido or note is awarded for in- to fantastic Japanese and Western champions from Hol-
fringements such as negative judo, false attack, or more land, the Soviet Union, France, East Germany, and
than five seconds in the danger zone without attacking. Cuba. Today, the number of weight categories has been
If infringements are judged more serious, hansoku make increased (men: –60, –66, –73, –81, –90, –100, +100
or disqualification is awarded for grave or very grave vi- kg, Open; women: –48, –52, –57, –63, –70, –78, +78
olation (any action which may endanger or injure the kg, Open). In the Sydney 2000 Olympic games, fifty-six
opponent). Should one contestant be penalized shido, Olympic medals for judo were awarded to players from
the other contestant is immediately granted koka. With twenty-five different countries, proving that judo has
the next shido, the other contestant immediately re- achieved international recognition.
ceives yuko and so on. The competition area is divided Today, judo is the most popular combat sport in the
into two zones (contest zone, 8 ✕ 8m, and safety zone, world and gives its students a code of ethics, a way of
3m). A red area (danger zone) is the demarcation be- living, and a way of being. Even those judo fighters
tween these two zones. The method of competition is who focus on records are nonetheless proud and re-
the elimination system with repechage. In judo con- spectful of judo traditions. Champions like Yasuhiro Ya-
tests, four medals are awarded: one gold, one silver, and mashita or Ryoko Tamura in Japan, David Douillet in
two bronze. France, Jimmy Pedro in the United States, and many
others are known and cheered by the general public.
Competition at the Top They appear quite often on TV; they are seen in com-
International judo contests were organized from the mercials and are often viewed as role models. In 2004,
1950s on. The first judo world championships were the IJF website listed 187 nation members. The number
held in Tokyo in 1956, the second also in Tokyo in of judo practitioners in the world exceeds 8 million.
1958, and the third in Paris in 1961. Some exceptions
should be mentioned, however. The first international Governing Body
club team meet between London and Wiesbaden was The IJF website (www.ijf.org) presents a large amount
held in Germany in 1929. However, as early as July 4, of information about judo in the world (statutes, rules,
1917, an informal match was organized in Russia be- history, nation members addresses, news, forum).
tween the judo club of Vladivostock and the Otaru Com-
Michel Brousse
mercial College of Japan. In 1934, the first European
championship took place in Dresden, Germany. In
1937, when the IOC voted for the program of the Further Reading
Games of the XII Olympiad, judo was chosen for the Brousse, M. (2002). Le judo, son histoire, ses succès. Genève, Switzer-
land: Liber.
purpose of demonstrating a national sport, but the can- Brousse, M., & Matsumoto, D. (1999). Judo, a sport and a way of life.
cellation of the 1940 Tokyo games meant that judo’s Seoul, Korea: International Judo Federation.
Harrison, E. J. (1912). The fighting spirit of Japan and other stories. Lon- a means of self-defense, a weapon of resistance to the
don: Foulsham. enemy, or “a basic escape training.”
Kodokan. (1961). Judo by the Kodokan, Osaka, Japan: Nunoi Shobo.
Watson, B. (2000). The father of judo, a biography of Jigoro Kano. In the early days of the twentieth century, a different
Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha. type of impetus was also given, indirectly, by music
halls and private physical culture clubs. The first pro-
moters were the apostles of physical culture Edmond
Desbonnet in Paris, William “Apollo” Bankier in Lon-
Jujutsu don, and Bernarr McFadden in Chicago. “Health
builders” hired jujutsu teachers to enlarge their offerings
J ujutsu (ju, gentle, in the sense of to give way; jutsu,

art). Jujutsu, also spelled jujitsu, or jiu-jitsu, is a
generic term that encompasses combat systems of hand-
to a wealthy clientele. Japanese jujutsu experts toured
European capitals as professional wrestlers. Their music-
hall appearances certainly blazed the trail for the es-
to-hand fighting. tablishment of jujutsu schools. Fashionable among the
elite, jujutsu soon became part of popular culture.
Jujutsu’s Origins Songs, postcards, cartoons, and other objects of daily
Under Chinese influence a wide array of weaponless life testify that the Japanese method fascinated the
combat techniques were fused together. They were whole spectrum of social classes.
meant to complement swordsmanship in combat. These During a long period of time the teaching of judo put
techniques used by Japanese warriors (bushi or samu- the stress on self-defense and the general public could
rai) may be more accurately defined as unarmed meth- not easily differentiate between jujutsu and judo. How-
ods of dealing with an armed enemy while using minor ever, when judo became an Olympic sport in the early
weapons. Jujutsu’s golden age, from the late seven- 1960, this aspect was discarded in favor of a sport ori-
teenth to the late nineteenth century ended with the entation and a quest for records. Jujutsu took a new
country at peace. Jujutsu then lost its importance. Its start. In large urban cities, a feeling of insecurity was
reckless use in the streets gave a bad name to the tech- largely responsible for the new interest people found in
niques. But, when Jigoro Kano (1860–1938) elabo- its techniques. In 1977, an assembly of three nations—
rated judo from old jujutsu forms and founded his Italy, Germany, and Sweden—founded the European
Kodokan school of judo, the popularity of this science Ju-Jitsu Federation, and jujutsu became codified as a
waned. It was revived as a consequence of Japan’s new contest sport. The Ju-Jitsu International Federation (JJIF)
aggressive foreign policy. was established in 1987.
The Boxer Rebellion in China (1900) and the victo-
ries of Japan in the war against Russia (1904–1905) re- Jujutsu Competition
vealed the prowess of Japanese soldiers. Observers were Jujutsu and judo techniques have many similarities.
puzzled by Japan’s feats, and pointed out the spirit of However, jujutsu techniques were originally aimed at
the warrior, bushido, and an unknown method of com- hurting, maiming, or killing opponents in real fight. Ju-
bat, jujutsu, as the keys to victory. Almost immediately jutsu comprises throwing and pinning techniques and
the Japanese method was included in the training pro- involves kicking, punching, and striking. Various styles
gram of officers and special forces in the military and exist in Japan, Brazil, and in other countries. As an in-
the police academies of numerous countries (1905: ternational sport, jujutsu has two different types of com-
United States, France, Great Britain; 1906: Germany, petitions: the duo system and the fighting system.
Australia, and others). During World War II, many army The JJIF duo system is a competition between two
personnel were taught jujutsu throughout the world as couples that present defenses against predetermined at-
JUJUTSU 885
A jujutsu kick. Source: istockphoto/parentx.
kicks; part 2: throws, take downs, locks, and strangula-

tions; part 3: floor techniques, locks, and strangula-
tions). The match begins with part 1. When competitors
hold each other, part 2 begins and blows and kicks are
no longer allowed. When one contestant is thrown, the
match continues with part 3. The winner is the con-
testant who has scored a full ippon (clean action and
full points) in each of the three parts or who has at least
fourteen more points than his or her opponent (un-
blocked blow or kick in good balance and control, 2
points; a perfect throw, 2 points; a strangulation with
tapping, 2 points). Players are divided into weight
classes.
Jujutsu’s popularity is increasing worldwide, though
it can still be considered a newcomer in international
sports. In 2004, the JJIF gathered fifty-five nation mem-
bers that meet regularly in international tournaments
and world championships. Players from France, the
Netherlands, and Germany are generally considered as
the best fighters.
Governing Body
The key organization is the Ju-Jitsu International Fed-
eration (www.jjifweb.com).
Michel Brousse
tacks. There are four groups of five attacks (gripping at-

tacks, embracing and neck lock, punches and kicking,
weapon). The referee draws three attacks for each series. Further Reading
Jury members give scores from 0 to 10. Draeger, D., & Smith, W. (1980). Comprehensive Asian fighting arts.
Tokyo: Kodansha International.
The JJIF fighting system (two rounds of two minutes Shortt, J., & Katsuharu, H. (1979). Beginning JIU-JITSU. London: Paul
each) comprises three parts (part 1: blows, strikes, and H. Crompton.
Karate
Karting
Kendo
Kenya
Kinesiology Karate
Kite Sports
Koreas K arate is a fighting art that combines elements
of Chinese combative techniques with the hand-
fighting practices from Okinawa and Japan to create a
Korfball
system of self-defense that includes blocks, strikes, eva-
sions, throws, and joint manipulations. It is estimated
that karate is practiced by more than 40 million people
in 140 countries.
History of Karate
Karate originated in Okinawa, a chain of islands near
China and Japan. In the twelfth century, Okinawa was
divided into several regions, each with its own ruler. In
the fifteenth century, King Sho Hashi of the region
Chuzan united the other two independent kingdoms—
Nanzan and Hokuzan—creating the Ryukyu kingdom.
Sho Hashi established a nonmilitary government and
banned the possession of weapons. For two centuries
peace prevailed and the Ryukyus developed into a
major trading center between China and other neigh-
boring countries. Still, they were not immune from the
threat of invaders, and thus it is believed that Okina-
wans developed a form of hand, or te, fighting.
During the Ryukyu kingdom period, three styles of
karate developed, named after the villages where they
were practiced: Shuri, Naha, and Tomari. Each of these
towns was a center to a different section of society—the
aristocracy, the middle class, and the fisherman and
farmers, respectively. As a result, various forms of self-
defense developed within each city and subsequently
became known as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te. Col-
lectively, these early systems were called Okinawan-te,
meaning Chinese hand.
K
Itosu created a series of karate exercises he called Pinan
kata. These kata were adapted from the traditional kata
formerly practiced in secret and were designed to make
In 1609 the Satsuma Clan of southern Japan invaded karate more acceptable for group instruction.
Okinawa and retained the ban on weapons, which In the Taisho period (1912–1926), karate was intro-
lasted 250 years. Karate training was limited to ruling duced to mainland Japan. The first demonstration of
members of the samurai class. Citizens bypassed the re- karate took place there in 1917 when Gichen Funa-
striction by passing along karate techniques secretly by koshi, an Okinawan schoolteacher, performed karate in
means of verbal and physical demonstrations. Thus, Kyoto. His demonstration drew such attention and en-
little exists in the way of literature describing those who thusiasm that he was invited to stay and teach.
created karate and how it was taught. In 1935 Yasuhiro Konishi, a board member of the
What is known are some of those who helped to de- Dai Nippon Butokukai (the sanctioning body for mar-
velop the martial arts in Okinawa, including a Chinese tial arts in Japan), succeeded in having karate registered
delegate named Wanshu. In 1683 he stayed in the as a legitimate martial art under the Dai Nippon Buto-
Okinawan village of Tomari where he taught the vil- kukai. Six karate systems were officially registered under
lagers a certain kata, or a prearranged sequence of their instructors: Goju-ryu under Chojun Miyagi, Shito-
basic techniques, based on a Chinese martial art called ryu under Kenwa Mabuni, Wado-ryu under Hironori
kempo. After Wanshu left Okinawa, the villagers of Ohtsuka, Shotokan under Gichen Funakoshi, Kushin-
Tomari continued to practice the kata and named it ryu under Ueshima Sannosuke, and Shindo Jinen-ryu
after him. under Yasuhiro Konishi.
Others who devoted their lives to the martial arts in- From the six original systems, four established them-
clude a Chinese kempo master named Kusanku, who selves as the primary system within Japan: Goju-ryu,
traveled with some of his students to Okinawa in 1756 Shito-ryu, Shotokan, and Wado-ryu. Today, there are
and taught kempo to the Okinawans, and his top stu- hundreds of styles of karate across the world, but all can
dent, Sakugawa, of Okinawa, who studied kempo in be traced back to these four.
China from 1755 to 1762 when he returned to Okinawa. As warrior arts became less useful in twentieth-
In 1879, under the new Meiji government, the Ryukyu century Japan, the Japanese characters for kara-te, or
dynasty was officially made into a Japanese prefecture. Chinese hands, were changed to mean “empty hand,” re-
New laws reduced the need for secrecy and the education flecting a spiritual concept rather than a fighting system.
system of the Meiji era (1896–1912) adopted karate as The Zen concept of do, or “way,” was combined with
part of its physical education program. In 1904 Anko karate to produce the concept karate-do, which reflected
Itosu introduced karate in the Okinawan public schools. the art form’s emphasis on character development.
887
During the American occupation of Japan following eration, the Amateur Athletic Union, and the USA Na-
World War II, U.S. servicemen were exposed to karate tional Karate-do Federation.
and brought it back to their homeland. The earliest Though karate remained a male-dominated sport
known American martial artist was Robert Trias, who throughout the 1950s and 1960s, women began to study
opened the first U.S. karate school in 1946 in Phoenix, it for self-defense reasons. Eventually, they began to com-
Arizona. In 1948 he formed the United States Karate pete in tournaments in the United States in the mid-
Association. 1960s. From this period notable women competitors
Also in 1948 the Japan Karate Association was formed. emerged, including Ruby Paglinawan, who in 1964
During this time sport rules were established, based on fought three male opponents in a tournament—besting
regulations formulated around 1934, and the first karate two of them before losing to the third. Two years later, a
championships were held. (Takayuki Mikami and Hiro- separate women’s division was introduced at Allen
kazu Kanazawa are two well-known competitors whose Steen’s U.S. Championships in Dallas. Marian Erickson
1958 All Japan Championships match went into five over- of Richardson,Texas, swept first-place honors.The sixties
times before both were declared the winners.) witnessed several rising female karate stars, including
At the same time that the 1964 Olympics were being Phyllis Evetts of Fort Worth, Texas, who became the first
held in Japan, the Federation of All Japan Karate consistent national women’s champion; Kathy Sullivan of
Organizations—now known as the Japan Karate Fort Wayne, Indiana, who in the early 1960s was named
Federation—was formed. In 1970 the group invited the United States Karate Alliance’s number one female
Japanese instructors throughout the world to Tokyo to competitor; and Ohio’s Judy Kolesar, whose list of wins
develop a standardized set of competition rules and includes many victories over male competitors in both
judging training. Participants from thirty-three coun- weapons and empty-hand kata.
tries attended and established the World Union of In 1973 several women who had achieved black-belt
Karate-do Organizations (known since 1993 as the status served as chief referees for female competition at
World Karate Federation). In 1983 the rules were re- various events around the country. While competition
structured and redefined, based on concerns of coaches was originally limited to men, today women compete in
and referees, at the first World Technical Congress held sparring and kata tournaments.
under the World Union of Karate-do Organizations. In 1976 the General Assembly of International
The new rules reflected the decision to meld the sport Sports Federations recognized the World Karate Feder-
of karate with the original concept of budo, or “way of ation as an international sports federation, and in 1981
the warrior.” karate appeared in the first World Games, which offers
As throughout the world, efforts to further unify the opportunity to compete to athletes from a variety of
karate in the United States—and to help it gain ac- sports not on the program of the Olympics. In 1985 the
ceptance as an Olympic sport—have been hampered by International Olympic Committee formally recognized
the proliferation of karate organizations that have de- the World Karate Federation as the international gov-
veloped their own styles and implemented their own erning body for sport karate in the world. Today, it con-
rules. Among them are the United States Karate-Do sists of 196 member countries with more than 12
Kai, United States Karate Alliance, American Amateur million registered athletes.
Karate Federation, International Shotokan Karate
Federation, and the North American Sport Karate As- Nature of the Sport
sociation. Organizations that follow World Karate Beginning students wear a white uniform with a white
Federation international rules are the USA Karate Fed- cloth belt, and then progress through a series of colored
KARATE 889
belts (typically yellow, green, purple, and brown) until of the neck, or below the belt, except for foot sweeps.
they obtain a black belt. Qualifications for belts differ A fighter may attack an opponent who is on the ground,
from school to school, depending on the style and stan- provided she does it before the referee has called “stop.”
dard of karate taught. The black belt, or dan, signifies A score of one to three points is awarded based on
the highest proficiency in karate and, like the other form, sporting attitude, vigorous application, awareness,
belts, is itself qualified by degrees of honor or skill, the timing, and correct distance. Matches are won based on
highest dan being the ninth or tenth degree. Thus, con- the contestant obtaining a lead of eight points, or at
trary to popular belief, earning a black belt does not sig- time-up having the highest number of points.
nify the culmination of a student’s training, but rather
the mastering of basic movements. Competition at the Top
Karate practice is divided into three aspects: kihon The premier competition in karate is the World Karate
(basics), kumite (sparring), and kata (forms). Kihon is Federation World Championships, which are held every
the practice of various blocks, strikes, punches, and two years in different countries and on different conti-
kicks. Kumite, or sparring, is the application of the tech- nents. The best competitors from throughout the world,
niques learned in kihon. Sparring is predetermined and selected by the recognized Olympic sports body in each
is noncontact, being carried out with great control. country, compete at this international event.
Karate has two forms of competition: kata and kumite. Numerous World Cup competitions, including inter-
Kata are formal exercises consisting of predetermined national collegiate and junior competitions, also take
defensive and offensive movements, performed in se- place. Karate appears in all of the Continental Games,
quence. They are performed against a series of imagi- and discussion continues about how to get karate in-
nary attacks by several opponents. The secrets of karate cluded in the Olympic Games. (Judo became an official
are hidden in these beautiful compositions of lethal Olympic sport in 1964 and tae kwon do in 2000.)
movement. They are the means by which the fundamen- The USA National Karate-do Federation is the
tal techniques of karate are transferred to each generation. national governing body for traditional karate. It repre-
A new kata is generally taught after each grading. Kata sents the United States within the designated In-
competition takes the form of team and individual ternational Federation under the auspices of the
matches. Team matches consist of competition between International Olympic Committee, and fields junior
three person teams. Katas are judged based on timing, and adult karate athletes to international events and
speed, balance, and focus, as well as proper form and an competitions, including the World Championships, the
understanding of how the techniques are applied to an Pan American Games, the Pan American Champi-
opponent. onships, the World Cup, and the World Games.
In kumite, two competitors fight on an 8-meter square Among the best-known competitions in the United
padded mat (with two additional meters of safety area States are the annual American championships of the
around it). Required equipment includes safety gloves, Japan Karate Association, held usually on the West
foot protectors, shin guards and a mouth guard.Women Coast or in Hawaii, and the All-American Open Karate
may wear chest protectors and men must wear groin Championships, held annually at Madison Square Gar-
guards. Official matches last three minutes for senior den in New York City.
male kumite and two minutes for women’s, junior, and While competition was originally limited primarily to
cadet bouts, and include a referee, three judges and an men, today women compete in sparring and kata tour-
arbitrator. Competitors may not hit their opponents on naments. Today’s major female athletes include Junko
the top of the head or shoulder, the front, side or back Arai, a U.S. National champion who earned bronze
medals in kata at the 2001 World Games and Pan

American Games; Elisa Au, a 2003 gold winner at the
U.S. Open Championships and 2002 gold medalist at
Karting
the World Karate Federation World Championships;
Atsuko Wakai, a black belt in Goju-ryu and a two-time
World Karate Federation kata champion and four-time
K arting (also known as “go-karting”) is a motor sport
involving one-seat, four-wheeled vehicles powered
by internal-combustion engines. Karts are small and
all-Japan national kata champion. She captured her first simple when compared with automobiles and other ve-
world title at the 14th World Karate Federation World hicles, although their power, size, and mechanical com-
Championships held in 1998 in Rio de Janiero, Brazil, plexity vary. Although most karts have small engines
and her second world title at the 15th World Karate that resemble lawnmower engines, the fastest karts can
Federation World Championships held in 2000 at travel at 225 kilometers per hour or more.
Munich, Germany. Karts cannot be driven legally on public streets unless
special arrangements have been made. Instead, they are
The Future used for driving off-road and for racing on kart tracks
Once limited to mostly males of the ruling clans in or on temporary courses set up in parking lots and
seventeenth-century Okinawa, karate has developed other sites.
over the centuries into a physical and spiritual martial Karting, as an amateur sport, offers people an inex-
art practiced by some 40 million men, women, and pensive way to participate in motor racing. A used or
children worldwide. Today, the sport stands to become simple kart can cost less than $1,000. People can rent
even more popular if its supporters can convince the In- karts at many commercial kart tracks.
ternational Olympic Committee to enter karate as a Many kart enthusiasts are adults, although, because a
competitive sport at future Olympic Games. driver’s license is not required, karting is also suitable for
young people. Special racing categories allow drivers as
Governing Body young as seven or eight years old to compete. In 1993
The major international or regional governing bodies Zack Dawson of Bakersfield, California, at age ten es-
are the European Karate Federation (www.eku.com); tablished a one-person distance record for 100-cubic
Japan Karate Federation (www.karatedo.co.jp/jkf); centimeter (a measurement of engine displacement) karts
National Karate Association of Canada (www.nka.ca); by driving almost 400 kilometers in six hours.
USA National Karate-do Federation (www.usankf.org);
and World Karate Federation (www.wkf.net). History
Karting originated in southern California when Art
Monica Cardoza
Ingels, a racing technician, built a kart for his own
amusement in 1956. He constructed it of metal tubes
Further Reading supporting a seat, four wheels, and a small engine that
Funakoshi, G. (1988). Karate-do Nyumon. New York: Kodansha had been built for lawnmowers. The frame was only
International.
Hickey, P. M. (1997). Karate: Techniques & tactics. Champaign, IL:
about 15 centimeters off the ground, and the body was
Human Kinetics Publishers Inc. barely larger than the seat. Karts have become more so-
Higaonna, M. (1985). Traditional Karate-do: Fundamental techniques. phisticated and larger, but Ingels’s design has remained
Tokyo: Minato Research and Publishing Co.
McCabe Cardoza, M. (1996). A woman’s guide to martial arts: How to the basic prototype for karts.
choose a discipline and get started. New York: Overlook Press. Ingels drove his kart as a hobby. Then, with partner
Reilly, R. (2003). Karate basics. North Clarendon,VT: Tuttle Publishing.
Yamaguchi, G. (1972). The fundamentals of Goju-Ryu karate. Burbank,
Lou Borelli, Ingels established a business named
CA: Ohara Publications. “Caretta” to manufacture karts commercially. The karts
KARTING 891
attracted public attention, and soon other companies The driver of a kart sits with legs extended or bent in
began making them. The pioneer karting enthusiasts front. His or her feet operate the accelerator and brake
staged informal meets in the Rose Bowl parking lot in pedals. In many karts, such as Sprint-type racers, the
Pasadena, California. In 1957 the Go Kart Club of seat back is upright. In Enduro karts the seat is angled
America was formed, and the first sanctioned kart race low so the driver is reclining to reduce wind resistance.
was held that year. Because karts have sensitive steering, concentration and
Interest in the sport quickly spread in the United fast reflexes are important. In addition to turning the
States and to Asia, Europe, and other parts of the world. steering wheel, the driver shifts his or her weight to as-
At the peak of this early popularity during the late sist in turning. The sense of speed often seems more in-
1950s and early 1960s an estimated 150 companies tense to the driver in karts than in larger vehicles.
were making karts or related equipment. The popular-
ity subsided, but karting has remained a popular sport, Squeals on Wheels
and popularity in the United States rose during the Young people often drive karts to have fun or to practice
1990s. Karting is especially competitive in Europe. their driving skills. More serious young karters and
Karts are a specific category of vehicle, although adults participate in competitive events, including infor-
many variations in their designs exist. Karts average in mal rallies and formal, sanctioned races with guidelines
length from 1.5 meters to slightly more than 1.8 me- established by regional or national karting organiza-
ters, and they are generally less than 63 centimeters tions. Among the largest such groups in North America
tall with a wheelbase (width) of 100 centimeters. Tires are the International Kart Federation and the World
are usually mounted on a wheel 12 centimeters in di- Karting Association.
ameter, and they average between 23 and 43 centime- The standards and rules of karting differ from coun-
ters in diameter overall. The kart body is usually open try to country. Most kart races are held on closed, round
and has railings for bumpers. However, some karts have tracks, which are generally a mile or less in length. One
covered bodies that resemble those of race cars. popular form of racing includes short races with large
Enthusiasts divide karting vehicles and events into fields of drivers who race a series of laps for a desig-
several classes. Young drivers are in special classes. nated distance or period of time. Endurance races, in
Classes are also based on the specifications of the karts. which drivers make many more laps, also are held. In
For example, concession karts are built for commercial 1983 four drivers in Ontario, Canada (Gary Ruddock,
rental and are limited to speeds of approximately Jim Timmons, Owen Nimmo, and Danny Upshaw), es-
32 kilometers per hour for safety and liability reasons. tablished an outdoor world record by driving a kart
At the other end of the range, larger and more power- 1,787 kilometers on a 1.6-kilometer track in twenty-
ful competition karts can travel at 130 to 160 kilo- four hours.
meters per hour or more.
Karts also are classified by whether they have a direct- Governing Body
drive system (in which the engine is connected to the The World Karting Association (www.wka.org) regu-
wheels by a chain) or a gearbox. A basic kart has one lates competitive karting.
rear-mounted engine. However, karts may have side-
John Townes
mounted or twin engines. Numerous sizes and cate-
gories of kart engines exist. In general they range in size
from 50 cubic centimeters to 260 cubic centimeters or
larger. Five-horsepower, 100-cubic centimeter engines Further Reading
are common. Smith, L. (1982). Karting. New York: Arco Publishing.
may vary from 9 meters to 11 meters (10 to 12 yards).

Kendo Kendo points are based on the technique having been
executed with ki-ken-tai-itchi (unified spirit, sword, and
K endo is the modern Japanese martial art of fencing

based on the techniques of the two-handed sword
(katana) of the bushi (warriors). The weapon used in
body) and meeting a number of other stringent (often
nebulous) requirements that are not obvious to the un-
trained eye.
modern kendo is called a shinai and is composed of The correct part of the blade must connect accurately
four slats of bamboo strapped together into a cylinder to a designated target area with the body, sword, and
by a leather grip (tsuka) and cap (saki-gawa), con- spirit in unison. The intended target area must be
nected by a nylon cord (tsuru), and a tie in the middle screamed out as contact is made, and sufficient alertness
(nakayui). The length and weight varies depending on (zanshin) must be demonstrated after the attack. A mere
age group, but must not exceed 120 centimeters for touch with the blade on the target in kendo is not suf-
adult males. ficient according to the current rules. Even though it
Exponents don protective equipment known collec- seems to connect, often the attack is not deemed valid
tively as bogu or kendo-gu, which consists of a protec- in kendo because some of the aforementioned criteria
tive mask (men), upper-body protector (do), gauntlets are not met. This aspect of kendo makes it very difficult
(kote), and a lower-body protector (tare). Training ware to follow for people who are not versed in the ways of
consists of a thick cotton robe called a kendo-gi, and a ki-ken-tai-itchi and all the elements that have to be pres-
traditional split skirt called a hakama, which is made of ent in a strike to make it valid. (Actually, this is some-
either cotton or nylon. times a point of confusion even for seasoned kendo
Training is centered on sparring and repetition of exponents.)
basic techniques of attack and defense that are based on Kendo, as do other martial arts, has a grading system
the four target areas of men (the head), kote (the wrists), in which novices usually start from sixth kyu working
do (the torso), and tsuki (thrust to the throat). Although up to first kyu. Following the kyu grades are the dan
there are only four target areas, there are many varia- grades. The first dan grade is shodan (first dan), which
tions, and techniques have been systematized and di- corresponds with a first-degree black belt in judo or
vided into attack (shikake) and defense (oji), which use karate, and so on. The highest grade was tenth dan, but
feints, parries, and blocks, with forward or backward the system was revised in 2000 and is now eighth dan.
movements. Dan grades are awarded at examinations based on tech-
A set of ten kata (choreographed forms) uses a wooden nical ability. In addition to dan grades are shogo or
sword (bokken) true to the original shape of a real sword, honorary teaching titles of renshi (holder must be sixth
rather than the straight cylindrical shinai. The kata were dan or above), kyoshi (seventh dan or above), and han-
formed for educational purposes, and correct form is em- shi (eighth dan). These are awarded based on the ex-
phasized. They are generally not used in competition. ponent’s understanding of the philosophy of kendo,
In a kendo match, three referees judge the validity of contributions to the kendo community, and personal
the competitors’ attacks. The first contestant to score attributes.
two valid points within the designated time (usually
three to five minutes) is deemed the winner. If only one History and Development of Kendo
point has been scored in regulation time, that person is Fencing with the single-edged, straight-bladed sword
the winner. If no point is scored, extra time may be al- was probably introduced into Japan from Sui (581–
lowed until a contestant scores, or in some cases a draw 618 CE) or early Tang (618–907 CE) China. The culti-
may be called. The length and width of the match area vation of sword skills flourished during the Kamakura
KENDO 893
The basis of true training in swordsmanship

is to forge the spirit. ■ YAMAOKA TESSHU
period (1192–1333), and was particularly prevalent In the mid-eighteenth century, Naganuma Shirozae-
during the Sengoku period of incessant civil war mon Kunisato of the Jikishin Kage-ryu tradition devel-
(1467–1568), where renowned warriors began to sys- oped protective equipment (bogu) for enabling adepts to
tematize their battle tested skills into schools or tradi- actually make realistic attacks without holding back,
tions known as ryu. and without the danger of maiming their opponents.
With the commencement of the Tokugawa period This was revolutionary because adepts were no longer
(1600–1868), Japanese society was finally unified and restricted to training in set forms with predetermined
stratified into four classes: bushi warriors, farmers, ar- outcomes. Soon after, Nakanishi Chuzo Tsugutake of
tisans, and merchants (shi-no-ko-sho). Although a dis- the Itto-ryu developed the shinai (replica sword made
tinct minority, the bushi warriors stood at the top of the from bamboo), which popularized this new training
system. They solidified their position by banning other methodology. Other traditions also introduced bogu
classes from possessing or wearing weapons. Thus, and shinai into their training curriculum. Toward the
practicing kenjutsu (fencing) became an activity almost end of the Tokugawa period, a number of prominent
solely for bushi. dojo (training halls) specializing in kenjutsu using pro-
The Tokugawa period was a time of continued peace, tective equipment for no-holds-barred sparring ap-
and no wars threatened the bakufu’s (military govern- peared in Edo (present-day Tokyo). This was the golden
ment) hegemony. Still, bushi of all domains were re- era of kenjutsu’s popularity.
quired to maintain military preparedness at all times,
and their ability to use violence set bushi apart from the Meiji Period Kenjutsu
other echelons of society. Skilled exponents from many In 1853, however, Japan’s respect for the traditional
of the kenjutsu traditions found employment as in- martial arts ended abruptly with the arrival of Com-
structors in domains throughout Japan. modore Perry’s “Black Ships” in Japanese waters. After
centuries of self-imposed isolation (sakoku), Japan found
Training Methodology itself outdated, outgunned, and out of its depth with the
and Equipment
Lack of actual combat opportunity caused the
moral and spiritual element of kenjutsu to grad-
ually become prominent, drawing on Con-
fucianism, Shinto, and Buddhist influences,
especially Zen. Kenjutsu became a means for
training the mind and body. Kata formed the
basis of training methodology. Two adepts
would face each other with live or blunted
blades, or wooden swords and perform chore-
ographed forms where the attacks would, in
theory, stop just short of actual contact with
the target area.
Kendo body armor.

Two female kendo participants in action.
Western nations. Although the seclusion from the rest of the spectacle as long as they paid the entrance fee. Many
the world had given the Japanese martial arts time to de- more exhibitions followed. However, many critics de-
velop into fascinating martial antiques, rich in ritualistic cried seeing the once proud bushi “selling their souls”
symbolism and spiritualism, they were no match for the and prostituting their martial skills for money. This was
devastating firepower of Western nations snooping seen as detracting from the true spirit of kenjutsu.
around Japan’s shores demanding special rights and The stars of the shows eventually found gainful em-
privileges. Kenjutsu, along with the other martial arts, ployment as kenjutsu instructors in the newly formed
was considered symbolic of an outdated feudal hierarchy police force in the 1880s, and as the talent in the
and no practical use to the emerging modern egalitarian troupes became depleted, the demonstrations ceased.
society of the Meiji period (1868–1912). Nonetheless, the historical importance of the gekiken
Sakakibara Kenkichi, a proud man of bushi back- kogyo cannot be denied, and in many ways, we still
ground lamented the impending extinction of traditional have kendo because of this chapter in history.
swordsmanship and other martial arts. He set about
rekindling popular interest by instigating a series of pub- Kenjutsu in Schools
lic demonstration matches (gekiken kogyo) featuring un- The worth of kenjutsu was quickly rediscovered by the
employed and destitute swordsmen. The first of these police, who endorsed it as an effective tool to train of-
curious martial circuses was held in Tokyo for ten days ficers. However, getting kenjutsu accepted into the
commencing 11 April 1873, and all members of the school curriculum as a tool for education was a long
public, regardless of age or sex, were welcome to witness and complicated process. In the 1870s, a number of
KENDO 895
Kendo
Rei
government officials voiced their inhibitions about to- In kendo, there is an often-quoted saying rei-ni-
tally westernizing the education system and wanted to hajimari-rei-ni-owaru ([kendo should] begin with
retain certain aspects of “Japanese-ness” in the physical rei, and end with rei ). Rei basically means cour-
education curriculum, which was based heavily on tesy or etiquette, and good manners are empha-
Western gymnastics. sised as a way of showing respect to one’s
To investigate the potential benefits and dangers of opponent or training partners. A group bow is
teaching kenjutsu in schools, the Ministry of Education always performed at the commencement and
instigated a number of official surveys. An 1883 inves- conclusion of each training session or tourna-
tigation acknowledged that teaching kenjutsu could be ment. Usually one bow is made to show respect
beneficial in complementing the knowledge-oriented to the other participants, another is performed to
school system with its emphasis on spiritual develop- the teacher, and yet another to a significant or
ment but would run counter to the medical or physio- part place in the dojo (kamidana, kamiza, shin-
logical benefits expected from physical education zen, shomen) in deference to the specialness of
activities, be detrimental to balanced physical develop- the training environment. Also, exponents bow
ment, encourage violence, and be dangerous, expen- to each other at the beginning and end of each
sive (equipment), and unhygienic. Thus, schools were individual bout. There are prescribed methods
not allowed to teach kenjutsu. for performing bows or gestures of respect de-
pending on the situation, and it is said that with-
Dai Nippon Butokukai out performing the bow properly with the
The move to introduce kenjutsu into schools was aided correct frame of mind and feeling of respect,
by the 1895 formation of the Dai Nippon Butokukai kendo degenerates into no more than violence.
(Greater Japan Society of Martial Virtue), which was es- Thus, for kendo to be considered a valid way of
tablished in Kyoto under the authority of the Ministry of character development, genuine feelings of re-
Education and the Meiji emperor’s endorsement. Its goals spect and the ritualized forms of etiquette per-
were to standardize and promote the plethora of martial formed to express it play a crucial role.
disciplines and systems found throughout the nation. Alexander Bennett
In 1899, the Butokukai constructed the Butokuden
dojo in Kyoto. Here, in 1905, a division was established
to train bujutsu instructors. In 1911, the Butokukai-run
Butoku Gakko (School of Martial Virtue) was formed, be- new set of kendo kata as an educational tool to com-
came known as the Bujutsu Senmon Gakko (Bujutsu plement training in amour. In 1912, the Dai Nippon
Specialist School) in 1912 and then the Budo Senmon Teikoku Kendo Kata (Great Japan Imperial Kendo Kata),
Gakko in 1919 when the term bu-justu was officially re- which consisted of ten forms, was unveiled. Numerous
placed with bu-do to emphasize the martial “way” or spir- amendments were made thereafter, but it essentially con-
itual aspects of the martial arts. At this time, ken-jutsu stituted what modern exponents still practice as Nihon
became commonly known as ken-do. The Butokukai ac- Kendo Kata.
tively promoted kendo and other martial arts by creating
a ranking system, training teachers, and holding special Pre-War Militarism and
events and tournaments and was the driving force behind Postwar “Democratization”
elevating the martial arts into elective courses in schools. By the mid 1930s, Japan’s government was mostly con-
In an attempt to unify the many kenjutsu traditions trolled by the military. Schools were ordered to stress
and their techniques, the Butokukai also developed a patriotism and seishin kunren, or “spiritual training.”
Kendo
Iaido
Iaido, or the art of drawing the sword, is another of kata were developed to transcend traditional
martial art related to kendo. However, in contrast to school affiliations and facilitate inter-ryuha competi-
kendo, a live blade (or blunt steel replica) is used to tion and grading examinations. These kata have been
perform set moves (kata) against an imaginary op- slowly added to over the years. As of 2004, twelve
ponent. Iaido techniques were said to have been kata have been formulated by the All Japan Kendo
founded by Hayashizaki Shigenobu during the tur- Federation and they are practiced in addition to those
moil of the Warring States period sometime in the lat- of the particular ryuha the exponent belongs to. The
ter part of the sixteenth century. Subsequently, many grading system in iaido is exactly the same as that
different schools (ryuha) were developed over the en- used in kendo. In tournaments, competitors perform
suing centuries, each retaining their own characteris- their solo kata in pairs in front of judges who decide
tics and unique kata. Bushi practiced kenjutsu with the winner based on accuracy and precision of the
an opponent to hone their combat ability, and iai as techniques and cuts, posture, cleanness of movement,
a way to master the subtleties of the quick draw, and timing, verve, sense of reality, and concentration ap-
manipulating the blade for cutting. parent in the contestant.
In 1956, an iaido division was set up in the All
Alexander Bennett
Japan Kendo Federation, and in 1969, a generic set
Kendo was promoted to a compulsory subject in schools, The All Japan Shinai Kyogi Federation was inaugu-
and by 1942, the government had banned participation rated in 1950 and continued to propagate and refine
in most Western sports. By March 1942, physical edu- the rules and methodology of this new sporting cre-
cation classes in schools focused on kendo, kyudo, judo, ation. In 1952, authorities permitted shinai kyogi as an
naginata (for girls), and rifle practice. Kendo was adapted elective subject in middle and high schools. In the
to make it more combat-realistic. For example, emphasis same year, the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) was
on making one sacrificial attack was idealized rather than formed, and conventional kendo was once again per-
technical dexterity that might facilitate winning bouts. mitted, albeit in a far less violent form than a decade
Matches were made ippon-shobu, or the first person to get earlier. In 1957, shinai kyogi was combined with
a point was the winner. Shinai were shortened to resem- kendo to become gakko kendo (school kendo), and the
ble the length of a real sword, and grappling from close All Japan Shinai Kyogi Federation was dissolved. Al-
quarters was encouraged. though often disregarded as an extremely watered-
After Japan’s defeat in World War II, the Allied Pacific down version of real kendo, shinai kyogi was the
command banned budo. Undoubtedly trainings were instrumental factor in the reinstatement of kendo and
still held in secret, but officially, kendo and the other profoundly affected how postwar kendo developed,
budo arts were prohibited. However, in September especially for match rules.
1949, the Tokyo Collegiate Kendo Federation alumni Following the inauguration of the AJKF in 1952,
formed the Tokyo Kendo Club to look at ways to revive the first annual All Japan Kendo Championships were
kendo as a sport suitable for a postwar democratic so- held in 1953, the All Japan Collegiate Kendo Federa-
ciety. They formulated a plan for a new sport called shi- tion was formed in the same year, the All Japan Com-
nai kyogi. The sporting aspect of kendo was stressed, pany Kendo Federation was formed in 1957, and the
and the combative applications prevalent before and All Japan School Kendo Federation was formed in
during the war were consciously removed. 1961.
KENDO 897
In kendo and in life, what you don’t sweat

when you are young will turn into tears
when you are old. ■ TSURUMARU JUICHI
International Spread of Kendo THE CONCEPT OF KENDO

Japanese emigrating to the United States, Brazil, and The concept of kendo is to discipline the human char-
Canada spread kendo, as did Japanese colonialism in acter through the application of the principles of the
Taiwan and Korea in the pre-war period. However, katana (sword).
kendo was introduced into Europe, Southeast Asia, and
Oceania mainly after 1945. The European Kendo As- The Purpose of Practicing Kendo
sociation was established in 1968, and European cham- The purpose of practicing kendo is:
pionships started in 1969. Outside Japan, Korea has the To mold the mind and body,
largest kendo population, although kendo is referred to To cultivate a vigorous spirit,
as kumdo there and considered by many as traditional And through correct and rigid training,
Korean culture. Koreans are eager for kendo to become To strive for improvement in the art of kendo;
an Olympic sport, but so far, the mainstream in the In- To hold in esteem human courtesy and honor,
ternational Kendo Federation (IKF) has been opposed To associate with others with sincerity,
because of the fear that over-emphasizing the sporting And to forever pursue the cultivation of oneself.
aspects of kendo would be detrimental to the “true This will make one be able:
essence” of the art. To love his/her country and society,
The IKF was formed at a meeting in Tokyo in 1970 To contribute to the development of culture
attended by seventeen countries and regions with the And to promote peace and prosperity among all
aim of cultivating goodwill through the international peoples.
propagation of kendo (also iaido and jodo). The IKF is
responsible for holding the World Kendo Champi- The Future
onships every three years, international seminars, as- In 2004, kendo is still a popular activity in Japan
sistance in developing federation infrastructure in and abroad. In Japan, however, numbers of expo-
kendo-developing countries, and information exchange. nents have dropped in recent years. This can be at-
As of 2004, there are 44 affiliate nations and an esti- tributed to a number of factors, including the social
mated 1,759,469 practitioners in affiliated federations problem of low birth rates and young people’s at-
around the world. Of that, 1,333,500 reside in Japan traction to professional sports such as baseball and,
and 400,000 in Korea (IKF records, 2004). more recently, soccer. Another issue is how relevant is
the prescribed kendo tradition of character building
Tradition versus Sports “through the application of the principles of the
The issue of whether kendo is a form of “traditional katana” to people living in the twenty-first century.
culture” or a “sport” still fuels heated discussions, often Modern kendo in its current form is not as old as
without a suitable definition for either. Great empha- some would suggest, and many refinements have
sis is placed on kendo competition, particularly at been made to rules, concepts, and techniques during
high school and university levels, and this is deemed the last century to facilitate kendo’s integration and
by more conservative exponents as being in discor- acceptance as a socially useful and fulfilling activity
dance with the true “way” or essence of kendo, where for the times. In this sense, although considered a tra-
issues of victory or defeat detract from the more im- ditional martial art by many, kendo continues to de-
portant goal of character development. With this in velop its sporting characteristics, while striving to
mind, the All Japan Kendo Federation created the of- retain and emphasize traditional values.
ficial “Concept of Kendo,” and “The Purpose of Prac-
Alexander Bennett
ticing Kendo” in 1975:
Kenya Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics:
1 Gold, 4 Silver, 2 Bronze
Further Reading Churchill and Theodore Roosevelt. The U.S. writer

All Japan Kendo Federation (Ed.). (1982). Zaidan hojin zen nihon Ernest Hemingway in Green Hills of Africa and the
kendo renmei sanjunen-shi. Tokyo: ZNKR.
All Japan Kendo Federation (Ed.). (1992). Kendokai no ayumi kono ju-
Danish writer Isak Dinesen (Karen Blixen) in Out of
nen. Tokyo: ZNKR. Africa show the romanticism but also a thinly disguised
All Japan Kendo Association (Ed.). (2003). Gojunen-shi. Tokyo: ZNKR. Anglo-European possessiveness toward the culture.
All Japan Kendo Association (Ed.) (2003). Kendo no rekishi. Tokyo:
ZNKR.
Bennett, A. (2004). Kendo—A comprehensive history of the modern art Competition at the Top
of Japanese fencing. Auckland, New Zealand: KW Publications.
Guttman, A., & Thompson, L. (2001). Japanese sports: A history. Hono-
Maiyoro Nyandika was the first Kenyan to compete
lulu: University of Hawaii Press. prominently in international running events, placing
Hurst III, G. C. (1988). Armed martial arts of Japan: Swordsmanship seventh and sixth, respectively, in the 5,000 meters in
and archery. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Kendo World Magazine. Retrieved September 8, 2004, from http:// the 1956 and 1960 Olympic Games. Kipchoge Keino,
www.kendo-world.com the athlete who attained world fame shortly after
Nakamura, T. (1985). Shiryo kindai kendo-shi. Tokyo: Shimazu Shobo.
Nakamura, T. (1994). Kendo jiten. Tokyo: Shimazu Shobo.
Kenyan independence and continues to be revered
Nakamura, T. (2003). Kindai kendo-sho Senshu Vol. 1–10. Tokyo: throughout Kenya for his sports successes and human-
Hon no Tomosha. itarian efforts, competed in the 5,000 meters in the
Otsuka, T. (1995). Nihon Kendo no Rekishi. Tokyo: Madosha.
Otsuka, T. (1995). Nihon Kendo no Shiso. Tokyo: Madosha. Olympics in 1964 (placing fifth) and in 1968 (placing
Otsuka, T., Sakaue, Y., & Utunomiya, S. (Eds.). (1990). Nobi Nobi second). He won the 1,500 meters in 1968, was second
Kendo Gakko. Tokyo: Madosha.
Shoju, M. (1976). Kendo Hyakunen. Tokyo: Jijitsushinsha.
in 1972, and also won the steeplechase that year.
Tominaga, K. (1972). Kendo Gohyakunen-shi. Tokyo: Hyakusen Shobo. Other Kenyan runners burst into Olympic promi-
nence during Keino’s career. Amos Biwott and
Benjamin Kogo were first and second in the 1968 stee-
plechase, Benjamin Jipcho was second in the steeple-
chase in 1972, and Naftali Temu won the 10,000
Kenya meters in 1968. Kenyan success has continued in
Olympic distance events and recurs in all international
T ribal variation, archaeological discoveries, colonial

history, and the romance of a wild (and presumably
accessible) country have influenced the development of
road races and particularly major marathons. Kenya es-
pecially dominates when running teams compete, with
the Kenyan men’s team winning every world cross-
sports in Kenya. Independence came in 1963 after a country event from 1987 to 2003. The success of
conflict that pitted members of the Kikuyu, the most Kenyans has enhanced the country’s image throughout
populous tribal group, against each other, the Kikuyu the sporting world and also has created speculation
against other Kenyans, and Kenyans against British about the reasons for such success.
colonialists. John Bale and Joe Sang provide an overview of the
In 1911 a German entomologist (a scientist who background of Kenya’s running success, noting the long
studies insects) had found fossils of antecedents of hu- history of physical culture in several tribes before entry
mans in Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge. The Leakey family, into modern sporting events under the influence of
whose members were among the earliest English settlers British teachers and coaches and support from the
in Kenya, and other paleontologists have since found Kenyan government after independence. Although
remains of the distant lineage of Homo sapiens at Kenyans have been successful in the steeplechase and
Olduvai and on the edges of Kenya’s Lake Turkana and international marathons, Kenyans also have won
Lake Baringo. Virgin land and great varieties of wildlife Olympic medals in shorter events, with Julius Sang
attracted hunters and adventurers such as Winston placing third in 1972 in the 400 meters and Samson
KENYA 899
Kenya
Inequitable Hunting Rights
In the extract below, Jason Machiwanyika de- Against such a background of modest economic re-
scribes how Europeans forced Africans to give up sources and low life expectancy, the sporting commu-
hunting, which had the effect of removing meat nity has debated reasons for Kenya’s success in running.
from the African diet: Much of the answer is now known. Some cultures have
Europeans took all guns from Africans and re- conceptions of the body and bodily movement that can
fused to let them shoot game. But Europeans be advantageous when exploited for sports. The for-
shoot game. Africans have to eat relish [the ac- mer Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta has discussed the
companiment to their maize-meal porridge] only centrality of running to puberty rites among the Kikuyu
with vegetables. If an African shoots an animal people. John Bale and Joe Sang have documented the
with a gun, the African is arrested and the gun is connections between tribal movement culture and mod-
confiscated. ern sports requirements, particularly the connection be-
tween the lifestyle and movement culture of the Kalenjin
Source: Machiwanyika, J. (c. 1920). Hunting in eastern and central Africa in the
late nineteenth century. Umtali, South Africa: Methodist Episcopal Mission Press. people around the town of Eldoret in the western high-
lands. The Kalenjins make up 12 percent of the Kenyan
population, yet they are the principal source of its suc-
cessful runners. With the exceptions of 1976 and 1980,
Kitur third in 1992. Kenyans also have had success in when Kenya did not field a team, Kenyans won every
Olympic boxing. Robert Wangali became the first black steeplechase event in the Olympics from 1968 through
African to win an Olympic boxing event when he won 2004. Eight of the winners were Kalenjin, and one was
a gold medal at 69 kilograms at the 1984 Olympics. a Kikuyu. Eight of the twelve Kenyan winners of the
Ibrahim Bilali placed third at 51 kilograms that year. Boston Marathon from 1988 through 2004 were
Philip Waruinga won bronze in 1968 and silver in Kalenjin. Successful women marathoners Joyce Chep-
1972. Samuel Mbugua (61 kilograms) and Dick “Tiger” chumba, Tegla Loroupe, and Margaret Okayo are Kalen-
Murungu (69 kilograms) won bronze in 1972, as did jin, and Catherine Ndereba is Kikuyu.
Chris Sande (75 kilograms) in 1988. Association foot- The area surrounding Eldoret has an elevation of
ball (soccer) is popular, and some Kenyans consider 1,800–2,100 meters above sea level, roughly equivalent
soccer the national sport, but Kenya has not been nearly to that of Boulder, Colorado. Altitude exposure can con-
as successful in world soccer competition as have other tribute to athletic performance, but evidence about its sin-
African nations such as Nigeria and Cameroon. gular effects is mixed. An athlete adapts to altitude at a
rate of approximately one day per 300 meters, and run-
Speculations about ners from sea level have difficulty running distance events
Kenyan Runners in cities such as Denver and Boulder without proper al-
Kenya has a population of 32 million and has had a sta- titude adaptation. Many U.S. runners do train at alti-
ble political history since 1963 compared with that of tudes several thousand feet above sea level prior to racing
many other African nations. However, economic con- in other localities. However, as Bale and Sang point out,
ditions remain poor, with gross domestic product many countries with altitudes equivalent to that of the El-
(GDP) per capita hovering at $1,000, and life chances doret area do not produce successful distance runners. In
precarious. The infant mortality rate is more than sixty- addition to the movement culture, altitude training, a tra-
two deaths per thousand live births (in contrast, Iceland dition of group training, and, of course, hard training reg-
has one of the lowest rates at 3.3), and life expectancy imens, institutionalized resources from English schools
is 44.8 years for men and 45.1 years for women (78.2 have recruited and trained young runners, and the gov-
and 82.3 years in Iceland). ernment has recruited athletes into the military and law
enforcement systems, where they can have access to train-

ing facilities. Kinesiology
The Future
Kenya’s history as a republic and its running prowess
are more than forty years old. Sports are a source of
K inesiology is the study of motion, the term being
derived from the Greek word kinein (to move).
The first recorded scientific use of the term kinesiology
pride for Kenyans and sports enthusiasts throughout was by N. Dally, who published an article entitled
the world; sports are a locus of collective memory. Ath- “Cinesiologie ou Science du Mouvement” and was cited
letic successes are valuable to Kenya’s commerce in the in the Librairie Centrale des Sciences in Paris in 1857.
global marketplace. However, in the larger context of Modern usage of the term has its early roots in the
global sports and Kenyan life and politics, sports are therapeutic sciences, especially physical therapy, which
qualified by larger priorities. Kipchoge Keino, chair of for some time has taught courses with titles such as
the Kenya National Olympic Committee, knows that “pathokinesiology.”
Kenyan running success carries obligations greater than Kinesiology, which has traditionally and almost uni-
Kenya’s success in world running events. With the help formly been referred to as “physical education” since its
of Nike and the International Olympic Committee he inception, has undergone much change during the last
has built a training facility for runners from throughout fifty years. This change has come both in the term and
Africa. He particularly seeks runners from countries in the subspecialty fields of research and teaching and
torn by geopolitical and ethnic strife, such as Burundi, the development of career opportunities. Changes
Sudan, and Somalia. within the broad domain of both the study and practice
of physical activity have accelerated somewhat during
Stephen G. Wieting
the past ten to fifteen years because of a number of
forces acting upon university departments that offer de-
grees in the study of physical activity.
Further Reading Approximately sixty universities in the United States
Anderson, D. (2005). Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya
and the end of empire. New York: W. W. Norton.
and Canada offer doctoral degree programs in the study
Bale, J. (1998, Summer). Capturing the African body? Visual images of physical activity under names such as “kinesiology” or
and “imaginative sports.” Journal of Sport History, 25, 234–251. “sport and exercise science.” The appropriate name for
Bale, J., & Sang, J. (1996). Kenyan running: Movement culture, geog-
raphy and global change. London: Frank Cass. degree programs in physical activity has been a topic of
Barkan, J. D. (2004, January–February). Kenya after Moi. Foreign vigorous debate during the past decade. Although
Affairs, 83, 87–100.
Dinesen, I. (1937). Out of Africa. New York: Vintage.
agreement is not uniform, kinesiology is the name
Elkins, C. (2005). Imperial reckoning: The untold story of Britain’s agreed upon by the majority of doctoral-granting uni-
gulag in Kenya. New York: Henry Holt.
versities in the United States and Canada.
Hemingway, E. (1935). Green hills of Africa. New York: Charles Scrib-
ner’s Sons. In the past, professional programs in physical ed-
Kenyatta, J. (1938). Facing Mt. Kenya. New York: Vintage. ucation prepared teachers and coaches, and thus al-
Lasson, F., & Selborn, C. (1994). Isak Dinesen: Her life in pictures
(3rd ed.). Copenhagen, Denmark: Karen Blixen Museum. most all degree programs and department names
Morell, V. (1995). Ancestral passions: The Leakey family and the quest included terms such as health, physical education, recre-
for humankind’s beginnings. New York: Simon & Schuster.
ation, or some combination of these. During the past
Wallechinsky, D. (2004). The complete book of the summer Olympics,
Athens edition. Wilmington, DE: Sport Media Publishing. twenty-five years, however, people have attempted to
Wa Thiong’o, N. (1983). Barrel of a pen: Resistance to repression in neo- more precisely define the academic study of physical ac-
colonial Kenya. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
White, L. (1990). The comforts of home: Prostitution in colonial Nairobi.
tivity, and terms such as kinesiology, human movement
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. studies, sport science, movement science, and exercise
KINESIOLOGY 901
science have become widely used. Such was the prolif- tempted to rectify through research efforts and program
eration of terms that Razor and Brassie (1989) reported expansion. However, the resulting proliferation of
114 variations in use. Departments employed many of coursework and the diversity of faculty opinion as to
these terms to emphasize the disciplinary aspects of how the professional and disciplinary aspects of the
studying physical activity rather than the more practical field should proceed produced fragmentation. The ra-
and professional aspects of the field. pidity of change during the next twenty years was so
The search for a suitable descriptor to identify the pronounced that some experts admitted uncertainty
many activities that make up the broad spectrum of about the current parameters of the field. Appeals for re-
human movement studies was not new. However, no unification fell on deaf ears. As Harris (1981) observed,
concerted effort was made to come to a consensus. the field of study remained a “house divided” with in-
The launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik during the adequate organization, a lack of interpretation of an ap-
1950s signaled the rapid rise of Russian scientific propriate body of knowledge, internal power struggles,
progress and caused great concern regarding the status a redundancy of focus, and a bevy of organizations and
of science in the United States. A government commis- societies representing specialty areas.
sion chaired by former Harvard University President Nevertheless, major research universities in the
James Conant reported on the status of science educa- United States made concerted efforts to build a body of
tion in U.S. universities in 1963. Because its subject scientific knowledge around the fundamental processes
matter (physical education) was perceived as not suffi- of human movement, and by any measure the efforts
ciently “academic,” Conant’s report dealt a serious blow were successful. Fifty-seven institutions offer a doctoral
to university degree programs in physical education by degree in twenty-six generic areas of specialization; of
criticizing their professional preparation programs for these, thirty are graduate programs at major research
shallow content and suspect academic standards. Co- universities.
nant’s report went so far as to recommend the elimi- Kinesiology is rooted in the profession of teaching
nation of the field, particularly as it related to graduate physical activity, and although the connections between
programs. Responding to this criticism, Professor the two remain broadly educational, the development of
Franklin Henry (University of California at Berkeley, physical activity science at the university level retains
1964) claimed that physical education could exhibit both a biological and a behavioral perspective at the
the characteristics of an academic discipline and urged cost of studying professional application.
the field to adopt the behavior of other established The need for a single suitable descriptor resurfaced
fields. Henry outlined the many areas of scholarship during the late 1980s with more positive results. In re-
that are unique to the study of physical activity. As a response to a report by the National Commission on Ex-
sult, graduate programs were restructured into areas of cellence entitled “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for
specialization that included biomechanics, exercise Educational Reform” (1983) and legislative actions by
physiology, motor learning, sports psychology and so- states, departments of physical education have been
ciology, administrative theory, and sports history and forced to redefine not only their missions in terms of the
philosophy. content of their degree programs, but also the name
that they apply to both the department and the associ-
Fragmentation ated degrees. The absence of a clearly articulated and ac-
The lack of a focused body of knowledge in physical acceptable definition of the study of physical activity
tivity initially limited the academic preparation of stu- remained a serious problem in higher education. The
dents. Large amounts of coursework had to be term kinesiology surfaced at the time as a term for the
completed in related fields, a situation that scholars at- academic study of physical activity. It was recognizable,
Kinesiology
John F. Kennedy
on Fitness
the discipline and practice of health, physical educa-
Physical fitness is not only one of the most im- tion, recreation, and related fields during a period of
portant keys to a healthy body, it is the basis of ten to fifteen years. Members focused on the following
dynamic and creative intellectual activity. The re- issues:
lationship between the soundness of the body ■ An inordinate number of descriptors were in use.
and the activities of the mind is subtle and com- ■ Differences in conceptualization of the body of
plex. Much is not yet understood. But we do knowledge existed between universities.
know what the Greeks knew: that intelligence ■ Confusion reigned regarding the multitude of de-
and skill can only function at the peak of their gree titles, program names, and administrative
capacity when the body is healthy and strong; names.
that hardy spirits and tough minds usually in- ■ A nationally accepted descriptor would provide a
habit sound gods. strong sense of purpose, high visibility in academia,
and a greater understanding of the field than
presently existed in the eyes of the public.
■ Members of the AAPE resolved that the term kinesi-
neutral, and academically sound. The term emphasized
ology should represent both undergraduate and grad-
the central focus of the field but was general enough to
uate degree programs in universities.
allow flexibility of content and inclusion of both
professional-based and discipline-based study. Although complete uniformity has still to be achieved,
In 1988 academic leaders of the Big Ten Confer- the term kinesiology is now the most widely used term
ence invited scholars from twenty-three research- to designate the academic study of physical activity
oriented universities to their annual meeting at the sciences.
University of Michigan to discuss the need to bal- Michael G. Wade
ance the joint responsibility of producing profes-
See also Biomechanics; Human Movement Studies;
sionals in the field of education (sport and physical
Physical Education; Sport Science
activity) with the demands of a science-based research
university. At the center of these discussions was an
agenda to adopt a term that encompassed both pro- Further Reading
fessional and disciplinary perspectives. After much Conant, J. B. (1963). The education of American teachers. New York:
deliberation the conferees agreed (not unanimously) McGraw-Hill.
Greendorfer, S. L. (1987). Specialization, fragmentation, integra-
that the most suitable term is kinesiology, which tion, discipline, profession: What is the real issue? Quest, 39(1),
would include the study of physical activity in all 56–64.
forms and contexts. Harris, D. (1981). Physical education: A house divided. Monograph of
the American Academy of Physical Education, 15, 32–35.
Henry, F. (1964). Physical education: An academic discipline. Journal
Issues of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 35(7), 32–33.
King, H. A., & Bandy, S. J. (1987). Doctoral programs in physical ed-
In April 1989 a resolution adopting the term kinesi- ucation: A census with particular reference to the status of special-
ology was presented for further discussion to members izations. Quest, 39(2), 153–162.
Razor, J. E., & Brassie, P. S. (1989). HPER unit names in higher edu-
of the American Academy of Physical Education
cation—A view toward the future. Journal of Physical Education,
(AAPE). The AAPE, now called the “American Acad- Recreation, and Dance, 60(7), 33–40.
emy of Kinesiology and Physical Education” (AAKPE), Spirduso, W. (1988). A case for one name to describe the academic de-
gree program leading to certification to teach physical education.
is a select group of more than one hundred people rec- Proceedings of the Big Ten Leadership Conference (pp. 5–8). Cham-
ognized by their peers for outstanding competence in paign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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What is the book about?

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What are some of the issues discussed regarding adopting a new term?

What are some of the issues discussed regarding adopting a new term?

BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F

BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING GROUP

Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Editorial and Production Staff Printers

Information Management and Programming Indexers

Academies and Camps, Sport Athletes as Celebrities Boomerang Throwing

Commercialization of ESPN Globalization

Interpretive Sociology Marathon and Distance Running Pain

Russia and USSR Spain Track and Field—Jumping and

College Sports Officiating European Football Championship

Wimbledon Play-by-Play Announcing Poland

Management Social Identity Sports—Body Movement

Foxhunting Sledding—Skeleton Sports—Stick and Ball

Coliseum (Rome) Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Anti-Jock Movement

swing); England (quickstep); Cuba (rumba, cha cha

The IDSF goal is acceptance

[Darts] is a game to play with the golden glow of beer in one’s

D arts is one of the oldest established English pub

Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, plays

1937. Regrettably, one of the downsides of the in-

P OSTWAR GROWTH WHO RULES THE GAME?

T he Davis Cup, technically the International Tennis

privilege of the reigning champion for an automatic

Further Reading History of the Games

1860s. The time was characterized by the political bat-

Further Reading Healthy Eating

T he term diet actually means those things that are

What some call health, if purchased by perpetual anxiety about diet,

FATS ical activity. It is important to note that we are not los-

Whenever I get the urge to exercise, I lie down until

weight control can best be achieved through a

Diet and Weight Loss

Fall down seven times, get up eight ■ CHINESE PROVERB

Things do not change. We change. ■ HENRY DAVID THOREAU

Paralympic Games can be traced to Sir Ludwig Gutt- Athletics ✘ ✘ ✘

man, who founded the First Stoke Mandeville Games Badminton ✘ ✘

ternational competition for wheelchair athletes was held Bocce ✘ ✘

at Stoke Mandeville, with teams from Britain and the Bowling ✘ ✘ ✘

Netherlands competing. Since then, summer interna- Curling ✘

tional competitions for athletes with a disability have Cycling ✘ ✘ ✘

ber of sports, the number of athletes, and type of dis- Fencing ✘

ability. Competitions in winter sports, which began in Figure Skating ✘

1976, have followed a similar pattern. Goalball ✘

The Deaflympics (formerly known as the World Games Hockey ✘ ✘ ✘

summer and winter games (Stewart and Ammons Orienteering ✘

2001) usually conducted the year after the Olympic Powerlifting ✘ ✘

Games. The Summer Deaflympics includes competi- Roller Skating ✘

tions in athletics, badminton, basketball, cycling, mara- Rugby ✘

thon, shooting, soccer, and swimming. The Winter Sailing ✘ ✘

Deaflympics includes Nordic skiing, speed skating, Shooting ✘ ✘

Alpine skiing, and hockey. Skiing ✘ ✘ ✘

SPECIAL OLYMPICS Snowshoeing ✘

In 1968 Eunice Kennedy Shriver founded Special Soccer ✘ ✘ ✘