Implication of increased live

loads on the design of precast

concrete bridge girders

Nagib Gerges and Antoine N. Gergess

P
recast, prestressed concrete girders are often used in
the construction of medium-span bridges1 with span
lengths varying from 12 m (40 ft) to 54 m (177 ft).
The precast concrete girders are cast in a casting yard and
then transported to the site, where they are erected using
mechanical cranes (Fig. 1). Pretensioning offers a cost-ef-
fective solution compared with posttensioning by obviating
the need for bursting and spalling reinforcing steel in the
end zones.

Standard American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) girders2 (Type II to
VI) are commonly used for span lengths varying from
12 m (39 ft) to 51 m (167 ft). These girders are designed
■  This paper examines the effects of increasing AASHTO LRFD according to AASHTO Standard Specifications for High-
specifications HL93 live loads on the design of precast, pre- way Bridges3 or AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifica-
stressed concrete girders. tions,4 and depending on the span lengths, applied loads,
and environmental classifications, the precast concrete
■  Charts that relate girder size and spacing to the span length girders’ sizes and spacing are determined (Fig. 2). Bulb
as a function of the 28-day concrete compressive strength and tees and modified Type VI girders are sometimes used to
environmental classifications were developed for HL93 and accommodate longer spans (up to 54 m [177 ft]). Designs
1.5 ´ HL93 live loads. are usually based on trial and error using commercial soft-
ware to determine the optimal girder spacing and number,
■  It was shown that the increase in live loads can be economical- size, and profile of prestressing strands.
ly accommodated by increasing the 28-day concrete compres-
sive strength. This paper present graphical plots (charts) that can easily
predict the precast, prestressed concrete girder size and
■  The charts provide a simple, practical method for optimizing the spacing as a function of the span length for a practical
precast concrete girder size and spacing. range of 28-day concrete compressive strengths and envi-

2 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

 Fabrication of girders Transportation of girders

Erection of girders Aerial view of elevated roads, bridges, and ramps

Figure 1. Precast, prestressed concrete girders for Sowa Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Photo courtesy of Al-Meraikhi Industrial Complex, UAE.

ronmental classifications. These solutions were obtained • The 28-day concrete compressive strength for the
from a parametric analysis based on the concrete service precast, prestressed concrete girders varied from 40 to
load stress limits in AASHTO LRFD specifications. 50 MPa (5800 to 7200 psi) for normalweight concrete.
The analysis was first conducted for regular HL93 live
loads and was then extended to HL93 increased by 50% • The optimal number of 15 mm diameter (0.6 in.) pre-
(HL93 × 1.5),5 a live load that more realistically represents stressing strands was determined based on the service
the actual complex truck weights, axle configurations, and load stress limits in the initial (release) stage.
truck weight populations.6 The implication of increasing
the design live loads on the precast concrete girder size and • The optimal girder spacing S was determined based on
spacing was examined, and alternative girder setups based the concrete service load stress limits in the final stage
on increasing the 28-day concrete strength were presented. for a girder spacing range of 1.1 m < S ≤ 3 m
This helped optimize the design of precast, prestressed (3.6 ft < S ≤ 9.9 ft) and a topping slab thickness
concrete bridge girders subjected to increased live loads.5 of 200 mm (8 in.) for HL93 live load and 250 mm
Application of the optimized solution was illustrated with a (10 in.) for HL93 live load increased by 50%.
comprehensive numerical example.
• The parametric service load stress analysis was con-
Assumptions ducted using computer software based on AASHTO
LRFD specifications.
The following assumptions were used for the paramet-
ric studies performed for AASHTO Type II to modified Identification of parameters
Type VI girders (Fig. 3) for bridge structures of span
lengths from 12 m (39 ft) to 54 m (177 ft): The main parameters involved in the design of precast,
prestressed concrete girders are the span length L, the

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 3

 11.2width
Bridge m

200 mm
t slab

1m 2.3 m 2.3 m 2.3 m 2.3 m 1m

Edge 1 Edge
Spacing S 2
Spacing S 3
Spacing S 4
Spacing S 5
distance distance
Le Le

Figure 2. Typical cross section of a bridge structure that contains precast, prestressed concrete girders. Note: The girder spacing and edge distance are usually set
based on practical limits: 1.1 m (3.6 ft) < S ≤ 3 m (9.9 ft); Le ≤ 1.1 m (3.6 ft); 20 cm (8 in.) ≤ tslab ≤ 25 cm (10 in.); 40 MPa (5800 psi) ≤ fc' ≤ 50 MPa (7200 psi).
fc' = 28-day concrete compressive strength; Le = distance from centerline of exterior girder to edge of slab; S = girder spacing; tslab = thickness of concrete slab.
1 m = 3.28 ft.

girder size, the 28-day concrete compressive strength f c' , smaller HL93 loading.2
the prestressing strand size, the design loads (mainly live
load), the concrete service load stress limits, and the girder 28-day concrete compressive
spacing S. Practical ranges of these parameters are defined strength
as follows.
The 28-day concrete strength f c' for the precast, pre-
Span length and girder size stressed concrete girders varied from 40 to 50 MPa (5800
to 7200 psi) in increments of 5 MPa (700 psi) for nor-
The girder size is a function of the girder design span malweight concrete. A 28-day concrete strength f c' of
length L. Commonly used AASHTO Type II to VI girders 50  MPa is highly recommended2 (as shown in the para-
were adopted in this paper (Fig. 2) for span lengths of 12 m metric analysis later). However, lower strengths were also
(39 ft) to 45 m (147 ft) in addition to a modified girder that considered because they provide a basis of comparison
was introduced for span lengths up to 54 m (177 ft). Fig- and, contrary to U.S. practice, 50  MPa may be difficult to
ure 3 shows the girder dimensions and section properties of achieve on a consistent basis in some locations.2
Types II to modified VI girders.
The concrete strength at release f ci' was taken as 0.8 f c'
Based on a simple span, the following span length ranges (commonly used for the concrete strength range consid-
were adopted for each girder type: ered):2

• Type II: 12 m ≤ L < 20 m (39 ft ≤ L < 66 ft) • f ci' = 32 MPa (4600 psi) for f c' = 40 MPa (5800 psi)

• Type III: 18 m ≤ L < 26  m (59 ft ≤ L < 85 ft) • f ci' = 36 MPa (5200 psi) for f c' = 45 MPa (6500 psi)

• Type IV: 24 m ≤ L < 34 m (79 ft ≤ L < 111 ft) • f ci' = 40 MPa (5800 psi) for f c' = 50 MPa (7200 psi)

• Type V: 30 m ≤ L < 38 m (98 ft ≤ L < 125 ft) Prestressing steel

• Type VI: 36 m ≤ L < 45 m (118 ft ≤ L < 148 ft) The prestressing steel area was based on 15 mm (0.6 in.)
diameter, low-relaxation strands where the area per strand
• Modified Type VI: 42 m ≤ L < 54 m Astrand was 140 mm2 (0.217 in.2). The minimum tensile
(138 ft ≤ L < 177 ft) strength fpu was 1860 MPa (270 ksi). The jacking strength
fpj was taken as 75% of fpu, which is equal to 1395 MPa
The span length ranges were set for the maximum live load (202.5 ksi).2,4 The strand distribution was based on a
HL93 × 1.5 and 28-day concrete strength f c' of 50 MPa 75 mm (3 in.) cover to exposed surfaces (measured from
(7200 psi), and their upper bound could be extended for the the centerline of the strand to the edge of the exposed

4 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

 Type II Type III Type IV Type V
12 m ≤ L ≤ 20 m 18 m ≤ L ≤ 26 m 24 m ≤ L ≤ 34 m 30 m ≤ L ≤ 38 m

Section properties
Girder
2 4
type Ybot, m Anc, m Icg, m
II 0.4 0.24 0.021
(4) III 0.52 0.36 0.053
IV 0.63 0.51 0.11
V 0.81 0.65 0.22
VI 0.92 0.7 0.31
VIM 1.08 0.81 0.52

Type VI Type VIM (modified)

36 m ≤ L ≤ 45 m 42 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m

Figure 3. AASHTO Type II to Type VI girders commonly used for medium-span bridges in addition to a modified Type VI girder that was specifically developed for the
new Khalifa Port project in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.13 Note: Designed according to British Standards.7,8 All dimensions are in millimeters. Anc = area of the
prestressed concrete girder; Icg = moment of inertia of precast concrete girder; L = span length; Ybot = distance from neutral axis of precast concrete girder to the
bottom fiber. 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 m = 3.28 ft.

surface) and 50 mm (2 in.) spacing measured between the initial stage (at release) for identifying the optimal number
centerline of strands elsewhere.2,4 of prestressing strands and in the final stage for identifying
the optimal girder spacing. These are presented as follows.
Concrete service stress limits
At release (initial stresses) Based on AASHTO
The concrete service load stress limits were used in the LRFD specifications, the allowable concrete service load

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 5

 Table 1. Allowable concrete stresses at release

Allowable tensile stress with- Allowable tensile stress with

28-day concrete Concrete release Allowable compressive
out bonded steel bonded steel
strength fc' , MPa strength fci' , MPa stress (σi )C = 0.6 fci' , MPa
(σi )T = 0.25 fci' , MPa (σi )T = 0.63 fci' , MPa

40 32 19.2 1.4 use 1.38 3.6

45 36 21.6 1.5 use 1.38 3.8

50 40 24.0 1.6 use 1.38 4.0

Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.

Table 2. Allowable concrete stresses in the final stage

Allowable compressive
28-day concrete strength Normal environments Aggressive environments Extremely aggressive
stress at 28 days
fc' , MPa (σe )T = 0.5 fci' , MPa (σe )T = 0.25 fci' , MPa environments (σe )T = 0
(σe )C = 0.6 fc' , MPa

40 3.16 1.58 0 24

45 3.35 1.68 0 27

50 3.54 1.77 0 30

Note: fci' = concrete compressive strength at release; (σe)C = allowable concrete service load compressive stress in the final stage; (σe)T = allowable
concrete service load tensile stress in the final stage. 1 MPa = 145 psi.

compressive stress at release (σi)C was 0.6 f ci' and the Dead load Dead load consists of the self-weight of the
,
allowable concrete service load tensile stress (σi)T in MPa precast concrete girder and reinforced concrete topping slab
' '
was 0.25 f ci < 1.38 MPa (3 f ci < 0.2 ksi) for noncom- and superimposed dead loads. The self-weight of the girder
pressed zones without bonded reinforcement and 0.63 f ci' and slab is based on a unit weight of 25 kN/m3 (150 lb/ft3)
(7.5 f ci' ) (modulus of rupture) for noncompressed zones for normalweight concrete.2,4 The slab thickness was taken
with bonded reinforcement. as 200 mm (8 in.) for HL93 live load and 250 mm (10 in.)
for 1.5 × HL93 (Fig. 2) (considered a noncomposite dead
The allowable concrete service load tensile stress at release load based on shored systems).
'
(σi)T in MPa of 0.25 f ci' < 1.38 MPa (3 f ci < 0.2 ksi)
was adopted for midspan zones and 0.63 f ci' (7.5 f ci' The composite dead loads comprised two traffic barriers
) for end zones. Table 1 summarizes numerical values for of 10 kN/m (680 lb/ft) uniform load each (Fig. 2), a future
these allowable concrete service load stresses as a function wearing surface load of 2.5 kN/m2 (50 lb/ft2) (based on
'
of the concrete strength f ci at release. In this paper a plus 100 mm thick [4 in.] asphalt), and a utility load of
sign (+) designates tension and a minus sign (–) designates 1 kN/m2 (20 lb/ft2). These loads were actually larger than
compression. normal bridge loads2,4 because they were based on strin-
gent design criteria.5
Final stresses The allowable concrete service load
stresses in the final stage were a function of the environ- Live load The design live load consisted of AASHTO
mental classification of the bridge structure.2,4 The allow- LRFD specifications HL93 truck, tandem, and lane loading,
' '
able tensile stress (σe)T was 0.5 f ci in MPa (6 f ci in ksi) that is a combination of a 325 kN (72 kip) truck or 220 kN
for normal environments, 0.25 f ci' in MPa (3 f ci' in ksi) (50 kip) tandem load (whichever governed) and a 9.3 kN/m
for aggressive environments, and 0 for extremely aggressive (0.64 kip/ft) lane load. The 325 kN truck load comprised
environments. Table 2 summarizes numerical values for three axles of 35 kN (8 kip) (front axle) and 145 kN (32 kip)
these allowable concrete tensile stresses (σe)T as a function (middle and rear axles). The spacing between the front
of the 28-day concrete strength f c' adopted in this paper. and middle axles was 4.3 m (14 ft), while that between the
middle and rear axles varied between 4.3 and 9 m (29 ft).
Design loads The 220 kN tandem was equally distributed between two
axles spaced at 1.2 m (4 ft). For span lengths 12 m ≤ L ≤
In the parametric study, the design loads consisted of dead load 54 m (39 ft ≤ L ≤ 177 ft), the combination of the HL93
and live load typically used in the design of precast, prestressed truck (325 kN) multiplied by 1.33 for impact and lane load4
concrete bridge girders. These loads are defined as follows. (9.3 kN/m [0.64 kip/ft]) governed.

6 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

The parametric analysis was first conducted for the HL93 Maximum number of strands
truck plus lane loadings.4 The analysis was then extended
by increasing the AASHTO HL93 truck and lane loadings The maximum number of 15 mm diameter (0.6 in.) strands
by 50% to 1.5 × HL93, a live load that is currently being per girder was determined based on the initial (release)
adopted by relevant authorities5 for the design of bridge stresses in the extreme fibers of the concrete section given
structures. This 50% increase was determined based on by Eq. (1) (bottom fiber in compression) and Eq. (2) (top
the British Standards7,8 design live load (designated as HA fiber in tension) as follows:2,4
and HB) that is larger than AASHTO LRFD specifications
HL93 live load.
 1 e  M SW
− Fi  + + ≤ ( σi ) C (1)
The British Standards7,8 HA load consists of a uniformly  Anc ( Sb ) nc  ( Sb ) nc
distributed load w equal to (336)(1/L)0.67 kN/m ([50]
[1/L]0.67 kip/ft) for L < 50 m (164 ft) and w equal to (36) where
(1/L)0.1 kN/m ([2.8][1/L]0.1 kip/ft) for L > 50 m (164 ft) with
a moving load of 120 kN (27 kip). For the span lengths Fi = initial prestress force after short-term losses
considered in this paper (12 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m
[39 ft ≤ L ≤ 177 ft]), the uniformly distributed load w Anc = cross-sectional area of the prestressed concrete
varied from 63.5 kN/m (4.3 kip/ft) to 24.2 kN/m (1.7 kip/ girder
ft), much higher than AASHTO LRFD specifications HL93
lane load of 9.3 kN/m (0.64 kip/ft). Moreover, the HB7,8 e = prestressing tendon eccentricity
load normally consists of four 300 kN (67.5 kip) axles
spaced at 1.8 m (6 ft) between the first and second axles (Sb)nc = bottom-fiber noncomposite section modulus
and the third and fourth axle,s with a spacing of 6 to 26 m
(20 to 86 ft) between the second and third axles. This re- MSW = self-weight dead load moment
sulted in a gross truck weight of 1200 kN (270 kip), which
is much higher than the AASHTO LRFD specifications (σi)C = allowable concrete service load compressive stress
HL93 truck load of 325 kN (72 kip) multiplied by 1.33 at release (Table 1)
(equal to 432 kN [96 kip]) for impact. Based on a previous
study,9 the HL93 live loads increased by 50% (on average)
that were adopted in this study were found to compare with  1 e  M SW
− Fi  − − ≤ (σi )T (2)
the British Standards HA and HB live loads. A
 nc ( S t ) nc  ( Sb ) nc

Girder spacing where

The upper and lower bounds of the girder spacing S (St)nc = top-fiber noncomposite section modulus
(centerline to centerline of girder, Fig. 2) were set at 3 m
(9.9 ft) and 1.1 m (3.6 ft), respectively. This girder spacing (σi)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress at
range of 1.1 m < S ≤ 3 m and the constant slab thickness of release (Table 1)
200 mm (8 in.) for HL93 live load and 250 mm (10 in.) for
1.5 × HL93 (Fig. 2) allowed the AASHTO LRFD specifica- Based on Eq. (1) and (2), the maximum number of pre-
tions live load distribution factor formulas to be used. The stressing strands was determined for the range of parameters
maximum spacing of 3 m was provided so that the 200 mm defined in this paper: 12 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m (39 ft ≤ L ≤ 177 ft),
thick (for HL93 live load) and the 250 mm thick (for 1.5 Type II to modified VI girders (Fig. 3), and f c' of 40 MPa
× HL93 live load) concrete slabs were not overreinforced. (5800 psi), 45 MPa (6500 psi), and 50 MPa (7200 psi).
The edge distance Le (that is, the distance from the center- The governing stresses in the initial stage were compres-
line of the exterior girder to the edge of the slab) was lim- sive stresses in the bottom fiber of the concrete section in
ited to 1.1 m for similar reasons in the overhangs (Fig. 2). the midspan region as the precompressed tensile zone was
subjected to self-weight dead load only at transfer (Eq. [1]).
Optimization of the design Tensile stresses at transfer were then checked using Eq. (2).
Stresses in the girder end zones10 were controlled by
In addition to the range of key parameters previously debonding (shielding) of strands according to AASHTO
defined, the maximum number of prestressing strands and LRFD specifications (the maximum number of strands that
girder spacing were determined based on the concrete could be debonded per girder was 25% of the total number
service load stress limits in the initial stage (for example, at of strands and 40% of the number of strands in a row) and/
transfer) and in the final stage, respectively. or using harped strands (a maximum of six strands per
girder were harped based on common practice to avoid
providing special anchoring systems and bulky formwork to

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 7

 17 28

N u m b e r o f st r a n d s

N u m b e r o f st r a n d s
16 26

15 24

14 22

13 20

12 18
12 14 16 18 20 18 20 22 24 26
Span Length L, m Span Length L, m

Type II Type III

41 49
39 47
N u m b e r o f st r a n d s

N u m b e r o f st r a n d s
37 45
35 43
33 41
31 39
29 37
27 35
24 26 28 30 32 34 30 32 34 36 38
Span Length L, m Span Length L, m

Type IV Type V
56 69
54 66
N u m b e r o f st r a n d s

N u m b e r o f st r a n d s

52 63
50
60
48
57
46
44 54
42 51
40 48
36 39 42 45 42 46 50 54
Span Length L, m Span Length L, m

Type VI Type V IM (modified)

f c' = 40 MPa f c' = 45 MPa f c' = 50 MPa

Figure 4. Maximum number of 15 mm diameter (0.6 in.) strands that can be accommodated per girder based on the allowable concrete service load stresses at
release. Note: fc' = 28-day concrete strength. 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 MPa = 145 psi.

resist the vertical component of the prestress force). directly calculated. Consequently, the maximum number
of strands that could be accommodated per girder were
The parametric analysis was conducted using computer plotted in Fig. 4 as a function of the span length L for the
software based on AASHTO LRFD specifications for span length range (12 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m [39 ft ≤ L ≤ 177 ft]),
the span lengths (Fig. 3) considered in multiples of 1 m for AASHTO Type II to modified Type VI girders as a
(3.3 ft). Initial prestress losses (elastic shortening) were function of the 28-day concrete strength range ( f c' equal

8 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

to 40 MPa [5800 psi], 45 MPa [6500 psi], and 50 MPa
[7200 psi]).  1 e  M ncdl M cdl
−F  + + + (4)
 Anc ( St ) nc  ( St )nc ( St )c
The number of 15 mm diameter (0.6 in.) strands that were
used in this paper varied from a minimum of 12 for Type II M 
+ ( 0.8 )  LL + I  ≤ ( σ e )C
girder ( f c' = 40 MPa [5800 psi]) up to a maximum of 69  ( St )c 
for modified Type VI girder ( f c' = 50 MPa [6500 psi])
(Fig. 4). Precast concrete fabricators in certain regions where
prefer limiting the number of 15 mm diameter strands to a
maximum of 50; otherwise the bulkhead capacity should (σe)C = allowable concrete service load compressive stress
be increased to withstand the magnitude of the prestress in final stage (for service I load combination = 0.6 f c' )
force at transfer.
The parametric analysis for selecting the maximum girder
Maximum girder spacing spacing was conducted for span lengths (Fig. 3)
(12 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m [39 ft ≤ L ≤ 177 ft]) in increments of 1 m
The spacing S between girders depends on the design span (3.3 ft) using computer software based on AASHTO LRFD
length L, the 28-day concrete strength f c' , the applied dead specifications. Final prestress losses (creep, shrinkage, and
and live loads, and the allowable concrete stresses. In this steel relaxation) were directly calculated by the software
paper, the parametric analysis for the girder spacing was based on AASHTO LRFD specifications’ approximate
performed based on the maximum number of strands that method without accounting for elastic gain (elastic gains
was determined in the initial stage (Fig. 4). The girder usually help reducing losses by 3% to 4%). Live load dis-
spacing was maximized based on the serviceability check tribution factors were conservatively calculated based on
for the maximum tensile stress in the positive moment AASHTO equations, though they could be more accurately
region in the final stage. This bottom-fiber tensile stress determined based on grillage models11 considering the true
check was performed based on AASHTO LRFD specifica- bridge geometry. Composite dead loads were assumed to
tions service III load combination using Eq. (3) as follows: be equally distributed among the number of girders.12

The optimal girder spacing as a function of the span length

 1 e  M ncdl M
−F  + + + cdl (3) was plotted for Type II to modified VI girders for f c'
 Anc ( Sb ) nc  ( Sb )nc ( Sb )c equal to 40 MPa (5800 psi) (Fig. 5), f c' equal to 45 MPa
M  (6500 psi) (Fig. 6), and f c' equal to 50 MPa (7200 psi)
+ ( 0.8 )  LL + I  ≤ (σ e )T (Fig. 7). Each figure contains two charts, one for HL93
 ( Sb )c  live loads4 and the other for 1.5 × HL93 live loads.5 Each
chart includes plots for the environmental classifications
'
noted in this paper; for example, (σe)T of 0.5 f c (6 f c )
'
where
'
for a normal environment, (σe)T of 0.25 f c (3 f c' ) for an
F = effective prestress force after total losses aggressive environment, and (σe)T of zero for an extremely
aggressive environment.
Mncdl = noncomposite dead load moment
The charts developed from the parametric study may also
Mcdl = composite dead load moments serve as design aids because they allow determining the
precast concrete girder setups and prestressing strand
MLL+I = live load moment plus impact distributions for a wide range of bridge lengths, live loads,
concrete strengths, and service load stress limits by inter-
(Sb)c = bottom-fiber composite section modulus polation.

(σ)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress in the Interpretation of results
final stage
Based on the charts in Fig. 5, 6, and 7, the effects of three
Compressive stresses were checked not to exceed the variations were carefully examined: increasing the 28-day
allowable concrete service load stress limits. AASHTO concrete compressive strength f c' , reducing the allowable
LRFD specifications require providing this stress check concrete service load tensile stress (σe)T as a function of
for different load combinations. In this study, the service I the environmental classification, and increasing the design
load combination4 that comprises live load governed and is live load from HL934 to 1.5 × HL93.5
given by Eq. (4) as follows:

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 9

 Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM
3.00

2.75

2.50

2.25
Spacing S, m

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54

Span length L, m

HL93 live load

Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM

3.00

2.75

2.50

2.25
Spacing S, m

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
Span length L, m

1.5 × HL93 live load

(σe)T = 0.5 f c' (σe)T = 0.25 f c' (σe)T = 0

Figure 5. Variation in girder spacing S as a function of the span length L for HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads based on a 28-day concrete strength fc' of 40 MPa
(5800 psi). Note: (σe)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress in the final stage. 1 m = 3.28 ft.

10 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

 Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM
3.00

2.75

2.50
Spacing S, m

2.25

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
Span length L, m

HL93 live load

Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM

3.00

2.75

2.50

2.25
Spacing S, m

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
Span length L, m
1.5 × HL93 live load

(σe)T = 0.5 f c' (σe)T = 0.25 f c' (σe)T = 0

Figure 6. Variation in girder spacing S as a function of the span length L for HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads based on a 28-day concrete strength fc' of 45 MPa
(6500 psi). Note: (σe)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress in the final stage. 1 m = 3.28 ft.

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 11

 Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM
3.00

2.75

2.50
Spacing S, m

2.25

2.00

1.75

1.50
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
Span length L, m
HL93 live load

Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VIM

3.00

2.75

2.50

2.25
Spacing S, m

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
Span length L, m

1.5 × HL93 live load

(σe)T = 0.5 f c' (σe)T = 0.25 f c' (σe)T = 0

Figure 7. Variation in girder spacing S as a function of the span length L for HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads based on a 28-day concrete strength fc' of 50 MPa
(7200 psi). Note: (σe)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress in the final stage. 1 m = 3.28 ft.

12 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

Table 3. Effects of varying the concrete strength, live load, and allowable stresses on spacing

Increase in girder Reduction in girder Reduction in girder

spacing S, % spacing S, % spacing S, %
Increase in fc' due
Increase in concrete Reduction in tensile to increased live
strength fc' , MPa stress (σe )T, MPa load of 1.5 × HL93,
MPa
Maxi- Maxi- Maxi-
Average Average Average
mum mum mum

40 to 45 20 30 0.5 fc' to 0.25 fc' 10 15 40 20 30

45 to 50 20 30 0.25 fc' to 0 10 15 45 17 25

40 to 50 45 70 0.5 fc' to 0 20 25 50 15 22

Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.

Effect of increasing the 28-day

concrete compressive strength spacing for f c' of 40 and 45 MPa and (σe)T of 0.25 f c'
were almost comparable to the cases where f c' was 45 and
The effect of increasing the concrete strength f c' on the 50 MPa and (σe)T was zero.
girder spacing S was examined first. Based on the charts,
it was shown that increasing f c' from 40 to 45 MPa (5800 Effect of increasing
to 6500 psi), and from 45 to 50 MPa (7200 psi) would in- the design live load
crease S by approximately 20% for HL93 and 1.5 × HL93
live loads. This implies that the increase is about 40% if Last, the effect of increasing the design live load by 50%
f c' is increased from 40 to 50 MPa. Those increases were on the girder spacing was examined.
determined as average values based on the ratios of the
ordinate the plots from Fig. 5, 6, and 7, for HL93 live load From Fig. 5 ( f c' equal to 40 MPa [5800 psi]), the girder
and for 1.5 × HL93 live load. Table 3 lists the increases in spacing S would reduce by 20% if the design live load
girder spacing (maximum and average values). was increased from HL93 to 1.5 × HL93. From Fig. 6 ( f c'
equal to 45 MPa [6500 psi]) the reduction in girder spacing
Effect of reducing the allowable S was 17%, and from Fig. 7 ( f c' of 50 MPa [7200 psi])
concrete service load tensile stress it was 15%. These percentages were computed based on
average values of the chart ordinates.
The effect of reducing the allowable concrete service load
tensile stress (σe)T from 0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) (normal environ- As for the case of reducing the allowable concrete ser-
ment) to 0.25 f c' (3 f c' ) (aggressive environment) and vice load tensile stress (σe)T, the effect of increasing the
zero (extremely aggressive environment) on the girder live load could be compensated by increasing the 28-day
spacing S was also examined. The graphs in Fig. 5, 6, and concrete strength by 5 MPa (700 psi); that is, the girder
7 show that reducing the tensile stress from 0.5 f c' to spacing for f c' of 40 MPa (5800 psi) and HL93 live load
0.25 f c' and from 0.25 f c' to zero necessitated reduc- was almost comparable to the case where f c' was 45 MPa
ing the girder spacing by an average of about 10%. The (6500 psi) with a 1.5 × HL93 live load (within 5%), and
greatest reductions in spacing occurred at the greatest span the girder spacing for f c' of 45 MPa and HL93 live load
lengths. was almost comparable to the case where f c' was 50 MPa
(7200 psi) with a 1.5 × HL93 live load (also within 5%).
The effect of reducing the allowable concrete service load
tensile stress on girder spacing can be overcome by in- Effect of reducing the allowable
creasing the 28-day concrete strength by 5 MPa (700 psi). concrete service load tensile stress
That is, the girder spacing for f c' of 40 and 45 MPa (5800 and increasing the design live load
and 6500 psi) and (σe)T of 0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) was almost
comparable to the cases where f c' was 45 and 50 MPa The worst-case scenario was encountered when the design
(7200 psi) and (σe)T was 0.25 f c' (3 f c' ), and the girder live load was increased by 50% (from HL934 to 1.5 ×

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 13

 HL935) and the allowable concrete service load tensile 1.5 × HL93 allowed reducing the girder spacing S by
stress (σe)T was reduced from 0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) (normal en- up to 20%. These reductions could be compensated
vironment) to 0.25 f c' (3 f c' ) (aggressive environment) by increasing the 28-day concrete strength by 5 MPa
and to zero (extremely aggressive environment). (700 psi).

Increasing the live load from HL93 to 1.5 × HL93 and • Reducing the allowable concrete service load tensile
' '
reducing the allowable concrete service load tensile stress stress (σe)T from 0.5 f c (6 f c ) (normal environ-
(σe)T from 0.5 f c' to 0.25 f c' (6 f c' to 3 f c' ) resulted ment) to 0.25 f c' (3 f c' ) (aggressive environment)
in reducing the girder spacing by 30%. This 30% reduc- and increasing the design live load from HL93 to
tion was determined as an average value of the ratios of the 1.5 × HL93 allowed reducing the girder spacing S by
ordinates of the graphs. up to 30%. This 30% reduction could be compensated
by increasing the 28-day concrete strength to 50 MPa
The reduction in girder spacing was 40% if the allowable (7200 psi).
concrete service load tensile stress (σe)T reduced from 0.5
f c' (6 f c' ) to zero (determined as an average value of the • Reducing the allowable concrete service load tensile
ratios of the ordinates of the graphs in Fig. 5, 6, and 7 for stress (σe)T from 0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) (normal environ-
(σe)T equal to zero compared with (σe)T equal to 0.5 f c' . ment) to zero (extremely aggressive environment)
and increasing the live load from HL93 to 1.5 × HL93
The reductions in girder spacing could be compensated by (worst-case scenario)5 decreased the girder spacing S
increasing the concrete strength to its upper-bound value by 40%. This can be reduced to 10% by increasing the
f c' of 50 MPa (7200 psi).2 For the case where the live load 28-day concrete strength to 50 MPa (7200 psi).
increased from HL93 to 1.5 × HL93 and the allowable
concrete service load tensile stress (σe)T reduced from In conclusion, specifying the 28-day concrete strength f c'
0.5 f c' to 0.25 f c' (6 f c' to 3 f c' ), the girder spacing as 50 MPa (7200 psi)2 could result in major cost savings
from Fig. 5 was comparable to the girder spacing from by reducing the number of girders, especially in extreme
Fig. 7. For the case where the allowable concrete service loadings and environmental conditions.5
load tensile stress (σe)T reduced from 0.5 f c' to zero, the
girder spacing from Fig. 7 was 10% smaller than the girder Numerical example
spacing from Fig. 5.
Description
Summary
The applicability of the parametric study was illustrated
Figures 5, 6, and 7 provide graphs that related the girder by considering a 40 m long (132 ft) bridge structure. The
size (Type II to modified VI) and spacing (1.1 m < S ≤ 3 m length of the precast concrete girders was equal to 39.6 m
[3.6 ft < S ≤ 9.9 ft]) to the span length (12 m ≤ L ≤ 54 m (131 ft), and the design span length L (between bear-
[39.4 ft ≤ L ≤ 177.2 ft]) as a function of concrete strength ings) was equal to 38.8 m (128 ft). The bridge width was
f c' of 40 MPa, 45 MPa, and 50 MPa (5800 psi, 6500 psi, 11.2 m (37 ft), which comprised two 3.65 m wide (12 ft)
and 7200 psi) and permissible tensile stress (σe)T of lanes, two 1 m wide (5 ft) shoulders, and two 0.45 m
0.5 f c' , 0.25 f c' , and zero (6 f c' ), 3 f c' , and zero) for wide (1.5 ft) barriers. The concrete slab thickness tslab was
HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads. The following conclu- 200 mm (8 in.) for HL93 live load and 250 mm (10 in.)
sions were made from these figures: for 1.5 × HL93 live load. Superimposed loads consisted of
two barriers with a weight of 10 kN/m (680 lb/ft) each, a
• Increasing the 28-day concrete strength f c' from 40 100 mm thick (4 in.) asphalt surface and a 1 kN/m2
to 45 MPa (5800 to 6500 psi) and from 45 to 50 MPa (20 lb/ft2) utility load. It was required to determine the
(7200 psi) allowed increasing the girder spacing S by optimal girder spacing and number of prestressing strands
20%. that should withstand the HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads
for the various environmental classifications and concrete
• Reducing the allowable concrete service load tensile strength considered in this paper.
stress (σe)T from 0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) (normal environ-
'
ment) to 0.25 f c (3 f c' ) (aggressive environment) Girder size and maximum number
and from 0.25 f c' (aggressive environment) to zero of strands
(extremely aggressive environment) allowed reducing
the girder spacing S by 10%. These reductions could From Fig. 3, a Type VI girder was required for a design
be compensated by increasing the 28-day concrete length L of 38.8 m (128 ft). From Fig. 4, the maximum
strength by 5 MPa (700 psi). number of 15 mm diameter (0.6 in.) strands was 42 for f c'
of 40 MPa (5800 psi), 46 for f c' of 45 MPa (6500 psi), and
• Increasing the design live load from HL93 to 51 for f c' of 50 MPa (7200 psi).

14 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

Table 4. Numerical example results

fc' = 40 MPa fc' = 45 MPa fc' = 50 MPa

HL93 1.5 × HL93 HL93 1.5 × HL93 HL93 1.5 × HL93

S = 2.3 m S = 1.9 m S = 2.65 m S = 2.25 m S = 3 m S = 2.55 m

(σe )T = 0.5 fc' 5 girders 6 girders 5 girders 5 girders 4 girders 5 girders

Le = 1 m Le = 0.85 m Le*= 0.6 m Le = 1.1 m Le = 1.1 m Le* = 0.6 m

S = 2.05 m S = 1.65 m S = 2.45 m S = 2 m S = 2.8 m S = 2.35 m

(σe )T = 0.25 fc' 6 girders 7 girders 5 girders 6 girders 5 girders 5 girders

Le† = 0.6 m Le = 0.65 m Le = 0.7 m Le = 0.6 m Le*= 0.6 m Le = 0.9 m

S = 1.85 m S = 1.4 m S = 2.25 m S = 1.75 m S = 2.55 m S = 2.1 m

(σe )T = 0 6 girders 8 girders 5 girders 7 girders 5 girders 6 girders

Le =0.975 m Le = 0.7 m Le = 1.1 m Le‡ =0.65 m Le* = 0.6 m Le† = 0.6 m

*
S is reduced to 2.5 m to comply with edge distance Le limits (Fig. 2).
†
S is reduced to 2 m to comply with edge distance Le limits (Fig. 2).
‡
S is reduced to 1.65 m to comply with edge distance Le limits (Fig. 2).
Note: fc' = 28-day concrete strength; Le = distance from centerline of exterior girder to edge of slab; S = girder spacing; (σe)T = allowable concrete
service load tensile stress in the final stage. 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 MPa = 145 psi.

Prestressed girder spacing

For f c' of 45 MPa (6500 psi), S increased to 2.45 m
The girder number, spacing S, and edge distance Le (Fig. 2) (8.1 ft), (for example, five girders, which is the
were determined based on the charts in Fig. 5, 6, and 7 same as for normal conditions). For f c' of 50 MPa
as a function of the 28-day concrete strength, design live (7200 psi), though S increased to 2.8 m (9.2 ft), five
load, and environmental classification. Table 4 summarizes girders were also required to comply with the edge
results, which are discussed as follows: distance limits (Fig. 2).

• For f c' of 40 MPa (5800 psi), HL93 live load, (σe)T of • If the live load was increased to 1.5 × HL93 live
0.5 f c' (6 f c' ) (normal conditions), the girder spac- load, S reduced to 1.65 m (5.45 ft) for f c' of 40 MPa
ing S was 2.3 m (7.6 ft). For an 11.2 m (37 ft) width, (5800 psi), for example, seven girders. If f c' was
five Type VI girders with an edge distance Le of 1 m increased to 50 MPa (7200 psi), S increased to 2.35 m
(3.3 ft) were required (Fig. 2). For f c' of 45 MPa (7.8 ft), for example, five girders (same as for normal
(6500 psi), though the girder spacing S increased to conditions).
2.65 m (8.75 ft), the number of girders remained at
five to satisfy the edge distance limits (Fig. 2). If f c' • For f c' of 40 MPa (5800 psi), HL93 live load and
was increased to 50 MPa (7200 psi), the number of (σe)T equal to zero (extremely aggressive condi-
girders reduced to four with S equal to 3 m (9.93 ft). tions), S was equal to 1.85 m (6.1 ft) (for example, six
girders). For f c' of 45 MPa (6500 psi), S increased to
• If the live load was increased to 1.5 × HL93 live 2.25 m (7.4 ft), (for example, five girders, which is
load, S reduced to 1.9 m (6.2 ft) for f c' of 40 MPa the same as for normal conditions). For f c' of 50 MPa
(5800 psi), (for example, six Type VI girders with Le (7200 psi), though S increased to 2.55 m (8.4 ft), five
of 0.85 m [2.8 ft]). For f c' of 45 MPa (6500 psi), S girders were also required to comply with the edge
increased to 2.25 m (7.45 ft) (for example, five girders, distance limits (Fig. 2).
which is the same as for normal conditions). For f c'
of 50 MPa (7200 psi), though S increased to 2.55 m If the live load was increased to 1.5 × HL93 live load, S
(8.4 ft), five girders were also required to comply with reduced to 1.4 m (4.63 ft) (for example, eight girders). For
the edge distance limits (Fig. 2). f c' of 50 MPa (7200 psi), S increased to 2 m (6.6 ft) and
'
the number of girders reduced to six.
• For f c of 40 MPa (5800 psi), HL93 live load and
(σe)T of 0.25 f c' (3 f c' ) (aggressive conditions), S The numerical application illustrated the benefits of in-
was equal to 2 m (6.6 ft) (for example, six girders). creasing the concrete strength f c' on the design of precast

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 15

 Trestle bridge after completion Main bridge during construction

Precast concrete girder lifting Precast concrete girder placement

Figure 8. Photos of the new Khalifa Port trestle bridge structure and main bridge during and after construction. Photo courtesy of Archirodon Construction, UAE.

concrete girders subjected to increased live loads. Based on of 40 MPa (5800 psi), and the spacing S increased to 2 m
HL93 live load, it was shown that increasing f c' to 50 MPa (6.6 ft) for f c' of 50 MPa (7200 psi). However, 90 tonne
(7200 psi) reduced the number of girders by one. This ef- (200 kip), modified Type VI girders were fabricated
fect was more noticeable when the when the live load was instead to match the larger girder spacing of 2 m (6.6 ft)
increased to 1.5 × HL935 and the environmental classifica- that was presented in the original design.13 Based on 40 m
tion was set as extremely aggressive, where (σe)T was equal (130 ft) spans measured between centerlines of piers, the
to zero, as the number of girders reduced from eight for f c' total number of spans in all three bridges was 90 (25 + 25
of 40 MPa (5800 psi) to six for f c' of 50  MPa (7200 psi). + 40), and the total number of modified Type VI precast
concrete girders was 905. If f c' was increased to 50 MPa
Practical application (7200 psi), the modified Type VI girder spacing would in-
crease to 2.55 m (8.4 ft). For example, the number of gird-
The numerical application was based on data taken from a ers could be reduced by about 20%, a savings of 180 gird-
recently completed project in the Middle East13 that com- ers. Alternatively, the smaller Type VI girders could have
prised a 1000 m long (3300 ft), 28.9 m wide (94.8 ft) main been used based at the same spacing of 2 m. This clearly
bridge; a 1000 m long (3300 ft), 27.5 m wide (90.2 ft) illustrates the cost and time savings benefits of increasing
utility bridge; and a 1640 m long (5380 ft), 12 m wide the concrete strength.
(39 ft) trestle bridge (Fig. 8) subdivided into 40 m (130 ft)
spans measured between centerlines of piers and designed Conclusion
according to British Standards7,8 using a concrete cylinder
strength f c' of 41.7 MPa (6000 psi). It was shown in the AASHTO HL93 live loads do not always represent the
numerical example that for extremely aggressive environ- actual traffic conditions for bridge design, especially in
mental conditions and 1.5 × HL93 live load, AASHTO regions where the enforcement characteristics on truck
Type VI girders spaced 1.4 m (4.6 ft) were required for f c' weight distributions are more stringent.6 Increasing live

16 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

loads (1.5 × HL93), required a reduction of the girder hancement of Bridge Live Loads Using Weigh-in-
spacing by 20%. This reduction in girder spacing could Motion Data.” Bridge Structures 3 (3–4): pp. 193–204.
be compensated by increasing the concrete strength f c' by
approximately 5 MPa (700 psi). A more severe situation 7. BSI (British Standards Institute) 2006. Steel, Concrete
was encountered when the live load was increased and the and Composite Bridges – Part 2: Specification for
allowable concrete service load tensile stress (σe)T was re- Loads. BS 5400-2:2006. BSI.
duced based on the environmental classification (from 0.5
f c' [6 f c' ] for normal environment to 0.25 f c' [3 f c' 8. 2001. “Loads for Highway Bridges.” In Design
] for aggressive environment and to zero for extremely ag- Manual for Roads and Bridges, BD37/01, V. 1, section
gressive environment). The reduction in girder spacing was 3, part 14. Department of Transport, Highway and
noted at 30% to 40% and was greatly improved by increas- Traffic, UK Highways Agency.
ing the concrete strength to 50 MPa (7200 psi).
9. Gergess, A., and R. Sen. 2013. “Design of Precast
Furthermore, the design aids provided in this paper not Bridge Girders Made Continuous under Increased
only set up the basis for optimization but also helped re- Live Loads.” PCI Journal (Spring).
duce trial and error in predicting the precast concrete girder
size and spacing for a wide range of bridge live loads 10. Russell, B. W., and N. H. Burns. 1993. Design Guide-
and configurations. Such information paves the way for lines for Transfer, Development and Debonding of
more rigorous investigations on the effects of new trends Large Diameter Seven Wire Strands in Pretensioned
of bridge design live loads that could be soon adopted in Concrete Girders. Research report 1210-5F. Austin,
design specifications. Tex.: Center for Transportation Research, University
of Texas at Austin.
Acknowledgments
11. Hambley, E. C. 1991. Bridge Deck Behavior. 2nd ed.
The authors are indebted to Miroslav Tepavcevic, technical London, UK, and New York, NY: E & FN Spon, an
director of Al-Meraikhi Industrial Complex in the United imprint of Chapman and Hall.
Arab Emirates (www.almgroup.ae) for sharing informa-
tion on its innovative precast, prestressed concrete girder 12. FDOT (Florida Department of Transportation). 2010.
fabrication techniques. They thank Khaled Al-Sayed from Florida Department of Transportation Structural
Archirodon Construction for his great assistance, and due Design Guidelines. Tallahassee, FL: FDOT Structural
acknowledgment is also given to Abu Dhabi Ports Co., cli- Design Office.
ent for Khalifa Port Bridges project.
13. Karapiperis D., G. Lykidis, K. Savvopoulos, K. El-
References Sayed, and K. Loukakis. 2010. “Combining Effort.”
Civil Engineering Magazine (July): pp. 74–85
1. Khaleghi, B. 2005. “Use of Precast Members for Ac-
celerated Bridge Construction in Washington State.” Notation
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Trans-
portation Research Board CD 11-S: pp. 187–196. Anc = area of the prestressed concrete girder

2. PCI Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee. 2003. Astrand = area of strand
Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Design Manual.
MNL-133. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: PCI. e = prestressing tendon eccentricity

3. AASHTO (American Association of State Highway F = effective prestress force after total losses
and Transportation Officials). 2007. Standard Speci-
fications for Highway Bridges. 17th ed. Washington, Fi = initial prestress force after short-term losses
DC: AASHTO.
f c' = 28-day concrete compressive strength
4. AASHTO. 2010. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
5th ed. Washington, DC: AASHTO. f ci' = concrete strength at release

5. Abu Dhabi Municipality. 2008. “Structural Design Re- fpj = jacking strength
quirements for Bridges.” Municipality of Abu Dhabi.
www.adm.gov.ae. fpu = minimum tensile strength.

6. Sivakumar, B., and F. Sheikh Ibrahim. 2007. “En- Icg = moment of inertia of precast concrete girder

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 17

 L = span length

Le = distance from centerline of exterior girder to edge

of slab

Mcdl = composite dead load moment

MLL+I = live load moment plus impact

Mncdl = noncomposite dead load moment

MSW = self-weight dead load moment

S = girder spacing

(Sb)c = bottom-fiber composite section modulus

(Sb)nc = bottom-fiber noncomposite section modulus

(St)nc = top-fiber noncomposite section modulus

tslab = thickness of concrete slab

w = uniformly distributed load

Ybot = distance from neutral axis of precast concrete

girder to the bottom fiber

(σe)C = a llowable concrete service load compressive stress

in the final stage

(σe)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress in the

final stage

(σi)C = allowable concrete service load compressive stress

at release

(σi)T = allowable concrete service load tensile stress at

release

18 Fall 2 0 1 2 | PCI Journal

About the authors the design of precast, prestressed concrete girders. A
parametric study was first conducted for this purpose.
Nagib N. Gerges, PhD, PE, is a Design aids in the form of charts that relate the precast
professor of civil engineering at concrete girder size and spacing to the span length as
the University of Balamand in a function of the 28-day concrete compressive strength
El-Koura, Lebanon, and a private and environmental classifications were developed for
consultant for leading engineering HL93 and 1.5 × HL93 live loads. It was shown that
firms in the Middle East. the increase in live loads can be economically accom-
modated by increasing the 28-day concrete strength.
Antoine N. Gergess, PhD, PE, The charts not only set up the basis of comparisons but
FASCE is a professor of civil also provided a practical solution that can be simply
engineering at the University of used by precast concrete designers for optimizing the
Balamand and a bridge specialist precast concrete girder size and spacing.
for Al-Meraikhi Industrial
Complex in Abu Dhabi, United Keywords
Arab Emirates.
AASHTO, design aids, HL93, implication, live load,
optimization, parametric.

Abstract Review policy

American Association of State Highway and Trans- This paper was reviewed in accordance with the
portation Officials (AASHTO) design live loads are Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute’s peer-review
sometimes increased as directed by relevant authorities process.
to reflect actual traffic conditions. A 50% increase is
adopted in some regions of the Middle East based on Reader comments
comparisons of AASHTO LRFD specifications HL93
live loads with the British Standards HA + HB live Please address any reader comments to journal@pci
loads. Even in some U.S. jurisdictions, the AASHTO .org or Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, c/o PCI
live loads may not represent modern truck configura- Journal, 200 W. Adams St., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL
tions. This paper examines the effects of increasing 60606. J
AASHTO LRFD specifications HL93 live loads on

PCI Journal | Fa l l 2012 19