Bridge Watch

keeping
 Bridge Watcheeping
Chapter 1
Preparing For Sea

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the reasons for
testing the gear and checking that it is tested properly. You will be
introduced to the concept of ‘error chains’ and the need to understand
shipboard operations, in order to communicate effectively both onboard
and with the shore. A final section reminds you of your role in updating
navigational information.

The ship in port :

When a ship is in port, officers will supervise the loading and/or
discharge of cargo; ballasting or deballasting , the maintenance of the
ship; the maintenance of the machinery; the mooring arrangements which
are affected by the internal loading of the ship and the external rise and
fall of the tide; the security and the gangway and safe access to the ship .

Supplementary activities might include the loading of stores,

security, crew changes, shore gangs carrying out maintenance, surveyors
carrying out classification or statutory surveys and specialists servicing
equipment .

The need for systematic testing :

When so many activities are taking place and the ship’s officers are
working either in watches or on individual items of maintenance, it is not
possible to be absolutely sure that everything has been put back in perfect
working order. Indeed, experience shows that this is often not the case.
The only way to find out if all the equipment is functional is to test it .

The need for seamanship :

Before taking a ship to sea the Master must satisfy himself that the
ship is seaworthy. He will need to know, amongst other things, that :
- The cargo is stowed safely .
- The ship is properly battened down .
- All moveable objects are secured .

2
- Bridge equipment tested and operational .
- The main engine, auxiliaries and the steering gear are fully operational .
- Personnel are back on board, properly rested and ready to perform their
duties.

The command structure :

The Master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe and efficient
operation of the ship The Master delegates authority to the OOW
through :

Standing orders The routine of the ship

Night orders Direct orders and discussion

An example of an extract from Master’s Standing Orders is given

on pages 11 to 13. The OOW has a duty to carry out these orders to the
best of his or her ability. The OOW must comply with the Master’s orders
to ensure that the Master can properly direct the activities to be carried
out on board .

The responsibility of the OOW :

The international standards for bridge watchkeeping are given in
the Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping
1978 as listed in Annex 2. Specifically, the primary responsibility of the
OOW is stated as follows :-

“The officer of the watch is the Master’s representative and his

primary responsibility at all times is the safe navigation of the ship.
He should at all times comply with the applicable regulations for
preventing collisions at sea.”

Testing the gear :

The Master’s standing orders will usually delegate the testing of
ship’s navigational equipment to the junior OOW, who must ensure its
operational readiness prior to sailing .

Failure to ensure that all equipment is tested and in working order

can lead to critical situations. For example, on one occasion a failure to
test the whistle prevented a pilot from communicating urgently, to
another vessel in a fairway, that he was turning to starboard. On another
occasion, the omission to put out the binoculars in the wheelhouse
prevented an important landmark from being identified .

3
 Most errors can be corrected in time, but the aim of good
watchkeeping practice must be to ensure that the cause of an error chain
is avoided (see Chapter 12) .

Most ships require check lists to be used Standing Orders generally

state that the designated officer will verify each item and sign the list
before handing it to the Master prior to sailing .

Alternatively, a two-person system may be used whereby one

person reads out the item to be inspected and the other verifies its status.
A typical check list is provided on page 14 .

Preparations in the engine room and engine control room :

The OOW should, of course, be aware that as the ship prepares for
sea, preparation in the engine room and engine control room is also
taking place .

MASTER’S STANDING ORDERS

4
 M.V. Golden Rule

For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible for the
safety of the Ship until such time as he is formally relieved by another
officer or the Master, and until that time he shall remain at his place of
duty. The COW shall be guided by the contents of international
regulations and guidelines, but paying particular attention to the
following :

PARAMOUNT CLAUSE :
THE SAFETY OF THE SHIP AND ITS PERSONNEL IS ALWAYS
TO BE THE PRIME CONSIDERATION, TAKING PRECEDENCE
OVER ANY OTHER. NO CONSIDERATION OF PROGRAMME,
CONVENIENCE OR PREVIOUS INSTRUCTIONS JUSTIFIES
TAKING ANY RISK WHICH MAY PLACE THE SHIP IN
DANGER .

I - The first and foremost duty of the OOW is the keeping of a GOOD
LOOKOUT, using all means available, visual, audible and electronic .
2 - The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are to
be strictly observed. Do not hesitate to use the whistle or engine in
obeying these Regulations. When altering course for another vessel do so
boldly and in sufficient time to let any other vessel be in no doubt as to
your intentions .
3 - If you are in doubt as to another vessel’s intentions, or if the bearing
of any vessel on the port side is steady, call the Master, preferably when
the range still exceeds five miles .
4 - In reduced visibility immediately comply with international
regulations. Do not hesitate to use the whistle or slow down if necessary.
Commence plotting all targets forward of the beam, operate VHF on
Channel 16, and inform the Master and Chief Engineer. For the purpose
of these orders reduced visibility is anything less than four miles .
5 - If severe line squalls or freak meteorological phenomena such as
waterspouts are observed, immediately alert any crew members on deck
by sounding one prolonged blast on the whistle, alter course to keep clear
if possible, and call the Master .
6 - Watchkeepers are to use all means and opportunities in order to
establish the ship’s position . All stellar positions obtained are to be
entered in the Deck Log Book, also the times of crossing significant
depth contours, e.g. the 2OOm line. The positions of all course alterations
are to be logged . Officers are to familiarise themselves with the full
operations, scope and limitations of bridge navigational equipment,

5
especially electronic. This means studying the manufacturer’s operational
manuals provided .
7 - Only one chart at a time is to be on the chart table, this being the
largest scale available for the area being navigated. Time spent in the
chartroom is to be limited to essential navigational duties .
8 - At sea, gyro and magnetic compasses are to be compared frequently
and an azimuth bearing is to be taken after every major course alteration,
or at least once per watch .
9 - All incoming radio or VHF warnings are to be drawn to the attention
of the Master (navigational, weather forecasts, etc.) .
10 - Officers are to read the Company Regulations and carry out the
duties prescribed therein. Officers are also to comply with all State
regulations and are to be conversant with all current ‘M’ Notices,
Statutory Instruments and Coast Guard requirements .
11 - All OOWs are to familiarise themselves with the section on tropical
storms contained in the Mariners Handbook (pages 95-99) and to call the
Master immediately if any of the precursory signs of a tropical depression
are observed. In any event, the Master is to be notified immediately of
any fall in barometric pressure of 3mb or more in any period of less than
four hours. The practice of logging weather details at the end of each
watch is to be continued in port .
12 - UNSERPILOTAGE. An accurate record of the ship’s passage
(passing breakwaters, buoys, etc.) is to be kept in the Movement Book,
together with details of all whistle signals and speed reductions whilst
passing other vessels, moorings or shore installations .
13 - AT ANCHORAGE Use any or all of the navigational aids to monitor
the vessel’s position and the relative positions of other ships. Shore
transit bearings are to be used whenever possible as the quickest means of
detecting a dragging anchor .
14 - Most anchorages, however sheltered, can become untenable in a very
short space of time in sudden bad weather. It is therefore of the utmost
importance that at the first signs of deteriorating weather the main engine
is put on immediate notice and the Master and Bosun called .
15 - IN PORT. For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible
for the safety of the ship and the correct stowage and operation of cargo
work, in that order, and he should ensure that :
a- Gangways are fitted with a properly rigged safety net, well lit, and a
Shore Leave Board fitted. The Master/Chief Officer are to be consulted
for expiration of shore leave No deck officer or crew member is to go
ashore without first informing the Chief Officer, or in his absence, the
Master .

6
b- Prior to operation, the ship’s cranes are to be thoroughly inspected by
the OOW to ensure that all securing devices have been released and that
the crane rails are free of obstructions.
c- During bunkering all scuppers are to be plugged, appropriate signals
displayed and sawdust, an empty oil drum and a foam fire extinguisher
placed near to the bunker connection. A deck officer must always be up
and about whenever bunkers are taken, even if cargo work is finished or
not taking place and the ship’s Oil Contingency Plan complied with.
d- Any hydraulic spills are to be cleaned up immediately .
e- Any deviation from the agreed loading procedure is to be brought to
the Chief Officer’s or Master’s attention immediately .
f- Any damage to the ship, ship’s equipment or cargo, caused by
stevedores, is to be drawn immediately to the attention of the Gang
Foreman or Supervisor and the Chief Officer or Master be informed
immediately .
g- Moorings or and gangways are to be checked regularly, especially in
ports where swell surges are experienced .
h- Any delay in cargo work of five minutes or more is to be reported to
the Master prior to sailing from that port. No Log Book entries
concerning the delay are to be made until the Master or Chief Officer is
consulted .
i- The Chief Officer is to be notified immediately in the event of any
damaged cargo or holed containers are loaded .
j- A stowaway search is to be carried out prior to departure. The duty
Engineer is to be kept informed of all current ETS and gear tested one
hour prior to departure .
k- Any crane defects, especially involving possible override use, are to be
reported to the Chief Officer immediately .

A good officer, when faced with any unusual circumstance, will

apply COMMON SENSE AND THE GOOD PRACTICE OF
SEAMEN to the situation and act accordingly. i you find yourself
thinking about calling the Master then the time has clearly come to do so .

All officers are to sign and date these orders at the commencement
of each voyage .

R.U.Sure
Master
Chief Officer Second Officer Third Officer
---------------------- ------------------------- ----------------
Date ---------------- Date ------------------ Date----------

7
 PRE-DEPARTURE CHECK LIST
BRIDGE AND NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT
M.V Golden Rule

checked and verified

1. Gyro and repeaters switched on and synchronized □

2. Magnetic compass and gyro repeater headings checked □
3. Echo sounder checked □
4. Speed/distance recorder checked □
5. Electronic navigation aids checked □
6. Clocks synchronized (including engine room) □
7. Plotter recorder ready for use □
8. Engine revolution indicator checked □
9. Primary and emergency navigation lights tested and checked □
10. Propeller and rudder checked dear of obstruction □
11. “Not under command” and anchor lights and shapes checked □
12. Steering gear tested both in primary and secondary systems(both
motors to be running when manoeuvring) □
13. Auto-pilot and change-over arrangements tested (SOLAS Chapter
V. Regulation 19-2) □
14. Main engines ready and telegraphs tested □
15. Bridge communications equipment (internal, external and portable)
tested □
16. Signalling lamps tested □
17. Whistle tested (if allowed by the Port’s Regulations) □
18. Bridge window wipers/dear view screens tested □
19. Deck power available □
20. Arrangements for pilot embarkation/disembarkation inc. overside
lighting, heaving line, pilot ladder, lifebuoy, etc checked □
21. Binoculars available □
22. Charts and navigational publications, i.e. Notices to Mariners, etc.,
corrected up to date and courses plotted on the chart □
23. Latest weather reports and navigational warnings received and
available □
24. Passage plan prepared. Almanac, Tide Tables, etc., confirmed
available on board □
25. Engine movement recorder checked □
26. Anchors cleared away and ready for use □
27. Mooring winches and capstans in good working order □
28. Crew checked on board □

8
29. Crew at their stations for leaving harbour □
30. Documents, Certificates and Log Book checked □
31. Security checked, stowaways and unauthorised personnel searched
for □

On completion of the pre-departure checks this form is to be signed

by the responsible officer and handed to the Master.

Port -------------------------------------------- Signed -------------------------

Date ----------------------------

9
 The OOW should receive a report from the engine room that
various checks have been carried out. These will include :

- The engines are ready for manoeuvring .

- Power is available for deck machinery such as winches, windlass and
the gangway motor .
- Auxiliaries for generating extra power are made ready .
- Air is opened to the whistle .
- Water is made available on deck .
- Control systems are tested .
- Communications are tested .
- Steering gear, telegraphs and control systems checked with the bridge
When appropriate, the controllable pitch propeller control system is
verified and the thrusters operational .

Positive Reporting :
The risk of an error or omission increases as more people become
involved in the line of command. As a general rule the more threatening
the situation the shorter should be the line of command — for two
reasons.
1 - With fewer people involved, corrective action can be taken more
quickly.
2 - There is less chance of an error in communication, particularly if
people are tense or anxious .

Because the proper working of the ship’s equipment is vital to the

safe navigation of the ship the designated officer must verify that the
ship’s gear has actually been tested personally. That officer can then give
a positive verbal report to the Master.

What Happens if a Fault is Found?

The purpose of testing gear is to identify any possible faults before
the ship puts to sea. If a fault is found this must be reported to the Master
immediately, preferably with a recommended solution. However, it is the
Master who will decide what action to take .

Communications :
The OOW has a key role to play on the bridge carrying out
communications. At busy periods the hand-held phone, the Very High
Frequency radio (VHF) and the internal telephones may all be in use .

10
 Whenever possible, the IMO Standard Marine Navigational
Vocabulary (listed in Annex 3) should be used .

As a general rule, keep bridge communications as short as possible.

Postpone non-essential communications until after the ship has finished
manoeuvring. When using hand-held phones in congested areas always
precede a message by stating the name of the ship. This will avoid any
errors which might arise from messages received and acted upon from
outside by mistake. Prepare, or have available, telephone numbers or
VHF channels before departure. Ensure that all hand-held phones are
properly charged and operational when the gear is tested .

The OOW will usually be required to supervise the ship’s flags,

which will involve the ship’s national flag, company flag and courtesy
flags and the international signal flags typically, P — I am about to sail,
to be taken down on sailing , G — I require a pilot, H — I have a pilot on
board, to be used appropriately .

The OOW must be aware of the vital need to keep the Master
informed of critical operations, e.g.
- When ropes are dear of propellers and thrusters .
- The distance off the quay or next ship .
- The letting go of the anchor .
- The quantity of starting air available (if getting critical) .
- The state of the gangway .
- Where the tugs are situated and if made fast or not .
- Other vessels or objects dose to the ship .

The Passage Plan :

Prior to sailing the navigating officer, usually the second officer,
will have prepared a passage plan which will have been verified by the
Master. The plan should be laid out from berth to berth and will need to
be updated with the latest information at sailing time. All watchkeeping
officers should be familiar with the plan prior to sailing. (see also
Annex4) .

The Master will expect to find, on the bridge prior to sailing, the
latest weather information and navigational warnings. Any adverse
weather which is forecast — fog, rain, winds and sea state should be
brought to his attention. The time of departure will be used to assess :

11
- The height of the tide .
- Tidal currents .
- The need to ensure that the navigational lights and shapes required by
the Regulations are being complied with
- The estimated times for operations such as when the pilot is due to
arrive or leave .

The OOW should therefore satisfy himself that he has all the
required information to modify the passage plan, if necessary, in
accordance with changing times .

The OOW must ensure that paper recorders have an adequate

supply of paper and that all record books are in place with pens or pencils
ready to be used. Binoculars should be made available, compass errors
checked, azimuth mirrors placed on the repeaters and repeaters aligned
correctly to the master compass. The bridge must be in every sense ready
for the intended voyage. The chart area should also be checked to ensure
that the charts are in sequence, that navigational instruments are to hand
and that the bridge lighting is appropriate to day , dusk or night
conditions .

At no time should cups of coffee, tea or any other liquid be put on

the chart table or near any electronic equipment keyboards or switches .

The OOW should switch on all relevant navigational equipment,

calibrate instruments, setup radars and check that all items are working
properly. The OOW can then fill in the pilot boarding card which will
include :

- Port and date .

- The dimensions of the ship .
- Type of propulsion and manoeuvring speeds .
- Turning data .
- Draught .
- Any equipment or machinery defects .
- The latest compass error .

The manoeuvring data relating to the ship should be prominently

displayed on the bridge .

12
 Prior to sailing it is usually necessary to contact the harbour Vessel
Traffic Service (VTS) on VHF. The VTS will need to know the
anticipated sailing time at least 30 minutes before sailing so that they can
advise inbound or passing traffic to keep clear whilst the ship is
manoeuvring off its berth. The pilot will usually seek clearance to
proceed at the time of sailing and the ship must not “let go” until
verification has been received that the ship will not cause a hazard due to
the movements of other ships in the channel or in the vicinity .

Summary :
The OOW has an essential role to play in ensuring that, from a
navigational point of view, the ship is in all respects ready to proceed to
sea and should :

□ Check that all equipment is operational .

□ Verify that all equipment is properly tuned, calibrated and checked .
□ Record all defects .
□ Prepare all recording systems and ensure that books and logs are to
hand with adequate resources of paper .
□ Update the passage plan with respect to time dependent factors .
□ Ensure up-to-date weather information is available .
□ Ensure latest navigational warnings are available .
□ Obtain all relevant VHF working channels to be used during the
planned departure .
□ Ensure the watertight integrity of the ship can be controlled .
□ Contact the shore VTS sufficiently in advance of the sailing time to
enable them to manage the traffic safely .
□ Ensure all communication equipment is functional .
□ Ensure the gangway is taken in and stowed securely .
□ Complete the pilot boarding card to the Master’s satisfaction .
□ Ensure the ship is flying the correct flags .
□ Ensure the ship is generally ready for sea. Any unusual items should be
reported to the Master immediately, such as an unclosed hatch, lighters
and barges still attached alongside, a gangway net still in place, any loose
items on deck, pipes, wires or telephones still connected to the shore, or
any other item which might be affected by the movement of the ship .

13
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 2
WATCHKEEPING IN PILOTAGE WATERS

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of your
responsibilities when navigating with a pilot on board. You will read how
to monitor the progress of the ship and the status of the bridge equipment.
The concept of ‘situational awareness’ will be introduced and you will
recognise that in order to monitor progress it is necessary to plan ahead .

Information The Pilot Needs to Know about The Ship :

When the pilot boards he will want to know essential information
about the ship. This will include the draught, in case of depth restrictions
in the port approach, and the effects of ‘squat’. He will also want to know
the revolutions and speeds at standard telegraph settings, the number of
propellers, type of engines, rudder configuration, thruster availability and
so on .
It is important that you are able to complete and update the pilot
card accurately. A typical pilot card is shown on page 22 .
The manoeuvring data should be prominently displayed on the
bridge. This gives turning circles, stopping distances and other
information in different load conditions .

Unmooring :
Many activities will be taking place and the OOW must make sure
that the duties that are assigned to him or her are carried out. These will
usually be :
- Assisting with communications .
- Handling the telegraph .
- Operating the bridge engine controls .
- Recording key information in the ‘bell book’ or ‘manoeuvring book’ .
- Switching on the appropriate navigation lights .
- Switching off deck lights .
- Monitoring helm orders .
- Monitoring engine movements and rudder angles
If the OOW has been assigned to the telegraph it is essential to
stand near the telegraph until critical manoeuvres are completed. The
OOW must be attentive to the orders of the pilot and always repeat the
order and confirm the engines are responding properly. In this way the
pilot knows his order is understood .

14
 PILOT BOARDING CARD
Ship’s Name : M.V Golden Rule Date : ------------------
Call Sign :WXYZ Year Built : 1985
Draught : Aft ------- m/ ------- ft in Forward m/ ------- ft in -------
Deadweight : 63,000 tonnes Displacement :--------------- tonnes

SHIP’S PARTICULARS
Length Overall : 215 m Breadth : 32 m
Anchor Chain : Port ii shackles Starboard 12 shackles
Bulbous Bow : Yes / No (1 shackle = 27.5 m / 15 fathoms)
Bow Thruster : Yes / No Stern Thruster : Yes / No
Power : ------------------------------------ Power : ------------------------

Type of Engine : Mitsui B + W -7

Maximum Power : 9,500 kW (12,990 HP)
Speed (knots)
Manoeuvring Engine Order Rpm/pitch Loaded Ballast

Full sea speed 100 13.0 14.0

Full ahead 80 10.6 11.0
Half ahead 70 9.3 10.0
Slow ahead 50 6.6 7.0
Dead slow ahead 40 5.3 5.5
Dead slow astern 40
Slow astern 50
Half astern 70
Full astern 80
Full ahead to full astern : 230 s Astern power : 50 % ahead
Maximum Number of Consecutive Starts : 21
Minimum RPM : 30 = 4 knots
Any temporary defects affecting the manoeuvring and control of the
ship :
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15
 Many serious manoeuvring accidents are caused by a wrong engine
response. By checking the engine revolutions gauge each time the OOW
will be preventing an ‘error chain’ starting .

What is Meant by Monitoring?

Monitoring is making sure that an activity is having the desired
effect. For example, when the pilot orders ‘Port 15°”, the rudder indicator
should be watched to make sure that the rudder turns 15° to port. This
seems elementary. But what would happen if the helmsman, instead of
putting on 15° of port helm brought the ship’s head 15° to port? Without
monitoring this manoeuvre carefully, a serious mistake could occur .

The main and valuable role of the OOW during pilotage is to

monitor the instruments and progress of the vessel and provide backup to
the Master and/or pilot .

To monitor progress it is necessary to plot the ship’s position

frequently. During pilotage the OOW should know where the ship is and
where it will be at predetermined intervals .

By monitoring the courses steered, the helm movements, and

noting the passing of buoys or position off conspicuous points of land, the
OOW will be able to assess if a mistake is made by the pilot. Buoys and
floating beacons can be out of place and the ship’s position should be
verified independently whenever possible .

Useful advice is given in the IMO convention resolution Annex 2:-

“If the OOW is in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions,
he should seek clarification from the pilot; if doubt still exists, he should
notify the Master immediately and take whatever action is necessary
before the Master arrives” .

Master/Pilot Relationship :
Pilots are engaged for a variety of reasons, depending upon
circumstances, which include pilotage based upon local knowledge,
liaison with shore authorities, ship handling and bridge support .

The duty of the pilot is to direct the navigation of the ship. The
pilot liaises with the VTS and other vessels in the vicinity, and advises on
the use of tugs, of anchors, moorings and towing lines .

16
The International Convention, Annex 1, states :
Despite the duties and obligations of a pilot, his presence on board
does not relieve the Master or officer in charge of the watch from their
duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. The Master and pilot
shall exchange information regarding navigation procedures, local
conditions and the ship’s characteristics. The Master and officer of the
watch shall co-operate closely with the pilot and maintain an accurate
check of the ship’s position and movement .

Situational Awareness :
Closely linked to monitoring is the concept of ‘situational
awareness’. This is the ability to know where the ship is in relation to the
fairway, land and dangers to navigation, and the proximity of other
traffic. This awareness is most easily acquired by looking outside and
comparing what is seen with the chart or the radar .

It is often felt, particularly by inexperienced officers, that the radar

picture gives the best situational awareness, and that the radar can be
compared with the chart without looking outside. The danger with this
practice is that the radar picture may be disorientated, the range scale
mistaken, and small targets undetected .

Situational awareness, from which the progress of the vessel can be

assessed, requires three monitoring activities :-

- Examination of the chart .

- Recognition of conspicuous lights or marks by looking out and
conducting personal visual identification .
- Verification of distances and collision risk by monitoring the radar.

Planning Ahead :
The pilot will have a clear understanding of the time it will take to
reach the pilot boat depending upon speed, current, visibility, availability
and so on. He will have discussed his plan with the Master and the Master
or pilot should brief the OOW on details of the intended passage .

Many other people on board will also want to know the ship’s
navigational plan :-

17
 - The engineers will want to plan for “Full Away” .
- The Officer forward will want to secure anchors .
- The Master will want to make the approach to the pilot boat and
plan the next course .
- The appropriate crew members will want to know when and on
which side to to rig the pilot ladder .

The OOW will be expected to make certain that those who need to
know are kept informed of progress. To do this it is necessary to plan
ahead :

- Distances to the pilot boat should be noted on the chart .

- At key points the distance to the pilot boat can be verified .
- The estimated time of arrival can then be updated .

Once the progress of the ship is assessed against the Estimated

Time of Arrival (ETA) at the pilot boat, arrangements can be made to call
extra hands, if needed, to rig the pilot ladder. The Master should be
advised as required .

The need for added Vigilance in Pilotage Waters :

The difference between navigating deep sea and in pilotage waters
the shortage of time in confined areas to correct a navigational error .

The OOW has an essential role to play in monitoring progress in a

way that any error is detected in time to prevent an incident .

18
Summary :
□ Have the pilot boarding card ready .
□ Have the sequence of charts in order .
□ Verify the pilot’s instructions .
□ Monitor the ship’s manoeuvring .
□ Check the compasses regularly and on each significant change heading.
□ Record essential information .
□ Do not wander about the bridge if ordered to work the telegraph until
manoeuvring is completed .
□ Be attentive .
□ Monitor the steering .
□ Monitor under keel clearance .
□ Monitor the weather .
□ Keep tidal information up to date El Develop situational awareness .
□ Positively identify significant navigational marks and features by eye .
□ Use the radar intelligently .
□ Fix the ship regularly to monitor the pilot in coastal waters .
□ Assess risk of collision and advise the pilot .
□ If doubts about intentions exist call the Master .
□ Keep ETA at the pilot boat updated .
□ Call the Master and other hands as appropriate .
□ Be particularly vigilant in confined waters .
□ Keep the VTS informed of progress as required .
□ Ensure the correct lights, flags and shapes are being displayed .

19
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 4
WATCHKEEPING IN COASTAL WATERS

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you should be able to understand
how to organise yourself effectively. You will be shown how to take
charge a watch. The concept of control is introduced. Your
responsibilities for safe navigation and collision avoidance are discussed
so that you will understand how to set your priorities and how to manage
your time. The need to maintain a proper lookout is examined and a final
section will remind you that at times, when there is a potentially
dangerous situation arising, you should call for assistance .

Setting Course after the Pilot has left :

Often it is necessary to alter the ship’s head in order to create a lee
from the prevailing wind and waves whilst the ship is slowed or stopped
to enable the pilot to leave. Once the pilot boat is away and clear, the
Master will work up the speed to Full Away and manoeuvre to regain the
track towards the next way point. When the ship is steady and the Master
is satisfied that no danger exists he will hand over the charge of the ship
to the OOW .

Taking over the watch :

Having assisted the Master to check the ship’s position, the OOW
has a duty to be prepared to take over the watch and must :

Confirm where the ship is going by examining the chart, working

out the time to the next alter course and the approximate estimated
position at the end of the watch .

Check the radar is working properly, operate the log and confirm
its reading and input .

Verify the track, compass errors, course to be steered and mark

them on the course board .

Be familiar with the weather forecast and tidal stream .

Be familiar with conspicuous buoys and land marks for use in

navigation .

20
 Note significant changes in depth for comparison with the depth
recorder .

Look over the side to check that the pilot ladder is in and that there
are no other loose items attached to the ship in the water .

Look out to see if there is any threat from traffic in the area .

Verify that items likely to be wanted are available, including

sunglasses, illumination at night (bulbs working), tea, cocoa or coffee and
so on

Know the names of the bridge team and where they are located .

Be aware of the activities of the crew for example on deck stowing

mooring ropes, securing cargo, etc.

Obtain a positive report that the anchors are secured .

Obtain a positive report that any side openings used for pilot access
have been securely closed .

The key elements to a successful handover are planning and being

prepared .

Master’s instructions or Night Orders :

When the Master formally hands over the watch he should confirm
that the OOW is happy with the situation and say “You now have the
watch”. The OOW should then repeat “I have the watch” .

Before going below he will either write down his instructions in the
night order book or in day time tell the OOW when he expects to be
called unless there is a need for his presence on the bridge .

Typically, for an inexperienced junior OOW, the Master may

require calling if any ship has a closest point of approach (CPA) of less
than 2 miles, and half an hour before the next alteration of course .

For an OOW with some experience this might be for a CPA of less
than I mile and 15 minutes before an alter course .

21
 For an experienced OOW the Master may simply request to be
informed of any difficulties and when the ship has altered course in
accordance with the plan .

It takes time for the Master to know the capabilities of his officers
and it is up to the OOW to demonstrate competence to him .

Keeping the Situation under control :

Chapter 1 demonstrated the importance of checking the gear prior
to sailing .

Chapter 2 described how to monitor instruments and the pilot’s

navigation. This chapter introduces a third concept which is control .

The principle of control can be explained as follows :

- A ship steers a straight course .
- External forces such as currents or winds cause the ship to deviate from
the track .
- The navigator discovers that the ship has deviated from the track on the
chart by taking a fix .
- The navigator corrects the course to bring the ship back on track .

The elements of control can be described as:- steady state,

deviation, feedback, correction and steady state .

The same principle exists within the steering system of the ship .
Similarly, the Master keeps control on board by setting a standard
through his orders. If he finds they have not been complied with he will
want to know why and correct the situation .

What has control go to do with watchkeeping? When in charge of a

watch there are two equally important functions which must be
controlled:
- The safe navigation of the ship at all times .
- Collision avoidance .

In navigation, the ship is being controlled against the intended

track. In collision, avoidance the ship is being controlled in re to other
traffic in accord with the collision regulations (COLREGS) .

22
 How should the OOW organise the navigation of the ship? The
international convention states :-

“The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and
corrected with the latest available information, should be used. Fixes
should be taken at frequent intervals; whenever circumstances allow,
fixing should be carried out by more than one method. The OOW should
identify positively all relevant navigation marks.”

The OOW should always aim to fix the ship at regular intervals. It
is then easy to project the previous fix interval forward on the chart with
dividers to establish the estimated position where the ship should be when
recording the fix next time .

The need to fix the ship at “frequent intervals” requires further

explanation. A fix should be taken whenever the vessel alters course and
at regular intervals thereafter .

The fix interval should be such that the vessel can not be set
appreciably off track or into danger by the anticipated effects of tidal
stream, wind or currents in the period between successive fixes .

Typically, having discharged the pilot in an estuary, the fix interval

may be 15 minutes or less. When the ship reaches open water the fix
interval may increase to half an hour .

How should the OOW Organise Collision Avoidance?

There is a conflict between the two demands of maintaining a
given track and altering course to avoid a collision. This conflict becomes
more critical in narrow waters. Also, navigation requires position over the
ground, whereas collision avoidance is concerned with the position of the
ships in the water relative to each other. Circumstances demand that the
OOW must take appropriate action to avoid collision first, and then seek
to resume the track .

A number of critical situations can arise such as having to avoid a

fleet of fishing vessels or the ship may have to alter course to starboard
for a succession of ships which means that there is a risk of running
aground in shallow water .

23
If situations like these develop :-
- Call the Master .
- Consider slowing down or stopping the ship .

Managing Time on Watch :

Experience shows that traffic makes irregular demands on attention
whereas navigational fixing should be carried out regularly. It is therefore
essential to plan watchkeeping around the demands of the need to
maintain a lookout to identify other vessels. The ship is not put at undue
risk if there is a variation in the fix interval. However, the ship is put at
risk if the OOW is preoccupied with navigation when there is a risk of
collision .

As vessels approach one another on a collision course, there are

three phases which can be identified: an early period when the target is
detected but when action to avoid collision can be deferred; a critical
period when action must be taken; and a terminal period when it is too
late to prevent impact .

The beginning and end of each period relate to a range of the

values which are determined by the relative speed of approach of the two
vessels concerned. The table below shows some typical relative speeds
and the times to their collision point .

For example, if a merchant ship first detects a fisherman at four

miles and their relative approaching speed is 20 knots, then the time of
collision, if no action is taken, will be 12 minutes later .

24
 If, however, there is a terminal period of one mile and a relative
approach speed of 20 knots, then the critical period for the same fishing
vessel first identified at 4 miles will be 12 minutes’ - 3 minutes =9
minutes .

It is possible for ships to draw up their own limits to the terminal

period which will be based upon their ability to manoeuvre. The
limitation of the critical period will depend on such factors as obstructed
vision and blind arcs, but above all the ability to detect a small vessel in
reasonable time .

Review :
An OOW in coastal waters can become very busy. If the work load
increases and there is a worry that a dangerous situation might develop -
call the Master .

It is a fact that “the more busy we become the less we tend to plan
ahead.” This means that in dense traffic the OOW may become so
preoccupied solving immediate problems on the bridge that situational
awareness is lost or the OOW may fail to notice a new collision risk
developing .

Learning to recognise this point of overload takes time and that is

why, initially, the Master sets out to control the behaviour of
inexperienced personnel by requiring to be told about any ship within a
specified CPA .

With experience the Master will leave you to make your own
decisions on watch .

There are of course other routines which have to be carried out on

watch such as record keeping, taking compass errors and testing the
automatic pilot. These will be dealt with in the next chapter .

25
Summary :
□ Plan ahead before taking over the watch .
□ Check the track, compass errors and courses .
□ Check the compass error at least once a watch .
□ Make keeping a lookout the priority .
□ Assess risk of collision and take action if necessary .
□ Fix the ship at regular intervals, if practicable .
□ Fix more frequently in confined waters .
□ Call the Master before a potentially dangerous situation becomes
critical .
□ Observe changes in the weather .
□ Study the chart and expect to find new landmarks before they are seen.
□ Maintain situational awareness, particularly if the ship has to deviate
widely to avoid traffic .
□ Be prepared to use the engines, if necessary, to ensure adequate sea
room .
□ Be prepared to call a lookout to the bridge if necessary .
□ Be prepared to call a helmsman to the bridge if necessary .

“The OOW must ensure that at all times the ship is never put into a
situation of uncontrollable risk.”

26
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 5
WATCHKEEPING DURING OCEAN PASSAGES

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will be aware that routine
activities on the bridge must be secondary to keeping a vigilant look out.
Out of sight of land, navigational accuracy depends upon instruments and
you must ensure that monitoring them deep sea has a higher priority. The
value of maintaining traditional celestial navigation is discussed and you
are encouraged to use spare time to practise this skill and to prepare for
more busy coastal passages .

To every threat there must be an adequate response :

In the last chapter it was demonstrated that the combined closing
speed of two ships travelling at twenty knots means that in 15 minutes
they will have approached 10 miles closer to each other. This emphasises
the need to detect approaching vessels early and the essential requirement
to keep an efficient lookout .

Out of sight of land the principal threat to a ship at sea is the risk of
collision from other ships. For this reason the watch must be organised
around the need to maintain a vigilant look out. All other duties will be
secondary .

The international regulations for preventing collisions at sea state :

“Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look out by sight and
hearing as well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing
circumstances and conditions so as to make a full appraisal of the
situation and the risk of collision” .

What is a proper look out ? An analysis of reports received by The

Nautical Institute over the past 20 years indicates that in open waters the
predominant cause of collision was failure to maintain a proper lookout.
In some cases the ships, fishing vessels or yachts were not seen or even
detected at all and in other cases they were detected too late to avoid a
close-quarters situation .

Watchkeeping demands a balanced assessment between keeping a

visual lookout, monitoring the radar and referring to the chart .

27
 Experienced watchkeepers are constantly seeking to verify the
situation, and part of the reason for this is that it is not possible to predict,
with certainty, what other vessels are going to do based upon past
observations .
When conducting a visual lookout, the eye is most likely to detect
new targets when they break the line of the horizon. Targets can also be
obscured in blind arcs caused by window frames and cargo gear. The
OOW will need to move position on the bridge frequently to obtain a
clear view of the surrounding sea .
The following table provides a comparison between the merits of
visual and radar observation which can be used when deciding lookout
priorities. It must not be forgotten that the OOW also has to be vigilant
concerning activities onboard and the effect of weather on the ship, crew
and equipment .
Table
ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
Reliable Generally reliable
Sensitive to colour Does not get tired
Can assess heading Accurate range information
Can identify small targets Stable bearing platform
Can see light configurations Simplifies the overview
Can assess ship types Can penetrate fog
Can identify conspicuous marks Better penetration in rain and snow
Can identify flashing lights Useful for predictive collision
avoidance
Has better discrimination Predictive navigation (parallel index)
Can see changing weather patterns Can have longer range (height of
aerial)
Can see effect of sea on vessel Can have low down port approach
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer aerial to minimise clutter
moves)
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
Poor at assessing distance (worse at Misses small targets
night)
Subject to night adaptation Can miss substantial targets in clutter
Can de-tune
Degradation through glare (worse with Prone to inherent and input errors
age) Targets need transponders for positive
Gets tired searching identification
Is prone to interference
Binoculars needed for early Cannot discriminate as well as the eye
identification (particularly on high Cannot identify ship types or
speed vessels) operations
Cannot assess aspect immediately
Bearings less accurate than compass

28
Do lookout priorities vary?
In dear weather a visual search of the sea area around the ship is
the quickest and most certain way of keeping a look out. Having detected
a ship it is useful to verify its distance on the radar .

In restricted visibility the reverse process is more effective where

the target will be identified first on radar and then looked for by eye to
check its heading and collision threat .

Why over-reliance on radar should be avoided ?

There are obvious reasons and less obvious reasons for not relying
implicitly on just a single instrument for the safety of the ship .

Firstly, if the radar is faulty or there has been an error setting it up,
the whole ship might be put at risk without the OOW realizing .

Secondly, it is easy to focus on specific echoes and miss other

potentially hazardous echoes on another part of the screen .

Thirdly, the radar itself, particularly in rain, may not be able to

detect significant targets .

To minimize the risk of error, the OOW should check the radar
with the visual scene regularly .

The value of a good lookout :

Most ships, during the hours of darkness and in poor visibility,
require a crew member to be posted as a lookout, generally on the bridge.
Such crew members should have good eyesight and be able to
communicate with the OOW. Sometimes they have eyesight problems
and this should be quietly tested by noting when lights are seen .

The OOW must ensure that the safety of the ship is not put at risk
through the inability of the lookout to keep a vigilant watch .

The effectiveness of the lookout will be considerably increased if

he or she is properly brief ed about what to expect and when ships and
lights should be detected .

29
 Lookouts should be encouraged to relate what they see to the radar.
On many ships lookouts are encouraged to keep a visual and radar watch.
Whenever the lookout is sent below for any reason like calling the watch
or calling hands to stations, the OOW must ensure that a visual watch is
maintained .

Priorities when Navigating out of sight of land :

When out of sight of land the ship has to be navigated by
instruments. It is, therefore, vital that the instruments are properly
calibrated and checked regularly and the ship’s progress monitored .

Direction is provided by the compass and special attention must be

given to monitoring the courses steered and checking the compass errors .

The course will be checked at each watch change and during each
watch. After any significant course alteration the OOW must check the
compass error. The gyro must be checked against the magnetic compass
regularly and a compass error obtained by external observation. The error
must be properly recorded .

Position will generally be obtained from the Global Positioning

System (GPS) which has proved to be very reliable. Because of this
officers tend to trust it implicitly and that can lead to problems because :

- Future waypoints may have been wrongly put into the processor, eg in
error by 100 or 10’.
-The level of integration varies, but a fault may develop in any of the
connecting circuits .
- The set itself may be faulty or break down .

Each watch, the principal instruments directing the navigation

should be checked against an estimated position so that if a deviation is
detected the situation can be controlled .

The Value of Celestial Navigation :

The ability to be able to take sights and calculate the ships position
independently of navigational aids ensures that in the event of failure the
prudent navigator can rely on his or her ability to navigate the ship and all
those on board safely to harbour .

30
 Masters and officers brought up using more traditional methods of
navigation are confident in their own self reliance. There have been many
occasions when this knowledge has been invaluable .

Many companies whose ships are fitted with Satellite Navigation

(Sat Nav) have a statement in their instructions that watch keeping
officers must take at least one sight per day .

At noon it is reassuring to check the Sat Nav with the latitude

obtained from celestial observation .

Routines and time on watch :

If the OOW was fully occupied navigating and manoeuvring to
avoid collision in coastal waters, then there will be time deep sea to do
other bridge duties .

For any major project which requires undisturbed concentration -

like calculating sights or planning a passage - the OOW must ask for an
additional lookout to be posted to the bridge. It is, however, the
responsibility of the OOW to make sure that undue reliance is not placed
upon an inexperienced lookout .

The OOW must learn to carry out other bridge duties without
becoming distracted from the main purpose of maintaining an effective
lookout .

On no account must the OOW ever leave the bridge without a

relief.

Other duties must be so organized so as not to interfere with the

keeping of a proper lookout .

The use of television and radio entertainment on the bridge must be

strongly discouraged in spite of the excuse that they are being used to
obtain weather forecasts. The fact is that a number of serious accidents
involving loss of life have occurred for this reason .

Similarly, radar guard rings may not always be actuated by other

vessels and must not be relied upon to the detriment of keeping a proper
lookout .

31
The use of Radio Communications :
Mostly, the OOW is monitoring and receiving incoming radio
messages, but equally important is the use of radio for warning other
vessels of hazards to navigation .

There is a requirement to monitor VHF Channel 16 and the digital

selective calling channel 70. Similarly, the ship must monitor NA VTEX
on 518 kHz and the distress frequency of 2187 kHz and the radio
telephony frequency of 2182 kHz .

Distress messages may be broadcast on a variety of frequencies

and the GMDSS receiver is likely to be situated on the bridge if fitted.
The OOW must be familiar with the systems for receiving and
transmitting urgent messages and should inform the Master in the event
of any such communications .

Summary :
□ When on ocean passages keeping a look out must have priority .
□ Check the instruments being used to navigate the ship regularly and
monitor the position each watch .
□ Practice celestial navigation regularly .
□ Monitor radio communications for routine messages and ensure that
emergency channels are operational and being monitored .
□ Use any spare time productively to plan ahead for the next phase of the
voyage .
□ Always post a look out if a bridge task is likely to preoccupy your time.
□ Learn to break off tasks at frequent intervals so that it becomes a habit .
□ Avoid entertainment on the bridge. It may provide a fatal distraction .
□ Monitor changes in the weather and regularly observe the barometer .
□ Keep records up to date .

32
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 6
MAKING A LANDFALL AND PREPARING
FOR ARRIVAL

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the need to
identify the coastline positively when making a landfall. At this time
there is, invariably, an element of doubt and the risk of placing the ship in
danger if predictions are wrong. As the ship approaches port there will be
other duties to perform which emphasise the value of planning .

Approaching land :
All Masters will expect to be called prior to making a landfall. It is
important that they are present on the bridge as they are probably the
most experienced navigators onboard and will therefore be best able to
assess the situation correctly .

The OOW will also have to be more aware of traffic and the
possibility of fishing vessels operating in the area. There is a need to keep
a particularly good lookout for small vessels during this phase of
navigation .

In poor visibility, approaching land can be l and the radar(s) will be

the principal navigational instrument to confirm the ship’s position. A
lookout should be posted .

The land never lies :

After a long ocean passage in poor weather it is quite possible for a
ship without electronic fixing aids onboard to be fifty miles away from its
estimated position when making a landfall .

Usually ships do obtain sights and at least one position line will
have been established, for example the latitude at noon. The estimated
position will usually be within twenty miles of the ship’s actual position .

GPS will ensure that the ship has an accurate position and landfall
should be a matter of routine. The fact remains that the instrument may
have an error or the OOW may misread it. It is not until there is a positive
confirmation of the land that the Master will feel comfortable .

33
Why is making a landfall so critical?
Until the land is positively identified it is not possible to know if
the ship is likely to approach :-

- Sandbanks and shoals offshore .

- Rocks .
- Other obstructions .

If, for example, a mountain is wrongly identified or a promontory

is mistaken on the radar and the ship turns in the wrong direction, a
grounding may occur .

A landfall is critical because in the first instance it is usually only

possible to obtain one bearing. If that bearing is wrong the ship may be at
risk .

So there are two uncertainties when making a landfall. Firstly, the

ship’s position, and secondly the identification of the land. It is to reduce
these uncertainties that good navigational practices must be developed .

Prudent Navigation :
The OOW should try always to obtain a fix in the ocean and
monitor the GPS. Nobody knows for certain when the last fix will be
taken prior to making a landfall, particularly in bad weather .

Useful information can be obtained from the depth contour on the

chart. The depth recorder should be on and checked against the chart. If
there is a significant difference from that anticipated, inform the Master
immediately .

Extra care should be taken to identify any light by its exact

characteristics and to verify the ship’s position on the position line by
calculating the distance at the time it appears .

Radar identification of headlands is less certain and it is still

prudent to sight lights and lighthouses visually whenever possible. In
most landfall locations they have been conveniently provided .

This may seem old-fashioned, but on making a radar landfall the

OOW cannot be certain initially whether the echo is the coastline or a
ridge inland . Doubt will remain until the ship is close enough to verify
the shoreline .

34
Rising and Dipping Distances :
These are obtained from the height of a light and the distance the
light travels until it reaches the horizon and the height of eye enabling the
observer to see it from the ship. The information can be found in
navigational tables available on the bridge .

Example :
The extract overleaf is taken from Nories Tables .

To find out the distance at which a light can be seen for the first
time, two entries are needed .

35
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 7
ANCHORING AND WATCHKEEPING AT ANCHOR

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will know how to support the
Master when approaching an anchorage and whilst anchoring the ship .
Once the ship is ‘brought up’ on the anchor cable you will almost
certainly be left on the bridge to keep an anchor watch. The final section
will make you aware of hazardous situations which can occur and how to
respond .

Anchoring :
There are four main approaches to anchoring which require
different planning in each case. They are :

- A request to anchor in a designated position .

- A need to anchor in a waiting area .
- A need to anchor in the shelter of land .
- The need to anchor in a river which may be tidal .

Anchoring in a Designated Position :

The Master’s aim will be to have the ship’s head stopped over the
ground over the centre of the designated anchorage .

Taking note of the increased effect of tidal currents as the ship

slows down the Master will control the speed of the ship and its progress
along the track. This can be very difficult if there is a strong cross wind
and the ship is in ballast .

Where possible the Master will approach the anchorage head to the
prevailing forces of wind and/or tide, as this provides the best method of
control and assists in slowing down the ship .

The approach to an anchorage will usually be planned in advance.

Where possible the approach to the anchoring position will be along a
carefully selected transit. Such an approach, used in conjunction with a
parallel index, will provide an accurate check to alert the OOW and the
Master if the ship deviates from the track. At night, greater reliance may
have to be placed upon the use of radar .

36
 The Master will need to be kept informed of the distance to the
anchorage so the points at which speed reductions are to be made should
be marked on the chart. Pre-determined cross bearings and radar ranges
will help the OOW to determine exactly when the critical points in the
approach are reached so that the OOW can keep the Master fully
informed of progress .

The OOW has an essential role in assisting the Master with his
planned approach, giving the course and distance to go to the anchoring
position using information from the chart, the compass and radar. The
OOW may work the telegraph or remote engine controls and may be
given the task of navigating the vessel in accordance with the plan .

Supporting and monitoring the Master requires the OOW:-

To discuss the approach with the Master .
To monitor the depth recorder, the helthsman and the autopilot .
To control and monitor the engines .
To check the ship’s speed either by noting the log or measuring it from
the chart .
Responding to the Master’s request for information .
To be aware of which anchor is being used and the shackles to be let go .

At the appropriate point the order will be given to let go. The
OOW must verify the position independently with bearings of other
navigational marks to fix the position of the ship in case it is accidentally
out of position or the anchor is lost. From this position the swinging
circle can be drawn on the chart, depending upon the number of shackles
used.

When the ship is brought up and the anchor bars put in place, the
Master will decide the level of readiness for the engines and pass on this
instruction before going below. The OOW must then fix the ship again to
verify that the anchor is holding, that there is room to swing and to ensure
that the ship is with the swinging circle .

Anchoring in a Waiting Area :

In this situation it is often not possible to plan the exact anchoring
position in advance. The Master will satisfy himself that it is safe to
anchor the ship in the chosen He will then slow the ship down well in
advance and search visually or on radar for a suitable anchorage position
with sufficient room for the vessel to swing .

37
 He should always approach the ‘hole’ coming up astern of other
vessels and in a tight anchorage will have to over-run the position he
wishes to occupy so that when he lets go of the anchor and comes back
on the chain he ends up where he wants to be .

Instead of aligning the ship to the shore the Master will choose his
anchorage in relation to the other ships, from which he will ask the officer
of the watch for bearings and distances .

Once the anchor has been let go the OOW must fix the ship in
relation to the shore for the reasons given above .

The approach in a crowded anchorage can be critical and the OOW

can be of great assistance if he keeps a vigilant lookout to see if any other
ships are moving and to tell the Master immediately, as well as
monitoring the courses and engine movements .

Anchoring in the Shelter of Land :

Particularly on small low-powered vessels, this is a regular
occurrence in rough weather .

When choosing an anchorage the Master will be aware of how the

direction of the wind will veer or back and will select an anchor so that if
a second anchor has to be let go it will not cause a foul hawse .

The distance off land is the critical factor when letting go in these
situations and the OOW should monitor this carefully .

In stormy weather the engines will be kept in readiness in case the

anchor(s) drags. The Engineers must be told the severity of the situation
so that they do not start some maintenance which will prevent the engines
from being used in an emergency .

38
 For a vessel at anchor, fix the ship at the time of letting go and
inscribe the swinging circle on the chart. Then monitor the anchor
bearings either by radar ranges ahead or astern or by beam bearings

The anchor watch must be so organized as to monitor any drag

which might occur before the ship gains momentum .
If drag does occur call the Master at once. Consider laying out
more cable, using the engines or letting go a second anchor .

Anchoring in a Tidal River :

When anchoring in a strong current and narrow channel the critical
time is when the ship stops in the water, as it is then without steerage and
a ‘kick ahead’ on the engines may cause a sheer .

It is most important, therefore, that the anchors are lowered to the

water in advance so that when the brake is released the anchor cable will
run free at very short notice .

Frequently, in rivers, there is not enough room for the ship to turn
on a long anchor chain when, for example, the tide changes and it has to
be held short. To compensate for this the engines may be needed at
certain critical times to prevent too much drag on the anchor .
As the current reaches its faster ebbs and flows it may be necessary
for the OOW to use the engines .
Accurate position fixing and the use of a cross bearing to ascertain
if there is any drag is essential .

39
What should the OOW look out for whilst at anchor?
As with all previous approaches to keeping a lookout, the first
requirement is to assess the level of threat, and this varies according to
circumstances .

There are four types of threat which can all have damaging
consequences :

- Dragging due to wind and current .

- Another vessel bearing down on the ship at anchor .
- Own ship turning one way and a neighbouring ship turning the other
way as the tide changes creating a possibility of contact between the
vessels .
- Own ship turning in such a way as to run aground .

However, anchor bearings should be checked at least every hour

and more frequently in conditions of strong currents, wind and waves .

A useful technique is to use the radar range ring on a conspicuous

point ahead or astern of the vessel and this should be checked at similar
intervals .

If the ship appears to be dragging her anchors call the Master

immediately .

When in an anchorage where other vessels may be in close

proximity there is little time available if something does go wrong .

During an anchor watch vigilance is still important and the aim is

to detect any threat early All vessels are moving slowly and are less able
to manoeuvre. This can give rise to a classic misjudgement, for example
by Masters wanting to cut across the bow of an anchored ship .

Under these circumstances the other ship cannot move fast enough
and is carried down on the current .

At an anchorage ships can usually be identified by name. Early

signs of a problem can often be overcome by communicating on the
VHF. The OOW must realise that talking maybe insufficient to prevent
an incident and must be ready to take action .

40
 If the engines are on “stand by” be prepared to use them to
manoeuvre, even with the anchor down, and call the Master .

If the OOW suspects that a collision might happen he should sound

at least 5 short and rapid blasts on the whistle, flash the aldis and call an
officer to go forward urgently to pay out more cable .

In a river situation it is possible to give the ship a considerable

sheer just by applying helm and this manoeuvre should be considered .

Be prepared to monitor the activities of the crew if they are

working over the side .

Other Routines :
The OOW must ensure that the ship is properly lit at night, that she
exhibits the correct lights and sounds signals in fog .

Often the ship will be waiting for orders or working cargo.

Attentive monitoring of the VHF or Satellite Communications (Sat
Coms) will be required .

In many places piracy and illicit boarding is a major problem. The

monitoring of all approaching craft and a vigilant inspection of the ship’s
side is the primary protection the ship has against this threat. Precautions
for securing the accommodation should be taken .

If unauthorised persons are seen boarding it is suggested that the

OOW sounds the general alarm, blows the whistle and takes precautions
to lock out the boarders .

Summary :
□ Anchoring demands teamwork .
□ Verify the plan with the Master .
□ Support the Master during the approach with bearings or distances .
□ Monitor the speed of approach .

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 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 8
WATCHKEEPING IN REDUCED VISIBILITY AT SEA

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will be aware that in reduced
visibility at sea there is a need to monitor the radar carefully and that a
lookout should be posted to keep a visual lookout and to monitor any
sounds. The need to call the Master is emphasised and the use of engines
discussed .

Calling the Master :

Masters invariably require to be called whenever there is reduced
visibility due to fog, rain, snow, sandstorms, squalls or any other
condition which makes it difficult to see how the other vessel is heading.
Master’s standing orders should specify the limits of poor visibility. This
may vary with ship type and location .

Assessing the threat :

In reduced visibility, the best way to assess the threat of collision is
by monitoring the radar display. However, as was demonstrated in
Chapter 5, the radar has limitations. A lookout should be posted,
therefore, to keep a visual watch and to listen for any sound signals .

The International Resolution requires a number of conditions to be

fulfilled. They are as follows :

“When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first

responsibility of the officer of the watch is to comply with the relevant
rules of the applicable regulations for preventing collisions at sea, with
particular regard to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe
speed and having engines ready for immediate manoeuvres. In addition
he should :
(a) inform the master;
(b) post a proper lookout and helmsman and, in congested waters, revert
to hand steering immediately;
(c) exhibit navigation lights;
(d) operate and use the radar.

42
 It is important that the officer of the watch should know the
handling characteristics of his ship, including its stopping distance, and
should appreciate that other ships may have different handling
characteristics.” .

In addition the OOW should be prepared to close watertight doors

in accordance with regulations and company instructions .

Assessing the Collision Risk :

As soon as the ship enters fog or other conditions of restricted
visibility the applicable collision regulations change and any evasive
manoeuvres are undertaken under the principles of Rule 19. See also
Chapter 13 & Annex 6 .

There is more uncertainty about the movements of target vessels in

fog. For example, they may be vessels fishing or not under command. It
is, therefore, very important that the OOW takes EARLY action to avoid
a close quarters situation .

Rain and snow are two conditions which not only reduce visibility
but significantly reduce the ability of the radar to detect targets. If two
radars are fitted the S band radar should be operational as well as the X
band radar .

Masters need to know in advance about the onset of any condition

which is likely to reduce visibility. This is to avoid being confronted with
a “hidden target” at short range as the ship enters rain, fog, snow or even
a sand storm. The OOW therefore has a duty to keep a vigilant lookout
for fog and to scan the radar at long range for deteriorating weather
conditions. If any changes are observed, call the Master .

The Master will use his judgement in accordance with the

COLREGS to proceed at a safe speed and will usually want to be on the
bridge in reduced visibility. However, everybody needs rest after
prolonged periods and the OOW should ensure that in these
circumstances approaching vessels are given a wide berth .

43
 It should be remembered that stopping the engines in an emergency
has little immediate effect and that it takes time to reduce speed even
when the engines are going astern. The OOW should be ready to use the
engines but must be aware well in advance what effect this will have on
the manoeuvrability of. the ship and the limited effect that can be
expected in a close quarters situation .

Vessels such as ferries and naval craft are much more

manoeuvrable than many vessels and respond more immediately to
engine and helm movements. However, for most fully laden vessels this
is not so .

Summary :
□ Observe the weather and call the Master when visibility deteriorates .
□ Monitor traffic in the area, and comply with the provisions of Rule 19 .
□ Observe the other provisions of the COLREGS .
□ Post a lookout .
□ Put the engines to standby - inform the engineers if appropriate .
□ Be prepared to use a helmsman if a critical situation is developing .
□ Work the automatic plotting aids (ARPA) systematically .
□ If no automatic plotting facility exists, prepare to plot selected targets
manually .
□ Be prepared to close watertight doors .
□ Be prepared to reduce speed, stop, or turn out of danger .
□ If possible, consult the Master before any critical evasive manoeuvres
are required .

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 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 9
TAKING OVER THE WATCH

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will appreciate the need, when
changing the watch, to verify that the ship is proceeding according to
plan, that all risks have been recognized and that the equipment is
functioning normally .

Changing the watch the need to provide continuity :

The ship is operational throughout the day and night and the
Master therefore has to lay down procedures to be followed to ensure
continuity of operation when the watch changes. This is an effective time
to check the navigation and status of the ship’s equipment and can be
used to prevent error chains developing (see Chapter 12) .

The ship is navigated to meet the requirements of the passage plan,

avoid other traffic and follow as closely as possible the track laid down
on the chart. The Master will require to be informed of progress and his
instructions are recorded in the Night Order book, annotation on the chart
or passed on verbally during the day .

If the OOW receives verbal instructions to call the Master at a

given time, which may go over into another officer’s watch, it is good
practice to make a note of the call time at the appropriate position on the
track on the chart to remind the next OOW .

Calling the Relief :

On some ships this is done by the standby man, on other ships by
the internal telephone. It is good practice, particularly with heavy
sleepers, to make a follow-up call .

45
What should this relief do when coming to the bridge?
So many accidents have occurred during the change of a watch
because of talking in the wheelhouse, failure to check the course, and
failure to look out and establish any collision risk, that the International
Convention states:

“The relieving officer of the watch should ensure that members of

his watch are fully capable of performing their duties, particularly as
regards their adjustment to night vision" .

The relieving officer of the watch should not take over the watch
until his vision is fully adjusted to the light conditions and he has
personally satisfied himself regarding :-

(a) standing orders and other special instructions of the Master relating to
navigation of the ship .
(b) position, course, speed and draught of the ship .
(c) prevailing and predicted tides, current, weather, visibility and the
effect of these factors upon course and speed .
(d) navigational situation, including but not limited to the following :
i- operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being
used or likely to be used during the watch .
ii- errors of gyro and magnetic compasses .
iii- presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the
vicinity .
iv- conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during his watch .
v- possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on the under
keel clearance .

If at the time the officer of the watch is to be relieved a manoeuvre

or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of the officer
should be deferred until such action has been completed.”

Handing over the watch :

Once the relieving officer has stated “I now have the watch” the
watchkeeper coming off watch should then make sure that all the log
book entries are complete, there is an accurate position or a dead
reckoning position on the chart and that the course boards are written up.

It is against these standards that the incoming officer can check the
watch arrangements .

46
 The relieved officer should ensure that fire and security rounds of
the ship are carried out to inspect for fire or anything unsafe like loose
cargo on deck, equipment not stored away, deadlights that are not closed
at night and anything unusual which might require attention .

Summary :
□ Always be fit for bridge duty .
□ Arrive early and in time to adjust to the bridge situation .
□ Read, understand and sign the Master’s night orders .
□ Never sign orders you do not fully understand always seek advice .
□ Do not take over the watch until your eyes have become adjusted to
night vision .
□ Never take over a watch until all manoeuvring has been completed and
the ship is safely on course .
□ Check on the watch complement and make sure the lookout is posted
and a helmsman is near and ready if required .

47
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 10
CALLING THE MASTER

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will know when you must call
the Master, the reasons for keeping the Master informed, and why you
should seek his advice before dangerous situations arise .

Calling the Master to the Bridge :

Junior officers are often concerned that they might be
inconveniencing the Master by calling him to the bridge. However,
Masters need to be called as soon as possible if a difficult situation is
developing, as he is most likely to be able to help the OOW resolve the
problem .

Masters have more confidence in OOWs who demonstrate their

willingness to call the Master than those OOWs who allow dangerous
situations to develop .

The OOW, by calling the Master early, will be able to learn from
the experience of the Master when he comes to the bridge. The OOW has
a duty to call the Master early and this must be the guiding principle at all
times .

The Master’s Responsibility :

The Master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe and efficient
operation of the ship. He is likely to be the most experienced navigator on
the ship and will probably have dealt with most situations before .

The OOW therefore has a duty to comply with his orders and to
keep the Master informed of progress. The OOW should ask the Master
about any unusual or. potentially dangerous occurrences .

If the Master has to be called in an emergency he will arrive on the

bridge in a hurry and will need some time to assess the situation. The
OOW must be ready to brief the Master immediately he arrives, starting
with the most threatening situation and then informing him of the general
scene, ie other ships in the area, what they are doing and proximity to
land .

48
 Some examples of situations where the Master will expect to be
called are listed below, but each Master will define his own
requirements:-

- A give way vessel standing on .

- The ship found to be unexpectedly heading for land .
- The presence of a fishing fleet .
- Difficult multi-ship encounters .
- Situations where the work load on the bridge has become excessive
- Making a landfall .
- Significant alter course positions .
- Times of reduced visibility .
- When there is a change in the sea state .
- When revolutions decrease by more than 15% .
- Any unusual occurrences such as changes in the weather, unusual ship
movements, sickness, accidents, and difficulty maintaining course and
speed .

The Master will always prefer to be called early, before the ship is
in a dangerous situation. This often requires judgement on behalf of the
OOW and to help resolve this issue the Master will often request to be
called whenever a vessel is to approach within a specified CPA .

What the International Regulations Require ?

There are specific regulations about calling the Master, because the
Master has the ultimate responsibility for ship safety. The OOW must
keep him informed of threatening situations. The international resolution
states: “The officer of the watch should notify the Master immediately in
the following circumstances :
(a) if restricted visibility is encountered or expected .
(b) if the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing
concern .
(c) if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
(d) on failure to sight land, a navigation mark or to obtain soundings by
the expected time .
(e) if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or change in
soundings occurs .
(f) on the breakdown of the engines, steering gear or any essential
navigational equipment .

49
(g) in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather
Damage .
(h) if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or derelicts .
(i) in any other emergency or situation in which he is in any doubt .

Despite the requirement to notify the Master immediately in the

foregoing circumstances, the OOW should, in addition, not hesitate to
take immediate action for the safety of the ship, where circumstances so
require” .

Who is in Charge on the Bridge?

The Master’s appearance on the bridge does not relieve the OOW
of his responsibilities. The OOW is still in charge of the watch until the
Master formally takes charge. It must be made clear immediately who is
in charge of the watch. The Nautical Briefing in Annex 1 deals with this
subject in detail .

To avoid any confusion the OOW must assume he is in charge of

the watch unless formally relieved by the Master .

If the call is made during the hours of darkness, the Master will
require a little time to become accustomed to the conditions. The OOW
must take this into account and allow for this period when deciding to call
the Master. It may be necessary to obtain the services of the helmsman
and additional lookouts. These watchkeeping tasks should be completed
by the OOW immediately they are required. The OOW should not delay
or await the arrival of the Master on the bridge. Under no circumstances
is the OOW allowed to leave the bridge .

Rough weather :
The ship, in rough weather, is exposed to considerable danger and
the OOW must keep a seamanlike eye on crew working on deck,
enforcing prohibition if it is too dangerous to go on deck, advising the
Master accordingly . It is important to check deck cargo and their
lashings, the security of fixtures and fittings, and the general safety of the
vessel with respect to sea damage and water ingress .

Large ships in heavy seas have, on occasions, had their bow plates
badly damaged without anybody being aware of it .

50
 The Master should be informed of significant changes of sea state.
On small ships, of course, he will feel it. As a general rule, if the
revolutions drop by more than 15% call the Master and be prepared to
slow down the engines to reduce the possibility of damage, or alter course
to reduce the possibility of damage .

When doing rounds after a watch, never go on an exposed deck

alone in rough weather. At night, take a torch to assess any possible
damage. Use the aldis and deck lights to check hatches and equipment
forward from the bridge .

Summary :
The Master will expect the OOW to :

□ Comply with his orders .

□ Inform him about progress .
□ Call him when any unusual situation arises .
□ Call him in accordance with instructions .
□ Call him whenever critical situations arise .
□ Call him as early as possible .
□ Be prepared to brief him on his arrival by pointing out the most critical
situations first .

IF IN DOUBT WHETHER OR NOT TO CALL THE MASTER

CALL HIM

51
 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 11
RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES

Purpose :
On completion of this chapter you will understand the difference
between a problem and an emergency, and what action each requires.
You will learn about your part, as OOW, in the ship’s emergency
organisation and the responses required to various situations. The special
case of Man Overboard is considered .

Introduction :
The difference between a problem and an emergency is the level of
urgency required to take action. An emergency requires immediate
action:
- To save life or prevent injury .
- To avoid damage to the ship and cargo .
- To avoid pollution .
- To assist another vessel in distress .

A problem on the other hand, is an incident or occur once which

requires the attention of the OOW, but is not urgent and can be solved
during the normal working of the watch .

With unmanned machinery spaces, the bridge may be the only

manned centre on board at night and although work will be carried out in
the engine room during the day, the command and control centers are
probably not being used .

The OOW is likely to be the first person to know when something

has gone wrong. The OOW must therefore know what to do to anticipate
and respond to emergencies and know who is the duty engineer and how
he can be contacted .

No two emergencies are the same. For example, a scavenge fire in

a generator which leads to a blackout in the ocean is an emergency for the
engineers and the ship’s fire fighting team .

52
 If the blackout occurs in a narrow channel with other traffic in the
vicinity the first requirement is to raise the alarm internally, call the
Master, then to signal to other ships that you are “Not under command”.
If necessary, call an anchor party to safeguard the ship from running
aground. Not only was there a fire in the engine room, but the whole ship
was at risk .

The OOW as part of the Ship’s Emergency Organisation :

Every ship should have an emergency organisation. Many do not,
and on others it may take some weeks to develop a team after a crew
change .

If there is no well established emergency organisation the OOW,

when faced with an emergency, must :

- Initiate action to minimize danger .

- Call for assistance .

A ship with an emergency organisation will have a tried and tested

response to emergencies which makes the best use of resources on board.
The emergency organisation will consist of :-

- A chain of command .
- Selected crew members for specific response .
- Special duties for selected personnel .
- Equipment availability .
- Type of response .
- Flexibility through training and drills .

Within this framework the OOW will have a key role to play :-
- Being the first point of contact to raise the alarm .
- Keeping a vigilant lookout to ensure the ship does not get into
difficulties whilst the command function is preoccupied with the
emergency .
- Communicating i.e. relaying telephone and walkie-talkie messages as
appropriate .
- Ensuring the ship carries the correct lights and signals to describe its
condition .

53
 When the ship’s crew is fully engaged in responding to the
emergency the OOW must keep an undistracted lookout to ensure the
ship itself does not get into danger .

Officer of the Watch response :

The OOW must be capable of initiating an appropriate response to
an emergency. Because the situation may be dangerous and critical it is
likely that the OOW will experience a sense of alarm and a sudden
increase in their heartbeat accompanied by rapid breathing and a tendency
to over-react or freeze .

An emergency calls for immediate response and the sense of alarm

must be directed into purposeful action. This can best be done if the
OOW is properly prepared .

Being prepared means training, experience and pre-planning .

The best way to prepare for emergencies is to practice them

through drills and exercises. Having experienced what to do there is
considerably less chance that the OOW will feel panic .

Having become aware of this fact, through studying this section of

the book, the OOW can use time on watch to imagine what to do in
specific emergency situations .

When considering what action to take an OOW should be guided

by the following :

- Take appropriate remedial action .

- Verify that it is having the desired effect Call for assistance .
- Notify all those who need to know .
- Inform “the outside world” through lights, signals,. flags and VHF as –
appropriate .
- Ensure any changeover procedure is properly carried out and that any
alternative system is tested and verified .
- Make certain proper communications enable actions to be verified and
monitored .
- Support the emergency organisation when it is working .
- Keep a vigilant lookout to ensure the ship is not put at risk whilst the
emergency is being solved .
- Keep accurate records .

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Man overboard :
“It must be emphasised that in the event of a man overboard, the
actions taken by the OOW are likely to make the difference between life
and death.”

Appropriate action must therefore include :

- Immediate release of the bridge wing smoke marker floats .
- Sound the general alarm — don’t waste time telephoning or using the
whistle to call assistance .
- Try to ensure the man stays in sight by posting lookouts .
- Turn the vessel to facilitate recovery .
- Log the time and note the position of the ship in case a search is needed.
- Mark the waypoint on the Sat Nav if fitted Put the engines on stand by .
- Be ready to brief the Master when he comes on the bridge .
- Broadcast a MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY message .
- Sound three long blasts “0” to warn other ships if they are in the
vicinity.

Conclusions :
The OOW has a duty to be prepared for emergencies. To initiate
appropriate action, call for assistance, monitor the safety of the ship and
take the decisions which will enable the most effective recovery of a man
overboard.

The knowledge and ability to respond come from training, practice,

and preparedness. No two ships will be the same and every OOW must be
fully familiar with their own ship.

Summary :
The OOW must know :

□ How to sound the general alarm .

55