Corona Virus 2019

Corona Virus 2019 ( Covid 19 )
Echevaria Jonille S.
BSP 2
I. Introduction
This review is all about how Covid 19 AKA corona virus 2019 affects our immune system and
study its pathogenesis. The outbreak was first identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.
The World Health Organization declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern on 30 January, and a pandemic on 11 March On January 7, a novel
coronavirus, originally abbreviated as 2019-nCoV by WHO, was identiﬁed from the throat
swab sample of a patient. This pathogen was later renamed as severe acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the Coronavirus Study Group. COVID-19 is moderately
infectious with a relatively high mortality rate, but the information available in public reports and
published literature is rapidly increasing. The aim of this review is to summarize the current
understanding ofCOVID-19 including causative agent, pathogenesis of the disease, diagnosis and
treatment of the cases, as well as control and prevention strategies.

II. Objectives
This paper sought to know the different study findings on Corona Virus 2019 ( Covid
19 ) and, moreover, this study would like to attain the following objectives:
1. Discuss the pathogenesis of the disease
2. Identify ways to Prevent COVID-19
3. Enumerate the basis of vaccines that are being developed on how they can stimulate
our immune system against the said virus
III. Literature Review
This study sought to achieve the above-mentioned objectives by looking and
searching for relevant and pertinent articles in the PubMed or other available
documents in the internet on ( Covid 19 ) Corona virus 2019

IV. Discussion
Pathogenesis of Covid 19
SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the coronavirus family, members of which have caused two
previous epidemics at the beginning of the 21st century; one named SARS-CoV and the other
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). Coronaviruses are large enveloped viruses with
a positive sense RNA genome. The lipid bilayer envelope of the virus contains several
proteins with different tasks. The spike or S glycoprotein (SP), has two domains of S1 and
S2, is responsible for invasion, attachment, and entry into human cells. The receptor-binding
domain (RBD) in S1 interacts with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on the human
host cell surface, which is a similar entry mechanism to SARS-CoV; however, the S2 domain
is responsible for virus-cell membrane fusion and viral entry with higher affinity. Higher
expression of the ACE2 receptor in adults compared to children may be a reason for the
higher infection rate seen in adults . Another noteworthy point is the increased level of
enzymes in the liver, heart, and kidneys in COVID-19 patients with pneumonia, which is
consistent with the tissue expression profile of the ACE2 receptor this could also explain the
occurrence of multi-organ failure in some patients.

Prevention of Covid 19
COVID-19 is clearly a serious disease of international concern. By some estimates it has a
higher reproductive number than SARS and more people have been reported to have been
infected or died from it than SARS Similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, disrupting the
chain of transmission is considered key to stopping the spread of disease. Different strategies
should be implemented in health care settings and at the local and global levels. Health care
settings can unfortunately be an important source of viral transmission. As shown in the
model for SARS, applying triage, following correct infection control measures, isolating the
cases and contact tracing are key to limit the further spreading of the virus in clinics and
hospitals. Suspected cases presenting at healthcare facilities with symptoms of respiratory
infections (e.g. runny nose, fever and cough) must wear a face mask to contain the virus and
strictly adhere triage procedure. They should not be permitted to wait with other patients
seeking medical care at the facilities. They should be placed in a separated, fully ventilated
room and approximately 2 m away from other patients with convenient access to respiratory
hygiene supplies. In addition, if a conﬁrmed COVID-19 case require hospitalization, they
must be placed in a single patient room with negative air pressure a minimum of six air
changes per hour

Vaccines
An effective vaccine should generate long-lasting protective immunity against SARS-
CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. This can be by generating antibodies to
neutralise the virus and likely also by helping the immune system memorise and
quickly respond to infection.
Although much remains to be understood regarding the immune response to SARS-
CoV-2, and vaccine-induced protective immunity may differ from natural immunity
owing to the immune-evasion strategies of the virus, improved understanding of the
natural immune response will be instrumental in developing effective vaccine and
therapeutic strategies. It is particularly relevant to understand the difference in
immune responses between asymptomatic, mild and severe cases and at early and late
stages of infection, and to understand why seniors are particularly susceptible to
COVID-19, whereas the young are better protected. It is estimated that 40–75% of
infections may be mild or asymptomatic and asymptomatic individuals may have a
significantly longer duration of viral shedding than their symptomatic counterparts.
Furthermore, that asymptomatic and mildly ill individuals seem to develop low levels
of antibody-mediated immunity has important implications for understanding herd
immunity.
ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (also known as AZD-1222), which is being developed by Oxford
University, UK, and AstraZeneca, is the most clinically advanced COVID-19
vaccine. Humans have low seroprevalence for ChAd, hence its strong
immunogenicity and utility for heterologous prime–boost COVID-19 vaccination.
The development of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 is based on promising human studies with
ChAdOx1-MERS vaccine and ChAdOx1-TB vaccine. However, although
intramuscular delivery of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 reduced SARS-CoV-2 viral load in the
lungs and prevented pneumonia in rhesus macaques, it did not reduce viral loads in
the upper respiratory tract. A recently reported phase I/II study shows its safety and
the induction of potent neutralizing antibody and T cell responses following a single
parenteral injection, which are boosted further by a second homologous vaccination.
It remains unclear from this trial to what extent both CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets
were activated.
V. Conclusion
The current COVID-19 pandemic is clearly an international public health problem.
There have been rapid advances in what we know about the pathogen, how it infects
cells and causes disease, and clinical characteristics of disease. Due to rapid
transmission, countries around the world should increase attention into dis-ease
surveillance systems and scale up country readiness and response operations
including establishing rapid response teams and improving the capacity of the
national laboratory system.

VI. Reference
- Afkhami, S., Yao, Y. & Xing, Z. Methods and clinical development of
adenovirus-vectored vaccines against mucosal pathogens. Mol. Ther. Methods
Clin. Dev. 3, 16030 (2016).
- Colloca, S. et al. Vaccine vectors derived from a large collection of simian
adenoviruses induce potent cellular immunity across multiple species. Sci. Transl
Med. 4, 115ra2 (2012).
- Ewer, K. et al. Chimpanzee adenoviral vectors as vaccines for outbreak
pathogens. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. 13, 3020–3032 (2017).
- Wilkie, M. et al. A phase I trial evaluating the safety and immunogenicity of a
candidate tuberculosis vaccination regimen, ChAdOx1 85A prime – MVA85A
boost in healthy UK adults. Vaccine 38, 779–789 (2020).

- van Doremalen, N. et al. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia
in rhesus macaques. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2608-y (2020)
- Folegatti, P. M. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine
against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised
controlled trial. Lancet https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31604-4 (2020).
- Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology inWuhan
China: the mystery and the miracle. J Med Virol 2020
- Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia
associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a
study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020
- China CDC. Epidemic update and risk assessment of 2019 novel coronavirus.Chinese
Center for Diseases Control and Prevention; 2020.
http://www.chinacdc.cn/yyrdgz/202001/P020200128523354919292.pdf [accessed
22February 2020]
- Kramer A, Schwebke I, Kampf G. How long do nosocomial pathogens persist
oninanimate surfaces? A systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2006;6:130

- Patel A, Jernigan DB. Initial public health response and interim clinical guid-ance for the
2019 novel coronavirus outbreak—United States, December 31,2019–February 4, 2020.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020;69:140.
- Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early transmission dynam-ics in
Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J
Med2020;382(13):1199–207
- Yu W, Tang G, Zhang L, Corlett R. Decoding the evolution and transmissions of the
novel pneumonia coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) using whole genomic data. ChinaXiv 2020.
Preprint
- Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of
pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person
transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020.
- Kramer A, Schwebke I, Kampf G. How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on
inanimate surfaces? A systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2006;6:130

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Corona Virus 2019 ( Covid 19 )

International Concern on 30 January, and a pandemic on 11 March On January 7, a novel

coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the Coronavirus Study Group. COVID-19 is moderately

treatment of the cases, as well as control and prevention strategies.

1. Discuss the pathogenesis of the disease

2. Identify ways to Prevent COVID-19

our immune system against the said virus

III. Literature Review

This study sought to achieve the above-mentioned objectives by looking and

documents in the internet on ( Covid 19 ) Corona virus 2019

domain (RBD) in S1 interacts with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on the human

occurrence of multi-organ failure in some patients.

COVID-19 is clearly a serious disease of international concern. By some estimates it has a

settings can unfortunately be an important source of viral transmission. As shown in the

hospitals. Suspected cases presenting at healthcare facilities with symptoms of respiratory

hygiene supplies. In addition, if a conﬁrmed COVID-19 case require hospitalization, they

changes per hour

An effective vaccine should generate long-lasting protective immunity against SARS-

CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. This can be by generating antibodies to

quickly respond to infection.

Although much remains to be understood regarding the immune response to SARS-

owing to the immune-evasion strategies of the virus, improved understanding of the

natural immune response will be instrumental in developing effective vaccine and

therapeutic strategies. It is particularly relevant to understand the difference in

stages of infection, and to understand why seniors are particularly susceptible to

infections may be mild or asymptomatic and asymptomatic individuals may have a

significantly longer duration of viral shedding than their symptomatic counterparts.

of antibody-mediated immunity has important implications for understanding herd

University, UK, and AstraZeneca, is the most clinically advanced COVID-19

immunogenicity and utility for heterologous prime–boost COVID-19 vaccination.

The development of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 is based on promising human studies with

ChAdOx1-MERS vaccine and ChAdOx1-TB vaccine. However, although

intramuscular delivery of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 reduced SARS-CoV-2 viral load in the

parenteral injection, which are boosted further by a second homologous vaccination.

The current COVID-19 pandemic is clearly an international public health problem.

surveillance systems and scale up country readiness and response operations

national laboratory system.

- Afkhami, S., Yao, Y. & Xing, Z. Methods and clinical development of

adenovirus-vectored vaccines against mucosal pathogens. Mol. Ther. Methods

Clin. Dev. 3, 16030 (2016).

- Colloca, S. et al. Vaccine vectors derived from a large collection of simian

adenoviruses induce potent cellular immunity across multiple species. Sci. Transl

Med. 4, 115ra2 (2012).

- Ewer, K. et al. Chimpanzee adenoviral vectors as vaccines for outbreak

pathogens. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. 13, 3020–3032 (2017).

- Wilkie, M. et al. A phase I trial evaluating the safety and immunogenicity of a

candidate tuberculosis vaccination regimen, ChAdOx1 85A prime – MVA85A

boost in healthy UK adults. Vaccine 38, 779–789 (2020).

- Folegatti, P. M. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine

against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised

- Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology inWuhan

China: the mystery and the miracle. J Med Virol 2020

associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a

study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020

Center for Diseases Control and Prevention; 2020.

- Kramer A, Schwebke I, Kampf G. How long do nosocomial pathogens persist

oninanimate surfaces? A systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2006;6:130

2019 novel coronavirus outbreak—United States, December 31,2019–February 4, 2020.

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020;69:140.