Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics 13(2), 59-76

On the Relationship between Socio-cultural Factors and

Language Proficiency
(Case Study: Shiraz University MA Students)

Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo and Majid Movahed∗

Shiraz University

Razmjoo, S. A., & Movahed, M. (2009). On the relationship between

socio-cultural factors and language proficiency (Case Study: Shiraz
University MA students). Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of
Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 59-76.

The primary objective of the present study was to investigate the

relationship between language proficiency and socio-cultural factors
among the Iranian MA students registered and entered at Shiraz
University in 2008. The second objective was to explore whether or not
one or a combination of socio-cultural factors are predictors of language
proficiency. Finally, the study aims at investigating the effects of gender,
age and major on language proficiency. To fulfill the objective, a 100-
item language proficiency test (30 items for grammar, 40 items for
vocabulary and 30 items for reading comprehension) and a questionnaire
including socio-cultural factors were distributed among 510 male and
female Iranians taking part in the MA Placement Test at Shiraz
University. The data gathered were analyzed descriptively utilizing
central tendency measures (mean and standard deviation). Moreover, the
collected data were analyzed inferentially using correlation, regression
analysis, ANOVA and independent t-test. As such, the following results
were obtained: a) although the descriptive statistics showed that females
outperformed males in language proficiency, the independent sample t-
test revealed that the difference is not significant; b) a significant
difference was found between the participants' language proficiency in
terms of their majors and their social classes; c) a moderate significant
relationship was observed between the participants' language proficiency
and their age; d) among various cultural factors, mother's literacy and
using films/CDs predict language proficiency to a great extent.

Key Words: Socio-cultural Factors, Social Factors, Cultural factors,

Language Proficiency

1 Introduction

∗
First/corresponding author: Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo, Second author: Majid
Movahed

59 ○ 2009 PAAL 1345-8353/00

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Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo and Majid Movahed

Numerous studies were conducted during the past few decades in an attempt
to investigate socio-cultural factors, language proficiency, and the
relationship between both. According to Richards, Platt and Platt (1992),
language proficiency is “a person’s skill in using a language for a specific
purpose” (p.204). They stated that proficiency deals with the skills with
which a person can use a language, for example how well a person can read,
write, listen, and speak while benefiting from three important language
components entitled grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Results from
studies carried out in the field show that socio-cultural factors might have
some sort of relationship with language learners’ proficiency. Findings have
frequently differed based on the context, whether they are learning their first
or second language. However, this study seeks to investigate the relationship
between language proficiency and socio-cultural factors that has received
comparatively little attention from researchers in the past. Previous efforts
have provided only limited insight into the relationship of socio-cultural
factors and language proficiency. This proposed study is based on the
assumption that proficiency may be affected by various socio-cultural
variables.

1.1 Statement of the problem

Performance on language proficiency tests might vary depending on a

multitude of factors. One understudied area has to do with socio-cultural
variables. It is impossible to draw out the language issues separately since
there is a close relationship between these issues and socio-cultural factors.
Most often, the language issues are on the surface, but underneath are the
complex socio-cultural issues. Moreover we cannot understand the language-
related issues without investigating the socio-cultural environment as a
whole. This study will investigate the relationship between socio-cultural
variables and language proficiency among the Iranian EFL learners.

2 Background of the Study

Language proficiency or linguistic proficiency as a measure of language

achievement is a way to understanding learners’ language development. In
the process of language development, there are a number of factors which
play an important role, factors such as learners’ first language, learners’
beliefs about language, motivation, cultural background and learner’s style.
Since these factors have a direct impact on learners’ language proficiency, it
is of paramount importance to explore them. Among Socio-cultural factors
are important factors the effect of which on language proficiency is worth
studying since the findings of such study would have important implications
for language instruction.

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2.1 Studies on socio-cultural factors

Sociocultural factors usually exert their influence within a family structure.

Examples of sociocultural factors are belief and value system, attitudes,
acculturation levels, socialization goals and practices, language use at home,
etc. (Gonzalez, 2001).
Drame and Xu (2008) incorporated sociocultural factors in a model
called Response to Intervention Model which addresses the issue of
overrepresentation of minority children in special education. A number of
researchers such as Cousin, Diaz, Flores, and Hernandez (cited in Drame and
Xu, 2008) presented a model of five sociocultural contexts that emphasize the
relationships among the contexts involved in the educational process for an
individual student. These contexts interact with one another in this model.
Yang (2002) examined the impact of sociocultural factors and
motivation upon the color coding ability of university students with different
demographic and sociocultural backgrounds. He concluded that sociocultural
factors are important determinants in group performance in color naming.
Rogers (2002) mentioned that students' lack of preparation deals with
some sociocultural factors rather than a lack of academic potential. Gonzalez
(2001) believed that sociocultural factors have an influence within a family
structure in which a kind of mediation of children's and parents' behavior is
seen. In order to be adapted to the school system, parents and children have
to develop some sociocultural strategies. De Voss (cited in Gonzales, 2001)
maintained that "adaptive strategies are observable behaviors occurring
within a particular sociocultural setting that are appropriate within the
patterns and perceptions of the social group (p.17)". Walker et al. (cited in
Gonzales, 2001) contended that there is "a cumulative effect of sociocultural
context of home, community, and school to be linked to the presence of
at-risk factors in academic achievement levels in language minority children"
(p.17). They argued that minority children are affected by the quality and
quantity of their interaction with their parents and teachers.
Shin (2000) carried out a qualitative research on the people who have
experienced using pidgins and found that there is a kind of interface between
the process of pidginization and sociocultural factors. He reviewed several
models to explore the relationship of sociocultural factors to second language
acquisition, such as John Schuman’s social distance, William Acton’s
perceived social distance, Bjorg Saven’s cultural distance, and Douglas
Brown’s optimal social distance.
Monzó and Rueda (2001) discussed the impact of sociocultural
factors on the interactions between Latino students and Latino teachers. They
stated that sociocultural theory emphasizes the social nature of learning.
Thus, knowledge of students' culture and communities, their primary
language, and the interactional styles with which they are familiar facilitate
meeting their academic and social needs.

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2.2 Studies on language proficiency

Language proficiency or linguistic proficiency is defined as the degree of

skill with which a person can use a language, such as how well a person can
read, write, speak, or understand language (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). A
large number of studies on language are done in the area of proficiency and
the factors affecting learners’ language proficiency.
Yashima and Zenuk-Nishide (2008) carried out a study on the area of
proficiency. In their study, they analyzed the effects of learning contexts on
language proficiency. In this research, the participants are from two different
groups: those who were studying at home and those studying abroad. The
results showed that the study-abroad participants’ proficiency gain was larger
than those who stay home; that is, learners with a larger amount of exposure
to content-based teaching have an advantage in the development of language
proficiency over those who have less exposure. Their study also reveals that
motivation leads to proficiency in L2.
Yamashita (2008) examined the effect of extensive reading on
different aspects of foreign/second language ability. In this study, the
development of general reading ability and lower-level linguistic ability was
also examined. It is concluded that the effects of extensive reading might be
evident more quickly in general reading skills than in L2 linguistic ability.
Satar and Özdener (2008) investigated the use of two synchronous
computer-mediated communication tools, namely, text and voice chat and
explored the effect of synchronous computer-mediated communication tools
on speaking proficiency. The researchers came to the point that the speaking
proficiency of both experimental groups increase.
Trudell (2008) in her study explored the specific links between
language development and literacy. The results showed a tight relationship
between these elements.
Studies which have been carried out with regard to language
proficiency and sociocultural factors are mentioned in the two previous
sections. Next section deals with the studies conducted to investigate the
relationship between language proficiency and sociocultural factors.

2.3 Studies on socio-cultural factors and language proficiency

Roebuck (2001) argued that teaching composition at university level presents

a number of challenges to the instructor teaching the course, as there are
different factors that make the course difficult to teach. The researcher claims
that learners can enhance and improve their linguistic competencies through
this course. Therefore, he draws on different components of socio-cultural
theory in the organization of second language composition course.
Lori and Al-Ansari (2001) examined a large number of Arab students
learning English as a foreign language and their sociocultural outlooks. They

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conducted a study on the relationship of some sociocultural factors and

motivation and attitude of these language learners.
Bartlett (2005) sought to add a socio-cultural theoretical perspective
for the creative identity work involved in the process of learning and using
literacies. The hypothesis was that “people employ cultural resources, such as
cultural artefacts, to develop new identities and literacies" (p.3). The
researcher clarifies these processes by drawing examples from interviews
with adult literacy students in Brazil and current literature in socio-cultural
studies of literacy.
In another study by Oh and Kit-fong Au (2005), an attempt was made
to identify the socio-cultural variables and explore the degree to which these
variables could predict the successful mastery of a heritage language
concerning grammar and accent by adult learners in Spain. The results
pointed out that the socio-cultural variables are more related to mastery of
Spanish accent, and that use of Spanish outside class is related to mastery of
Spanish grammar.
Haworth et al. (2006) in their study, took a socio-cultural approach to
investigate the factors that enhance young children’s bilingual development
in New Zealand. The findings of action research revealed that the relationship
between language learning and socio-cultural factors was direct. Therefore it
is concluded that socio-cultural factors are an inevitable part of achieving
competence.
Verhoeven and Vermeer (2006) carried out a study on sociocultural
variation in literacy achievement. The study was done on native and non-
native upper primary school children in the Netherlands with different
backgrounds. The results showed that native children perform better than
their non-native peers on all of the tasks which were related to literacy
achievement. Grade and ethnicity consistently predicted the scores for word
decoding, reading and text writing. Also, socio-economic status affected
reading literacy and the variable sex affected writing skills.
Hew Tano (2007) studied the role of motivational and sociocultural
factors in reading achievement of Hawaiian children. According to Obgu
(cited in Hew Tano, 2007), minority groups are often less advanced in terms
of performance on tests of academic achievement and cognitive skills, and
this tendency has been documented in some other communities as well. The
recent studies carried out show the new tendency to relate learning to
sociocultural factors. Hew Tano (2007) mentioned that to address poor
reading achievement, the researcher must include the broader context of
reading and the reader, particularly sociocultural and motivational factors.
The study carried out by Hew Tano linked some sociocultural factors to show
that when children have positive attitude toward a task and they have pro-
social learning goals and expectations, they choose to do it more frequently
and therefore do better at it. Therefore sociocultural factors influence student
aspirations, choices and enjoyment that improve their understanding and

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achievement. Finally Hew Tano (2007), like some other researchers in the
field, concluded that sociocultural factors are significantly associated with
reading achievement and they emphasize the need to connect learning to
students’ daily lives, so learners can construct meanings of their world as
they organize, restructure and represent what they already know.
Normand, Parisse and Parisse (2008) examined the influence of child
gender and socio-cultural factors in language production. Subjects were
French Parisian children. In their study, the level of proficiency was assessed
based on grammatical words such as determiners, prepositions and pronouns
and verbs. The results revealed the strong influences of socio-cultural factors
on language proficiency. Based on the results, children from high socio-
cultural families had more complex lexical productions and a higher rate of
development in contrast to the children from low socio-cultural families, who
used a less complex lexical production and a lower rate of development.

2.4 Studies on language proficiency and socio-cultural factors in the

Iranian context

Tabasi (2000) investigated the relationship between age, sex, and level of
proficiency on self-assessment. It was revealed that children and females
were more dependable in self-assessment questionnaires for listening. Also
proficiency had no significant effect on self-assessment except for the
intermediate group in their overestimation of their speaking. A significant
interaction was noted between age and level of proficiency.
Rezaeian (2001) investigated the relationship between field
dependence/independence (FD/I) as a cognitive style and foreign language
proficiency considering some other variables as sex and age in Iranian
language learners. The results showed that FD/I was a significant factor
affecting the performance of the students on the proficiency test. Also, age
and sex were found to affect the degree of FD/I in Iranian language learners.
Moreover, Salamian (2002) intended to investigate whether there was
any relationship between FD/I and the students' performance on global and
local questions of listening comprehension (LC) as well as the interaction
between FD/I and the question type. The study also sought to investigate the
relationship between FD/I and LC in general. The findings indicated no
relationship between FD/I and the students' performance on global questions.
However, there was a relationship between FD/I and the students'
performance on local questions. Also, there was an interaction between FD/I
and question type in listening comprehension. In other words, FI students
answer local questions better than global ones. And finally, no relationship
between FD/I and the students' performance on the Global test was found.
In a study conducted by Fijani (2005), an attempt was made to find
out whether below-and above-average EFL students differ in terms of
restoring short-range and long-range cloze items. The results of two paired t-

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test showed that both low-and-high proficiency groups score significantly

higher on short-range items. It was concluded that low-and-high proficiency
EFL learners perform differently on the two types of items, and short-range
cloze items were easier for EFL learners to restore. It was also concluded that
below average students do not have easy access to long-range constraint.
In another study, Hassani (2005) aimed at investigating the role of
EFL proficiency, gender, and the interaction of motivation type
(intrinsic/extrinsic), gender, and levels of English achievement (high, mid,
and low). Also the role of major and educational year play on learners' type
of motivation was studied. The outcomes of the study revealed that the
learners are mostly intrinsically motivated. It was also made clear that there
was no significant interaction among motivation, gender, and level of English
proficiency. Besides, no significant relationship was found between
motivation type and major or educational year.
Mohammadi (2007) investigated if the Foreign Language Classroom
Anxiety (FLCA) and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety (FLRA) among
Iranian EFL learners correlate and can predict each other. Also the roles of
gender, age and different years of university study on both FLCA and FLRA
were taken into consideration. The findings showed that different years of
university study do not play a role in neither FLCA nor FLRA, but both age
and gender affect the FLCA and FLRA. A positive and significant
relationship was found between FLCA and FLRA. Finally it was found that
both variables (FLCA and FLRA) can predict each other. That is to say,
FLCA anxiety can predict FLRA, and vice versa.
The studies reviewed indicated the fact that no comprehensive study
was done to find the impact of the sociolinguistic factors on language
proficiency. Moreover, no thorough piece of research has been performed to
investigate the relationship between sociolinguistic factors and language
proficiency. The majority of the studies done focused on the impact or the
relationship of demographic factors (gender, age and major) on or with
language proficiency which is of major concern in this study, too.

2.5 Objectives and research questions

The objectives of this study were three-folded. The primary objective of the
study was to investigate the relationship between language proficiency and
socio-cultural factors among the Iranian MA students registered and entered
at Shiraz University in 2009. The second objective of this study was to
explore whether one factor or a combination of factors (among socio-
cultural) are predictors of language proficiency. Finally, the study aimed at
investigating the effect of gender, age and major on language proficiency.
Based on the objectives of the study, the following research questions were
proposed:

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Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo and Majid Movahed

1. Is there any significant difference between male and female

Iranian MA students regarding their language proficiency?
2. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian MA
students' majors with respect to their language proficiency?
3. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian MA
students with different social classes regarding their language
proficiency?
4. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students
regarding their ages and language proficiency?
5. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and their parents' literacy?
6. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use TV?
7. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use satellite?
8. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use the Iranian radios?
9. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use foreign radios?
10. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use the internet?
11. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use
newspapers/magazines?
12. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use books?
13. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'
language proficiency and the amount they use the films/CDs?

3 Method

In this section, the participants of the study, instruments and the data
collection procedure are presented.

3.1 Participants

The participants of this study are item constructors and test-takers who are
defined in details in the followings sections.

3.1.1 Item constructors

The item constructors were seven assistant professors majoring in TEFL and
had more than eight years of experiences in teaching English and
constructing language proficiency items for Iranians of various ages and

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levels. They were at the time of the study teaching content English courses
including the Testing Course both to undergraduate English majors in English
Literature and graduate English majors at Shiraz University. Moreover, they
were teaching ESP and General English to undergraduates and graduates of
diverse disciplines.

3.1.2 Test-takers

The test-takers were 510 Persian speaking Iranian taking part in the MA
proficiency test at Shiraz University in diverse majors. The test-takers ranged
in age from 21 to 48 including, 276 males and 234 females.

3.2 Instruments

3.2.1 Questionnaire

The questionnaire utilized in the present study consists of the following

sections:

A. Demographic data including gender, age and major

B. Social factors consisting of parents' literacy and the social
class
C. Cultural factors consisting of the amount of using TV,
satellite, the Iranian radios, foreign radios, the Internet,
newspapers/magazines, books and films/CDs

The face and content validities of the questionnaire were approved by

the experts in the field of sociology including one of the co-authors of the
article.

3.2.2 Proficiency test

The language proficiency test for the study consisted of 30 structure items, 40
vocabulary items and 7 passages followed by 30 reading comprehension
items. The passages were general enough to ensure that discipline-specific
knowledge was not a determining factor affecting performance. It is
important to know that the final 100 items were selected from among the 150
items submitted by the item-constructors. Once the items were submitted, the
coordinators (2 assistant professors) commented on each item to improve the
quality of the items. So all alterations were made by the coordinators.

3.3 Data collection and analysis

All participants were given an oral description of objectives and procedures

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of the test and the questionnaire via the salon microphone prior to providing
the instruments. After familiarizing the candidates with the objectives of the
study, the socio-cultural questionnaire was distributed among them. They had
ample time to go over the questionnaire items and answer them. In the same
session, the language proficiency test was given to the participants with the
necessary instructions on the cover page. The data gathered were analyzed
descriptively utilizing central tendency measures (mean and standard
deviation). Moreover, the collected data were analyzed inferentially using
correlation, regression analyses, ANOVA and independent t-test depending
on the research objectives in general and each research question in particular.

4 Results and Discussion

Table 1. Basic Descriptive Statistics for the Particiapnts' Lanaguge

Proficiency
Factor N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. D
Proficiency 510 4 90 52.02 17.45

Table 1 illustrates the measures of central tendency and dispersion for

the 510 MA students. The minimum and the maximum are 4 and 90
respectively and the mean and standard deviation are 52.02 and 17.45
respectively, too. The distribution of the data is in the form of a quasi-normal
curve as Figure 1 depicts the same information.

Figure 1. Display of proficiency scores

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Table 2. Indepentant Sample T-test for the Male and Female's Proficiency
Gender N Mean Std. D t Sig.
Male 276 50.58 17.40 -2.03 .793
Female 234 53.72 17.38

While the means of male and female candidates were found to be

50.58 and 53.72 respectively, the independent sample t-test indicated that this
difference is not significant. So, there is no significant and meaningful
difference between the Iranian males and females' proficiency knowledge.

Table 3. Analysis of Variance for Social Classes and Language Proficiency

Social Class N Mean Std. D F Sig.
Low 47 51.36 40.93 10.837 .000*
Middle 231 50.95 46.62
High Average 170 58.42 53.09
High 42 65.21 55.73
Total 490 53.51 50.40

*Significant at .05

The means of low, middle, high average and high social classes are
51.36, 50.95, 58.42 and 65.21, respectively. As the table shows, the ANOVA
test is indicative of a significant and meaningful difference among the
proficiency knowledge of the Iranian students with regard to their social
calsses.

Table 4. Analysis of Variance for Majors and Language Proficiency

Majors N Std. D. F Sig.
Mean
Humanities &
142 52.2606 21.05167 4.649 .003*
Social sciences
Engineering &
194 55.1598 15.09933
Architecture
Agriculture &
91 47.9560 15.69424
Veterinarian
Basic Sciences 76 48.8816 16.54486
Total 503 52.0895 17.47833
* Significant at .05

Table 4 presents that the means of the language proficiency levels for
the Iranian students are different. To confirm significance of this difference, a
one-way ANOVA was run and the results proved the significant and
meaningful difference among the students of different majors.

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Table 5. Multiple Regressions for Types of Socio-cultural Factors and

Proficiency
Variables Beta t Sig.
TV -.102 -2.180 .030*
Satellite .124 2.615 .009*
Iranian Radios -.111 -2.266 .024*
Foreign Radios .065 -1.341 .181
The Internet .169 3.542 .000*
Newspapers/Magazines -.095 -1.915 .056
Books .038 .763 .446
Films/CDs .165 3.277 .001*
Age -.047 -1.012 .312
Father's Literacy .066 .950 .343
Mother's Literacy .270 3.866 .000*
*Dependent Variable: Proficiency Score (Significant at .05)

Table 5 shows that multiple rgressions were run to determine what

type of socio-cultural factors predict language proficiency and the results
indicated that TVs, the Iranian radios, satellites, the internet, films/CDs and
mother literacy predict language proficiency to a great extent. However, as
the stepwise multiple regressions in the Table 6 illustrate, the most
determinant and dominant factor is the mother's literacy.

Table 6. Stepwise Multiple Regressions for Variables Predicting Language

Proficiency
Variables Beta R R2 Adjust The Std. Error t Sig.
ed R2 of the
Estimate
Mother's Literacy .331 .331 .110 .108 16.38974 7.116 .000
Mother's Literacy .303 6.564 .000
.380 .144 .140 16.08889
Films/CDs .188 6.04 000
Mother's Literacy .301 6.573 .000
Films/CDs .191 .399 .159 .153 15.96979 4.15 000
TV -.121 -2.67 .008
Mother's Literacy .296 6.481 .000
Films/CDs .186 4.06 .000
.410 .168 .160 15.90067
TV -.101 -2.18 .030
Iranian Radio -.099 -2.13 .033

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Table 7. Spearman Product Moment Correlation for language proficiency and

socio-cultural factors
Variables Prof.
TV -.120*
Satellite .157*
Iranian radios -.180*
Foreign Radios .038
The Internet .191*
News/Mag -.054
Books .063
Films/CDs .199*
Father's Literacy .294*
Mother's Literacy .351*
Age -.175*
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 7 presents the following findings: a. no significant relationship

is found between using foreign radios, newspapers/magazines, books and
language proficiency; b. there is a negative correlation between language
proficiency and using TVs and Iranian radios and age; c. there is a positive
correlation between language proficiency and using satellites, the Internet
and films/CDs, father's and mother's literacy.

5 Conclusions

To sum up, the main points can be encapsulated by answering the research
questions.

1. Is there any significant difference between male and female

Iranian MA students regarding their language proficiency?

The findings indicated that no significant difference could be found

between males and females' language proficiency knowledge in the Iranian
context (Table 2). These results illustrate that although in the Iranian context
females outnumber males and occupy more university seats than males, they
do not necessarily outperform their male counterparts. The findings are in
line with Tabasi's (2000) and Mohammadi's ones and in contrast to Hassani's
results.

2. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian MA

students' majors with respect to their language proficiency?

The results of ANOVA showed that the Iranian students with different
majors are different with regard to their proficiency levels and this difference
is both significant and meaningful (Table 4). It is interesting to emphasize

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that the students of Humanities and Social sciences and engineering and
architecture outperformed other students. This might account for the facts
that these students' sources are more flexible and varied in terms of
information in contrast to students of other majors.

3. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian MA

students with different social classes regarding their
language proficiency?

The findings revealed that social class is an important factor for

language proficiency; that is, there is a significant difference among the
Iranian students who belong to different social classes (Table 3). The main
philosophy behind this difference is that the students who belong to the high
social class of the society have more access to the facilities such as language
classes, private teachers, the Internet and satellites. So, the results imply that
the government should do its best to provide the students of lower social
classes with more facilities. The findings support the results presented by
Normand, Parisse and Parisse (2008).

4. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students

regarding their ages and language proficiency?

Although there is a correlation between the participants levels of

proficiency and age, this correlation is negative; that is, the younger the
participants, the more proficient they are (Tables 5 & 7). This finding is in
line with the idea of critical period hypotheses proposed by Lenneberg. The
findings are in line with Tabasi's (2000) and Mohammadi's results.

5. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'

language proficiency and their parents' literacy?

Despite the fact that a positive significant relationship was found

between students' proficiency and their parents' literacy, mother's literacy is a
more determining factor for predicting the participants' proficiency (Tables 5,
6 & 7). This might account for the fact that the Iranian students' mothers are
mostly housewives and they spend a lot of time with their children. As a
result, their levels of literacy have a great effect on helping their children
develop their proficiency.

6. Is there any relationship between the Iranian MA students'

language proficiency and the amount they use TV, satellite,
the Iranian radios, foreign radios, the Internet, newspapers
/magazines, books and films/CDs?

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Three types of possibilities exist in the Iranian context (Tables 5, 6 &

7). First, there is no significant relationship between the students' proficiency
knowledge and the amount they use foreign radios, newspapers/magazines
and books. Second, a negative and significant correlation is found between
students' language proficiency and the extent they use the Iranian TVs and
radios. This is indicative of the idea that those who are in charge of mass
media do not much care for including the English programs in their priorities.
Finally, the results show a significant and positive relationship between the
participants' proficiency knowledge and the amount of using satellites, the
internet and films/CDs. The major reason for this positive and significant
correlation is that the satellites and the Internet are two important sources for
developing the students' proficiency in an EFL context in which one’s
exposure to the foreign language is missing in the society. Moreover, the
students will select the films and the CDs intently to improve their
proficiency. This means that for developing L2 proficiency, students' choices
should be taken into account. The findings support the results mentioned by
those researchers who claimed that socio-cultural variables, in general, affect
language proficiency (Drame and Xu, 2008; Haworth et al., 2006; Oh and
Kit-fong Au, 2005; Monzó and Rueda, 2001; Yang, 2002; Rogers, 2002; and
Shin, 2000) though they did not discuss the socio-cultural variables in detail
as the present study did.

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Seyyed Aytaollah Razmjoo

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics
College of Literature and Humanities
Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
Post Code: 7194685115
Tel: 0987116288721
E-mail: arazmjoo@rose.shirazu.ac.ir

Majid Movahed
Department of Sociology
College of Economics and Management and Social Scones
Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
Post Code: 7194685115
Tel: 0987116134400
E-mail: mmovahed@rose.shirazu.ac.ir

Received: February 27, 2009

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Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo and Majid Movahed

Revised: May 15, 2009

Accepted: June 5, 2009

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