Engineering Geology, 29 (1990) 1-29 1

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Engineering geology in Papua New Guinea:

a review

D. Stead *x
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. (Canada)
(Received August 9, 1988; accepted after revision May 22, 1989)

ABSTRACT

Stead, D., 1990. Engineering geology in Papua New Guinea: a review. Eng. Geol., 29: 1-29.

Papua New Guinea is a country where geology has a major impact on civil and mining engineering
projects. It is situated in a geologically active region and hence is subject to earthquake- and volcanicity-
related hazards. Combined with a high annual rainfall, rugged topography and intense weathering, this
makes Papua New Guinea an extremely challenging and interesting environment for the engineering
geologist. Several large-scale open pit mining operations such as Panguna and Ok Tedi have involved a
considerable input from geological engineers both in mine design and in the development of the necessary
infrastructure. Environmental concerns have become increasingly important requiring the design of
tailings dams to limit the effect of mineral extraction. The construction and maintenance of roads is an
important factor in the growth of Papua New Guinea and both major and minor roads have been
adversely influenced by slope instability problems. Numerous slope failures have occurred along the
country's main route, the Highland's highway, on several occasions resulting in road closure. The
development of hydroelectric power has also involved a significant input from geological engineers in the
design and construction of dams and ancillary structures. This paper examines the influence of geology on
the development of Papua New Guinea.

INTRODUCTION

P a p u a N e w G u i n e a is a y o u n g c o u n t r y b o t h politically a n d geologically. It gained

i n d e p e n d e n c e from A u s t r a l i a o n l y 13 years ago a n d p a r t s o f the c o u n t r y were still
u n e x p l o r e d as late as the 1960's. It is h o w e v e r r a p i d l y e m e r g i n g as a leading w o r l d
p r o d u c e r o f c o p p e r a n d gold. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the m i n i n g i n d u s t r y a n d the
a s s o c i a t e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e has t a k e n place a n d will c o n t i n u e to t a k e place u n d e r
adverse climatic, t o p o g r a p h i c a n d engineering geological c o n d i t i o n s . T h e c o u n t r y ' s
capital, P o r t M o r e s b y , is still to be c o n n e c t e d by r o a d to the h i n t e r l a n d a n d the future
will see b o t h c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p a n s i o n o f the r o a d n e t w o r k a n d u p g r a d i n g o f existing
roads. U r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r are also a r e a s
o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n p u t f r o m the engineering geologist.
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f geology in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f P a p u a N e w G u i n e a has been

*1Formerly of the University of Papua New Guinea.

0013-7952/90/$03.50 © 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

2 D. STEAD

recognised. Most mining schemes have resident geological engineers/geotechnical

engineers and there is an engineering geology unit within the Geological Survey of
Papua New Guinea which over the last 10-20 years has been involved in most of the
major engineering projects. The University of Papua New Guinea also offers courses
in applied geology, with an emphasis on geological engineering, to undergraduate
geology students.
Some of the factors influencing engineering projects within Papua New Guinea
include a rugged topography, high annual rainfall, intense weathering, seismic and
volcanic activity. The relief is dominated by a central cordillera which has a
maximum elevation of 4509 m at Mt Wilhelm (Fig. 1). The majority of the country's
population is concentrated in the Highlands provinces in central Papua New Guinea
and in the coastal urban centres. The rugged topography in the Highlands region has
been a major factor in delaying the construction and upgrading of the country's main
road the Highlands highway. In other parts of the country there are major limestone
plateaux which display sub-vertical slopes over 800 m in height. In contrast, the Gulf
area of Papua New Guinea is an extensive alluvial area with endemic malaria. An
excellent review of the geomorphology of Papua New Guinea is provided by Loftier
(1977).
Rainfall has a major effect on engineering projects. Most of Papua New Guinea
has an annual rainfall of greater than 2500 mm. In some areas, such as the Telefomin
region near the major Ok Tedi gold mine, the annual rainfall may be over 10,000 mm.
The lowest annual rainfall is in the coastal region around Port Moresby and is of the

BISMARCKSEA "~4

........... oo.,.k. - \ ~ Oilinvlllo hi

TR~ CORAL SEA

*.s o 2o0 ~ ~
Km.

Fig.l. Papua New Guinea; location and main centres.

ENGINEERINGGEOLOGY I N PAPUA NEW GUINEA 3

order of 1000-1500 mm. Combined high rainfall, high temperatures, and rugged
topography results both in high rates of weathering, producing completely weathered
rocks and residual soils along with high rates of erosion. Blong (1981) reports rates of
erosion in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea of 20 cm/year.

GEOLOGY

Papua New Guinea is situated in the zone of interaction between two major plates,
the northward moving Australian Plate and the westward moving Pacific Plate.
Numerous studies on the tectonics of the region have shown that in practice there are
several minor plates involved in this zone of interaction and that the plate tectonic
history is quite complex (Jenkins, 1974; Jacques and Robinson, 1977; Davis et al.,
1984; Cooper and Taylor, 1987). On a regional scale three major tectonic provinces
have been recognised; the southwest Papuan platform (a stable basement extension
of continental Australia), the central orogenic belt (New Guinea Mobile Belt) and the
northern island arc province (Fig.2).
The isostatically stable cratonic southwest Papuan platform consists of Palaeozoic
metamorphic and granitic rocks overlain by Mesozoic and Cainozoic shelf sediments.
The northeastern extension of this platform underlies tectonically thickened Meso-

138OE 140 ° 142 ° 144 ° 146 °. 148 ° 150 ° 152 ° 154 ° 156o
' ~ O°

~anu$ r.'""?
4 2°

• -.-----B~smarck Sea 'i::: 4~

OR
.o ~^ ~ :.. _.
';\

,"r~..ee(,
4'0

?'d
't-'
:;g -~,l~{~¢xS-~T~~_ so, .... Sea

I
CON: TINE N T AI" ,~

PLATFORM e~ ~° o

oo "~°.

_a
~, Eit,OCl volcano ~ I • °.

&Shale
MuOO,aD,,s
VOlCanoes. t I ~ ," "'i .°- """
M~oceneqnl,ullves " " ~2
Mlsoa,o~ PelldOllll * C 0 t cl I Sea S
.... 2kin Oee~" Comou, !
I I I I I I I 1

Fig.2. Plate Tectonic map of Papua N e w guinea (Cooper and Taylor, 1987). TM=Torricelli Mts.;
OSFZ=Owen Stanley Fault Zone; DE=D'Entrecasteaux Islands. Triangles on trench segments
indicate direction of subduction; arrows indicate sense of motion on transform fault segments.
4 D. STEAD

zoic miogeosynclinal shales and Tertiary limestones of the Papuan Fold Belt. This
area is characterised by foreland folds and thrusts verging southward from the
central orogenic belt. The vergence has been associated with Paleocene-Oligocene
subduction and collision which thrust an Eocene island arc southwest over the
Mesozoic passive margin of Australia (Cooper and Taylor, 1987) and a zone of
detachment tectonics (Jenkins, 1974) with the basement extension forming the core of
a basement high in the Papuan New Guinea Highlands referred to as the Kubor
Anticline. Several large Quaternary stratovolcanoes occur within the Highlands
region of the Papuan Fold Belt.
The central orogenic or New Guinea Mobile Belt is located to the north and east of
the Papuan Fold Belt and extends throughout the length of Papua New Guinea. It
consists predominantly of Mesozoic-Cainozoic geosynclinal sediments and volcanics
which have been highly folded, faulted and metamorphosed on their northern and
eastern margins. A discontinuous belt of ophiolites occurs along the outer margin of
the central orogenic belt. The largest, the Papuan Ultramafic Belt is thought to be a
10-16 km thick thrust sheet of oceanic crust and mantle emplaced in Eocene-Oligo-
cene times (Connelly, 1979). Several major, mainly mid-Miocene, intermediate
plutons intrude the central orogenic belt, some associated with gold and copper
mineralisation. Large Cainozoic stratocones are present within the Highlands and in
southeast Papua New Guinea, some of which have been recently active.
The northern island arc province is separated from the central orogenic belt to the
south by the graben-like Ramu-Markham Fault Zone or the Solomon Sea Basin. The
latter being subducted to the north at the New Britain Trench and to the southwest at
the Trobriand Trough (a continuation of the Ramu-Markham suture) (Cooper and
Taylor, 1987). This province contains the northern coastal mountains of mainland
Papua New Guinea, the Bismarck and Solomon Seas and the islands of the Bismarck
Archipelago. It is a tectonically active area with a high frequency of seismic and
volcanic activity. It is also a geologically young province composed of predominantly
Cainozoic intermediate volcanics, volcano-clastics, reef limestones and intrusives. The
islands of the Bismarck Archipelago, including New Britain, New Ireland and
Bougainville, together with the north coastal mountain ranges of the mainland are
believed to represent Tertiary island arcs. Major porphyry copper and gold deposits are
found within this tectonically active province. Uplift of the land is proceeding at
spectacular rates and is evidenced by flights of raised coral terraces on the Huon
Peninsula, where the uplift rate has been estimated as 0.5-3 m per 1000 years.
The high level of tectonic activity in Papua New Guinea is a major factor in
engineering. Earthquakes of magnitudes of greater than 6 on the Richter scale are not
uncommon within the northern island arc province. They may result in considerable
damage to roads, foundations, and slope failures. With increasing population density
these could represent a high risk to settlements. It has been estimated that Papua New
Guinea has between 5 and 10% of the world's total earthquake occurrences. In
recognition of this the country has been divided into major earthquake zones and
contoured in terms of seismic intensity (Gaul, 1978; Ripper, 1979). Generally the
northern islands arc province is classified as an area of high to very high risk; the
central orogenic belt and the Papuan Fold Belt are areas of medium risk and the
stable southwest platform is a low-risk area (Fig.3).
E N G I N E E R I N G G E O L O G Y IN P A P U A N E W G U I N E A 5

~ Rebllul ~.
~ B \ \ \

"~ Iu'a'ng I? / . "• A ~ .

9o

st,s.,c ,,,s,. z 0 . . ~ - - ~ ,
A - V. High
8 High "~ ~ o
C" Medium
D- Low

Fig.3. Seismicrisk zones in Papua New Guinea, after Gaul (1978).

Papua New Guinea is situated on the so called circum-Pacific "ring of fire" and has
36 volcanoes which may be classified as either active or dormant (Lowenstein, 1982).
Most of these are within the nortbern island arc province and they include the
Rabaul volcanoes (Fig.4), which are the subject of detailed monitoring at present
(Mckee et al., 1985). Mt Lamington, a mainland volcano, erupted in 1951, although
considered dormant, and resulted in the loss of almost 3000 lives. Today, the
geophysical observatories at Port Moresby and Rabaul closely monitor seismic and
volcanic activity.

SLOPE STABILITY

The stability of slopes is an important factor in the development of Papua New

Guinea (Stead, 1987). Landslides are a significant geological hazard, often associated
with seismic activity. The stability of road cuttings and natural slopes has been a
major consideration in the extension and maintenance of the country's road network.
The Highlands highway has been blocked on numerous occasions by slope failures
and several sections have had to be realigned. Table I shows some of the main
mechanisms of slope instability reported in Papua New Guinea, and Table II
provides details on some majo r slope failures.
Rockfalls are not that common in Papua New Guinea as the rapid rate of
weathering and erosion does not allow the formation of extensive areas of cliff and
rock outcrop. In western Papua New Guinea, however, spectacular structurally
controlled Darai limestone plateaux are found and also impressive limestone cliffs
6 D. S T E A D

Fig.4. Rabaul caldera and volcanoes.

along river gorges such as the Purari and Strickland. The Hindenburg Plateau
terminates at the Hindenburg wall which is a 1000 m high, near vertical limestone
face. Major joint controlled rockfalls have been reported (Geological Survey of
Papua New Guinea, 1980) and have hampered the development of engineering
schemes in this area. Steep topography is also characteristic of the immediate
hinterland of the Port Moresby area and here the resistant Astrolabe Agglomerate
forms a marked cliff. Rockfall problems associated with boulders derived from this
scarp have had a significant affect on the Rouna hydroelectric scheme. Numerous
potentially unstable boulders had to be removed by drilling and blasting, and slope
instability due to boulders and colluvium was a factor in the construction of tailrace
and headrace tunnels underground rather than surface pipelines.
Mudslides in Papua New Guinea are a considerable problem. Mudslides being
defined here as masses of softened argillaceous, silty or very fine sandy debris which
advance chiefly by sliding on discrete boundary surfaces in relatively slow moving
lobate or elongate forms. In Papua New Guinea mudslides occur involving overcon-
solidated clay shale deposits frequently of Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary age. These
slides are common in the Highlands region where Chim Formation shales consisting
of grey-black micaceous siltstones and mudstones, interbedded with subordinate
sandstones, limestones and conglomerates occur. The Chim shale clay fraction
consists of mixed layer montmorillonite-illite and is characterised by its rapid slaking
on excavation to produce fine angular clay shale fragments. In some areas,
particularly in the Simbu Province of the Highlands, widespread instability is evident
with much of the land surface being underlain by Chim Formation. The topography
is characterised by long narrow ridges separating major areas of colluvial debris.
Numerous reports of instability due to the siting of engineering works on ancient
E N G I N E E R I N G G E O L O G Y IN P A P U A N E W G U I N E A 7

TABLE 1

Slope instability mechanisms in Papua New Guinea

MECHANISM COMMENTS

Not important failure m e c h a n i s m s due to the rapid rate of e r o s i o n

and weathering. Joint - c o n t r o l l e d rockfall and t o p p l i n g occur in
the Parai Limestone plateau scarps [Hindenburg plateau} and In
ROCKFALL
river gorges in western Papua New Guinea, (PurarI and Erave
rivers}. Rockfalls of e n g i n e e r i n g significance also r e p o r t e d from
the Astrolabe Agglomerate near Port Moresby, and in the B o r g e r a
m i n i n g district, In the Highlands. Rockfall an important p r o c e s s
in areas above 4000a such as Mt W i l h e L m (Loffler,1977).
TOPPLING

Rotational slumps are common In slopes formed in r e l a t i v e l y

homogeneous sedimentary rocks such as mudstones, poorly cemented
ROTATIONAL : ROCK sandstones, marls, and also low grade metamorphlcs. Numerous
rotational failures can be observed in both h i g h l y w e a t h e r e d
s e d i m e n t a r y and igneous rocks along the H i g h l a n d s Highway.

ROTATIONAL : SOIL

Translational failures lay occur in road cuts along bedding

TRANSLATIONAL : PLANAR
planes, Joints, faults, or a l o n g the interface between weathered
materials and fresher bedrock. Design of excavations,
p a r t i c u l a r l y high mlne slopes must a l l o w for failures involving
multiple translational surfaces or "step - paths".

TRANSLATIONAL : WEDGE

common in Papua New Guinea. S h a l l o w d e p t h slides involving soll

and uppermost w e a t h e r e d rock. O f t e n wedge - shaped tapering in
width downslope. F r e q u e n t on s t e e p slopes in i n t e n s e l y d e f o r m e d
rocks, t h i n l y bedded m u d s t o n e s or c l o s e l y follatad a e t a m o r p h i c s .
DEBRIS SLIDES Common in the Ok Tedi region and a l o n g the Highlands Highway.

Frequent failure m e c h a n i s m s on steep slopes. U s u a l l y t r i g g e r e d by

high ~ very high s e i s m i c activity. May occur in w e a t h e r e d rock or
soll and u s u a l l y d i s p l a y funnel or V - shaped main scarps. Debris
DEBRIS A V A L A N C H E S flows in rock may leave extensive rear v e r t i c a l scars up to 200m
DEBRIS FLOWS in height (King and Loveday, 1985).

Occur on shallower slopes than debris slides or debris

avalanches. Usually involve a r g i l l a c e o u s rocks and/or s u p e r f i c i a l
m a t e r i a l s and are e a r t h q u a k e triggered. C o m m o n as single or as a
series of failures forming e x t e n s i v e fans up to 70m In d e p t h
(Loffler,1977).
EARTHFLOWS
TABLE II

Examples of major slope failures in Papua New Guinea

Location Date Mechanism Description Remarks

Yakatabari, Nov. 1 9 8 4 Mudslides Mudslides of volume I-4.34.106 m 3 Failures occurring in toe of

Porgera, Enga Dec. 1983 occurring within an ancient landslide mudslide where gold sluicing
Province Dec. 1974 (40,000 BP). Surface slope 8°-12 °, occurs at present
length 2500 m, width 100 m, thickness
20 m (Blong, 1985).
Anawa, Dec. 1 9 7 6 Mudslides Surface slope 9°-13 °, length I000 m, Blocked mine access road.
Porgera, Enga width 30-40 m (Blong, 1985). 12+ mudslides in area of
Province
similar dimensions.
Ok Tedi, Western Jan. 1 9 8 4 Mudslide? Major failure in slopes of Ok Ma Resulted in abandonment of
Province valley after heavy rainfall. original tailings dam site.
Chauve, Highlands Oct. 1 9 7 0 Mudslide Mudslide within weathered Chim shale Road on ancient landslide
Highway and fill. Occurred after heavy rainfall was blocked for two weeks,
and earthquake of intensity VI on Modified (eventually realigned).
Mercalli scale (Jacobsen and Harris, 1970). Numerous other landslides
within the highlands are
referred to in the
literature (Blong, 1981, 1985)
Adelbert Range Nov. 1970 Debris avalanches, Dense landsliding over an area of 240 km 2 Debris dams formed. Tree
earthflows, occurred after a magnitude 7.0 earthquake. fall believed to be an
rockflows. Estimated 27.6.106 m 3 debris moved into important landslide
drainage channels. Shallow depth, 20-80 cm, triggering mechanism.
length 18-150 m. Debris avalanche on slopes
of 45°+, earthflows on gentler slopes with
deeper soil cover (Pain, 1972).
Biaramen valley, May 1985 Debris flows, Major debris flows and slides from the Failures occurred over
Bialla, West New debris slides, limestone valley slopes of the Biaramen a wide area. Debris dams
Britain Circular river. Backscars of up to 200 m in height. formed. Log debris swept
Failure volume ranging from shallow debris away bridges. Circular
slides on volcanics to debris flows of failures blocked roads.
0.1 km a. Occurred after a magnitude 7.1 Video-tape of failure
earthquake (King and Loveday, 1985). damage due to earthquake
taken by Geological
Survey of P.N.G
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 9

landslides involving Chim-shale-rich colluvium are present in the literature. Jacobsen

and Harris (1970) and Harris (1972) describe instability on the Highlands highway in
the Kundiawa to Minj section. One mudslide near Chauve (Jacobsen and Harris,
1970) blocked the highway for almost two weeks, though closure for lesser periods
due to slope instability is a common occurrence. Triggering of the mudslides can be
by earthquakes and/or removal of support of the slope toe due to either excavation or
river erosion. The Highlands highway section between Kundiawa and Chauve (Fig.5)

Chlm Formation
I¢--tnmtlblli,,"~> I
~> ~ " Iv '~ ', ~ ,~, , / _ Dlulo Kallam
.: ~ ~ ~.~ ,~, ~. - : ~':. p,,, pa,.

"• .~.~\ I I KM, I

~"~'-:.'- : _- .ii

X e y to l o c a t i o n s

Ch; Chauve, Go; Goroka, xa; Kalnantu, Ke; KaEowagl, KU; Kundlava,
Me; Mendi, ~BI; MOunt Hagan, Mi; Min~, Na; Wabag, wt; W a t a b ~ g .

Xey to Geology

R~::ent Sediman~l.
m ToT=
[] TOTlm~ Tertiary Sediments
Bm TOTI~ includlngmudatones.
landaEonll, lllnesto~tal
a/lcl v o l c a n o l £ ~ l ~ c
[] TeTol units.

KU
Cretaceous argillaceous
a~d aranaceous sediments.
[] K1

[] JiJu Jurassic argillltes, with

scrao sandstones, thin arkoaes
and basal conglomerates.
[] Tru Triassic volcluaollthl¢
sediments.

Acid - Intemedlate
Idltruslve Basic
Igneous
[] Rocks Ultramaflc

volca~ics
Mata~1orphlcs of Triassic - Tertiary ago.
o Eruptive centre.
Cratar' wall of volcano.
Fault.

Fig.5. Geology along the Highlands highway.

10 D.STEAD

is now fully paved. Problems of instability in this section included unstable cuts in
weathered Chim shale, subsidence of road surface within old landslide areas and road
edge failures due to construction on unstable weathered Chim shale derived fill.
Harris (1972) emphasised the importance of minimising the extent of disturbance of
old landslides. Many of the slope problems were due to reactivation of old mudslides
by undercutting or surcharging. Much realignment to avoid old slide areas has
occurred and where this was not possible the importance of providing adequate
drainage to the landslide mass was recognised.
Blong (1981, 1985) discusses mudslides within Chim Formation materials. He
notes that most of the failures involved predominantly colluvial material and that
feeder slides may occur. Often a series of accumulation basins and old failure areas
can be identified down the mudslide profile. The slides range up to 2500 m in length
and have surface slopes of 6 °-15 ° with steeper headward areas and possibly smaller
feeder slides depositing colluvium onto the mudslide surface. Due to an annual
rainfall of over 2 m in the Highlands region the mudslides are frequently saturated
resulting in continued movement and surges. An interesting indicator of slope
instability in the Highlands region is the presence or absence of layers of volcanic ash.
Blong and Pain (1978) mapped the distribution of volcanic ash in the Highlands and
found interesting correlations between rock types, slope angles, the presence of ash
cover and slope instability. Argillaceous beds of the Chim Formation which had been
subjected to slope failures had no volcanic ash cover, whereas more sandy beds of the
same formation often retained a cover of ash.
A major mudslide, the Yakatabari mudslide, near the Porgera mining district in
the Highlands has been described in detail by Blong (1985). This is an ancient
mudslide approximately 2500 m in length and dated as 4500 BP. It has an average
surface slope of 8 °-12 ° and is estimated to have moved at approximately 60 mm per
year. Reactivation of the landslide was promoted by hydraulic sluicing for alluvial/
colluvial gold and sections of landslide debris of up to 20 m thick were observed.
Blong conducted a series of shear box tests and a programme of field shear testing
using the Iowa down-borehole shear instrument. The laboratory tests on remoulded
slide material gave residual friction angles of 30 ° as compared with the field shear
strength parameters of q5'=26 ° and C ' = 10 kPa. The stability of mudstones and
shales of Cretaceous age is also a problem in other parts of Papua New Guinea and
has been responsible for several failures in the Ok Tedi region. Mostyn and Ferguson
(1984) presented results of triaxial testing on rocks from the Pnynang Formation
which has been an adverse factor in the stability of slopes in the mine area.
The mechanism of failure of the Chim shales has been analysed by Blong (1981)
using an infinite slope model. He showed that residual shear strength values and high
pore water pressure appeared to be present for most failure surfaces analysed. It was
recognised that the method of analysis was approximate and that geometry of
mudslide failures needed more precise delineation. Indeed several failures within the
Chim Formation described in the literature have a distinctly rotational mechanism
particularly in their upper regions. It is hence necessary to use composite analytical
techniques to analyse these slope failures. Complexities in the back-analysis of the
mudslides include the adequate definition of shear strength parameters (owing to the
variability of the slide debris) and pore pressure conditions, and identifying the
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA l1

importance of progressive failure mechanisms. Before more sophisticated analytical

techniques can be applied there is a need for more detailed site investigation of
failures, like the Yakatabari investigation, to provide information on the geometry of
the slope and failure surface.
Rotational slumps are common in Papua New Guinea. Loftier (1977) notes that
they usually involve relatively homogeneous sedimentary rocks such as mudstones,
marls and sandstones. They also occur within deeply weathered igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Numerous rotational failures are observable within completely
weathered and residual materials derived from the igneous rocks in the Daulo Pass
area (Goldsmith et al, 1981) (Fig.6). Rotational slumps and debris slides are also
common within intensely weathered rocks along the Watabung to Chauve section of
the Highlands highway (King, 1983) and pose severe hazards in the Kassam Pass area
where the Highlands highway descends steeply into the Ramu valley. Both the Daulo
Pass and the Kassam Pass have been blocked on several occasions by slope failure
and fatalities have occurred.
Debris slides, avalanches and flows together form the most common failure
mechanisms in Papua New Guinea. The debris slides are generally shallow in depth,
involving the soil and weathered rock mantle. Wedge-shaped debris slides, with the
wedge tapering downslope are a common site in areas of rugged topography in Papua
New Guinea (Fig.7). With increasing water content they grade into debris avalanches
which tend to follow steep gullies. Pain (1972) describes debris avalanches in the
Adelbert Range which occurred in i 970. They were triggered by an earthquake which
occurred on the north coast of Papua New Guinea and which had a magnitude of 7.0
on the Richter scale. The debris avalanches were shallow with a mean depth of 44 cm,

Fig.6. Rotational failure, Daulo Pass, Highlands highway.

 12 D.STEAD

Fig.7. Debris slide along the Highlands highway.

a mean length of 51 m and occurred on slopes of approximately 45 °. Earthflows were

also triggered on lower-angle slopes by the earthquake.
King and Loveday (1985) and King (1986a) describe the effects of a magnitude 7.1
earthquake which occurred near Bialla in New Britain on May 11, 1985. Severe
damage was observed including blockage of roads by landslips, destruction of a
bridge, cracking of a wharf, and up-ending of numerous water storage tanks. The
most spectacular effect of the earthquake occurred where steep river gorges over
600 m in depth cut the Nakanai Mountains. This area which was composed of
limestones and volcanics was severely affected by landslides (Fig.8). A map was
produced by King and Loveday (1985) dividing the area on the basis of landslide
dimensions. Several very large landslides occurred within the karst limestone causing
breakup of the rock mass into a mobile debris flow with occasional large slump
blocks. One such landslide left a semicircular area of 1 km 2 bounded by a rear scar of
200 m in height. Numerous large debris flows several hundred metres in width and 10
to 20 m deep were also triggered by the earthquake. The larger debris flows were
generally confined to the karst limestones, although many smaller shallow debris
slides affected both the limestones and weathered volcanics. A subsequent flooding
hazard resulted from debris flows damming a river and impounding a reservoir of
3 km length and estimated volume of 36 million m 3. King (1986a) describes a site
investigation undertaken to assess the stability of this debris dam. King predicted
that the lake would overtop the dam in September 1986 and by August 3, 1986 the
reservoir level had risen 11 m below the dam crest. It was noted at this stage that the
rate of water level rise was decreasing because of leakage through the karst limestone
valley walls and minor seepage through the dam itself. Owing to the risk of piping
E N G I N E E R I N G G E O L O G Y IN P A P U A N E W G U I N E A 13

Fig.8. Landslides associated with the Biala earthquake, after King and Loveday (1985).

failure in the dam the National Disaster Committee of Papua New Guinea on
September 11, 1986 decided to use explosives in an attempt to control the breaching
of the dam. King et al. (1987) describe the use of an explosive charge consisting of
200 kg of gelignite and 340 kg of A N F O (ammonium nitrate and fuel oil) detonated
in a trench at the low point of the dam crest. This, however, failed to breach the dam
and only lowered the crest level by a few metres. Lowering of the crest level was
14 D.STEAD

continued by hand excavation until the flow over the crest's low point was
approximately 0.3 m3/s. At this time an M L 6.4 earthquake occurred about 150 km
east of the landslide dam which although resulting in local rockfatls did not
apparently affect the saturated landslide dam. At 6:47 am on September 12, 1986
overtopping of the dam began and King et al. (1987) reported that by approximately
9:30 am an estimated 40 million m 3 of flood water had removed 80 million m 3 of
landslide dam material. The flood water/debris flow destroyed a village downstream,
but monitoring of the rising lake level had allowed evacuation of the villagers and
hence saved considerable loss of life.

MINING GEOTECHNOLOGY

The mining industry is extremely important to the economy of Papua New Guinea
and it is a major world producer of gold and copper. The majority of the mining
operations are porphyry gold and copper mines although significant alluvial gold
deposits have been worked. Major operating mines and projected mining operations
are shown in Table III and Fig.9. Considerable input of geological engineering has
been involved in the country's two major existing open pit operations at Panguna on
Bougainville Island and at Ok Tedi in the Star Mountains of western Papua New
Guinea. Underground mining is also a possibility in the planned Lihir and Laloki
mines.
Panguna, the first major open pit copper/gold mine in Papua New Guinea
commenced production of ore in 1972. This mine was located in an area of rugged

O 300
I I
KM

PANGUNA

M|SIMA

Fig.9. Miningcentres in Papua New Guinea.

TABLE III
Z
Mining in Papua New Guinea
Z
Mine Ore Reserves Mining method Remarks
rn

Panguna, Cu, Au, Ag 900 Mt: 0.5% Cu Open pit up to 950 m Commenced mining 1972. Problems ©
experienced initially with 63
Bougainville in depth, triple 45 m high .<
benches. Slopes in faulted stability of waste dumps and
and highly jointed Panguna access roads (Baumer et al., 1973). 7.
andesite and diorites. Drainage tunnel from sump excavated.
>
Shovel/truck operation. Tailings discharged into Jaba River. Z
Ok Tedi, Cu, Au, Ag 351 Mt: 0.75% Cu Open pit. Planned depth Commenced mining 1984. Problems
Star Mountains 34 Mt: 2.85 g/t Au up to 550 m. Slopes in with natural slopes during tailings
25 Mt: 1.17% Cu and monzonites, monzodiorites, dam construction and of access
1.6 g/t Au limestones and siltstones roads. >

Shovel/truck operation.
Porgera Au 85 Mt: 3.80 g/t Au Open pit Stability of access roads and some mine
slopes exhibited due to Chim Shale
(Blong, 1985).
Misima Island Au, Ag 56 Mt: 1.38 g/t Au Open pit Go-ahead announced 1988. Previously
mined from alluvial workings (1888-191 I)
and underground (1911-42).
Llihir Island Au 65 Mt: 5.1 g/t Au Open pit/underground Producing 7150 kg/yr. Au now; expected
to rise to 50,000 kg/yr by 1994.
Laloki Au, Cu, Zn, Ag 0.35 Mt: 3.8 g/t Au, Underground Previously mined using
10.76 g/t Ag, underground workings.
3.93% Cu, 2.51% Zn
Wapolu, Au 5.9 Mt: 1.4 g/t Au Open pit Projected start-up late 1988.
D'Entrecasteaux
Islands

L,n
l6 D. STEAD

topography, dense vegetation, 5000mm annual rainfall and intense earthquake

activity. It was also within sight of an active volcano, Mt Bagana. The engineering
problems encountered during the development of access roads and infrastructure for
the mine, together with those encountered during the initial stages of mining are
described by Baumer et al. (1973). These include slope stability problems on access
roads exacerbated by the presence of adverse dipping layers of highly to completely
weathered bedrock overlain by volcanic ash. The mine slopes are excavated in
diorites, granodiorites and the Panguna andesite. Initially design was undertaken
using a deterministic approach and circular failure criteria assuming the rock mass to
be randomly fractured. Read and Lye (1983), Lye (1985) and McMahon and Lye
(1986) outline the present approach to slope design at Panguna. Continued collection
of fracture data has shown that the discontinuity pattern is not random. A
probabilistic approach to design (McMahon, 1982) has now been adopted and the
mine slopes are analysed for discontinuity-controlled planar, wedge, active-passive
two block, rotational and toppling failure (Fig.10). The probabilistic approach
allows both failure involving single fractures or combination "stepped path" failure
surfaces to be investigated. Consideration of the fracture patterns has also allowed
the improvement of bench face stability and has allowed the successful excavation of
45 m high, 55° dozer-cut benches. This was possible owing to the recognition of the
controlling influence of a 57° stepped failure path formed by two joint sets on bench
stability. Read and Lye (1983) describe the 43 ° 47 ° overall slopes to be adopted for
the proposed ultimate pit. At one location, Pan Hill (Fig.11) the final slope will be
950 m high with an overall slope of 38 ° when the uppermost flatter slopes within
weathered materials are considered. McMahon and Lye (1986) outline the excavation
of berms at 45-60 m centres with batters of 55°-60 ° and the consideration of a trial
wall with berms at 90 m centres. Support measures include the reinforcement of the
crest of berms with dowels and anchors together with shotcreting of weak zones. The
engineering expertise developed at this mine is considerable with state-of-the-art
techniques being utilised to design one of the world's highest continuous excavated
slopes. The results of triaxial testing on highly jointed Panguna andesite have been
used in the development of the Hoek-Brown non-linear failure criterion (Hoek and
Brown, 1980) which is now in common use in rock engineering.
The country's other major open pit gold/copper mine at Ok Tedi commenced gold
production in 1984, at present the ore being excavated with removal of the 2095 m
high Mt Fubilan (Fig.12). The proposed ultimate pit will be excavated in siltstones,

57

Fig.10. Potential failuremechanisms,Pangunamine, after Lye (1985).

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN PAPUA NEW G U I N E A 17

ROCK TYPES
] Diorite

Andellite
EAST

Reduced
WEST level Im I
-1200

1000

BOO

600

400

245

Fig.11. Section through Pan Hill, Panguna mine, after Lye (1985).

Fig.12. Mining operations, Mt Fubilan, Ok Tedi.

18 D. STEAD

limestones, monzonite porphyry and monzodiorite. Preliminary studies indicate that

the rock mass quality of the limestones and siltstones which will form the major part
of the pit walls is similar or slightly inferior to the Panguna andesite at Bougainville.
Groundwater investigations indicate that the ultimate pit slopes will be well drained
owing to the limestones and the presence of fault zones. The height of the ultimate pit
walls will vary from 200 to 550 m with slope angles of 40°-45 ° (Anon., 1979). Mostyn
and Ferguson (1984) describe a laboratory testing program associated with the Ok
Tedi project.
A problem of great environmental importance to Papua New Guinea is the
disposal of tailings produced as a result of processing gold and copper ore. At
Panguna the tailings have been discharged into the Jaba River. At Ok Tedi, the mine
is to build a retention dam where the tailings are to be stored until the chemicals used
in processing disintegrate. In order for production to commence on schedule an
interim tailings disposal system was commissioned until a permanent retention dam
could be constructed. The construction of the permanent facility has been severely
affected by the adverse geological engineering conditions in the region. The original
Ok Ma site for the tailings dam had to be abandoned after a major landslide occurred
following heavy rainfall, not uncommon in this region which receives over 8 m of rain
per year. A new site for the tailings dam has been chosen at Lukwi. Extensive
investigation has been undertaken including a speleological survey of caverns present
within a limestone formation beneath the site. Karst limestone weathering is common
within older limestone formations in Papua New Guinea. Extensive cave systems
have been developed in formations such as the Cretaceous Darai limestone in
addition to a characteristic cone and tower scenery. The stability of access roads in
the region can also be an important factor owing to the presence of low shear
strength mudstone/siltstone beds and the high rainfall. An example of a slope failure
controlled by adverse bedding is shown in Fig.13. Other engineering geological
investigations associated with this project include those for the Ok Mengi hydroelec-
tric power scheme (Byrne and Dolan, 1977) and for the Ok Tedi-Kiunga copper
concentrate slurry pipeline.

HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS

The development of hydroelectric potential in Papua New Guinea has involved a

considerable engineering geological input. Schemes with an installed generating
capacity of up to 62 MW have been constructed. Table IV gives details of some of the
major schemes and Fig.14 their location. As mentioned previously slope stability
frequently affects the location of surface structures such as pipelines, power stations
and weirs. Two of the largest schemes, the Rouna scheme and the Ramu I scheme are
shown in Fig.15. The Rouna scheme on the Laloki river supplies electricity to the
national capital, Port Moresby. It was constructed in 4 stages between 1957 and 1987.
Robinson (1971) describes conditions encountered during the construction of the
Surinumu dam and reservoir. Owing to a shortage of suitable core material this was
constructed as a rockfill dam with a steel facing, at that time the only one of its kind
on the Southern Hemisphere. Weathered kaolinised zones were also encountered
within the Astrolabe Agglomerate on which the dam was founded. These required
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 19

Fig.13. Bedding-controlledinstability along access road, Ok Tedi.

remedial treatment including excavation and grouting. An excellent account of the

construction of the Rouna 2 stage is given by Cummings and Read (1973). This
involved the construction of an underground power station at a depth of 152 m
within the Astrolabe Agglomerate (Fig.16). Only minor support was needed, rock
bolts, mesh and shotcrete, both in the underground power chamber and in the
associated tunnels. The surge tanks, power stations and headrace pipelines for the
20 D. S T E A D

o ,
Ollepr

Tbnputz

pe 0

• Complete
0 Projected
0I 3~0
Km.

Fig. 14. Hydroelectricpower schemes, Papua New Guinea.

Rouna 1 and 3 stages are shown in Fig.17. A slope failure occurred within highly
weathered colluvial volcanic material in the slope above the Rouna 3 power station.
This necessitated excavation, drainage, and placing of rockfill during the subsequent
Rouna 4 stage. Figs.18 and 19 show the tunnel portal region and the tunnelling
machine used during the Rouna 4 scheme. The tunnel for this last stage of the
hydroelectric scheme was 2.3 km long and 3.65 m in diameter. It was excavated by
both tunnelling machine and drilling and blasting.
The Ramu I scheme described by Furstner (1976) is located within the Ramu river
valley in the eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. It included the construction of
pressure and access shafts (215 m deep), an underground machine hall and a 2285 m
long tailwater tunnel. It was planned originally to extend this scheme with the
construction of a 47 m high rockfill dam but studies showed that reservoir siltation
would be a critical problem and future works were cancelled. Minor problems were
encountered in the access shaft which was constructed within shales and siltstones
intruded by dolerite dykes. Adversely oriented joint sets resulted in wedge failures
within one wall of the rectangular shaft. These failures caused displacement of the
steel supports by up to 20 cm into the shaft opening and two large rockfalls where
supports had not been installed in time. The machine hall was constructed within
marbles and shales intruded by dykes and cut by a fault. No major problems were
encountered during construction, and roof support involved a combination of 4.3 m
long rock bolts, steel mesh and gunite. Minor problems were encountered during
T A B L E IV

Hydroelectric power schemes in Papua New Guinea

Scheme Location Projected Engineering aspects Structures

capacity
(MW)

Rouna Port Moresby 62.5 R o u n a 1, 5.5 M W (1957), followed by R o u n a 2, R o u n a 2 involved the construction
30 M W (1967), R o u n a 3, 12 M W (1975) and of an underground machine hall in
13.5 M W , (1986/7). A 29 m high rockfill volcanics at a depth of 152 m,
d a m was built at Surinumu, 1.5 M W , in length 39 m, width 13.5 m and
1973. The actual firm capacity is less height 21 m, Tunnels were required
than 50 M W . for the R o u n a 2 and 4 stages of
diameter 3.3-3.65 m and length
816 m - 2 . 3 km, excavated in
conglomerate, gabbro and volcanic
agglomerate.
Ramu I Ramu/Lae 15.6 R a m u 1 was planned as two phases. Phase 1 R a m u 1 included a 215 m deep
included the construction of a diversion machine hall 51 m × 15 m x 24m,
weir, pressure and access shafts, an constructed in faulted marble a n d
underground machine hall and a tailrace shale. A 2285 m long tunnel was
tunnel. Phase 2 was to include a 47 m excavated in faulted marble.
high rockfill d a m but was cancelled due
to siltation problems.
Kaugel I Western Highlands 90 Complements the R a m u scheme. Investigation I0 m high weir, 4 km shafts and
1978-1981, construction 1981-1984. tunnels, underground machine hall.
Pauanda Western Highlands 12 Investigation 1980. Intended for use during
construction o f Kaugel 1.
Warangoi I East New Britain 10 Investigation 1977-1979, construction Weir, 7 km headrace tunnel,
1981-84. surface power station.
Vanapa I Central Province 120 Investigation 1979. Weir, 10 k m tunnel, underground
power station.
22 D. STEAD

4 ~ 1 PowerStation

~_ K.~. _ 5 ~<i"" .... o,.

Ri(IIll G l l e ~

t~oUhaFll;ll ~ Preslure5halt
FlumeLI(III Rouna2Undergroun(I

InlakeWorks
Pond Ponstockl

~ - - O 500m

wei( I 0

Tallwllte •unnll A¢cetl~ pretsure

Shaft S,hli~t
Fig.15. Sketch sections showing the Rouna and R a m u I hydroelectric power schemes.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 1N PAPUA NEW GUINEA 23

m above
11411 l e v e l

Agglomerate She~ ----b II

Pre~oure

Porlels

300- Con~lomewete ~ - Tel Irace Tun~ll

280-
Hell

200-

SCALE

m ebove
ee~ levo~
--300

TUNNEL TO m above
-- 295 | X P A N I I I C)N CN A l i l I B I lies levee

I +*f "L/ ~- 290

.2115

-285
.2110

-ZlI6

- :180

1" ROCk bolt - e n d on [] *~LOUU*AT=

Gunile and mesh ~ TUP,

Fig.16. Geology and support of the Rouna 2. Underground chamber, after Cummings and Read
(1973).

tunnel construction due to high groundwater pressures which at one location caused
an unexpected inflow at the tunnel face (Furstner, 1976).
Several other smaller hydroelectric schemes have been constructed in recent years
(Table III), or have been the subject of feasibility studies (Anderson, 1979). The trend
in recent years has been towards the construction of mini-hydroelectric schemes
supplying local needs (King, 1984, 1985). In general the problems facing these
hydroelectric schemes may include unstable slopes, high seismicity, high rates of
erosion causing siltation, poor rock quality due to weathering, and a lack of a
suitable local supply of construction materials.
24 D. STEAD

Fig.17. Rouna hydroelectricscheme.

URBAN GEOLOGY

The effect of geology on the development of the major urban areas (Port Moresby,
Lae and Madang) has been the subject of several reports (Weber, 1972; Macias, 1972;
Harris, 1979). Site investigations for major new structures or roads are now routinely
undertaken by the Geological Survey, or the Public Works Department of Papua
New Guinea. Investigations may include boreholes, trial pits, field testing and
laboratory testing. In addition it is common for geophysical surveys of sites to be
undertaken mainly using seismic refraction traverses.
In the Port Moresby area engineering problems encountered include the presence
of black alluvial montmorillinite-rich expansive clays. These can result in heaving of
foundations of buildings together with road failures. Deep weathering, particularly in
fault zones aligned with the NW-SE trending Koki Fault Zone may also significantly
affect foundation design within Port Moresby (King, 1986b).
Use of unsuitable aggregates for road construction has been a factor in the failure
of pavements in Port Moresby in the past (Weber and Pounder, 1971). The
importance of locating supplies of suitable aggregate has been recognised for some
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 25

Fig.18. Tunnel portal construction,Rouna 4 scheme.

time and the Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea has produced numerous
reports on the aggregate potential of selected regions in the country (Weber, 1971,
1974).

CONCLUSION

The importance of engineering geology in the development of Papua New Guinea

cannot be overstated. The successful construction of roads to allow convenient links
between urban centres, the exploitation of hydro-electricity and mineral wealth, the
expansion of cities and the monitoring of geological hazards all necessitate consider-
able input from the engineering geologist. In addition, engineering geology as a
discipline can learn much from this region where a combination of highly adverse
factors affect most engineering schemes. It is in such areas that designs and principles
are tested to the limit and from this experience improved. The Panguna mine for
example will as previously stated see the excavation of 900 m high slopes. This is a
considerable engineering feat for any region of the world, but in a country with such
a high rainfall and seismic activity it surely represents new ground within engineering
26 D.STEAD

Fig.19. Tunnellingmachineused in Rouna4 scheme.

geology. The development of the Ok Tedi mine has faced significant difficulties
primarily due to the problems in finding a suitable location for a tailings dam.
Construction of a dam began during the early stages of mining only to be halted by a
major landslide. At present, an interim tailings dam is being used. The location of an
alternative site for the tailings dam not only must consider slope instability but also
the presence of sub-surface limestones with extensive karst formations. The develop-
ment of Papua New Guinea's highway network and hydroelectric power potential is
profoundly influenced by geological factors. The main highway, the Highland's
highway has been beset for many years by slope instability problems associated with
the steep topography and high rates of erosion and weathering. The next decade may
see the construction of a highway linking the country's capital, Port Moresby, which
is at present isolated from other major urban centres, with the main highway
network. This will entail construction of roads in adverse geological environments
and hence considerable input from engineering geologists. The development of urban
centres is also demanding more knowledge of the sub-surface conditions as high rise
structures become more common. The construction often must take place in areas
comprising highly weathered rocks, often highly sheared, with the possibility of
future seismic activity. The location of Papua New Guinea in such an active
geological setting results in frequent high-magnitude earthquakes affecting parts of
the country. These may result in minor landslides closing highways, or major
instabilities damming rivers, washing away bridges and causing significant damage to
settlements. The failure of such natural dams can be a major flooding hazard to local
populations. The exploitation of hydroelectric power has involved several large
engineering projects with the construction of underground chambers and tunnels,
ENGINEERINGGEOLOGYIN PAPUANEWGUINEA 27

once more involving considerable geological engineering expertise. Frequently

surface structures have been influenced by slope instability, and in addition the
engineering geologist has played a significant role in feasibility studies for dams and
locations of aggregate supply. The Engineering Geology Division of the Geological
Survey of Papua New Guinea provides the engineering geological and geophysical
investigation services and expertise for many of the major and minor engineering
projects undertaken. The Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea also monitors
earthquakes and the fourteen active and twenty-two dormant volcanoes located
within the country (Lowenstein, 1982). Within the last 100 years there has been
considerable loss of life due to volcanic hazards, with 3000 fatalities during the 1951
eruption of Mount Lamington. Currently, there is considerable monitoring being
undertaken at Rabaul, New Britain, which is a town situated within the caldera of an
active volcanic area.
The rapid development of a young country such as Papua New Guinea where
considerable mineral and energy resources must be exploited under frequently highly
adverse conditions has resulted in considerable demands being placed on and met by
engineers. The geological engineering experience gained will not only be of use to
similar developing countries but also will provide new techniques and design
philosophies for the use of the engineering profession.

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Anderson, G.R., 1979. Geotechnical Investigation of the Upper Warangoi Hydroscheme, East New
Britain. Geol. Surv. Papua New Guinea, Rept. 79/08, 47 pp.
Anon., 1979. Ok Tedi Copper Project, Papua New Guinea, Feasibility Study, Ore Reserves, 4: 1-33. Ok
Tedi Consortium, Melbourne (Unpublished).
Baumer, A., Searle, P.J. and TiUman, V.H., 1973. Slope stability on the Bougainville copper project, Papua
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Cooper, P. and Taylor, B., 1987. Seismotectonics of New Guinea: a model for arc reversal following
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28 D. STEAD

Goldsmith, R.C.M., Finlow-Bates, P. and Ambang, S.K., 1981. Geotechnical Mapping and Slope Stability
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Jenkins, D.A.L., 1974. Detachment tectonics in western Papua New Guinea. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 85:
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ENGINEERINGGEOLOGYIN PAPUANEW GUINEA 29

Weber, B., 1971. Sources of Roadmaking and Concrete Aggregate in the Eastern Highlands District. Geol.
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