Wind and Temperature Effects

on Sound Propagation
Lindsay Hannah Not Refereed
Malcolm Hunt Associates, Wellington, lindsay@noise.co.nz
The third in a series of articles taken from a paper entitled “Factors Affecting Outdoor Sound Propagation“, submitted
in part fulfillment of a course at Massey University, 2006

Wind it varies from place to place. During downwind conditions,

however, the Path (2) sound (that
Sound travelling with the wind is bent
As discussed in the previous article, normally travels upward into the sky
down to earth, while sound travelling
wind and temperature variations can and does not return to Earth) is bent
against the wind is bent upwards above
cause bending of sound waves and can down and returns to the earth,
the ground.
influence changes in sound levels, sometimes passing above the
predominately at large distances. These The downwind and upwind effects are attenuation from ground surface and
are normally short-term effects. summarised below. Irregular, vegetation, thus yielding higher sound
turbulent, or gusty wind provides levels at the receiver.
The most significant effects that can
fluctuations in sound transmission
influence the long range propagation This can occur only for relatively large
over large distances (this may be
of noise are those introduced by distances between source and receivers
because of partial wavelength
variations in atmospheric conditions – (approx 1000ft (300m) or more).
interference of various paths taken by
specifically, wind and temperature
various sound rays of the total beam). In summary, downwind can reduce or
gradients.
eliminate some of the attenuating
The net effect of these fluctuations
By itself, wind has very limited effects effects of terrain and vegetation or a
may be an average reduction of a few
on noise propagation, other than to solid barrier that otherwise would
decibels per 100 yards (90m) for gusty
increase or decrease the speed of “intercept the sound path”.
wind with speeds of 15 to 30 mph (20
sound. At short distances, up to 50m,
to 50km/hr). Downwind measurements are
the wind has minor influence on the
normally preferred by acoustical
measured sound level. For longer Downwind Effects[1] consultants as the variability is smaller
distances, the wind effects become
Wind velocity increases with height and the result is viewed as conservative
appreciably greater.
and so downwind the combined and “worst case”.
Over open ground, substantial vertical velocity increases with height and the
wind velocity gradients commonly exist Upwind Effects
sound waves are refracted towards the
due to friction between the moving air ground, giving an increase in the Upwind, the combined velocity
and the ground. Wind speed profiles expected level of
are strongly dependent on the time of sound at a distant
day due to the Suns radiation on the point.
Earths surface, weather conditions,
and the nature of the surface. The This leads to a
speed of sound waves is relative to that favourable
of the medium through which they condition for the
travel, and hence the relative velocity is propagation of
a sum of the sound velocity (c) and sound and ensures
wind velocity (u) hence c+u or c-u. good audibility
over larger Figure 34: Example of downwind sound
A steady, smooth flow of wind, equal distances. diffraction[8].
at all altitudes, would generally have
no noticeable effect on sound The stronger the
transmission. wind, the more pronounced is this decreases with height and the sound
effect (up to a certain wind speed). waves are refracted away from the
In real life however, wind speeds are Earth’s surface. These areas are
higher above the ground than at Figure 34 illustrates the principle of
referred to as shadow zones.
ground level, and the resulting wind downwind sound propagation. When
speed gradients tend to “bend” sound there is no wind, the principal sound A strong persistent upwind can cast a
waves over large distances. The wind is arrives at the receiver by Path 1. Along shadow zone, as shown schematically
also not constant at the same height — this path, the ground, vegetation, and in Figure 35. When wind speed
trees can absorb some of the sound. profiles are known, the distance to the

22 Vol. 20 / # 2 New Zealand Acoustics

shadow zone can be estimated, but this Figure 36 illustrates that sound levels greater than at high altitude and
is an impractical field evaluation. reduce further from source, with the therefore the air is warmer near the
greatest reductions yielded for upwind ground. If a parcel of air is warmer
It is sufficient to realise that the
measurements. than its surrounding environment it
shadow zone can account for sound
rises.
level reductions up to about 20dB, and
The CONCAWE noise prediction
that this can occur at distances greater
model indicates that while downwind When this parcel of hot air rises it
than about 1000 feet (300m) for windeffects of slight winds (1 to 3 m/sec) moves into an area of lower
provide for positive atmosphere pressure and cools at a
enhancement (up to rate of approx 10 degrees per km (1
5dB per kilometre), degree per 100m). As the mass of air
higher wind speeds moves up or down, the moisture it
induce significant contains condenses as it cools because
scattering and warm air can hold more moisture than
dissipation of sound cool air. This rate of cooling is known
such that sound as the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
levels downwind do
Figure 35: Example of up-wind sound effects[9]. not accentuate Earth is heated by day from solar
radiation which is absorbed. As air
beyond that found at
rises and adiabatic cooling continues,
speeds above about 10 to 15 mph (16 5 m/sec.
the air temperature approaches
to 24 km/hr).
dew-point which is the temperature at
Downwind, the level will generally Temperature[2] which the air will be saturated with
increase; this increase in terms of dB water.
depends upon the changing wind Earth is a “heat machine” driven by
Thus condensation of moisture in
environment, namely the wind speed. the heating and cooling of the
rising turbulent air masses gives
When measuring upwind or a side atmosphere that obeys the law of gases.
unstable air masses seen as developing
wind, the level can decrease by 20dB A gas allowed to expand becomes
thunderheads on a hot summer day. If
or more, depending on wind speed cooler; the same volume of gas
a rising air mass cools at a lapse rate
and distance. compressed into a smaller space
less than 1 degree per 100m, it resists
becomes warmer.
Figure 36 illustrates the potential
sound level reductions in terms of When the same volume of gas is
dBA in relation to down wind, side compressed the molecules are
wind or upwind relative to distance. As closer together and collide more
illustrated, the potential sound level frequently, raising sensible heat.
reductions generally increase for side Such a process, in which heat is
and upwind directions respectively neither lost to, nor gained from
relative to an increasing distance from the “outside environment” is
the source. termed an adiabatic process.
Based on a distance of 1000m from The temperature change is called
source, Figure 38 yields a downwind the dry adiabatic temperature Figure 36: Potential sound level
reduction of up to 5dB (probably due change. reductions in terms of dBA relative
to distance effects not wind) side wind
reductions of up to —11dB and an
This adiabatic process occurs to a down wind, side wind or upwind
when air rises and sinks in the situation versus distance traveled
upwind reduction of up to
atmosphere. Atmospheric
—20dB. from the sound source[10].
pressure near the ground is

New Zealand Acoustics Vol. 20 / # 2 23

upward movement and may sink more realistic terms
lower. should be discussed
further.
Such air masses are not subject to
eddies and turbulence, and when such The rate at which
conditions prevail an air mass is stable,temperature drops
thus cooler air with a temperature with height at any
lapse rate less than the dry adiabatic given time is known
rate. as the
environmental lapse
If the lapse rate is the same as dry
rate (ELR) of the
adiabatic rate then the air mass is
atmosphere. This
neutral, neither resisting nor favouring
rate is constantly Figure 37: Adiabatic process for stable and
upward push into the atmosphere.
changing and
The behaviour of air masses has a readings are unstable air masses[12].
significant influence on climate, from obtained at regular
environment, it is said to have reached
the development of local rain showers intervals every day by ascents into the
equilibrium.
in the mountains to massive air atmosphere of aircraft or balloons
movements of a global scale. It also equipped to radio back a variety of If the ELR is greater than the ALR,
affects the formation of fog and the data. then the ascending air will be warmer
local concentration and dispersion of than its surround and thus, being less
The temperature data obtained is
pollutants in the atmosphere. dense (lighter), it will continue to rise.
crucial, as lapse rates play a major part
The atmosphere is now considered to
Figure 37 illustrates the adiabatic in the formation of clouds.
be unstable.
process for stable and unstable air
There is another type of lapse rate
masses.
apart from the ELR; it is concerned New Zealand Temperature[4]
Environmental Lapse Rate specifically with air which is forced to Mean temperatures at sea level
(ELR) [3] ascend within the atmosphere. Such decrease steadily southward from
air will cool at a fixed rate, irrespective about 15°C in the far north to about
Temperature drops an average of 2°C of the ELR of the atmosphere at the 10°C in the south of the South Island.
per 300 metres or 7°C per kilometre of time. This form of cooling is known as
height. However, on the basis that an adiabatic cooling and at a fixed rate of Temperatures also drop, by about 2°C
average (or standard constant rate) 3°C per 300 metres it is referred to as per 300m, with altitude. January and
never really exists in real life, the the adiabatic lapse rate (ALR). February, with approximately the same
decrease in temperature with height in mean temperature, are generally the
There will invariably be a difference in warmest months of the year, and July
the temperature of is the coldest. Highest temperatures
rising air compared to are recorded east of the main ranges,
its environmental where they exceed 30°C on a few
atmosphere; this afternoons in most summers.
difference has an effect
The extremes for New Zealand are
on the rising air.
42°C. which has been recorded in
If at a given time the three places, in the Awatere Valley
ELR near the surface is (Marlborough), Christchurch, and
less than the ALR, the Rangiora (Canterbury); and —22°C at
ascending air will find Ophir (Central Otago).
itself cooler than the
surrounding air; thus, The annual range of mean
Figure 38: Effects of temperature gradients being more dense temperature (the difference between
the mean temperature of the warmest
on sound propagation. (Top): In the case of (heavier) than its and coldest months) is small. In
upward refraction (temperature decreases surrounds, it cannot
continue to rise but will Northland and in western districts of
with height or upwind propagation) ground tend to sink towards the both Islands it is about 8°C and for
based layers are generated into which sound surface. In such the remainder of the North Island and
energy is not directly shed. (Bottom): conditions the east coast districts of the South Island
atmosphere is said to be it is 9°C to 10°C.
Downward refraction (temperature
inversion or downwind propagation) causes stable. Further inland the annual range
exceeds 11°C in places, reaching a
multiple reflections at the ground and is When any rising air
attains the same maximum of 14°C in Central Otago
known as a condition that is favourable to where there is an approach to a
temperature as its
sound propagation over long distances[11]. 'continental' type of climate.

24 Vol. 20 / # 2 New Zealand Acoustics

 is expressed as a percent) occur at times in the
percentage of that Southern Alps, where the Foehn Wind
limit. (the Canterbury nor-wester) is often
very marked. Cool south westerlies are
This percentage is
also at times very dry when they reach
known as the relative
eastern districts.
humidity of the air.
For example, if the In Northland the humid mid-summer
water vapour content conditions are inclined to be
is half the amount of oppressive, although temperatures
vapour the mass of air rarely reach 30°C. Dull, humid spells
can hold, then the are generally not prolonged anywhere,
relative humidity is but their frequency shows a marked
Figure 39: Radiant heating of the Earth (Left) 50%. increase in the south.
during daytime heat gains exceed heat loss The effect of
(Right) at night there is a net cooling of the temperature on Temperature Effects[6]
surface[12]. relative humidity is
critical. If air is As discussed above, the speed of sound
The sunniest places are near Blenheim, warmed, the relative humidity will is dependent upon temperature. The
the Nelson and Motueka area, and decrease as the parcel of air becomes Earth receives radiation from the Sun
Whakatane, where the average capable of holding a greater amount of by day and gives out radiation by night
duration of bright sunshine exceeds water vapour. (dependent upon the season of the
2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay year etc).
The same quantity of vapour becomes
of Plenty, and Napier are only slightly
a smaller proportion of the total Constant temperature with altitude
less sunny.
amount that could be contained, thus produces no effect on sound
A large portion of the country has at the relative humidity would decrease. transmission, but temperature
least 2000 hours, and even Westland, gradients can produce bending in
Conversely, it the temperature drops,
despite its high rainfall, has 1800 much the same way as wind gradients
the air will be unable to hold as much
hours. Southland and coastal Otago, do.
water vapour and so the existing
where sunshine drops sharply to about
vapour, which remains the same, will Air temperature above the ground is
1700 hours a year, lie on the northern
represent a greater proportion of the normally cooler than at the ground,
fringe of a broad zone of increasing
maximum limit. Should the and the denser air above tends to bend
cloudiness.
temperature continue to drop, the sound waves upward, as illustrated in
A pleasant feature of the New Zealand relative humidity will increase still Part A of Figure 38. With
climate is the high proportion of further; there can come a time when it “temperature inversions,” warm air
sunshine during the winter months, reaches 100%. above the surface bends the sound
although there is a marked increase in waves down to earth.
In relation to New Zealand, mean
cloudiness in the North Island in
relative humidity is often between 65 Inversion effects are negligible at short
winter but little seasonal change in the
and 85 percent. However, much lower distances but they may amount to
South Island, except in Southland.
values (from 30 percent down to 5 several dB at very large distances (say,

Relative
Humidity[5]
Moisture is constantly
being absorbed into the
air from the sea, lakes,
rivers and moist ground
by the process of
evaporation. It exists in an
invisible form known as
water vapour.
There is a limit to the Figure 40: (Left): As the ground cools rapidly after sunset a surface inversion
amount of water vapour
that a given mass or
forms, as cooling continues during the night the inversion deepens from the
‘parcel’ of air can contain surface upward reaching its am depth just before dawn around 5.00am. (Right)
and the amount actually After sunrise the surface begins to warm and the night surface inversion (0700)
present at any given time is graduated eliminated during the forenoon of a clear summer day[12].

New Zealand Acoustics Vol. 20 / # 2 25

over a half mile or 0.8kms). Again, at night air in the valley cools next to
little or no increase is caused by the ground forming a week surface face
thermal gradients (compared to inversion.
homogeneous air), but there may be a
At the same time, the cold dense air
decrease in sound levels.
flows down the slopes from the hill or
A temperature increase with height is mountain. Together they cause
known as a temperature inversion. inversions to become deeper and
This is often the case in clear nights stronger and the cold dense air is
and during fog in winter. But also after trapped beneath a layer or warm air.
heavy rain falls and above snow covers, Room Acoustics
Subsidence inversions that bring about
the temperature often rises with
concentration of pollution are often
height. Sound Isolation
accompanied by lower level radiation
Under these circumstances, sound inversions. Figure 42 illustrates the Mechanical Noise
waves are refracted downward and decent of a subsidence inversion. The
good audibility is achieved over long movement of the inversion is traced by Environmental Noise
distances (refer Part B of Figure 38). successive temperature measurements
indicated by the dashed lines. The
If, however, moderate or strong wind
nearly horizontal dashed line indicates
is blowing towards the source of the
the descending base of the inversion,
noise at the same time, the upward
the solid line indicates temperature.
refracting effect of temperature Auckland Office
increase is over-compensated by the The temperature lapse rate in the
downward refracting effect of descending layer is nearly dry Design Acoustics Auckland Ltd
downwind propagation. As a adiabatic. The bottom surface is Peter Horne B.Eng.
consequence an acoustical shadow may marked by a temperature inversion. PO Box 96 150
form and audibility may be reduced. Two features, temperature inversion Auckland 1003
and a marked decrease in moisture, Phone 09 631 5331
The Earths surface heats up by day and
identify the base of the subsiding layer. Fax 09 631 5335
by night gradual radiation cools the
surface air above as illustrated in Inversions can last for days, Mobile 027 306 8525
Figure 39. particularly during periods when peter@designacoustics.co.nz
anticyclones are in place. If you were to
The formation and elimination of a
fly up through an inversion you would Tauranga Office
night time surface inversion (typically
suddenly burst into clear conditions
on a clear cool night) is shown in
with vastly increased visibility. Design Acoustics Ltd
Figure 40.
The dividing line is quite sharp. Tony Windner B.Arch.
Inversions can be prominent in the First Floor 117 Willow St
Certain meteorological conditions may
early morning prior to sun rise when PO Box 13 467
increase noise levels by focusing sound
the ground is at its coolest and there is Tauranga 3141
wave propagation paths at a single
minimal or no wind to cause Phone 07 578 9016
point. Such refraction of sound waves
turbulence and mix the cold surface air Fax 07 578 9017
occurs during temperature inversions
with the warmer air above. Mobile 0274 173 700
and where there is a wind gradient
Once the sun has been up for a while, tony@designacoustics.co.nz
the ground warms and the inversion
gradually disappears. An inversion acts
as a ‘trap’ for air containing haze, mist
and fog.
If initially forced to rise, the air We are active members of
immediately becomes cooler than the the design team,
warm air aloft surrounding it and sinks proposing options for
back. In other words the atmosphere acoustical control which
will be stable at the time of an achieve aesthetic and
inversion. other requirements. We
like to develop spaces
Inversions are particularly pronounced that not only sound great,
in hilly and mountainous country in Figure 41: Topography plays but look great too.
summer when the air mass is stable an important part in the
and the weather is calm and clear.
formation of night time
Figure 41 illustrates this concept when temperature inversions[12].

26 Vol. 20 / # 2 New Zealand Acoustics

(wind velocities increasing with height) geometrical spreading and
with wind direction from the source to atmospheric absorption
the receiver. considerations alone. These
differences may be as great as
These conditions typically increase
20dB, and are particularly
noise levels by 5dB to 10dB and have
important where sound is
been known to increase levels by as
propagating over distances
much as 20dB. Temperature
greater than a few hundred
inversions occur within the lowest 50m
metres.
Figure 43: Refraction of sound waves by
to 100m of the atmosphere, hence can two layers of air at different
affect noise level measurements on Temperature inversions and
temperatures[13].
local ground level. winds can also result in the
effectiveness of a barrier being
Temperature inversions are most a constant temperature (isothermal).
dramatically reduced104.
commonly caused by radiative cooling
Temperature gradients greater than
of the ground at night, leading to the A common atmospheric occurrence is
–9.8°C/100m are called positive lapse
cooling of the air in contact with the a negative temperature gradient
or superadiabatic, while gradients less
ground; this is especially prevalent on (temperature decreases with altitude).
than this value are called negative lapse
cloudless nights with little wind. This is typical of a sunny afternoon,
or inversion. Refraction of sound with
when significant solar isolation causes
Air that is somewhat removed from temperature gradients is shown in
high surface temperatures and
contact with the ground will not cool Figure 44.
significant heat transfer from the
as much, resulting in warmer air aloft
ground to the adjacent air. It is extremely important to
than near the ground.
understand refraction in order to make
This event is also known in
Under conditions of a temperature reliable sound measurements at large
meteorological terms as a
inversion, sound waves will be distances from a source.
superadiabatic or positive lapse.
refracted downwards. Therefore they
An unscrupulous consultant may take
may be heard over larger distances. In this situation, sound waves will be
advantage of refraction to make
This frequently occurs in winter and at bent upward in all directions from the
measurements which are the most
sunset. source, forming a circular shadow
favourable. For example if you wanted
zone. The reverse situation often
The refraction of sound waves by two the observed levels to be low, measure
occurs at night, when a positive
layers of air at different temperatures on a hot sunny afternoon, or upwind
gradient is common. This is caused by
as a result of the change of speed of from the source. If you wanted levels
the rapid cooling of air at the surface
the sound is illustrated in Figure 43. that are more representative of the
as heat is now absorbed by the ground.
equivalent sound level, measure when
When a wind is blowing there will This is called an inversion or negative
the refractive effects are at a minimum
always be a wind gradient. This is due lapse and the sound waves are bent
– on a calm, overcast day or evening.
to the layer of air next to the ground downward.
being stationary. Nevertheless, the conditions should
This phenomena explains why sound
always be recorded and the appropriate
A wind gradient results in sound waves sometimes travels much better at
standards used stated, so other
propagating upwind being 'bent' night, because it is focused along the
consultants may review and reproduce
upwards and those propagating ground instead of radiating upward.
others work.
downwind being 'bent' downwards. For completeness of meteorological
terminology, a neutral (or statically
Temperature and wind gradients can
stable) atmosphere is defined as one in Atmospheric Absorption
result in measured sound levels being
which the temperature decreases at the
very different to those predicted from
dry adiabatic rate (—9.8°C/100 Knowledge of the rate at which
meters). acoustic energy is absorbed during
propagation through the atmosphere
In a neutral
comes from three sources being:
atmosphere, buoyant
effects are balanced by 1. Direct measurements in the field;
gravity and there is no
2. Measurements of air absorption in
upward or downward
the laboratory;
convection. This is
not the same as a non- 3. General knowledge of the physical
refractive medium. In and mechanical mechanisms;
order to attain straight
sound paths (no
refraction), the Molecular Absorption[7]
atmosphere must have
Figure 42: Decent of a subsidence inversion[12]. Air absorbs sound energy. As a sound

New Zealand Acoustics Vol. 20 / # 2 27

 absorption can generally Aamt = αd/1000
be ignored, as its effect
where α is the atmospheric attenuation
is minor compared with
coefficient (dB) per kilometre for each
that of spherical
octave band at the mid band
spreading. Conversely,
frequency.
in long distance
propagation (e.g. aircraft The atmospheric attenuation
noise) the absorption coefficient (α) can be determined from
effect is not ignored. Figure 45, as reproduced from ISO
Standard 9613-2 (Table 2).
The effect is clearer over
Figure 44: Refraction of sound with
longer distances and is Figure 46 illustrates the attenuation
temperature gradients (Left): Normal lapse frequency dependent, due to absorption for a “standard day”.
rate (decreasing temperature with altitude) with the higher
As can be seen in figures 45 and 46,
(Right): Inverted lapse rate temperature frequencies being
the atmospheric attenuation
increases with altitude)[13]. attenuated far more
coefficient depends strongly on the
than lower frequencies.
frequency of the sound, the ambient
It depends on temperature and relative
wave travels through the air, a small temperature, and the relative humidity
humidity. A “standard day” may be,
proportion is absorbed by the air itself. of the air. It is common for a value of
and is frequently defined, as having a
The absorbed sound energy is 0.005dB/m to be used (at 1000Hz).
temperature of 20oC and a relative
converted to heat.
humidity of 70%. A small part of a sound wave is lost to
The amount of absorption is the air or other media through various
ISO9613-2 defines the attenuation due
dependent on the temperature and physical processes. One important
to atmospheric absorption, referred to
humidity of the air and the frequency process is the direct conduction of
as Aamt (dB), during propagation
of the sound. As the sound waves vibration into air as heat, caused by the
through distances d (m) as:
propagate through the air, sound
energy is lost due to friction between
air molecules and because of further
properties of the molecules themselves.
The main mechanism is the setting up
of vibrations in the molecules of
oxygen and nitrogen in the air. High
frequencies are much more affected by
atmospheric absorption than low
frequencies.
Over small distances (up to a few
Figure 45: Table 2 of ISO Standard 9613-2 Acoustics Attenuation of
hundred metres) atmospheric Sound during Propagation Outdoors atmospheric attenuation
coefficient, dB/km (α).

28 Vol. 20 / # 2 New Zealand Acoustics

 Attenuation by air absorption at 20 °C and reproduced from the original [6] Temperature
70 % relative humidity. (ISO 9613-2) authors work as referenced below.
63Hz 0.1dB/km Dr. Dietrich Heimann of Institut für
125 Hz 0.3 dB/km [1] Wind Physik der Atmosphäre.
250 Hz 1.1 dB/km United States Air Force, Noise Smith, Leo Robert. Ecology and Field
500 Hz 2.8 dB/km and Vibration Control, A Biology (Fifth Edition). Harper Collins
1000 Hz 5.0 dB/km Technical Air Force Manual College Publishers. 1996
2000 Hz 9.0 dB/km No.88-3., 1995.
New South Wales Industrial
8000 Hz 76.6 dB/km Cosgrove, B. 1997. The World of Noise Policy.
Figure 46: Atmospheric attenuation Weather. Swan Hill Press.
Ingard, A Review of the Influence of
coefficients, dB/km (α) for a CONCAWE report 4/81 The Meteorological Conditions on Sound
“standard day”. Propagation of Noise from Propagation, Journal of the Acoustical
Petroleum and Petrochemical Society of America, 25, p. 405.
conversion of coherent molecular Complexes to Neighbouring
motion of the sound wave into Communities. [7] Molecular Absorption
incoherent molecular motion in the Cyril Harris, Absorption of Sound in
air or other absorptive material. Renzo Tonin. Modelling and
Predicting Environmental Noise. Air versus Humidity and Temperature,
The viscosity (thickness) of the Renzo Tonin & Associates Pty Ltd Pty Journal of the Acoustical Society of
medium also affects sound Ltd, 1/418A Elizabeth St., Surry Hills America, 40, p. 148.
transmission. These two physical NSW 2010, Australia. Figures
causes combine to produce the
classical attenuation of a sound wave. [2] Temperature [8] Figure 34. United States Air Force,
Bruel and Kjaer. Environmental Noise Noise and Vibration Control, A
Atmospheric absorption increases Technical Air Force Manual No.88-3.,
linearly with distance. Very little Handbook.
1995.
attenuation is found for low values of Smith, Leo Robert.
relative humidity or temperature. Ecology and Field
Monthly and diurnal variations in Biology (Fifth Edition).
relative humidity and temperature Harper Collins College
introduce large variations in Publishers. 1996
atmospheric absorption. Usually, United States Air Force,
relative humidity reaches its maximum Noise and Vibration
soon after sunrise and its minimum in Control, A Technical
the afternoon when temperature is Air Force Manual
highest. The diurnal variations are No.88-3., 1995. Figure 47: (left): Frequency dependence of
greatest during the summer.
[3] ELR attenuation as a function of relative humidity
Figure 47 shows an absorption value at 20°C. (Right): Attenuation as a function of
0.25 dB/100 m for 30% relative Smith, Leo Robert.
Ecology and Field temperature for various percentages of relative
humidity and 20°C for the middle [7]
speech frequency range (2kHz). Biology (Fifth Edition). humidity .
Harper Collins College
It should be noted, however, that Publishers. 1996 [9] Figure 35. Cosgrove, B. 1997. The
absorption can be as high as
Cosgrove, B. 1997. The World of World of Weather. Swan Hill Press.
5.0dB/100 m at 8kHz when the
temperature is 20°C and the humidity Weather. Swan Hill Press. [10] Figure 36. Bruel and Kjaer.
is 10% (see Figure 47, right hand Environmental Noise Handbook.
[4] NZ Weather
graph).
Overview of Meteorological Service on [11] Figure 38. United States
Under 'normal' circumstances, New Zealand. Publication No 15. Air Force, Noise and Vibration
atmospheric absorption can be Control, A Technical Air Force
neglected, except where long distances [5] Relative Humidity Manual No.88-3., 1995
or very high frequencies are involved.
Cosgrove, B. 1997. The World of [12] Figure 37, 39, 40, 41, 42.
Weather. Swan Hill Press. Smith, Leo Robert. Ecology and Field
References Smith, Leo Robert. Ecology and Field Biology (Fifth Edition). Harper Collins
Biology (Fifth Edition). Harper Collins College Publishers. 1996
The above article has been complied
College Publishers. 1996 [13] Figure 43, 44. Malcolm Hunt
from previous research carried out by
other authors, and anything referenced Overview of Meteorological Service on Associates.

in this paper has been directly New Zealand. Publication No 15.

New Zealand Acoustics Vol. 20 / # 2 29