C1.

1 - UNIT 7
GRAMMAR
RELATIVE CLAUSES (I)

We use relative clauses to provide extra information or describe something that we

have already mentioned. We use relative pronouns (e.g. who, where, that, which,
whose​) to introduce the relative clauses.

What is a clause and why are relative clauses used?

A clause is simply a group of words that contain a verb. Relative clauses are a way
of providing additional information about someone or something, a place, or even an
event. We often use them as a means to avoid repeating ourselves. Let’s take a look
at the example.

The Rapa Nui tribe used palm tree trunks. The palm tree trunks were used to
transport the giant statues.

The Rapa Nui tribe used palm tree trunks, which ​were used to transport the giant
statues. ​(​Which has been used in the clause in order to make reference to the tree
trunks.)

Which is used for things, not for people. The other relative pronouns are used in the
following way, as you know:

● who​ for people

​ ho ​has been working in our company for two years, has been promoted.
Dylan, w

● that ​for a thing or a person

She showed me the photos ​that ​she had taken the day before.

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 ● where ​for a place

I lived in France, ​where ​I met my first husband.

When referring to a location and after the words ​experiment, case, condition,
instance, example, situation ​and ​system​ we often use ​where​.

​ here ​his pupils could remain

The teacher worked on creating an example w
motivated and interested in the exercise.

However, in more formal situations we also use ​in which:​

We really need to develop a system ​in which everybody can benefit from a reduced
workload.

● whose f​ or possession

Sitting next to Ms Donna Bogart, my very good colleague, ​whose ​speech a few
weeks ago has revolutionised the area of medicine...

● when​ for a time

​ hen ​we first met.

I remember the moment w

● what ​instead of ​the thing that

I have to do ​what ​I think is right.

● why ​for a reason

I suppose you can understand the reason ​why ​(or more informally ​the reason ​that​)
she decided to cut him completely out of her life.

● whoever instead of any person who

You can invite ​whoever ​you want.

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 Second relative clauses

A second relative, introduced by ​and​ or ​but​, usually takes a ​wh-​pronoun, not ​that​.

Something that I really hate, ​and which I​ have to do, is the washing up.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Defining relative clauses give essential information so that we can identify who or
what is being talked about. The relative clause follows immediately after the noun
referring to the person or thing we are talking about. They are clauses that you need
in the sentence for it to make sense.

The settlers ​who l​ ive on the island of Pitcairn have survived for many generations
without hardly any help from anyone.

If we just said: ​‘The settlers have survived for many generations without hardly any
help from anyone’​, we wouldn’t know where we are talking about. We need the
information in the relative clause to identify the subject.

In defining relative clauses:

● there are no commas before and after the clause

The Rapa Nui tribe chopped down the palm trees that grew all around the island and
used them to transport the statues.

● we can sometimes omit the relative pronouns when they are the subject of the
following verb

She showed me the dress (​ that) ​she wore at the party.

She showed me the dress ​that ​is so expensive. ​(The relative pronoun must be used
here because it is the subject of ​is​.)

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 Prepositions

In defining relative clauses, prepositions can come either before relative pronouns or
at the end of the relative clause. In spoken English, it is much more common to put
the preposition at the end.

It was a time ​during ​which people felt a great urge to connect.

This is the film that I was talking to you ​about​.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Non-defining relative clauses provide extra information, which isn’t absolutely

necessary. We use commas to separate them from the rest of the sentence unless
they come at the end of the sentence, when we use a comma and a full stop. Take a
look at the example:

Mary’s boyfriend, ​who is living in Madrid,​ has just received an award for being one of
the best athletes​. (The clause “who is living in Madrid” just gives extra information
about Mary’s boyfriend.)

Prepositions

● In non-defining relative clauses, prepositions can come at the end, but in a

formal style, they are usually put before the relative pronoun.

Stratford-on-Avon, which many people have written ​about​, is where Shakespeare

was born.

Stratford-on-Avon, ​about ​which many people have written, is where Shakespeare

was born.

● Prepositional clauses are often used in non-defining relative clauses.

It might snow,​ in which case​ we won’t drive back home.

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 ​ nd ​many of are often used before the
● Words such as ​all, both, neither, some a
relative pronoun in non-defining clauses.

​ any of whom were

More than 1 million people were displaced during the war, m
obliged to move from one location to another.

● Remember that after a preposition, we use the pronoun ​which ​(not ​that​) for
things and ​whom​ (not ​who​) for people.

Farms and factories with permanent employees, ​for whom social insurance has to
be paid, are backed up by the contractor.

​ bout which several

The committee had valuable discussions on the way forward, a
ideas were presented.

RELATIVE CLAUSES (II)

Now, let’s study other relative clauses: participle clauses, ​to-i​ nfinitive clauses,
adjective phrases and prepositional phrases.

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

A participle clause is a form of adverbial clause that enables us to give information in

a more economical way. Take a look at these sentences:

I received an email ​containing ​a virus, so I deleted it immediately.

​ sed ​in the Gulf War, is now a museum exhibit.

The weapon, last u

Note that -​ ing c​ lauses correspond to defining relative clauses with an active verb.
However, ​-ed ​clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with a passive verb.
Observe:

I received an email ​containing ​a virus, so I deleted it immediately. (​ = ​I received an

​ hich contained a
email w ​ virus, so I deleted it immediately​.)

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The weapon, last ​used i​ n the Gulf War, is now a museum exhibit. (​ = ​The weapon,
which was last used ​in the Gulf War, is now a museum exhibit.​)
Now, take into account that:

● verbs which are not normally used in continuous forms may be used in
participle clauses. For example:

Firefighters said the man in the house woke up ​smelling​ smoke.

● you can’t use a participle clause when the first verb in the relative clause is a
modal verb. Take a look:

The task ​that can be done in five minutes might be avoided at this point. (​ ​*​Not ​The
task ​done​ in five minutes …
​ )

● Participle clauses are usually used instead of non-defining relative clauses in

written English.

The flight, ​booked three months in advance, was cancelled by the airline company.
​ hich was booked three months in advance, was cancelled by the
(= ​The flight, w
airline company.​)

TO-I​ NFINITIVE CLAUSES

We often use a ​to-i​ nfinitive clause instead of a relative clause on these occasions:

● after a superlative + a noun (phrase)

It was t​ he fastest company to grow​ in 2018.

​ tc. + a noun (phrase)

● after ​the first / second, e

Jake was ​the first person to assist​ her after the accident.

● after ​the only / the next / the last / another / one, ​etc. + noun (phrase)

The next thing to do ​is to find a good moment to go on holidays.

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ADJECTIVE PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Adjectives, adjective phrases and prepositions can usually be used after nouns with
a meaning similar to a relative clause. Let’s take a look at these examples:

My grandfather was a great man e ​ namoured w

​ ith a fantastic woman. (= ​My
grandfather was a great man ​who was enamoured ​with a fantastic woman.)​

The shop in front of ​the newsagent’s is now closed. (​ = ​The shop w

​ hich is in front
of t​ he newsagent’s is now closed.)​