CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Reproductive health is considered one of the most important health concerns in the world.

Within the framework of the World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health as a state

of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or

infirmity, reproductive health, or sexual health/hygiene, addresses the reproductive processes,

functions and system at all stages of life.Reproductive health implies that people are able to have

a responsible, satisfying and safer sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the

freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. One interpretation of this implies that men

and women ought to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and

acceptable methods of birth control; also access to appropriate health care services of sexual,

reproductive medicine and implementation of health education programs to stress the importance

of women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth could provide couples with the best

chance of having a healthy infant.

Individuals do face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on

socioeconomic status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion, and resources available in their

environment. It is possible for example, that low income individuals lack the resources for

appropriate health services and the knowledge to know what is appropriate for maintaining

reproductive health.
The WHO assessed in 2008 that "Reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% of the

global burden of ill-health for women, and 14% for men." Reproductive health is a part of sexual

and reproductive health and rights.

According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), unmet needs for sexual and

reproductive health deprive women of the right to make "crucial choices about their own bodies

and futures", affecting family welfare. Women bear and usually nurture children, so their

reproductive health is inseparable from gender equality. Denial of such rights also worsens

poverty.

Reproductive health should be looked at through a lifecycle approach as it affects both men and

women from infancy to old age. According to UNFPA, reproductive health at any age

profoundly affects health later in life. The lifecycle approach incorporates the challenges people

face at different times in their lives such as family planning, services to prevent sexually

transmitted diseases and early diagnosis and treatment of reproductive health illnesses. As such,

services such as health and education systems need to be strengthened and availability of

essential health supplies such as contraceptives and medicines must be supported.

This study shall determine the reproductive health status among the residents of Sitio

Panuson, Brgy. Nabitasan, Leganes.

Specifically, this descriptive study sought answers to the following questions:

1. What is the status of reproductive health aming the residents of Sitio Panus-on taken as a whole

and when classified as to sex and age?

2. What is the prevalent reproductive disorders among the residents of Sitio Panus-on as a

whole and when classified as to sex and age?

The following hypothesis will be tested:

1.

Theoretical Framework

This study was anchored on the WHO’s model and is based on their ASRH program.

While it has long been observed that individual, structural and social changes result from

community participation, ASRH programs lack empirical evidence of how community

involvement impacts individual adolescent health behaviors and outcomes, let alone a way to

measure changes in the enabling environment of adults, institutions and societal norms. The

framework, found on the following page, specifically links community involvement

interventions to desired adolescent health outcomes. The framework also captures outcomes of

community-involvement processes that go beyond the realm of more typical ASRHprograms

with regard to structural and social changes in other words, the enabling environment that

influences choices available to youth and related decision-making.

Baseline in the framework diagram). One of the base measures of community capacity is its level

of ASRH awareness. Awareness may be catalyzed by a specific event (e.g., the death of an

adolescent due to an unsafe abortion) or by an accumulation of ASRH-related observations, such

as a rise in school dropouts due to pregnancy. With awareness and subsequent discussions,

communities may take their own actions, independent of an external catalyst. In many cases,

though, communities are hesitant to take on sensitive, sexually related issues. Thus, external

catalysts such as ASRH programs can often build awareness of ASRH issues, facilitate

community dialogue and collective action, and build the capacity of local organizations and

individuals to play catalytic and support roles,

which will allow the community to take action on ASRH issues.

Program catalysts often lead to community controversy. While some people may view externally

supported ASRH programs as positive catalysts for community involvement, others may

perceive them as negative or foreign to community norms and values. Community involvement

in this instance may even be confrontational, and may lead to unanticipated and unwanted

outcomes that are challenging for external programs to manage. External programs may also be

considered negative because the community becomes dependent on external inputs and support

for development, effectively negating or precluding the community’s own internal development

processes and ability to take collective action.

In any event, catalytic events will, in turn, lead individuals to begin addressing the issue as a

community concern, rather than as an individual or family problem. This public dialogue then

leads to collective action to address the identified issue of concern (Processes or Outputs in the

framework diagram). Collective (and individual) actions lead to a wide spectrum of change,
which will occur at the individual, structural and/or social level (Results or Outcomes in the

framework diagram). These activities and changes lead to the creation of an enabling

environment of community support for positive changes in ASRH knowledge, agency and

behaviors (Goal or Impact in the framework diagram).

The framework attempts to capture the dynamic nature of community involvement to improve

the capacity of a community to address other pressing issues. As individuals, institutions and

social-support networks become more skilled in addressing community concerns, they are

increasingly able to take on new issues. This, in turn, further improves community capacity

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

Dependent Independent

Age, Sex Reproductive

Definition of Terms

For a clearer understanding of some terms in the study, the following terms were given

their conceptual and operational definitions.

Age- The amount of time during which a person or animal has existed.

In this study, Age was used as an independent variable to determine the groupings of the

respondents
Reproductive Health Status- Status of the reproductive health of the residents living in a

certain area

In this study, Reproductive Health Status is the topic of the study

Reproductive Disorders- e infections that affect the reproductive tract, which is part of the

Reproductive System. For females, reproductive tract infections can be in either the upper

reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, ovary and uterus), and the lower reproductive tract (vagina,

cervix and vulva); for males these infections are at the penis, testicles, urethra or the vas

deferens. The three types of reproductive tract infections are endogenous infections, iatrogenic

infections and the more commonly known sexually transmitted infections.Each has its own

specific causes and symptoms, caused by a bacterium, virus, fungus or other organism. Some

infections are easily treatable and can be cured, some are more difficult, and some are non

curable such as AIDS and herpes.

In this study, these are the disorders that person has and will determine the overall reproductive

health status of the baranggay. We classified the different disorders as; congenital abnormalities,

cancer, infections, and sexually transmitted diseases.

Sex- The state of being male or female.

In this study, Sex was used to classify the respondents.

The results of the study were beneficial to the following sectors:

Students: will benefit in this study for they will know how reproductive status differ fro

depending on the contributing factors.

Parents: will benefit in this study so that they will be aware of what other kinds of reproductive

disorders are present in the barangay.

School: will benefit in this study for they can incorporate the information from this study

through quality education.

Lastly, researchers who will conduct the study can be aware of the different reproductive health

status depending on the location

Delimitations of the Study

The study aimed to determine the status of the reproductive health among residents in Sitio

Panus-on.

This study involves the residents of the Sitio Panus-on, Barangay Nabitasan, Iloilo City A.Y.

2016-2017. This study will cover the status of the reproductive health of the residents in Sitio

Panus-on. The dependent variable to be considered is the reproductive health status among the

selected residents in Sitio Panus-on and the independent variables is the sex whether he/she is a

male or female and the age of our respondents. The respondents of the study are the selected

residents of Sitio Panus-on to determine the status of their reproductive health.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the body of literature on the concept of the ASRH program. The

following literature review conducted for this research contributed to this study on the

reproductive health status among the residents of Sitio Panus-on, Brgy. Nabitasan, Leganes,

Iloilo.

Reproductive Health

Within the framework of the World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health as

a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease

or infirmity, reproductive health, or sexual health/hygiene, addresses the reproductive processes,

functions and system at all stages of life. Reproductive health implies that people are able to

have a responsible, satisfying and safer sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce

and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. One interpretation of this implies that

men and women ought to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and

acceptable methods of birth control; also access to appropriate health care services of sexual,

reproductive medicine and implementation of health education programs to stress the importance

of women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth could provide couples with the best

chance of having a healthy infant.

Individuals do face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on

socioeconomic status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion, and resources available in their

environment. It is possible for example, that low income individuals lack the resources for
appropriate health services and the knowledge to know what is appropriate for maintaining

reproductive health.

The WHO assessed in 2008 that "Reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% of

the global burden of ill-health for women, and 14% for men." Reproductive health is a part of

sexual and reproductive health and rights.

According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), unmet needs for sexual and

reproductive health deprive women of the right to make "crucial choices about their own bodies

and futures", affecting family welfare. Women bear and usually nurture children, so their

reproductive health is inseparable from gender equality. Denial of such rights also worsens

poverty.

Reproductive health should be looked at through a lifecycle approach as it affects both

men and women from infancy to old age. According to UNFPA, reproductive health at any age

profoundly affects health later in life. The lifecycle approach incorporates the challenges people

face at different times in their lives such as family planning, services to prevent sexually

transmitted diseases and early diagnosis and treatment of reproductive health illnesses. As such,

services such as health and education systems need to be strengthened and availability of

essential health supplies such as contraceptives and medicines must be supported.

Reproductive Diseases

Reproductive tract infection (RTI) are infections that affect the reproductive tract, which

is part of the Reproductive System. For females, reproductive tract infections can be in either the

upper reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, ovary and uterus), and the lower reproductive tract

(vagina, cervix and vulva); for males these infections are at the penis, testicles, urethra or the vas
deferens. The three types of reproductive tract infections are endogenous infections, iatrogenic

infections and the more commonly known sexually transmitted infections. Each has its own

specific causes and symptoms, caused by a bacterium, virus, fungus or other organism. Some

infections are easily treatable and can be cured, some are more difficult, and some are non

curable such as AIDS and herpes.

Congenital Disorders

Congenital disorder, also known as congenital disease, birth defect or anomaly,is a

condition existing at or before birth regardless of cause. Of these diseases, those characterized by

structural deformities are termed "congenital anomalies" and involve defects in a developing

fetus. Birth defects vary widely in cause and symptoms. Any substance that causes birth defects

is known as a teratogen. Some disorders can be detected before birth through prenatal diagnosis

(screening).

Birth defects may be the result of genetic or environmental factors. This includes errors

of morphogenesis, infection, epigenetic modifications on a parental germline, or a chromosomal

abnormality. The outcome of the disorder will depend on complex interactions between the pre-

natal deficit and the post-natal environment. Animal studies indicate that the mother's (and likely

the father's) diet, vitamin intake, and glucose levels prior to ovulation and conception have long-

term effects on fetal growth and adolescent and adult disease. Animal studies have shown that

paternal exposures prior to conception and during pregnancy result in increased risk of certain

birth defects and cancers. This research suggests that paternal food deprivation, germ line

mutations, alcohol use, chemical mutagens, age, smoking habits and epigenetic alterations can

affect birth outcomes. However, the relationship between offspring health and paternal
exposures, age, and lifestyle are still relatively weak. This is likely because paternal exposures

and their effects on the fetus are studied far less extensively than maternal exposures.

Birth defects are present in about 3% of newborns in USA. Congenital anomalies resulted

in about 632,000 deaths per year in 2013 down from 751,000 in 1990.[9] The type with the

greatest numbers of deaths are congenital heart disease (323,000), followed by neural tube

defects (69,000).

Reproductive Cancers

Reproductive cancers can affect men and women and occur in the reproductive organs. In

women, breast and cervical cancers are the most common and in men, prostate and testicular

cancer. Reproductive cancers are cancers that occur in the reproductive organs. They can affect

both men and women.In women, these are cancers in the breast, cervix, uterus, vulva,

endometrium or ovaries.In men, reproductive cancers can be found in the prostate, testicles and

penis. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in New Zealand women. Breast cancer is less

common in women under 50. The risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer increases with age.

It is possible for men to get breast cancer because breast cancer develops in breast tissue.

BreastScreen Aotearoa offers a free breast screening programme (mammography) for women

aged 45 to 69 years in New Zealand. The aim of mammography is to find very small cancers

before a lump can be felt. Early treatment of breast cancer has the best chance of success.

Cervical cancer is one of the most preventable of all cancers. It is caused by certain types of the

human papillomavirus (HPV). Having regular cervical smear tests is a woman’s best protection

against developing cervical cancer. This test will help find abnormal changes in the cells of the

cervix. All women aged between 20 and 70 should have a cervical smear test every three years.

If abnormal cells have been found you should have smears more frequently. Penile cancer is a
rare condition which occurs when malignant (cancerous) cells form in the tissue of the penis.

Uncircumcised men over the age of 50 are most at risk of getting penile cancer. Men with a

history of genital warts and human papillomavirus (HPV or the wart virus) are also at higher

risk. Men should discuss any penile changes with their doctor. Partners of men with penile

cancer should also be screened for other forms of cancer caused by HPV in the genital area – this

includes cervical, vulvar and anal cancer. Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men in

New Zealand. There are around 2,500 new diagnoses each year. Men who develop prostate

cancer are mostly over the age of 65. It rarely occurs in men younger than 55. In very elderly

men, prostate cancer often grows very slowly and may cause no symptoms. All men over 45

should discuss with their doctor whether to have prostate cancer screening.Testicular cancer is

the most common cancer in men aged between 15 and 35 years but it can happen to men of any

age.Testicular cancer is almost always curable, particularly if it is diagnosed and treated at an

early stage. There are three other types of reproductive cancers in women - ovarian cancer,

uterine or endometrial cancer and vulval cancer. Some of these cancers can also be an issue for

transmen.

Reproductive Infections

Reproductive tract infections (RTIs) are defined as any infections of the reproductive

system. They include sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and other infections of the

reproductive system that are not caused by sexual contact. These other infections may be the

result of the overgrowth of the bacteria and other organisms that normally live in the vagina.

RTIs also include infections that result from inadequate infection prevention practices by health

care providers.
Although RTIs affect both women and men, research shows that women are more susceptible to

infection and often less likely to seek treatment than men. In addition, complications can be more

serious in women and infections can be transmitted to the offspring of pregnant women.

The symptoms associated with STIs and other RTIs vary from none to severe. You cannot

always tell if a person has an STI, and people without symptoms often transmit the infection to

others unknowingly. If you believe you have an RTI or have been exposed to or at risk for STIs,

you should talk to a health care provider as soon as possible.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sexually transmitted infections (STI), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases

(STD) and venereal diseases (VD), are infections that are commonly spread by sex, especially

vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. Most STIs initially do not cause symptoms. This

results in a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Symptoms and signs of disease may

include vaginal discharge, penile discharge, ulcers on or around the genitals, and pelvic pain.

STIs acquired before or during birth may result in poor outcomes for the baby. Some STIs may

cause problems with the ability to get pregnant.

More than 30 different bacteria, viruses, and parasites can cause STIs. Bacterial STIs

include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis among others. Viral STIs include genital herpes,

HIV/AIDS, and genital warts among others. Parasitic STIs include trichomoniasis among others.

While usually spread by sex, some STIs can also be spread by non-sexual contact with

contaminated blood and tissues, breastfeeding, or during childbirth.STI diagnostic tests are easily

available in the developed world, but this is often not the case in the developing world
 The most effective way of preventing STIs is by not having sex. Some vaccinations may

also decrease the risk of certain infections including hepatitis B and some types of HPV. Safer

sex practices such as use of condoms, having a smaller number of sexual partners, and being in a

relationship where each person only has sex with the other also decreases the risk. Circumcision

in males may be effective to prevent some infections. Most STIs are treatable or curable. Of the

most common infections, syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis are curable, while

herpes, hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS, and HPV are treatable but not curable. Resistance to certain

antibiotics is developing among some organisms such as gonorrhea.

In 2008, it was estimated that 500 million people were infected with either syphilis,

gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis. At least an additional 530 million people have genital

herpes and 290 million women have human papillomavirus. STIs other than HIV resulted in

142,000 deaths in 2013. In the United States there were 19 million new cases of sexually

transmitted infections in 2010.Historical documentation of STIs date back to at least the Ebers

papyrus around 1550 BC and the Old Testament.There is often shame and stigma associated with

these infections.The term sexually transmitted infection is generally preferred over the terms

sexually transmitted disease and venereal disease, as it includes those who do not have

symptomatic disease.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The study employed the descriptive-survey research method. Gay (2003) defined the

descriptive method of research as involving the collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to

answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects of the study. It aims to describe

the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of study and to explore causes of particular

phenomena. Survey on the other hand studies the sampling of individual units from a population

and the associated survey data collection techniques, such as the use of questionnaires.

The dependent variables is the reproductive health status. The independent variables

included are gender, and age..

Method and Procedure

Subject

The subjects of the study will be the residents of Sitio Panus-on, Brgy. Nabitasan,

Leganes.

Materials and Instrumentation

The researchers prepared questionnaires to survey the citizens; these will be used as the

materials. The draft of the questionnaire was drawn out based on the researcher’s readings

and theses relevant to the study.

A questionnaire will be used in the procedure of this study to determine the reproductive

health status of the residents of Sitio Panus-on, Brgy. Nabitasan, Leganes, Iloilo.. The

questionnaires will be distributed by the researchers to the residents of Brgy. Nabitasan.

Data Analysis procedure

The researchers will personally administer the test questionnaires to the respondents and

provided them with clear instructions on how to answer. The analysis of the data will help to

formulate findings and conclusions.