University of Basra

College of Engineering

Electrical Engineering Department

Steam generation stations

Doctor Abdul Jabbar

‫ حسن عالء كاظم‬: ‫االسم‬

‫ الثالثة‬: ‫المرحلة‬

‫ مسائي‬: ‫نوع الدراسة‬

Introduction :
Steam power plants are widely utilized throughout the world for electricity
generation, and coal is often used to fuel these plants. Although the world’s
existing coal reserves are sufficient for about two centuries, the technology
largely used today to produce electricity from coal causes a significant negative
environmental impact. To utilize coal more effectively, efficiently, and cleanly in
electricity generation processes, efforts are often expended to improve the
efficiency and performance of existing plants through modifications and retrofits,
and to develop advanced coal utilization technologies.
Today, many electrical generating utilities are striving to improve the efficiency
(or heat rate) at their existing thermal electric generating stations, many of which
are over 25 years old. Often, a heat rate improvement of only a few percent
appears desirable as it is thought that the costs and complexity of such measures
may be more manageable than more expensive options.
To assist in improving the efficiencies of coal-to-electricity technologies, their
thermodynamic performances are usually investigated. In
general, energy technologies are normally examined using energy analysis. A
better understanding is attained when a more complete thermodynamic view is
taken, which uses the Second Law of Thermodynamics in conjunction with
energy analysis, via exergy methods.
Of the analysis techniques available, exergy analysis is perhaps the most
important because it is a useful, convenient, and straightforward method for
assessing and improving thermal generating stations. The insights gained with
exergy analysis into plant performance are informative (e.g., efficiencies are
determined that measure the approach to ideality, and the causes and locations of
losses in efficiency and electricity generation potential are accurately
pinpointed). Exergy analysis results can aid efforts to improve the efficiency, and
possibly the economic and environmental performance, of thermal generating
stations. Improvement, design, and optimization efforts are likely to be more
rational and comprehensive if exergy factors are considered. One reason is that
exergy methods can prioritize the parts of a plant in terms of greatest margin for
improvement by focusing on plant components responsible for the largest exergy
losses. For example, the authors previously showed that efficiency-improvement
efforts for coal-fired electrical generation should focus on the steam generator
(where large losses occur from combustion and heat transfer across large
temperature differences), the turbines, the electrical generator, and the
transformer. In addition, however, other components should be considered where
economically beneficial improvements can be identified, even if they are small.
In most countries, numerous steam power plants driven by fossil fuels like oil,
coal, and natural gas or by other energy resources like uranium are in service
today. During the past decade, many power-generation companies have paid
attention to process improvement in steam power plants by taking measures to
improve the plant efficiencies and to minimize the environmental impact (e.g., by
reducing the emissions of major air pollutants such as CO2, SO2, and NOx).
Exergy analysis is a useful tool in such efforts.
In this chapter, energy and exergy analyses are utilized to examine and better
understand the performance of steam power plants and to identify and evaluate
possible process modifications to improve the plant efficiencies. Some alternative
process configurations are then proposed. Exergy is useful for providing a
detailed breakdown of the losses, in terms of waste exergy emissions
and irreversibilities, for the overall plants and their components. Some illustrative
examples are presented to demonstrate the importance of exergy in performance
improvement of the steam power plants.

Special Instrument :
Phosphate Analyzer:
Working Principles In power plant steam/water cycles, inorganic phosphorus is
present in the form of phosphate and is normally referred to as orthophosphate or
soluble reactive phosphorus available chiefly as ions of HPO42− and with a small
percentage present as PO43−. These are called orthophosphate ions and result from
dissociation of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4−).

1.This analyzer is based on molybdophosphoric acid colorimetry (as suggested in

ASTM D 515). Upon mixing a reagent with a sample, a color change indicates the
presence of orthophosphate. Here ascorbic acid is used to measure the
orthophosphate. Surfactant is added to minimize bubble formation the surface
wall. Light absorption is measured through the solution in the sample, and is
considered a reference absorbance value similar to that discussed above for silica.
Molybdate reagent is then added to react with orthophosphate, to form heteropoly
acid. To reduce the heteropoly acid, ascorbic acid is added and
the molybdenum blue color is formed. After complete reaction, light absorbance
is measured. This increased absorption is due to orthophosphate. The ratio of the
final absorption and reference absorption is proportional to orthophosphate
present in the sample. Reactions include:

Phosphate + Molybdate → Phosphomolybdic Acid

Phosphomolybdic Acid + Ascorbic Acid → Reduced Phosphomolybdate
complex Blue

2. When vanadate molybdate reagent is used, it forms orthophosphate

vanadomolybdophosphate and gives a yellow color. The rest of the method is the
same.

3. Instrument calibrations could be programmable and repeated after a fixed cycle

(e.g., twice a week to three weeks), and varies with manufacturer.
4. If ASD and AZ denote the absorption by standard solution at full strength and
zero, corresponding to standard PO4 (μg/L), the slope will be slope = standard
PO4 (μg/L)/(ASD − AZ) so, PO4 (μg/L) = ASA × slope − instrument constant (reagent
blank), where ASA = absorption by sample solution.

5. Phosphate analyzer accessories are similar to those given in Clause .

Emerging Renewable Energy Sources :

Ziyad Salameh, in Renewable Energy System Design, 2014

Dry steam power plants
A dry steam power plant is suitable where there is geothermal steam that is not
mixed with water. Production wells are drilled down to the aquifer and the
superheated pressurized steam (180‒350 °C) is brought to the surface at high
speeds, then passed through a steam turbine to generate electricity. In most cases,
however, the steam is condensed back into water; it is called a closed cycle. This
improves turbine efficiency and reduces environmental effects. The condensed
water is injected back into the aquifer. The waste heat is vented through cooling
towers. The energy-conversion efficiency is low, around 30%, similar to that of a
fossil fuel plant.
The economics of a dry steam plant is affected by CO2 and Hs. The pressure of
these uncompressible gases reduces the efficiency of the turbine and the cost of
operation is increased by their removal for environmental reasons. A closed-cycle
dry steam power plant is shown in Figure 5.33. They are the simplest and most
economical and therefore widespread. The units for such technology are available
in the 35 to 120 MW range. The United States and Italy have the largest dry steam
resources. The Geysers field in California is the world’s largest installed power
source with a capacity of about 1100 MW.
Sometimes the dry steam drives the generator and then lets it go into the
atmosphere; this type of electricity generating is called open-cycle dry steam
power generation, as shown in Figure 5.34. This is simple but not efficient
because the water is wasted.
EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES AND USE OF BIOMASS FUELS :

Selection of Steam Data, Cycle Arrangement and Type of Engine

When a steam power plant is designed, there is much scope for choice of steam
conditions (i.e. steam pressure and temperature), steam cycle arrangements, and
type of engine. The choice made will have a great effect on the energy efficiency
of the plant and the costs of its construction. It is generally true that plants
designed for a high efficiency will be more expensive to build. The optimum
choice of steam data, cycle arrangement and type of engine will depend on the
power output needed and the load conditions. It is usually more economic to
choose a simple plant with moderate efficiency for uses which demand a small
number of annual operating hours and a more sophisticated and expensive plant
with high efficiency for plants which operate more or less continuously. Some of
the limitations of the different options will be discussed in this section.
Quantitative data on the performance and economy of some specific plant designs
will be given in later sections.

Steam Turbines :

Dipak K. Sarkar, in Thermal Power Plant, 2015

6.10 Operating Regime
In any steam power plant the operating regime of the
steam turbine should be selected to ensure that it will perform the
following:

1- Provide the minimum thermal stresses in turbine material

 2- Ensure the most economical generation of power

3- Require the least demand on operating personnel

Normally the steam temperature entering a a turbine is kept as high

as permitted by the metallurgical limit of internal materials used in
high-pressure and intermediate-pressure turbines. Throughout the
operation of a turbine the steam temperature is also maintained
constant to harness the benefit of maximum attainable efficiency.
Hence, to meet these duties the following three operating regimes
are commonly used [9]:
1- Constant pressure operation
2- True sliding pressure operation
3- Modified sliding pressure operation

Constant pressure operation :

The start-up of a steam turbine from any state, be it cold, warm, or
hot, begins from a steady state of reduced steam conditions. During
start-up initial (throttle) steam pressure and initial (throttle) steam
temperature are selected following the manufacturer’s guidelines.
Once the turbine is synchronized and starts raising loads both
pressure and temperature are gradually raised to reach their rated
conditions. During normal running of the unit the changes in power
output are carried out at rated initial steam conditions. However,
while reducing load, although throttle steam pressure remains
unchanged, the throttle steam temperature is kept unaltered down to
a load of about 60% in a typical pulverized coal-fired boiler. Below
this load it is imperative to reduce the steam temperature for stability
of boiler operation. Nozzle control is normally used for this mode.
True sliding pressure operation :
When the turbine is started, the initial steam pressure is increased
gradually to its rated value beginning at the reduced initial value.
During normal operation the main steam flow through the turbine is
controlled by sliding the throttle steam pressure progressively from
the initial value to the rated value in proportion to the generation
output, while keeping the turbine control valves fully open. In true
sliding pressure operation, changes in both pressure and load take
place linearly, attaining 100% throttle pressure at 100% load.
At part load the thermal efficiency of the steam turbine operating with
true sliding pressure operation will be better than the efficiency of the
turbine if it operates with constant pressure operation, due to
following reasons:
1- Smaller governing valve loss enables improvement of high-
pressure turbine internal efficiency
2- Boiler feed pump throughput gets reduced
3- Boiler reheat steam temperature can be higher because of
higher temperatures in the high-pressure turbine exhaust steam

Another benefit of adopting variable pressure operation is this mode

results in extremely fast turbine start-up time.

Modified sliding pressure operation :

In the case of sudden load demand the turbine control valves can
react almost instantaneously to take corrective action, but the boiler
fuel control cannot react with the same speed because of its sluggish
response. To address this problem, a modified sliding pressure
operation with some throttle reserve has become attractive to system
designers. With this mode, while throttle steam pressure is raised
progressively from an initial value the rated throttle steam pressure is
attained at 80–85% control valve opening, instead of 100%.
Therefore, whenever there is sudden load demand, the turbine
control valves open immediately, allowing more steam to flow through
the turbine according to the demand, but with a sacrifice of throttle
steam pressure. Boiler fuel control then follows the turbine control to
raise the throttle steam pressure to its rated value.
Throttle governing is the most favorable method of control in the
above two modes. Figure 6.46 shows the “main steam pressure vs.
load” characteristic of “constant pressure”, “true sliding pressure”,
“modified sliding pressure” operations.

Conclusion :
Steam turbine power generation system is currently becoming one of the most
common methods of generating electricity. Steam in the highly favored in the
system because of the fact that it holds a very critical amount of energy on a unit
mass. Looking at turbulence flow, it is generally .

STEAM TURBINE POWER GENERATION SYSTEM characterized by

recirculation, eddies as well as apparent randomness. In the steam turbine power
generation system, turbulence flow is broken down into a sum of average
components andalso a perturbation component. The flow is highly required in the
production of steam in this system because of its features like recirculation. It is
associated with both negative and positive impacts. To mention, most of these
system uses fossils sources of energy which are linked to reduced effects when it
comes to the environment

References :

1- Power Plant Instrumentation and Control Handbook

2- Renewable Energy System Design

3- Geothermal Power Plants

4- https://www.sciencedirect.com/