Science of The Total Environment: Nenibarini Zabbey, Kabari Sam, Adaugo Trinitas Onyebuchi

STOTEN-22012; No of Pages 14
Science of the Total Environment xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv
Review
Remediation of contaminated lands in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Prospects

and challenges
Nenibarini Zabbey a,c, Kabari Sam b,⁎, Adaugo Trinitas Onyebuchi c
a
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, PMB 5323, East-West Road, Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria
b
Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy, and Environment, College Road, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
c
Environment and Conservation Unit, Center for Environment, Human Rights and Development (CEHRD), Legacy Centre, 6 Abuja Lane, D-Line, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• Land contamination remediation in the

Niger Delta region of Nigeria is ad hoc
and utilises the do-nothing approach
to clean-up.
• Impacts of oil toxicity on the environ-
ment and exposed populations is vari-
able and deleterious.
• Different factors including overlapping
governance structure, stakeholder con-
flict, funding and lack of expertise is a
challenge to land contamination reme-
diation.
• Bioremediation is a potential approach
to effective and efficient clean-up given
its low greenhouse emissions and envi-
ronmental footprints.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Contamination of the total environment (air, soil, water and biota) by crude oil has become a paramount interest
Received 30 December 2016 in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Studies have revealed variable impacts of oil toxicity on the environment and
Received in revised form 8 February 2017 exposed populations. The revelation gained much international attention in 2011 with the release of
Accepted 8 February 2017
Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). This
Available online xxxx
has up scaled local and international pressures for urgent clean-up and restoration of degraded bio-resource
Editor: D. Barcelo rich environments of the Niger Delta, starting from Ogoniland. Previous remediation attempts in the area had
failed due to erroneous operational conclusions (such as conclusions by oil industry operators that the Niger
Keywords: Delta soil is covered by a layer of clay and as such oil percolation remains within the top soil and makes remedi-
Remediation ation by enhanced natural attenuation (RENA) suitable for the region) and the adoption of incompatible and in-
Coastal environment effective approaches (i.e. RENA) for the complex and dynamic environments. Perennial conflicts, poor regulatory
Niger Delta oversights and incoherent standards are also challenges. Following UNEP recommendations, the Federal Govern-
Contaminated land ment of Nigeria recently commissioned the clean-up and remediation of Ogoniland project; it would be novel
and trend setting. While UNEP outlined some measures of contaminated land remediation, no specific approach
was identified to be most effective for the Niger Delta region. Resolving the technical dilemma and identified so-
cial impediments is the key success driver of the above project. In this paper, we reviewed the socio-economic
and ecological impacts of contaminated land in the Niger Delta region and the global state-of-the-art remediation
approaches. We use coastal environment clean-up case studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of bioremedia-
tion (sometimes in combination with other technologies) for remediating most of the polluted sites in the Niger
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: k.s.sam@cranfield.ac.uk (K. Sam).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.075
0048-9697/Published by Elsevier B.V.
Please cite this article as: Zabbey, N., et al., Remediation of contaminated lands in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Prospects and challenges, Sci
Total Environ (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.075
2 N. Zabbey et al. / Science of the Total Environment xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Delta. Bioremediation should primarily be the preferred option considering its low greenhouse gas and environ-
mental footprints, and low-cost burden on the weak and overstretched economy of Nigeria.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
1.1. Geography of the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2. Impacts of oil spill in the Niger Delta region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2.1. Social and public health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2.2. Ecological and economic impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2.3. Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2.4. Preventing new spills and addressing legacy (oil spills) in the Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3. Remediation approaches for oil-related contaminated environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.1. Physical/mechanical remediation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.2. Chemical remediation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.3. Biological remediation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.3.1. Phytoremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.3.2. Bioremediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4. Description of case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5. Prospects for bioremediation in the Niger Delta region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1. Oil spill response in mangrove contaminated areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2. No action/natural recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3. Barrier methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.4. Manual oil recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.5. Passive collection with sorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.6. Vacuuming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6. Challenges for effective contaminated land remediation in the Niger Delta region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.1. Complex and dynamic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.2. Frequent oil spills and potential for re-impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.3. Lack of pre-spill environmental baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.4. Stakeholder conflict and social issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.5. Governance structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.6. Technical capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.7. Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.8. Current legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
1. Introduction to issues of large-scale infrastructural damage, ecological devastation

and adverse human health impacts, resulting from legacy sites and cur-
Land is a scarce commodity, an important factor in economic sys- rent waste disposal methods. Presently, the issue of soil contamination
tems and a critical component of the earth's life support system (Hou is gaining global recognition as it poses significant challenge to the pres-
and Al-Tabbaa, 2014; Yao et al., 2012). However, historic and ongoing ent and future generations. To this end, different countries (e.g. the UK
human activities have resulted in large-scale contamination of lands, and USA) (Luo et al., 2009) have developed approaches and policies
and in worst case scenario hitherto useful lands are transformed to for dealing with contaminated sites. Many developed countries
wastelands (Tinsley and Farewell, 2015). Nigeria is the eleventh largest have gone further to implement such policies, for example, the UK,
oil producer in the world. And the Niger Delta is the oil and gas region of Netherlands and the USA.
Nigeria, and doubles as the country's hub of mangroves and extraordi- Developing countries on the other hand are yet to reflect this global
nary biodiversity. In Nigeria, oil extraction and processing activities response to land contamination. Nigeria, for example, is yet to develop
has resulted in massive land contamination (Sam et al., 2016; UNEP, policies that meet international standards in dealing with land contam-
2011). Land affected by oil spill has been identified as a major challenge ination despite widespread environmental contamination in the Niger
to livelihood, human and environmental health in the Niger Delta Delta region of the country (UNEP, 2011). As such, the level of land
region of Nigeria (Sam et al., 2016). contamination continues to surge with associated socio-economic and
Over the last five decades, environmental degradation and specifi- environmental impacts. While soil quality, surface and ground water
cally soil contamination caused by petroleum hydrocarbon spill was has been adversely affected thus impacting drinking water quality
perceived in terms of relatively rare events, with poorly understood (Nduka and Orisakwe, 2011; UNEP, 2011; Ahiarakwem et al., 2012;
but highly devastating impacts on human health and ecological systems Lindén and Pålsson, 2013; Nganje et al., 2015; Davies and Abolude,
(Döberl et al., 2013). However, several incidences including the New 2016), many aquatic fauna and flora have reportedly gone into extinc-
York Love canal in the US (Ikehata and Liu, 2011) and the Minamata di- tion (Luiselli et al., 2015). For example, the mangrove ecosystem in
saster in Japan (Murata and Sakamoto, 2013) drew media attention to the Niger Delta region is fast degrading (UNEP, 2011). This has led to de-
the issue of soil contamination. Currently, the perception has changed cades of public protest and outrage demanding urgent remediation in
N. Zabbey et al. / Science of the Total Environment xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3
the region to reduce risk to human health and restore environmental As at 2008, oil related activities in the region have resulted in the
ecosystem to restore livelihood support structures (UNEP, 2011). contamination of an estimated 2000 sites (Ite et al., 2013), and capable
Based on UNEP (2011) recommendations, the Federal Government of of having multitude of impacts (such as cancer, birth defects, genetic
Nigeria (FGN) flagged off clean-up and restoration of Ogoniland Project mutation and reproductive defects) on the human population
on the shores of Bodo Creek on June 2, 2016 (Sam et al., 2016; UNEP, (Heubeck et al., 2003; Léopold et al., 2008; Park and Park, 2010), and
2016). The project will be implemented by a newly created agency the ecology, e.g. damage to mangrove forests and wetlands; water pol-
under the Ministry of Environment, the Hydrocarbon Pollution Restora- lution (Inam et al., 2015; Zabbey and Uyi, 2014; Elum et al., 2016; John
tion Project (HYPREP). Similar efforts by successive Governments have et al., 2016).
suffered setbacks (Afinotan and Ojakorotu, 2009), however, if the Nigeria's vast reserves of petroleum hydrocarbons was recently esti-
Ogoni clean-up and restoration is undertaken, given the seeming polit- mated as having an export value of $89b per annum (Könnet, 2014;
ical will by the current Government, the project will serve as a bench- OPEC, 2015) with over $600b worth of oil produced since 1960 (Ite et
mark for future clean-up and remediation of oil contaminated al., 2013). In 2016, over 1 billion barrels of crude was discovered off
environments in the Niger Delta; a region ranked as one of the most shore in Bayelsa, the central Niger Delta state (Asu, 2016), and incredible
oil impacted regions in the world (Steiner, 2010). However, the Niger oil discoveries made in hitherto non-oil producing states of Lagos and
Delta generally is a volatile region and as expected, experiences unpre- drier far-northern Borno. Wealth from oil currently contributes 35% of
dictable resource related conflicts which has been attributed to the in- Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and represents over 90% of its
ability of the authority to ensure remediation of contaminated sites foreign exchange wealth (Akpabio and Akpan, 2010; OPEC, 2015).
(Omeje, 2005; Ikelegbe, 2006a; Oyefusi, 2007; Omofonmwan and An estimated 10 m to 13 m tons of hydrocarbons have been report-
Odia, 2009). In some cases, the conflicts turned violent (e.g. hostage tak- edly spilled into the Niger Delta over the last 50 years (Nwilo and
ing, kidnaping and the murder of seven industry workers and military Badejo, 2006; Kadafa, 2012). During this period over 77% of spilled hy-
personnel in April 2004 in Delta state) (Ikelegbe, 2005; Ukeje, 2001; drocarbons were not recovered (Nwilo and Badejo, 2006; Kadafa,
Watts, 2007). 2012). These spills have consequently led to an epidemic of contaminat-
In this study, we assessed prospects of remediating the Niger Delta ed land in the Niger Delta region, which has led to significant impacts to
coastal environments against the background of challenges that could human health and ecological systems (Lindén and Pålsson, 2013; Ite et
limit the effectiveness of remediating degraded environments in the real., 2013).
gion. We also reviewed conventional remediation options, weighed
their merits and demerits in the context of habitat type and peculiar 2. Impacts of oil spill in the Niger Delta region
socio-ecological factors in the Niger Delta region. Analysis of multiple
factors that may impede smooth remediation of hydrocarbon contami- The increasing dependence of the Nigerian economy on hydrocar-
nated environments in the Niger Delta, beginning with the take-off and bon exploration and extraction has led to severe pressures on the envi-
completion of the anticipated clean-up of Ogoniland, is imperative for ronmental components and other receptive systems (Ite et al., 2013),
informed mitigation recommendations. resulting from accidental and incidental discharge of hydrocarbon and
its products into the environment.
Soil contamination in the Niger Delta has become widespread and
1.1. Geography of the study area assumed international concern (UNEP, 2011), affecting local fisher
folks and farmers whose economic wellbeing is dependent of rivers
Nigeria is a West African nation fringing the Atlantic Ocean in the and alluvial fertile soil. There is increasing concern as large volumes of
Gulf of Guinea, covering an area of 923,773 km2 (Nwilo and Badejo, toxic organic substances continually enter the coastal environment of
2006), and has an estimated population of about 170 million people the Niger Delta (Eregha and Irughe, 2009; Linden and Palsson, 2013)
(OPEC, 2015). Specific to this study, is the Niger Delta. The region has through different routes including leachate and seepage during opera-
a surface area of about 112,000 km2 (12% of Nigeria's total surface tions, extraction, transportation, distribution storage, and refining
area), with a population of about 31 million people in about 3000 (UNEP, 2011). These routes involve human activities, which can be
communities (NDDC, 2014), representing one of the most densely prevented or controlled to minimize spills especially with proper mon-
populated regions of Africa (Steiner, 2010). itoring of oil infrastructure with state-of-the-act technology (Zabbey,
The Nigerian extensive 853 km coastline is dissected by a series of 2016), even though spillage cannot be completely eliminated until ef-
estuaries that form the Niger Delta swamp at the middle where the fective regulatory oversight are in place and advanced technology for
lower Niger River system drains the waters of rivers Niger and Benue detection of oil spills are implemented. Leaks from wellhead, pipelines,
into the Atlantic Ocean. The geographic Niger Delta (Fig. 1) stretches overflows and dumping of slurry in the environment are other routes
450 km from the Benin River in the West to the Imo River in the East, that could be controlled to reduce spills (Kadafa, 2012; Nwilo and
in the south-south geopolitical zone. It is the third largest wetland in Badejo, 2006). On the other hand, basic oil spill prediction models and
the world and has the fourth largest mangrove area in the world, the methodology alongside baseline or near real time data to evaluate oil
largest in Africa (Spalding et al., 2010; Könnet, 2014). The Delta is also spill damages in the region are lacking (Anifowose et al., 2016). Hydro-
home of extraordinary biodiversity (some of which are endemic) and carbons through these routes continue to cause land contamination
is also endowed with fertile alluvial soils that support bumper agricul- even as the operators report that they apply best available technology
ture, several mineral deposits such as marble, barites, limestone, sand (BAT) in preventing discharges (Steiner, 2010; Ite et al., 2013). Al-
and gravel (Zabbey, 2009; Adelana and Adeosun, 2011; Pegg and though, operators claim to use BAT, oil spills from facilities are bound
Zabbey, 2013). Nigeria has the largest oil and gas reserve in Africa, and to continue provided the facilities remain aged and the interdiction of
most of these resources exist in the Niger Delta and on the continental these critical infrastructure continues unabated (Church et al., 2004).
shelf of the country (Lindén and Pålsson, 2013). The Niger Delta's mas- In the following sections, we present a catalogue of impacts hydrocar-
sive oil deposits have been extracted for decades – since 1956. For many bon exploration has had on the local population in the Niger Delta
decades now, the petroleum industry in the Niger Delta has remained region.
the backbone of the Nigerian economy, accounting for over 90% of the
country's total foreign exchange revenue (NDDC, 2014). The region is 2.1. Social and public health impacts
plagued with oil related contamination, and has been rated as one of
the most oil spill vulnerable areas in the world (UNDP, 2006; Steiner, For over five decades, poorly accounted hydrocarbon spillage in the
2010; Könnet, 2014). Niger Delta region, has adversely impacted biodiversity, soil and water
Fig. 1. The Niger Delta and pipeline networks (red lines) (Sam, 2016). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
resources (Kadafa, 2012; Zabbey and Uyi, 2014). The contamination hydrocarbon caused respiratory illness and are carcinogenic to humans.
may persist for many years as ineffective remediation methods and un- While high molecular polycyclic-aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) caused
skilled personnel are deployed (UNEP, 2011). For example, the spill that mutagenicity and bioaccumulation in tissues due to their lipophilic
occurred in Ejama-Ebubu, Eleme in 1969 during the Nigerian civil war character (Ite and Semple, 2012). With these evidences, humans
which burnt for several months, impacting over 255 ha of farmland in exposed to hydrocarbon could suffer respiratory and chromosomal de-
the area is yet to be fully remediated and still impacting on biodiversity fects. Moreover, PAH could cause skin damage, bronchial disease in vul-
(Amajor, 1985; Hart et al., 2007; UNEP, 2011; Giadom, 2015). As a result nerable groups such as children and skin tumours (Rodríguez-Trigo et
the local population continue to be exposed to petroleum hydrocarbon al., 2010). Thus, increased hydrocarbon contamination in the Niger
hazards. The people of Ogale Eleme, Ogoni had been drinking water Delta region has contributed significantly to carcinogenic health im-
containing benzene 900 times above WHO permissible limits (UNEP, pacts (UNEP, 2011). This has the potential of inducing ‘cancer villages’
2011). On a more immediate devastating note, the1998 Jesse pipeline in the region in the near future (Lu et al., 2015). For example, the local
spill fire outbreak claimed over 1000 lives including children and population in Nsisioken community in Ogoniland continue to consume
women in the region (Chinweze et al., 2012). water heavily contaminated by benzene (UNEP, 2011).
The region is currently plagued with diverse environmental, socio- Several legacy sites and on-going spills have made the region one of
economic and public health issues. Public health issues such as birth de- the most impacted deltas globally, devastating surface and ground
fects, cancer, various illnesses and death have been linked to petroleum water, soil for agriculture, and the local economy (UNEP, 2011;
hydrocarbon (Amaize, 2016). Human health impacts due to contami- Zabbey and Uyi, 2014). Studies have suggested decline in some species
nated land have not been empirically studied in the Niger Delta; howev- of benthic fauna including molluscs (oysters - crassostrea gasar) and
er, surrogate data from other regions exist. A study on the Prestige crabs, and local extirpation of fish species (Raji and Abejide, 2013). Eco-
oil spill in Spain indicated adverse health impacts due to exposure to nomic loss due to the impact of contaminated land resulting from oil
hydrocarbon (Suárez et al., 2005). Acute exposures to aromatic spills has severely impacted farming and fishing (livelihoods), thereby
persuading the local population into vandalism of oil pipelines and and often inter-communal crisis over limited fertile land (Olawuyi,
militancy to enable them meet societal obligations (Orubu et al., 2004; 2012; Umukoro, 2012). Similarly, fishers can be affected if the petro-
Raji and Abejide, 2013). leum hydrocarbon toxicity suffocates fishes, and reduce the capacity
of the rivers to support valuable fish species (Umukoro, 2012). Thus,
2.2. Ecological and economic impacts fishers become jobless and gradually become alien in the society. Such
unemployed population take up arms and indulge in social vices within
Spilled oil is reported to have deeply penetrated the ecosystems, the environment (Watts, 2007).
food chains and life-supporting entities such as controlled waters
(Ajai, 2010), making oil spill the worst nightmare to host communities 2.4. Preventing new spills and addressing legacy (oil spills) in the Niger
(Chinweze et al., 2012) and depriving them their environmental bene- Delta
fits. Consequently, ecosystem services such as wood, breeding areas
for fish, mangrove forest have apparently disappeared in the region It is unclear how much preventive measures have been implement-
(Kadafa, 2012) and other irreversible long term impacts such as cancer ed in the Niger Delta region and the effectiveness of such measures.
are prevalent (Olawuyi, 2012). However, it has been reported that poorly enforced regulations and
Ecologically, the Niger Delta region has been adversely impacted. standards, corruption, duplication of regulatory bodies and consequent-
The mangrove forest and freshwater wetlands have been degraded by ly overlapping of roles, high cost of procuring and maintaining mitiga-
oil spills, and consequently rendered the ecosystems unsuitable for tion equipment, knowledge gap and carelessness of operators are
wildlife and biodiversity (Chinweze et al., 2012). For example, only a some of the issues affecting preventive measures in Nigeria (Nwilo
single spill incidence (the Funiwa-5 oil well blowout in 1980) killed a and Badejo, 2006; UNEP, 2011).
total acreage of 836 of mangroves and defoliated an un-estimated man- The lack of preventive measures to avoid hydrocarbon discharge and
grove seedlings (Raji and Abejide, 2013). This has further affected the remediation has led to decades of political unrest and communal
coastal mangroves which formed breeding ground for fishes and other clashes, as the local population felt exploited, asking for compensation
aquatic organisms (Kadafa et al., 2012). Consequently, fishery resources (Umukoro, 2012). Despite the need for compensation, it is a moral
are in decline in the region (UNEP, 2011). A recent review of oil impact and legal obligation to remediate contaminated lands. For example,
on mangroves indicates that 27% of the global impact had occurred in the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill at the Gulf of Mexico gulped over $14
the Niger Delta (Duke, 2016). billion in clean-up operations and over $15 billion paid in compensa-
tions (Ramseur and Hagerty, 2013). The amounts were exclusive of
2.3. Environmental impacts the billions of dollars paid for restoration projects. Considering the
widespread land and water contamination in the Niger Delta (UNEP,
Environmental impacts on land in the Niger Delta region have been 2011), there is urgent need for similar response action given to the
documented (Akpabio and Akpan, 2010; Orubu et al., 2004). Various or- Deepwater Oil Horizon Spill.
ganic contaminants that make-up petroleum hydrocarbon are harmful Several remediation techniques have been implemented in the
when introduced into the environment (Farrel-Jones et al., 2003; Niger Delta to address hydrocarbon contamination with little or no suc-
Rodrigues et al., 2009). Contaminants are persistent in soil, have high cess (UNEP, 2011), as they are inappropriate for the environment and
mobility leading to ground water contamination, and can change the thus complete remediation is not achieved (Giadom, 2015), or they
chemical composition of soil, water and other ecological components negatively impact the environment (e.g. open dump burning), which
(Fent, 2004). For example, rural communities that depend on surface consequently lead to air pollution. For example, UNEP reported that
water as the principal source for drinking water have been adversely the continuous use of remediation by enhanced natural attenuation
impacted (Brassington et al., 2007; UNEP, 2011). Moreover, chemical (RENA) has become inappropriate for the Niger Delta environment
properties of petroleum hydrocarbon have interfered with the soil (Sam et al., 2016; UNEP, 2011). RENA – the do nothing technology,
properties and functionalities thereby making the soil unsafe for micro- has been traditionally used for contaminated land clean-up in the
bial enzymatic activities (Labud et al., 2007; Alrumman et al., 2015). Niger Delta region by regulators and industry operators (Sam et al.,
This has affected soil nutrient cycle and resulted in unfertile soil making 2015; UNEP, 2011). RENA is however unsuitable for majority of the
it unsuitable for plant growth by reducing soil nutrient and increasing sites in the region as the spilled oil has percolated the soil beyond 5 m
toxicity. Not only do these affect soil microbial activities but the entire and contaminated groundwater aquifers in different locations (Ebuehi
soil ecosystem (Alrumman et al., 2015). et al., 2005; Orji et al., 2012). This is because soils have limited ability
In addition, chemical pollution has significant implication for food to absorb, degrade and attenuate the effects of contaminants
security and eco-toxicological impacts in the region (Fent, 2004). (Bierkens and Geerts, 2014).
For example, some contaminants, including organotins, have high The highlighted socio-economic, environmental and secondary im-
lipophilicity which enhances their bio-accumulating activity in aquatic pacts of contaminated land in the region suggest effective clean-up of
ecosystem food webs (Fent, 2004). There is evidence that by virtue of contaminated land could, to a large extent, resolve the adverse effects
bioaccumulation of toxic components of hydrocarbon in root crops suffered in the Niger Delta. Evidence from other regions that have expe-
and other agricultural products, the local food chain might be poisoned rienced the scale of oil spills in the Niger Delta also indicate the impacts
and consequently affect human health after consumption (Fent, 2004). of oil spills on surrounding environment and highlights the need for im-
For example, Omemu and Aderoju (2008) reported increasing food mediate remediation (Lim et al., 2016). There is, therefore, urgent need
safety risks in Nigeria resulting from soil and water pollution. The to explore measures that would achieve clean-up and ensure residual
sources of contamination range from chemical pollution, pesticide concentrations of contaminants in soil do not cause unacceptable risk
over-application to fertilizer application on soil. This suggests that in- to human and environmental health.
creasing chemical pollution in the Niger Delta has significant food safety
risks in the region. 3. Remediation approaches for oil-related contaminated environment
Further to this, the local population whose livelihood depends on
farming have been rendered redundant without an alternative liveli- Remediation is the process of returning soil, water or air functional-
hood (UNEP, 2011). Increase in land contamination reduces the avail- ity that existed prior to contamination. Variety of techniques exist for
able land for agricultural purposes (Orubu et al., 2004; Umukoro, remediation depending on the media (e.g. air, water, or soil) and con-
2012). This results to situation where farmers migrate to other commu- taminant (e.g. heavy metals, PCB) (Gomes et al., 2013). This could be
nities for farmlands leading to increased pressure on limited fertile land by physical, chemical or biological methods (Hamby, 1996; Khan et al.,
2004; Yao et al., 2012; Lim et al., 2016). Given the peculiar (i.e. variable properties. Phytoremediation provides an approach that allows for
habitat, interlinked water bodies and variable soil types) nature of the low maintenance cost, easily implemented on-site and in areas that
Niger Delta environment (UNEP, 2011), unsuccessful remediation at- generally support plant growth.
tempts have been reported due to the use of inappropriate technologies. Despite the benefits of phytoremediation in contaminated land
Thus, it is imperative to explore an approach or a combination of clean-up, there still remain a gamut of challenges which have led
technologies that would be appropriate and sustainable for the varied to continuous search for more sustainable approaches (Susarla et
Nigerian environments. al., 2002; Sas-Nowosielska et al., 2004). For example, specific
phytoremediation prescription could not be applicable to diverse
3.1. Physical/mechanical remediation approach site conditions, as concentration levels could be toxic to the inter-
vention plants (Susarla et al., 2002). Phytoremediation is a slow re-
While physical method principally involves soil replacement and mediation strategy and could only be considered for long-term
thermal desorption, the method is labour intensive, expensive and suit- clean-up. In addition, the approach is affected by external parame-
able for small contaminated sites (Khan et al., 2004). This implies it ters which include type and concentration of contaminants, water
could be unsuitable for large-scale contamination in the Niger Delta re- content, soil chemical properties and plant resistance to phototoxic
gion. In the following sections, we explored other remediation ap- effects (Lim et al., 2016), and prevailing ecological and climatic con-
proaches with a likelihood of suitability in the Niger Delta. ditions. The primary challenge is to identify and select plant species
which could withstand the toxicity of the contaminants (Peng et
3.2. Chemical remediation approach al., 2009; Lim et al., 2016). This is followed by the bioaccumulation
of hydrocarbon in plants. Plants are affected by stress and pressure
Chemical method involves washing contaminated soil using clean from other site conditions including the presence of pests, pathogens
water, reagents, and solvents that can leach the contaminants from the and insects. Plant exposure to these organisms and contaminants re-
soil (see Hamby, 1996; Yao et al., 2012; Lim et al., 2016). This method duces the ability of plants over time to absorb contaminants. More
could be achieved through chemical leaching, chemical fixation, electroki- importantly, plant tissues (e.g. roots) responsible for contaminant
netic remediation, vitrify technology, chemical immobilisation, oxidation, uptake must be able to access contaminants in soil; thus, where con-
chemical fluid extraction and photodegradation among others. The meth- taminants have percolated into soil layers out of reach of plant root
od is expensive and has the potential to contaminate other environmental system the approach might be unviable. Also, safe disposal of used
media including air and water bodies through the introduction of solvents plants is a challenge yet to be resolved in many regions (Sas-
and reagents during remediation (Yao et al., 2012). Specifically, the ap- Nowosielska et al., 2004).
proach is fast at clean-up of contaminants, however, harmful wastes gen-
erated in the process include carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases 3.3.2. Bioremediation
which are emitted into the surrounding environment (Cappuyns, 2013). Bioremediation is an approach that facilitates the natural biodeg-
radation process of hydrocarbons through the provision of nutrients
3.3. Biological remediation approach and oxygen required by microbes. Bioremediation technologies are
cost-effective and resource conservative approaches (Susarla et al.,
3.3.1. Phytoremediation 2002; Lim et al., 2016). The technique was developed in the 1940s
Phytoremediation involves the use of living green plants or their and has since been tested on different spill sites. For example, in
roots to fix or absorb contaminants from soil. This approach uses en- 1994, the effectiveness of a biosurfactant called PES-51 for the re-
zymes present in plant roots to aid degradation of contaminants. It removal of weathered crude from contaminated sand was investigat-
duces contaminant concentration in soil and consequently reduces ed in Exxon Valdaz oil spill in La Touche Island. The results
risk posed by such contaminants to the environment and human health. indicated 70% of the semivolatile components was removed from
For example, Peng et al. (2009) used Mirabilis jalapa L. to remove 63.2% the sample (Tumeo et al., 1994). In other studies, for example,
of petroleum from contaminated soil. Phytoremediation has five ap- Prince et al. (2003) demonstrated similar enhanced results through
proaches which include phyto-stabilisation, phyto-volatilisation, the addition of fertilizers or external microbes for the removal of
phyto-extraction, phytodegradation and rhizodegradation (Wang et contaminants from soil. While the addition of nutrients or microbes
al., 2011; Lim et al., 2016). Phyto-stabilisation is the use of plant roots may not necessarily increase the rate of contaminant removal
to absorb and precipitate contaminants thereby fixing them to a point (Venosa et al., 1996), the addition of water soluble nutrients with-
and reducing their bioavailability and migration to other ecological sys- out supplements of microbial population for the degradation of con-
tems such as food chain and underground water (Yao et al., 2012). taminants on the shoreline of Delaware Bay did not reflect
Phytovolatilisation is the transfer of contaminants (e.g. mercury) to a significant increase in biodegradation rate compared to natural re-
gaseous state by the use of special matters secreted by plant roots mediation of contaminants. This was however attributed to multiple
(Watanabe, 1997). Phyto-extraction on the other hand involves the factors such as high levels of nitrogen already existing in soil levels
use of tolerant and accumulating plants to absorb contaminants from significant to influenced contaminant biodegradation (Lim et al.,
soil, which are transferred and stored in over-ground parts (Yao et al., 2016). Thus, extant literature shows that biodegradation demon-
2012). The breakdown of contaminants through the metabolic process- strate high potential for effective and successful remediation of hy-
es of the plant is described as phytodegradation. Plant roots in such drocarbon. Three distinctive approaches are adopted in the context
cases release catalytic enzymes such as dehalogenase and laccase, to ac- of bioremediation, namely, bioaugmentation, biostimulation and
celerate the contaminant breakdown process (Lim et al., 2016). bioventilation.
Rhizodegradation entails the degradation of contaminants through en-
hanced microbial activity in the rhizosphere zone (1–5 mm) of the 3.3.2.1. Bioaugmentation, biostimulation and bioventilation. Bioaugmen-
soil. In this case, soil microbes benefit the soil by supplying the needed tation is to enhance the performance of the microbial population
nutrients such as vitamins and amino acids to increase plant growth, through the addition of bacterial with specific catabolic activities,
while the plant roots provide habitat for microbes that degrade hydro- strains or enrichment consortia to increase the rate of contaminant
carbons (Germida et al., 2002; Lim et al., 2016). Generally, the different degradation (Abdulsalam et al., 2011; Lim et al., 2016). This implies
approaches of phytoremediation have peculiar characteristics that an import of some contaminant degrading microbes to the already
make them appropriate for different soil contaminants. For example, existing microbial population at the intervention area to quicken
phytovolatilisation is only appropriate for compounds with volatilisable the rate of contaminant degradation. One challenge of this approach
is that there is no single strain of bacteria that has the requisite met- The study of Mandal et al. (2014), explained a bioremediation exer-
abolic capacity to degrade all oil components. Thus, studies cise on oil contaminated effluent pits, sludge pits, oil spilled land and
recommend different types of bacteria strains and fungi for the tank bottom at Ankleshwar, Mehsana, Assam and Cauvery Asset of Oil
remediation of hydrocarbon contaminants (Lim et al., 2016). The ad- and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC), India. The contaminants
justment of environmental parameters such as nutrient introduc- included heavy paraffinic, asphaltic and light crude oil and emulsified
tion, biopolymers and biosurfactants is described as biostimulation oil sludge/contaminated soil. An indigenous microbial consortium was
(Prince et al., 2003; Jiang et al., 2016). The adjustment of these pa- produced from four different bacteria species isolated from different
rameters could stimulate the growth of oil degrading microbes and oil contaminated sites in India. The consortium was applied to the de-
thus the rate of responsive degradation by the microbes. The influ- scribed contaminated sites and it successfully bioremediated the con-
ence of nutrient amendments had been demonstrated (Chaîneau et taminated sites. For example, their results indicated that in 65 case
al., 2005). The study investigated biodegradation of crude oil in dif- studies of different batch sizes of the bioremediation process, the initial
ferent soil samples including fertilised and unfertilised soil for a pe- total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content varying from 69.20–
riod of 150 days. The results indicated that the fertilised soil where 662.70 g/kg of oily waste was biodegraded to 5.30–16.90 g/kg of oily
nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the ra- waste in a range of 2 to 33 months. Bioremediation was therefore iden-
tion 170:17:48 were added had 62% biodegradation while the tified as an effective and efficient approach for the management of
unfertilised soil had 47% biodegradation (Chaîneau et al., 2005). ONGC contaminated sites.
Bioventilation on the other hand involves the addition of oxygen to
the soil voids to stimulate the growth of microbes. Oxygen is a neces- Case II. Bioremediation of diesel and lubricant oil-contaminated soils
sity and often the limiting factor in the process of biodegradation as using enhanced landfarming system.
it enhances microbial metabolism of organic matter and generate Wang et al. (2016) investigated the effectiveness of remediating lu-
more energy (Lim et al., 2016). Bioventing has been shown to be ef- bricant and diesel oil-pollutant sites in Taiwan. The aim of the research
fective and efficient in the remediation of a blend of diesel and bio- was to explore the application of an enhanced landfarming to
diesel fuel with a higher remediation rate compared to natural bioremediate soils polluted by lubricant and diesel. The study evaluated
attenuation (Thomé et al., 2014). They reported 85% contaminant the optimal treatment conditions with the addition of different addi-
degradation efficiency compared to 64% observed in natural attenu- tives including nutrients, activated sludge, compost, and TPH-degrading
ation after 60 days. bacteria to enhance TPH removal. Results from the study indicated that
Generally, bioremediation has been researched extensively with the additives of activated sludge and compost could increase soil micro-
success in hydrocarbon removal from soil in laboratories and afield bial population and consequently increase efficient degradation of TPH.
(Dadrasnia and Agamuthu, 2014; Jung et al., 2014; Abed et al., For example, 83% of TPH removal was achieved within 175 days of
2015; Lim et al., 2016). Bioremediation has been shown to degrade incubation.
oil contaminants permanently and successfully and leaves little or
no adverse effects on the environment. It is also cost effective and Case III. Bioremediation of crude oil contaminated sites in China.
eliminates wastes safely without threatening the wider environment In the studies of Xu et al. (2015), a bacterial consortium from oil con-
(Lim et al., 2016). However, bioremediation requires longer taminated sites mainly consisting of pseudomonas species, in combina-
treatment durations (up to several years) to achieve satisfactory tion with fertilizer, rice husk and plowing, was used to remediate oil
contaminant removal. Comparatively, thermal remediation contaminated sites in Jianghan oil field. The variation of TPH, n-alkanes
approaches (e.g. thermal desorption) are quick and could achieve and PAHs in the bioremediation process showed that more than 95% of
99% contaminant removal however, they are expensive, utilise ex- petroleum hydrocarbon could be efficiently removed. The results from
cessive energy and produce by-products and unwanted air pollution their study also indicated that n-alkanes with long carbon chain and
(Lim et al., 2016). In the next section, we discuss a number of case PAHs with 5–6 rings were degraded in the bioremediation process.
studies similar to the Niger Delta physicochemical properties. The
case studies validate the choice of bioremediation, particularly the Case IV. Bio stimulation of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH).
success of the approach in remediating hydrocarbon in coastal
Sarkar et al. (2005) confirmed that the use of bio-solids for
environments.
biostimulation of TPH is more effective than the Monitored Natural
Attenuation (MNA). Incubation of TPH with N and P in addition to
4. Description of case studies
C degraded about 99% of TPH after 8 weeks unlike MNA, which was
approximately 93.8%. MNA is however viable in high microbial pop-
Case studies of hydrocarbon bioremediation in other regions that
ulation soils.
are similar to the Niger Delta are described to provide a background
to successful remediation of polluted coastal environment in the lat- Case V. Restoration of oil impacted mangrove soils in Mahakam,
ter region. The physical and microbiological characteristics of the Indonesia.
Niger Delta is reported to favour natural and biological remediation
(Ajlan, 2016). For example, Ejechi and Ozochi (2015), reported that As in the Niger Delta, the over five decades of oil devastation due to
the Niger Delta soil has a pH of 6.1 ± 1.1 with a temperature ranging oil exploitation and exploration in the Mahakam Delta of Indonesia se-
between 28–35 °C. These characteristics were considered in the severely affected local livelihood and mangrove ecology (Dutrieux et al.,
lection of case studies similar to the Niger Delta in efforts to explore 2014). It is reported that as at 2001, 80% of the mangrove in the
similar scenarios where bioremediation has been effectively applied. Mahakam Delta were destroyed (Dutrieux et al., 2014). To alleviate
The general principle is that the selected coastal regions have certain and facilitate mangrove recovery, Dutrieux et al. (2014) adopted a
characteristics in common and could provide guidance for successful mixed restoration by natural techniques including natural re-colonisa-
remedial measures suitable for the Niger Delta region, in terms of tion. Their results indicated that mangrove restoration in oil impacted
least environmental and socio-economic impacts and the derivation areas could be quicker under stimulated environmental conditions. In
of net benefit from the remediation process (Bardos et al., 2016; Sam addition, the works of Sánchez-Arias et al. (2013) demonstrated the re-
et al., 2016). covery of mangrove soils after oil spills in a coastal area. The study eval-
uated a site where oil spills led to death of 100% of the mangrove forest
Case I. Large scale bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon and made survival and natural re-colonisation near unsuccessful. The
contaminated waste at various installations of ONGC, India. study adopted the natural and stimulated biodegradation of oil
approach, which includes the effect of water saturation in it, and red defined as an assemblage of tropical trees and shrubs, including faunal
mangroves (Rhizophora mangle L.) were used as success indicators. communities that inhabit the coastal intertidal zone (Hoff, 2010;
The results indicated that biodegradation in a stimulated environment UNEP, 2011).
can remove about 78.5% of spilt oil in the first two months, improving ‘Recent’ mapping shows that the area occupied by mangroves in the
the quality of the degraded soil. world is 152,000 km2 (Spalding et al., 2010). Mangroves in Africa cover
The UNEP (2011) study in Ogoniland identified current technologies an estimated 32,000 km2, constituting about 19% of global coverage
in contaminated land remediation. However, many of the remediation (FAO and UNEP, 1981). The extent of the Niger Delta mangrove ecosys-
approaches for example, containment, air stripping, fixation and incin- tem is approximately 10,515 km2 (Spalding et al., 2010). There are
eration, could leave behind environmental footprint (Rosén et al., about 69 species of mangrove plants in the world (Duke, 1992), but
2015), deny access to land for agriculture and accelerate greenhouse there is controversy about the definite number of mangrove species in
gas emissions (Hou et al., 2014; Hou and Al-Tabbaa, 2014). Cautiously, Nigeria (Jackson and Lewis, 2000). Kinako (1989) listed three families
ancillary and secondary environmental impacts resulting from remedi- represented by six species of mangroves in Nigeria. These are: red
ation technologies should be considered in order not to create more mangroves Rhizophoraceae (Rhizophora racemosa, R. harrisonii, and R.
problems in the process of solving one. mangle), white mangroves Avicenniaceae (Avicennia germinans),
The analysed case studies demonstrate the efficacy of bioremedia- Combretaceae (buttonwood Conocarpus erectus and black mangrove
tion to achieving clean-up in coastal environments. This suggests that Laguncularia racemosa). R. racemosa is the dominant mangrove in Nige-
the prospects for contaminated land clean-up in the Niger Delta region ria. The alien nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) was erroneously introduced to
could benefit from similar technology considering similarities in physi- the coast of Calabar in Nigeria in 1906, and the palm now competes vig-
cal nature of impacts and chemical structure of contaminants in coastal orously with the above native mangrove species along the Niger Delta
environments. Bioremediation is economically viable, socially accept- coast (Zabbey and Tanee, 2016), up to as far as the coast of Cameroon
able as it will create jobs and allow access to farmlands and environ- (Morakinyo and Sunderland, 2002).
mentally safe legacy due to reduced greenhouse gas emission and Mangroves are the last line of defence of many coastal communities
climatic impacts. in the Niger Delta, in terms of shoreline protection, food resources, fish
reproductive function, etc., and literature abounds on mangrove goods
5. Prospects for bioremediation in the Niger Delta region and ecosystem services (Moberg and Rönnbäck, 2003; Ronnback,
1999; Rönnbäck et al., 2007; Zabbey, 2008; Zabbey et al., 2010).
Bioremediation has been studied extensively and has been tried on Zabbey (2008) and Zabbey et al. (2010) listed oil spillage, overexploita-
small scales, with only a few large-scale applications. However, the tion for fuel wood, conversion to other forms of development, dredging
analysed examples suggest that bioremediation is moving into and industrial discharges, and unhindered spread of N. fruticans as
commercialisation (Røberg et al., 2007; Sarkar et al., 2005). Bioremedi- major threats to mangroves in the Niger Delta. Oil spillage typically re-
ation has become more popular in the clean-up of contaminated sites sults in death of mangrove seedlings and trees; and many crabs and
(Balba et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2009; Guimarães et al., 2010). There is ev- shellfishes as well as causing disruption of detritus-based food webs
idence that microorganisms present in soil have the capacity to degrade with consequent reduction in the fishery (Kautsky et al., 2000; Kio
hydrocarbons to avoid higher concentrations that could pose unaccept- and Ola-Adams, 1986). A recent review of global oil spill impact on
able risk to human health and the environment (Jorgensen et al., 2000; mangroves indicates that as much 27% had occurred in the Niger Delta
Ebuehi et al., 2005; Laraia, 2013). Specifically, the Niger Delta fluvial and region (Duke, 2016). Natural recovery of oil damaged mangrove areas
coastal characteristics, would require certain conditions (e.g. under- can occur through recolonization by floating mangrove seedlings in
standing the diversity and distribution of microbial flora and augment- areas where oil concentration is lower than 30,000 ppm (Lewis,
ing nutrient supplementation) to effectively remediate the coastal 1983). However, residual oil in sediment may persist for months and
environment including studying the current state of contamination can take about 12 months to weather (Hoff, 2010) and residual oil tox-
and deciding appropriate technique for remediation. icity can result in mortality impact on mangrove seedlings as long as the
Many contaminated land clean-up techniques exist; however, the residual concentration remains high (Getter et al., 1984). Mangrove and
use of microorganisms has many advantages including cost-effective- fringing tidal mudflats in the Niger Delta are among the worst oil im-
ness, few or no by-products and reusability among others (Das and pacted environments on the global scale (UNEP, 2011; Duke, 2016),
Dash, 2014). Microbes are readily available, rapidly characterised, high- and would present the most difficult cleanup and restoration
ly diverse and can use many noxious elements as their nutrients (Das challenges.
and Dash, 2014). These characteristics have led to increase in the use There are demonstrated techniques to either safeguard against or
of microorganisms to degrade contaminants on contaminated sites in clean-up of oil spills in mangrove areas. Some of them will be discussed
coastal regions such as the Niger Delta. in detail, however, it is important to stress that site evaluation is key in
Given the effectiveness, low environmental footprint and the suit- selecting the most suitable potential response strategies for oil spill
ability of bioremediation for clean-up of different contaminants in soil, clean-up in mangrove environments (Owens and Sergy, 2003; Marine
this approach will benefit the coastal environment of the Niger Delta re- et al., 2009; Dale et al., 2014). This will afford experts the opportunity
gion. However, prior to application, there is the need to ensure contam- to analyse the remedial options to ensure the ultimate benefits out-
ination is within the topsoil and that ground water has not been weighs the possible environmental costs to the mangroves and also
contaminated in areas to be applied. Research is also needed to deter- other sensitive habitats associated with it. Determining the initial spill
mine the biodegradability of the contaminant in soil. response option is dependent on variables such as oil type, availability
of response equipment, weather, wind direction, current and location
5.1. Oil spill response in mangrove contaminated areas (Hoff, 2010; UNEP, 2011; Duke, 2016).
The following are some of the clean-up techniques developed to
Mangroves dominate the intertidal zone of tropical and sub-tropical minimize the impact of oil spills on natural resources that may be at risk.
deltas, lagoons and estuarine systems that receive significant inputs of
exogenous material, but they can also be found colonizing the shoreline 5.2. No action/natural recovery
receiving little or no terrestrial run-off (Duke, 1992; Twilley, 1995).
Mangroves are halophyte, woody and seed bearing plants that share According to Duke (2016), no action is usually recommended for
common habitat preferences, physiognomy, functional, and structural most mangrove areas affected with oil spills because of the sensitive
adaptations (Kinako, 1989; Duke, 1992). Ecologically, mangroves are nature of the environment and the likely damage that may result if
clean-up process is improperly conducted. Oil spill response is critical in peels); booms, dust or fibre sorbent, inorganic materials such as plasma
minimizing the volume of spilled oil finding its way into the mangrove silicates, zeolites, cat litter among others (NOAA, 2014; Ifelebuegu et al.,
environment, thereby impacting negatively on the sensitive habitat. 2015; Duke, 2016; Ukotije-ikwut et al., 2016). Sorbent with oleophilic
However, in doing this, the process has to be assessed to ensure the po- characteristics (either to adsorb or absorb) can be placed at the fringe
tential benefits of cleaning up oil spills outweigh the environmental cost of oiled mangrove forests to passively recover oil. These materials can
associated with it (NOAA, 2014). Conducting effective cost benefit anal- either be natural or synthetic and can be designed in different forms
ysis will arm the stakeholders with relevant information to make an in- to actualize the purpose of minimizing the impact of oil spill on the
formed decision. If the evaluation process indicates that the clean-up mangrove (UNEP, 2011).
activity will cause more harm than benefit to mangrove species (flora
and fauna) as well as other associated habitats, it will be appropriate 5.6. Vacuuming
to do nothing in order to safeguard the environment. However, it is
worth mentioning that the soil and microbial community recovery pro- This method is suitable for removing pooled oil at the outer fringe of
cess through this approach is slow – and in the context of this study the mangrove or in open stands, depressions, and channels with coarse
where stakeholders are primarily farmers, fertile soil for agricultural ac- sediment as well as heavy oil (Duke, 2016; Hoff, 2010). The equipment
tivities could be a challenge. The volume and nature of the spill are fac- for accomplishing this task varies from large to small suction devices
tors to consider when making such decision as light oils will naturally usually mounted on dredges in an open area free from vegetation, the
evaporate and breakdown very rapidly and may not require clean-up outer fringe of the mangrove to avoid further mechanical damage. The
(UNEP, 2011). field applicability of this method is dependent on the nature of the
spilled oil as well as other logistics factors. This is because vacuuming
5.3. Barrier methods is not suitable with lighter, more flammable petroleum products such
as diesel and jet fuel, however, it can be used effectively on heavier
This method entails the use of suitable materials such as booms, sed- and medium oils as long as it is reasonably fluid (UNEP, 2011; NOAA,
iment berms, dams and filter fences (NOAA, 2014; Duke, 2016) to pre- 2014; Duke, 2016). Another downside to this method is the challenge
vent the entry of oil spill into mangroves. This method can be effective in gaining access to the spill site with heavy equipment.
when factors (such as appropriate boom, effective deployment) are rel-
atively under control in trapping large quantities of mobile oil and min- 6. Challenges for effective contaminated land remediation in the Ni-
imize oil impact on mangroves. According to IUCN-NDP (2013), for ger Delta region
barrier methods to function in real-time as an effective oil spill response,
adequate pre-planning for placement of sufficient booms and materials Previous studies have demonstrated successful remediation of con-
are critical. This process sometimes can be challenging as exemplified in taminated land via the use of bioremediation (Sarkar et al., 2005;
the Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico with waves higher Røberg et al., 2007). Successful contaminated land remediation is de-
than 3 ft., booms were ineffective in preventing the spill from getting pendent on many factors including availability of technical know-how
to the shore. Other factors that can contribute to the ineffectiveness of (UNEP, 2011), stakeholder engagement and effective communication
the process include physical characteristics such as current strength (Adelana and Adeosun, 2011; Ikelegbe, 2006b), governance structure
and water depth, and nature of the spill oil. It is important to note that (Ambituuni et al., 2014; Elenwo and Akankali, 2014), the complex na-
the efficiency and effectiveness of the process is partly dependent on ture and dynamics of the environment, and adequate funding (UNEP,
obtaining and managing the services of competent and skilled person- 2011; Abdullahi, 2015). We therefore explore the availability of these
nel who will lay the needed number of booms. It can be extremely ex- factors in the context of the Niger Delta for effective contaminated
pensive and to some extent not realistic to pre-position materials and land remediation.
trained personnel who will be saddled with the responsibility of
deploying them in the event of an emergency (Hoff, 2010; Duke, 2016). 6.1. Complex and dynamic environment
5.4. Manual oil recovery Land contamination in the Niger Delta region is widespread with
varying concentrations of different contaminants in different media –
This method is applicable to remediation process involving heavy in land areas, swamps and sediments (UNEP, 2011). The contamina-
oils such as crude oil or bunker C oil, stranded in the mangrove environ- tions are chronologically variable, some have occurred in recent times
ment (Hoff, 2010) as it has the tendency to persist longer thereby while others are decades old. Broadly, land contamination particularly
resulting to exposure to long term risk (Duke, 2016). It entails the use is caused by crude oil in many locations and refined products in few
of hand tools and labour to remove the contaminant of interest from cases (Onojake et al., 2015). The physical nature and chemical composi-
the environment as such limit the spread to other uncontaminated tion of hydrocarbon contaminants vary between sites and are dynamic
mangroves. This activity should be done by personnel with relevant overtime. As a result, a number of factors affect the remediation of hy-
skills and competence to prevent mechanical damage to the tangle of drocarbon-contaminated land. In the first instance, this is dependent
prop roots and pneumatophores. Manual removal of oil encourages on the inherent properties of each compound that constitute hydrocar-
trampling of oil deeper into the sediment and other forms of physical bon (Wilson and Jones, 1993; James, 1996), for example polycyclic-aro-
damage resulting from foot traffic of workers. Oil buried in sediment matic hydrocarbon (PAH). In addition, soil properties that alter
persists for a long time, gradually resurface and having prolonged degradation of hydrocarbon including organic matter, structure, and
chronic impacts on exposed biota. Depending on the site-specific particle size could hinder the effectiveness of remediation. Other envi-
challenge, the use of boat in conducting clean-up activities under the ronmental factors including pH, temperature, and soil aeration also af-
supervision of competent personnel is advisable (Hoff, 2010; UNEP, fect remediation (Samanta et al., 2002). There are also possibilities for
2011; Duke, 2016). the presence of other contaminants that are toxic to microbes, for exam-
ple, heavy metals and cyanides, which may hinder degradation
5.5. Passive collection with sorbents (Boopathy, 2000).
As a result, in order to effectively characterise complex and dynamic
The use of adsorbent to either remove or prevent oil from accessing contaminant properties, detailed site specific risk analysis is required
the mangrove forest is another promising method. This includes floating whether clean-up is needed on a site, and to which extent remediation
organic materials (e.g. wool, straw, hair, coconut fibre, rice husk, banana is needed; and where remediation is required, what approach is
sustainably appropriate (UNEP, 2011). In addition, decision on remedi- evaluation outcomes. It is, therefore, imperative to collect pre-remedia-
ation of hydrocarbon contaminated sites is complex and require more tion baseline data that would form yardstick for post remediation
than mere consideration of intervention levels. Other factors including evaluation.
vegetation damage, erosion, impact on aquatic biota and natural recov-
ery needs to be integrated in the decision-making. There is also need to 6.4. Stakeholder conflict and social issues
conduct a ground-truth assessment of contaminated sites, when recom-
mendations of initial post impact assessment studies such as UNEP, There is a high level of disengagement between different contami-
2011 report had not been implemented for over three years. In nated land stakeholder groups in the Niger Delta region. For example,
Ogoniland, for instance, this (ground-truth assessment) and additional while the local population perceive the government to be weak at
baseline study are imperative as several new spills had occurred beside implementing available policy for strict contaminated land clean-up
sites hitherto assessed by UNEP (Sam et al., 2017). (Ikelegbe, 2006b), oil operators accuse local population of sabotage of
Owing to the diverse nature of contamination and receptors in pipeline and thus operators decline adequate clean-up of spill sites in
the region, solutions for remediation might require a combination such cases (Adelana and Adeosun, 2011). As a result, stakeholder groups
of approaches. Expertise is therefore required to conduct a site-by- lack trust and confidence in each other resulting in lack of engagement
site risk analysis to characterise the dynamic and complexities (Nzeadibe et al., 2015). In turn, conflicts characterise the relationship
associated with contamination in each location, and hence choice between stakeholder groups, for example, local communities and mul-
of appropriate combination of technologies where needed. This tinational corporations (Omeje, 2005; Ikelegbe, 2006a). In such situa-
could be a challenge as this level of expertise seems to be lacking in tions, it is difficult for stakeholder groups to engage and discuss
the region (UNEP, 2011). mechanisms for ensuring contaminated land remediation. In developed
regions, integrated and robust approaches are used to ensure greater
6.2. Frequent oil spills and potential for re-impact stakeholder participation in contaminated land management decision-
making process. For example, the Organisation for Economic Coopera-
The nature of oil infrastructure and contextual issues within the tion and Development (OECD) used stakeholder engagement to inform
Niger Delta encourages frequent spills to occur. These circumstances the development of nanotechnology policy (OECD, 2012) and to build
lead to unpredictable and inevitable spills in the region causing re-im- trust between policy makers and the public (OECD, 2001, 2005). In
pact of clean-up of areas (UNEP, 2011). Oil pipelines for example are lo- the UK, stakeholder engagement has become a mandatory component
cated within settlements and farmlands (Sam et al., 2016), with little or of the policy development process (Cundy et al., 2013; Geaves and
no effective security making it easily accessible (UNEP, 2011). In such Penning-Rowsell, 2016), and both the Environment Agency and the De-
instance, socio-economic challenges such as hunger and poverty partment for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra) regularly seek
which have plagued the region for decades (Onwuka, 2005; Elum et the participation of stakeholders (e.g. Society of Brownfield Risk Assess-
al., 2016), is often considered as a motivating factor that encourages ment) to improve policy (e.g. brownfield risk assessment). The stake-
youths to tap into pipelines to access crude for artisanal refining (Sam holder engagement opportunity is used to address perceived conflict
et al., 2016). Although, it is worth mentioning that hungry youths can- that might affect the decision-making process. Similar approaches will
not indulge in such a complex and technical exercise such as pipeline help Nigeria address conflicts among stakeholders in the decision-mak-
vandalism without expert aid. Other factors that facilitate re-impact in- ing process. A robust stakeholder engagement process will allow differ-
clude engineering failure, pipeline rupture and fatigue, and inadequate ent stakeholder groups to participate and contribute to decisions made,
pipeline maintenance and surveillance model, and sabotage bombing in the process social issues caused or aggravated by land contamination
by militants. Re-impact of clean-up sites should be prevented as much are identified (Sam et al., 2016), and addressed adequately in the con-
as possible (UNEP, 2011), and efficient contingency response measures taminated land management process. Thus, societal expectations will
need be put in place to contain and recover oil resulting from inevitable be achieved in the process of contaminated land management. Stake-
spills. Zabbey (2016) recommends the use of automatic (internal and holder engagement would also enable clarification of grey issues and
external) leak detection devices (e.g. acoustic pressure wave method, help to manage stakeholder expectations. For instance, some stake-
infrared radiometers or thermal cameras, vapour sensors, etc.) as useful holders erroneously think that the clean-up and restoration of oil dam-
innovative technologies for monitoring pipeline leakages in the Niger aged Ogoni environments would be preceded by payment of monetary
Delta. compensation. Some had been canvassing for monetization of the
clean-up. That is, leaving the degraded environment to ‘recover’ natu-
6.3. Lack of pre-spill environmental baseline rally while the clean-up-designated fund be distributed among the pop-
ulation – a manifest of economic desperation and unprecedented
An essential element for a successful contaminated land restoration poverty. This is a potential recipe for conflict. However, such wrong
project is pre-disturbance baseline study (Snowden and Ekweozor, perception and disposition can be resolved/corrected through robust
1990). The lack of baseline data affects the quality and validity of con- stakeholder engagement and proactive sensitization outreach.
clusions reached both at the end of a restoration project and post impact
assessment (Snowden and Ekweozor, 1990; Zabbey and Uyi, 2014). The 6.5. Governance structure
unavailability of baseline data could be a major challenge for effective
and efficient contaminated land restoration of impacted areas of the Contaminated land regulation in the Niger Delta region is a shared
Niger Delta. It is reported that certain species of fauna and flora that responsibility between agencies. This has been reported to result in
existed in the pre-disturbance era in the Niger Delta has been extirpated overlap of responsibilities and conflict. For example, the Department
(Eniang et al., 2016; Luiselli et al., 2015). For example, Luiselli et al. of Petroleum Resources (DPR) and the National Oil Spill Detection Agen-
(2015) reported a total of 45 lost species in the region due to oil spills. cy (NOSDRA) have often conflicted over clean-up responsibilities
Where baseline studies that could identify, these species are lacking, (Ambituuni et al., 2014; Rim-rukeh, 2015). This overlap in responsibility
evaluation of efficient restoration and remediation could be challenge. has often created conflicts in the administration of remediation (Elenwo
In addition, baseline data could indicate the level to which environmen- and Akankali, 2014). For example, different and conflicting intervention
tal restoration is required which in turn indicates the efforts and re- and target values are used to regulate contaminated land remediation.
sources required for restoration. Thus, a lack of baseline data could While DPR uses 5000 mg/kg as target level for total petroleum hydro-
result in use of excessive resources and efforts to achieve ambitious carbon, NOSDRA uses 50 mg/kg for the same purpose (UNEP, 2011).
clean-up levels, and also undermine effective monitoring and The implication is that multiple standards are implemented within the
region, which compromises synergy between regulatory agencies and 6.7. Funding
their ability to effectively manage the environment. Secondly, it creates
opportunity for pollution liable operators to choose between the bench- Providing funds for contaminated land remediation in the Niger
marks as it pleases them or depending on the regulator dictating the Delta region seems a perennial problem. Successive governments in
pace. In regions where contaminated land management regulations Nigeria has made promises and set different deadlines for the remedia-
are developed, responsibility of regulatory agencies is well defined tion of the Niger Delta region, however, providing the necessary funds
and streamlined to prevent overlap. For example, the roles of the Envi- for putting boots on the ground had been elusive. For example, the af-
ronment Agency and the local authorities in the UK contaminated land termath of the UNEP report would have been the establishment of an
regime are well defined under the Environment Protect Act 1990 and initial USD 1 billion Trust Fund for the clean-up of Ogoniland (UNEP,
supporting Statutory Guidance (DEFRA, 2012), while the Environment 2011), with contributions from the Nigeria Government and the indus-
Agency regulates special sites and develops policies, the local authori- try operators. However, till this moment, no publishable efforts have
ties regulate determined contaminated sites (Luo et al., 2009; Brombal been made towards establishing a trust fund for the remediation
et al., 2015). A clear delineation of responsibilities for regulatory (Könnet, 2014). As a result of lack of funds, past and on-going spills
agencies under a unified contaminated land regulation, similar to the have received little or no attention for remediation even during many
Environment Protection Act 1990 in the UK, will benefit Nigeria. years of oil boom. Presently, Nigeria is in economic recession (Chukwu
et al., 2015). This would largely undermine the amount of fund that
would be allocated to remediation of contaminated environments
6.6. Technical capacity since the federal government is grappling with basic issues such as pro-
vision of potable water, sanitation, education, health care, etc. Thus
The complex nature of land contamination in the Niger Delta region there is need for Nigeria to prioritise sites that pose greatest risk to pub-
requires highly professional personnel for effective remediation. The re- lic and environmental health in order to optimise limited available re-
gion currently lacks the technical expertise required to implement suc- sources (Sam et al., 2016). Sam et al. (2016) used a risk-based
cessful remediation technology considering the level of contamination approach to prioritise the 66 sites that were investigated by UNEP in
(UNEP, 2011; Sam et al., 2016). For example, previous studies suggest 2011 in order to help decision makers to focus on sites with greatest
that regulators often depend on the expertise of the operators during in- risk to public health. On the other hand, oil producing
vestigation of oil spill sites (Eneh, 2011). As a result, the regulators can- host communities impacted by oil would insist on restoration of the
not identify the use of inappropriate remediation technology in the environment to restore their livelihood support structures. The
region, thus, operators continue to use substandard technologies for contending positions are recipes for conflict in the region.
contaminated land clean-up in the region (UNEP, 2011). This practice A renewed vigour towards deliberate funding of contaminated land
suggests that regulators require training in current science for effective remediation is required in the Niger Delta region. In other regions, a sus-
contaminated land remediation. In developed regions, such as the UK tainable funding mechanism is developed to ensure prompt attention to
and the USA, regular training platforms are established for contaminat- sites that pose threats to human health and the environment. For exam-
ed land management practitioners to encourage knowledge and infor- ple, in the USA, the Superfund programme places a tax on chemical and
mation sharing. For example, the sustainable remediation forum UK petroleum products for the Superfund Trust Fund (Kiel, 2013; Kapp,
(SuRF UK) is a professional platform for sustainable contaminated 2014). Monies from the Superfund Trust Fund are used to remediate
land management. SuRF UK provides an opportunity for contaminated sites on the National Priority List (USEPA, 1992). Instances where iden-
land management practitioners in the UK to exchange and share exper- tified contaminated sites pose significant threat to residents and the
tise in sustainable contaminated land management paradigms (Bardos party responsible for the contamination cannot be immediately identi-
et al., 2016). Similar collaborative platforms have been developed in fied, funds in the Trust Fund are used for remediation. Similar approach
the USA and China (Coulon et al., 2016). For purposes of training and ca- can benefit Nigeria. A percentage of sales from petroleum can be set
pacity development in contaminated land management, similar plat- aside to remediate contaminated land impacts in the Niger Delta region.
forms such as SuRF Nigeria will provide an opportunity for training of This approach will ensure there are always funds for remediation as
contaminated land practitioners and knowledge sharing with overseas long as petroleum remains the mainstay of the Nigerian economy.
experts.
Importantly, the standard or soil screening criteria recommended 6.8. Current legislation
by the environmental guideline and standard for petroleum industry
in Nigeria (EGASPIN) for risk resulting from exposure to hydrocar- A fundamental challenge to the clean-up of Ogoniland is the avail-
bon contaminant was adopted from another country (DPR, 2002; ability of appropriate legislation for effective and efficient remediation
UNEP, 2011). As a result, previous studies have raised pertinent in the area (UNEP, 2011; Sam et al., 2016, 2017). Policy framework
questions on the appropriateness of the target levels recommended and implementation in Nigeria is largely tenure-based. The implication
in the EGASPIN for the Nigerian environment (UNEP, 2011). For ex- is that a policy or commitment made by an administration might
ample, plausible exposure routes for hydrocarbon contaminants in be neglected by succeeding administrations. Meanwhile restoration of
the US could differ from the Nigerian context in such ways as diet, degraded ecosystem most times takes decades of sustained scientific
fate of contaminant in the soil, soil type and texture, which are and financial commitment. Thus, we recommend that the federal
often considered in the modelling of exposure routes for determin- government of Nigeria should enact requisite laws that will insure
ing soil screening criteria (Nathanail, 2006; Nathanail et al., 2013). the clean-up, remediation and restoration of highly oil degraded
This suggests that contaminated land regulatory agencies in Nigeria environment in the Niger delta – starting with the Ogoniland clean-up.
lack the appropriate standard for ensuring contaminated land
clean-up. To develop appropriate soil screening standards for the 7. Conclusion
protection of human and environmental health, a methodology
that considers the contextual differences in Nigeria is a necessity. In this paper, we outlined the prospects of adopting bioremediation
Different parameters that are considered in the process of develop- as a sustainable alternative for the clean-up of large scale contaminated
ing screening standards (e.g. soil physicochemical characteristics, sites in the Niger Delta region. We characterise the complex and multi-
diet, and exposure routes) differ across regions (Cheng and dimensional challenges faced by efforts for effective remediation of the
Nathanail, 2009), as such, Nigeria requires a soil screening standard Niger Delta region. Given the lack of technical skills, funds, and stake-
developed for its context. holder conflicts and governance issues, high expectation from the
local population and lack of best practice for contaminated land remedi- Brombal, D., Wang, H., Pizzol, L., Critto, A., Giubilato, E., Guo, G., 2015. Soil environmental
management systems for contaminated sites in China and the EU. Land Use Policy 48:
ation in Nigeria, the prospect for effective clean-up seems daunting. Fol- 286–298. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.05.015.
lowing the selection of remediation technologies currently in practice Cappuyns, V., 2013. Environmental impacts of soil remediation activities: quantitative
globally, evidence from case studies indicated bioremediation is most and qualitative tools applied on three case studies. J. Clean. Prod. 52:145–154.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.03.023.
appropriate for coastal environment. This is because, the approach Chaîneau, C.H., Rougeux, G., Yéprémian, C., Oudot, J., 2005. Effects of nutrient concentration
emits relatively zero greenhouse gas and it is environmentally friendly. on the biodegradation of crude oil and associated microbial populations in the soil. Soil
We, therefore, strongly recommend that contaminated land remedia- Biol. Biochem. 37:1490–1497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.01.012.
Cheng, Y., Nathanail, P.C., 2009. Generic assessment criteria for human health risk
tion in the Niger Delta region should consider mainly bioremediation. assessment of potentially contaminated land in China. Sci. Total Environ. 408,
We recognise the possibility for combination of approaches; however, 324–339.
low greenhouse gas emissions, climatic factors and long-term environ- Chinweze, C., Abiola-Oloke, G., Jideani, C., 2012. Oil and gas resources management and
environmental challenges in Nigeria. J. Environ. Sci. Eng. 1, 535–542.
mental and socio-economic factors should guide the choice of any other
Chukwu, B.A., Liman, N.A., Enudu, T.O., Ehiaghe, A.F., Administration, B., State, E., 2015.
options. We also recommend policy review, capacity strengthening, col- The effect of economic recession in textile manufacturing industries in Nigeria.
lection of pre-disturbance and pre-intervention data for monitoring and Asian J. Bus. Manag. 7, 43–54.
evaluation, sustainable funding regime, stakeholder consultation and Church, R.L., Scaparra, M.P., Middleton, R.S., 2004. Identifying critical infrastructure: the
covering facility median interdiction problems and. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 94:
effective communication among stakeholders as panacea to achieving 491–502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/.
successful land remediation in Nigeria's heavily oil-damaged Niger Coulon, F., Jones, K., Li, H., Hu, Q., Gao, J., Li, F., Chen, M., Zhu, Y.-G., Liu, R., Liu, M., Canning,
Delta region. K., Harries, N., Bardos, P., Nathanail, P., Sweeney, R., Middleton, D., Charnley, M.,
Randall, J., Richell, M., Howard, T., Martin, I., Spooner, S., Weeks, J., Cave, M., Yu, F.,
Zhang, F., Jiang, Y., Longhurst, P., Prpich, G., Bewley, R., Abra, J., Pollard, S., 2016.
Acknowledgement China's soil and groundwater management challenges: lessons from the UK's experi-
ence and opportunities for China. Environ. Int. 91:196–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.envint.2016.02.023.
The Niger Delta Development Commission in Nigeria through the Cundy, A.B., Bardos, R.P., Church, A., Puschenreiter, M., Friesl-Hanl, W., Müller, I., Neu, S.,
Foreign Scholarship Programme sponsored Kabari Sam (NDDC/DEHSS/ Mench, M., Witters, N., Vangronsveld, J., 2013. Developing principles of sustainability
and stakeholder engagement for “gentle” remediation approaches: the European
2013PGFS/RV/4).
context. J. Environ. Manag. 129:283–291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.
07.032.
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STOTEN-22012; No of Pages 14

Science of the Total Environment xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

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Remediation of contaminated lands in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Prospects

• Land contamination remediation in the

1. Introduction to issues of large-scale infrastructural damage, ecological devastation

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