UNIT 1 – FORCES AND MOTION

What do Forces do?

Specification Point 1.11: Describe the effects of forces between

bodies such as changes in speed, shape or direction

 Forces can affect bodies in several different ways:

o They can change their speed
o They can change their direction
o They can change their shape

Different Forces
Specification Point 1.12
 Identify different types of force such as gravitational or
electrostatic

 Forces can take many different forms:

Forces you should be aware of include:

 Weight – the name given to the force of gravity on a mass.

 Electrostatic force – the force between two charges
 Thrust – a force pushing an object forward (such as the force
from a car engine)
 Air resistance (or drag) – the friction of the air on a moving
object.
 Upthrust – the force of a fluid (such as water) pushing an object
upwards (making it float)
 Compression – forces that are squashing an object
 Tension – forces that are stretching an object.
 Reaction force – a force due to contact between two objects.

Exam Tip
 The force of gravity should be referred to as weight or
gravitational attraction.
 Avoid calling it simply gravity, as this term can mean
several different things and will probably be marked
wrong.
 Avoid using the terms wind resistance (there’s no such
thing) or air pressure (something entirely different) when
you should be referring to air resistance (or drag).
Vector & Scalar Quantities
Specification Point 1.13
 Understand how vector quantities differ from scalar quantities

 Quantities can be one of two types: a scalar or a vector.

 Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude (a number
describing how big they are).
  Vectors have both magnitude and direction.

The cars in the above diagram have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but different velocities
(a vector quantity)

Examples of Vector and Scalar

Specification Point 1.14 Understand that force is a vector quantity

 Force is a vector quantity – it has both magnitude and

direction.

The force is represented by the arrow. It’s length gives the magnitude (size) of the force
and the arrow also shows its direction.

Some other common scalars and vectors are given below:

  Note: Some vector quantities (such as displacement and
velocity) are very similar to some corresponding scalar
quantities (distance and speed).

Calculating Resultant Force

Specification Point 1.15 Calculate the resultant force of forces that
act along a line

 When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force

on the body can be found by adding together forces which act in
the same direction, and subtracting forces which act in opposite
directions:

Friction
Specification Point 1.16 Know that friction is a force that opposes
motion
  Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object – it
always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in which
the object is moving.

Exam Tip
The resultant force is sometimes also known as the net force
or the unbalanced force.

Unbalanced Forces
Specification Point 1.17: Know and use the relationship between
unbalanced force, mass and acceleration:

 When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, the

object will accelerate.
 Force, mass and acceleration are related by the following
equation:

 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:
  The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given
mass).
 For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the
acceleration.

Exam Tip:
 If you are trying to find the acceleration, check that you
know both the unbalanced (resultant) force and the mass of
the object.
 If you don’t, you might need to calculate the acceleration
using a different equation.

Weight, Mass & Gravity

Specification Point 1.18: Know and use the relationship between
weight, mass and gravitational field strength:

 Mass (measured in kilograms, kg) is related to the amount of

matter in an object.
 Weight (measured in newtons, N) is the force of gravity on a
mass.
 The size of this force depends on the gravitational field
strength (often called gravity, g, for short).
  You can rearrange this equation with the help of the
formula triangle:

 The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from

planet to planet.
 On Earth:

g ≈ 10 N/kg
Exam Tip
 Mass is usually measured in kilograms in Physics.
 If it is given in grams, you might need to convert to
kilograms by dividing the mass by 1000.
 It is easy to confuse mass and weight, so take care to
use each term appropriately.

Stopping Distance Essentials

Specification Point 1.19

 Know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the
sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance

 The stopping distance of a car is the distance it travels in the

time it takes to stop in response to some emergency.
 The stopping distance consists of two parts:
 o The thinking distance – the distance travelled in the time
it takes the driver to react.
o The braking distance – the distance travelled by the car
whilst it’s braking.

stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

 Exam Tip



 Mass is usually measured in kilograms in Physics.

If it is given in grams, you might need to convert to kilograms by

dividing the mass

A velocity time graph for a stopping car

Factors Affecting Stopping Distances

Specification Point 1.20 : Describe the factors affecting vehicle

stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction
time

 The main factor affecting the stopping distance of a car is its

speed.
  There are a number of other things, however, that can affect the
stopping distance, by either increasing the thinking distance or
the braking distance.

Exam Tip:
 Be careful about the language you use:
 If a question asks you to list a factor that increases the thinking
distance, be specific in your answer: e.g. “Consuming alcohol” rather
than “Whether or not you’re drunk” – the first makes it clear that
drinking alcohol increases the distance, whilst the latter is slightly
vague.
 Increasing reaction time is not the same thing as improving reaction
time. If the reaction time increases then you take longer to react.
 If asked to list factors affecting stopping distances, try and stick to
those given in the table, and only choose one from each cell (don’t
give both alcohol and drugs as separate factors).
 Although there are other factors that affect stopping distances, they
tend to be less clear cut: Do reactions times get worse with age or do
they improve with experience?

Forces Acting on Falling Objects
Specification Point 1.21: Describe the forces acting on falling objects
(and explain why falling objects reach a terminal velocity)

 When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces

act:
 o Weight (the force of gravity)
o Air resistance

Diagram showing how the changing forces on a skydiver

 Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a downwards

unbalanced force and the skydiver accelerates.

 As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance increases.

 Eventually the air resistance balances the weight and so the

skydiver travels at a constant speed – terminal velocity.

 When the parachute is opened the increase air resistance on the

parachute creates an upwards unbalanced force, making the

parachuting the slow down.

Exam Tip:
 The force of gravity on an object is called weight.
 If asked to name this force make sure you use this word:
don’t refer to it as “gravity” as this term could also mean
gravitational field strength and so would probably be
marked wrong.
 Likewise, refer to the upward force as air resistance or drag.
 The terms wind resistance and air pressure mean different
things and so would also be marked wrong.

Springs, Wires, Bands

Specification Point 1.22 : Practical: Investigate how extension
varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and
rubber bands
  You could be asked to describe, comment on or analyse an
experiment involving the stretching of a spring, a metal wire or
a rubber band
 Usually this will involve hanging masses from the bottom of the
above in order to stretch it and then measuring its new length
against a ruler.
 The accuracy of such an experiment can be improved with the
use of a pointer (a fiducial marker), as can taking the
measurements at eye level.

Adding a pointer to the bottom of the masses can improve the

accuracy of measurements

Top Tips for describing experiments:

 State what your independent variable is (the mass, in this

case).
If appropriate, you should also suggest some realistic values for
your independent variable.
 State what your dependent variable is (the length, in this
example), and describe how you will measure it (what
equipment will you use? How can you make it as accurate as
possible?)
  List any variables that you need to control and explain briefly
how you will do so.
 Finally, state that you will repeat the experiment several
times and take an average.

Springs

 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

 A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a
pointer attached to the bottom, and the position of the spring is
measured against the ruler.
 The mass ( in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table.
 A further mass is added and the new position measured.
 The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been
added.
 The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated
again, until it has been carried out a total of three times, and
averages can then be taken.
 Once measurements have been taken:
o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the
mass of the spring (in kg) by 10 N/kg (the gravitational
field strength).
o The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting
the original position of the spring from each of the
subsequent positions.
Wires

An experiment to determine the extension of a metal wire

 A wire stretches by much less than a spring. In order to measure

its extension a long length of wire is usually needed.
 The apparatus should be set up as shown in the diagram.
 A single mass (0.1 kg) should be attached to the end of the wire
and then the initial length of the wire measured using a small
pointer attached midway along the wire.
 Masses are then added, one at a time, to the end of the wire and
the new length measured and recorded.
 This is continued until the wire breaks.
 The experiment can then be repeated and averages taken.

Rubber bands

 This experiment is essentially the same as the spring

experiment, the sole difference being that once all of the masses
have been added, they should then be removed one at a time,
and the positions recorded as this is done.

(Rubber bands remain slightly extended after stretching, and so the

readings taken whilst unloading the band will be slightly longer than
those taken whilst loading it).
Exam Tip:
 Experiments such as the above will usually require you to plot a
graph of force against extension.
 The force can be calculated by multiplying the mass (in kg) by
10 N/kg (the gravitational field strength).
 The extension measures how much the object has stretched by
and can be found by subtracting the original length from each
of the subsequent lengths.
 A common mistake is to calculate the increase in length by each
time instead of the total extension – if each of your extensions is
roughly the same then you might have made this mistake.

Hooke’s Law: Essentials

Specification Point 1.23: Know that the initial linear region of a

force-extension graph is associated with Hooke’s law

 Hooke’s law states that:

o The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied
force.
 Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s
law.
 Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of
a force-extension graph.
 The initial linear part of a force-extension graph is consistent
with Hooke’s law

The Elastic Limit

Specification Point 1.24 :Describe elastic behaviour as the ability of a

material to recover its original shape after the forces causing
deformation have been removed

 Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original

length after being stretched.
 If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past its
elastic limit. At this point the object will no longer obey
Hooke’s law and will not return to its original length.

The spring on the right has exceeded its elastic limit

Exam Tip:
  A relationship is said to be proportional if the graph is a
straight line going through the origin.
 If a graph is a straight line but does not go through the
origin the relationship is said to be linear.

Paper 2 Only
Momentum: Basics
Specification Point 1.25P: Know and use the relationship between momentum,
mass and velocity:
momentum = mass x velocity
p=mxv

 Momentum is defined by the equation:

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity

 The units of momentum are kg m/s  (the units of mass

multiplied by the units of velocity).
  Momentum is a vector quantity – it has direction as well as
magnitude.
 This means that momentum can be negative as well as positive:
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an
object travelling in the opposite direction (to the left) will have
negative momentum.

Safety
Specification Point 1.26P: Use the idea of momentum to explain
safety features
 Momentum is a way of measuring how difficult it is to stop a
moving object:
o The greater the momentum of an object, the harder it is to
stop it.
 Stopping an object suddenly requires a large
force (see Specification point 1.28P, below)
 In order to keep people safe, the forces acting on people need to
be kept to a minimum.
 This can be achieved by bringing them to a rest slowly.
 Safety devices such as seat belts and car airbags achieve this by
cushioning an impact, causing a person’s momentum to change
more slowly.
Conservation of Momentum

Specification Point 1.27P Use the conservation of momentum to

calculate the mass, velocity or momentum of objects
 In the absence of external forces (such as friction), the total
momentum of a system remains the same.
  This means that in a collision, the sum of the momentums before
the collision will be the same as the sum of momentums after
the collision.

 In the above diagram the total momentum before and the total
momentum after must be equal:

 Note that because the red ball is travelling to the left after the
collision, its momentum will be negative – hence the minus sign
in the above equation.

Force & Momentum

Specification Point 1.28P: Use the relationship between force,
change in momentum and time taken:
force = change in momentum / time taken
F = (mv – mu) / t
 When an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object will
accelerate. This will cause its momentum to change.
 The change in momentum is related to the force by the equation
below:
  Note that if the time taken for an object to change its momentum
is small, a big force must have acted on it.
 This can help us to understand safety (Specification point 1.26P,
above) in more detail:
o In any collision or impact, the force acting on a person
(or object) can be reduced by increasing the amount of time
it takes for its momentum to change.

Newton’s third law

Specification Point 1.29P: Demonstrate an understanding of
Newton’s third law
 Newton’s third law of motion states that:
o When one object exerts a force on another object, that
second object will exert an equal force on the first object in the
opposite direction.

 These equal and opposite forces help us to understand why

momentum is conserved:
o Each object will gain an equal amount of momentum
(because the forces are equal) but in opposite directions. These
two changes in momentum are equal and opposite – they cancel
out.
 Paper 2 Only
Moments: The basics
Specification Point 1.30P: Know and use the relationship between
the moment of a force and its perpendicular distance from the pivot:
Moment = Force perpendicular distance from the pivot

 A moment is the turning effect of a force.

 The moment of a force is given by the equation:

 Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or newton

metres (N m), depending on whether the distance is measured in
metres or centimetres.

Diagram showing the moment of a force exerted by a spanner on a nut

Centre of Gravity
Specification Point 1.31P: Know that the weight of a body acts
through its centre of gravity
 The centre of gravity of an object (sometimes called the centre
of mass) is the point through which the weight of that object
acts.
 For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a
symmetrical cardboard shape) the centre of gravity is located
at the point of symmetry:
 When an object is suspended from a point, the object will
always settle so that it’s centre of gravity comes to rest below
the pivoting point.
 This can be used to find the centre of gravity of an irregular
shape:

o The irregular shape is suspended from a pivot and allowed to

settle.
o A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and
used to draw a vertical from the pivot (the centre of gravity must
be somewhere on this line).
o The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two
different points.
 o The centre of gravity is located at the point where all three lines
cross.

The Principle of Moments

Specification Point 1.32P Use the principle of moments for a simple
system of parallel forces acting in one plane
 The principle of moments states that:
o For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise
moments must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise
moments.

 In the above diagram:

o Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments.
 Hence:
F2 x d2 = F1 x d1 + F3 x d3
Supporting a Beam
Specification Point 1.33P:Understand how the upward forces on a
light beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position of a heavy
object placed on the beam
 A light beam is one that can be treated as though it has no
mass.
 The supports, therefore, must supply upwards forces that
balance the weight of any object placed on the beam.

 As the mass in the above diagram is moved from the left-hand

side to the right hand side of the beam, force F1 will decrease
and force F2 will increase.
 Consider what would happen to the beam if the right-hand
support was removed:
o The weight of the object would supply a moment about the
left-hand support, causing the beam to pivot in a clockwise
direction.
o Force F2 must therefore supply an anticlockwise moment
about the left-hand support, which balances the moment
supplied by the object.
Exam Tip:
When calculating the moment of a force, remember to use the
perpendicular distance from the pivot – i.e. The distance that
crosses the line of force at right angles.