MATLAB Course - Part 2

Telemark University College
Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics
So You Think You Can
MATLAB
HANS-PETTER HALVORSEN, 2012.08.20
Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control
Faculty of Technology, Postboks 203, Kjølnes ring 56, N-3901 Porsgrunn, Norway. Tel: +47 35 57 50 00 Fax: +47 35 57 54 01
Preface
In this MATLAB Course you will learn basic MATLAB and how to use MATLAB in Control and
Simulation applications. An introduction to Simulink and other Tools will also be given.
MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and visualization in an integrated

environment. MATLAB is an abbreviation for MATrix LABoratory, so it is well suited for matrix
manipulation and problem solving related to Linear Algebra, Modelling, Simulation and Control
applications.
This is a self-paced course based on this document and some short videos on the way. This document
contains lots of examples and self-paced tasks that the users will go through and solve on their own.
The user may go through the tasks in this document in their own pace and the instructor will be
available for guidance throughout the course.
The MATLAB Course consists of 3 parts:
 MATLAB Course – Part I: Introduction – MATLAB Basics

 MATLAB Course – Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control
 MATLAB Course – Part III: Advanced Topics, Simulink and other Tools
In Part II of the course (Part II: Modelling, Control and Simulation) you will learn how to use MATLAB
in Modelling, Control and Simulation.
You must go through MATLAB Course – Part I: Introduction – MATLAB Basics before you start.
The course consists of lots of Tasks you should solve while reading this course manual and watching
the videos referred to in the text.
Course Homepage: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/?lab=matlab
Make sure to bring your headphones for the videos in this course. The course consists of
several short videos that will give you an introduction to the different topics in the course.
Prerequisites
You should be familiar with undergraduate-level mathematics and have experience with basic
computer operations.
ii
What is MATLAB?
MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and visualization in an integrated

environment. MATLAB is an abbreviation for MATrix LABoratory, so it is well suited for matrix
manipulation and problem solving related to Linear Algebra.
MATLAB is developed by The MathWorks. MATLAB is a short-term for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB is
in use world-wide by researchers and universities. For more information, see www.mathworks.com
For more information about MATLAB, etc., please visit http://home.hit.no/~hansha/
iii
Table of Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Differential Equations and ODE Solvers ......................................................................................... 2
2.1 ODE Solvers in MATLAB ........................................................................................................... 4
3 Numerical Techniques .................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Interpolation............................................................................................................................ 9
3.2 Curve Fitting .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1 Linear Regression .......................................................................................................... 12
3.2.2 Polynomial Regression .................................................................................................. 15
3.3 Numerical Differentiation...................................................................................................... 17
3.3.1 Differentiation on Polynomials...................................................................................... 21
3.4 Numerical Integration ........................................................................................................... 23
3.4.1 Integration on Polynomials ........................................................................................... 26
4 Optimization ................................................................................................................................. 27
5 Control System Toolbox................................................................................................................ 32
6 Transfer Functions ........................................................................................................................ 34
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 34
6.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 36
6.3 Analysis of Standard Functions ............................................................................................. 38
7 State-space Models ...................................................................................................................... 42
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 42
7.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 44
iv
v Table of Contents
8 Discrete systems ........................................................................................................................... 46
8.1 Discretization ......................................................................................................................... 47
9 Frequency Response ..................................................................................................................... 49
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 49
9.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 51
9.3 Frequency response Analysis ................................................................................................ 53
9.4 Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems ................................................................................. 56
10 Additional Tasks ............................................................................................................................ 59
Appendix A – MATLAB Functions .......................................................................................................... 63
Numerical Techniques....................................................................................................................... 63
Solving Ordinary Differential Equations ....................................................................................... 63
Interpolation ................................................................................................................................. 63
Curve Fitting.................................................................................................................................. 63
Numerical Differentiation ............................................................................................................. 64
Numerical Integration................................................................................................................... 64
Optimization...................................................................................................................................... 64
Control and Simulation ..................................................................................................................... 65
MATLAB Course - Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control

1 Introduction
This Lab Work has its own web page with additional resources, documents, web links, etc.:
http://home.hit.no/~hansha/?lab=matlab
Part 2: “Modelling, Simulation and Control” consists of the following topics:
 Differential Equations and ODE Solvers

 Numerical Techniques
o Interpolation
o Curve Fitting
o Numerical Differentiation
o Numerical Integration
 Optimization
 Control System Toolbox
 Transfer functions
 State-space models
 Frequency Response
 Discrete Systems
 Additional Tasks
1
2 Differential Equations and
ODE Solvers
MATLAB have lots of built-in functionality for solving differential equations. MATLAB includes
functions that solve ordinary differential equations (ODE) of the form:
( ) ( )
MATLAB can solve these equations numerically.
Higher order differential equations must be reformulated into a system of first order differential
equations.
Note! Different notation is used:
This document will use these different notations interchangeably.
Not all differential equations can be solved by the same technique, so MATLAB offers lots of different
ODE solvers for solving differential equations, such as ode45, ode23, ode113, etc.
Example:
Given the following differential equation:
where ,where is the time constant
Note! ̇
The solution for the differential equation is found to be:
( )
We shall plot the solution for this differential equation using MATLAB.
Set and the initial condition ( ) .
2
3 Differential Equations and ODE Solvers
We will create a script in MATLAB (.m file) where we plot the solution ( ) in the time interval
The Code is as follows:
T = 5;
a = -1/T;
x0 = 1;
t = [0:1:25]
x = exp(a*t)*x0;
plot(t,x);
grid
This gives the following Results:
[End of Example]
This works fine, but the problem is that we first have to find the solution to the differential equation
– instead we can use one of the built-in solvers for Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE) in MATLAB.
There are different functions, such as ode23 and ode45.
Example:
We use the ode23 solver in MATLAB for solving the differential equation (“runmydiff.m”):
tspan = [0 25];
x0 = 1;
[t,x] = ode23(@mydiff,tspan,x0);
plot(t,x)
Where @mydiff is defined as a function like this (“mydiff.m”):

function dx = mydiff(t,x)
a = -1/5;
dx = a*x;
This gives the same results as shown in the plot above and MATLAB have solved the differential
equation for us (numerically).
Note! You have to implement it in 2 different m. files, one m. file where you define the differential
equation you are solving, and another .m file where you solve the equation using the ode23 solver.
[End of Example]
2.1 ODE Solvers in MATLAB

All of the ODE solver functions share a syntax that makes it easy to try any of the different numerical
methods, if it is not apparent which is the most appropriate. To apply a different method to the same
problem, simply change the ODE solver function name. The simplest syntax, common to all the solver
functions, is:
[t,y] = solver(odefun,tspan,y0,options,…)
where “solver” is one of the ODE solver functions (ode23, ode45, etc.).
Note! If you don’t specify the resulting array [t, y], the function create a plot of the result.
‘odefun’ is the function handler, which is a “nickname” for your function that contains the
differential equations.
Example:
Given the differential equations:
In MATLAB you define a function for these differential equations:
function dy=mydiff(t,y)
dy(1) = y(2);
dy(2) = -y(1);
dy = [dy(1); dy(2)];
Note! Since numbers of equations is more than one, we need to use vectors!!

Using the ode45 function gives the following code:
[t,y] = ode45(@mydiff, [-1,1], [1,1]);
plot(t,y)
title('solution of dy/dt=x and dx/dt=-y')
legend('y', 'x')
The equations are solved in the time span with initial values .
This gives the following plot:
To make it more clearly, we can rewrite the equations (setting ):
The code for the differential equations (“mydiff.m”):
function dxdt = mydiff(t,x)
dxdt(1) = -x(2);
dxdt(2) = x(1);
dxdt = dxdt';
Note! The function mydiff must return a column vector, that’s why we need to transpose it.
Then we use the ode solver to solve the differential equations (“run_mydiff.m”):

tspan = [-1,1];
x0 = [1,1];
[t,x] = ode45(@mydiff, tspan, x0);
plot (t,x)
legend('x1', 'x2')
The solution will be the same.
[End of Example]
Task 1: Bacteria Population
In this task we will simulate a simple model of a bacteria population in a jar.
The model is as follows:
birth rate=bx
death rate = px2
Then the total rate of change of bacteria population is:
Set b=1/hour and p=0.5 bacteria-hour
Note! ̇
→ Simulate (i.e., create a plot) the number of bacteria in the jar after 1 hour, assuming that initially
there are 100 bacteria present.
How many bacteria are present after 1 hour?
[End of Task]
Task 2: Passing Parameters to the model
Given the following system:
where ,where is the time constant
In this case we want to pass and as parameters, to make it easy to be able to change values
for these parameters.

We set initial condition ( ) and .
The function for the differential equation is:
function dx = mysimplediff(t,x,param)
% My Simple Differential Equation
a = param(1);
b = param(2);
dx = a*x+b;
Then we solve and plot the equation using this code:
tspan = [0 25];
x0 = 1;
a = -1/5;
b = 1;
param = [a b];
[t,y] = ode45(@mysimplediff, tspan, x0,[], param);

plot(t,y)
By doing this, it is very easy to changes values for the parameters and without changing the
code for the differential equation.
Note! We need to use the 5.argument in the ODE solver function for this. The 4.argument is for
special options and is normally set to “[]”, i.e., no options.
The result from the simulation is:

→ Write the code above
Read more about the different solvers that exists in the Help system in MATLAB
[End of Task]
Task 3: ODE Solvers
Use the ode23 function to solve and plot the results of the following differential equation in the
interval :
( ) ( )
Note!
[End of Task]
Task 4: 2.order differential equation
Use the ode23/ode45 function to solve and plot the results of the following differential equation in
the interval :
( ) ̈ ̇ ( ) ̇( )
Note! ̈
Note! Higher order differential equations must be reformulated into a system of first order
differential equations.
Tip 1: Reformulate the differential equation so ̈ is alone on the left side.
Tip 2: Set:
[End of Task]

3 Numerical Techniques
In the previous chapter we investigated how to solve differential equations numerically, in this
chapter we will take a closer look at some other numerical techniques offered by MATLAB, such as
interpolation, curve-fitting, numerical differentiations and integrations.
3.1 Interpolation
Interpolation is used to estimate data points between two known points. The most common
interpolation technique is Linear Interpolation.
In MATLAB we can use the interp1 function.
Example:
Given the following data:
x y
0 15
1 10
2 9
3 6
4 2
5 0
We will find the interpolated value for .
The following MATLAB code will do this:
x=0:5;
y=[15, 10, 9, 6, 2, 0];
plot(x,y ,'-o')
% Find interpolated value for x=3.5

new_x=3.5;
new_y = interp1(x,y,new_x)
The answer is 4, from the plot below we see this is a good guess:
9
[End of Example]
The default is linear interpolation, but there are other types available, such as:
 linear
 nearest
 spline
 cubic
 etc.
Type “help interp1” in order to read more about the different options.
Example:
In this example we will use a spline interpolation on the same data as in the example above.
x=0:5;
y=[15, 10, 9,6, 2, 0];
new_x=0:0.2:5;
new_y=interp1(x,y,new_x, 'spline')
plot(x,y, new_x, new_y, '-o')
The result is as we plot both the original point and the interpolated points in the same graph:

We see this result in 2 different lines.
[End of Example]
Task 5: Interpolation
Temperature, T [ oC] Energy, u [KJ/kg]

100 2506.7
150 2582.8
200 2658.1
250 2733.7
300 2810.4
400 2967.9
500 3131.6
Plot u versus T. Find the interpolated data and plot it in the same graph. Test out different
interpolation types. Discuss the results. What kind of interpolation is best in this case?
What is the interpolated value for u=2680.78 KJ/kg?
[End of Task]

3.2 Curve Fitting

In the previous section we found interpolated points, i.e., we found values between the measured
points using the interpolation technique. It would be more convenient to model the data as
mathematical function ( ). Then we could easily calculate any data we want based on this
model.
MATLAB has built-in curve fitting functions that allows us to create empiric data model. It is
important to have in mind that these models are good only in the region we have collected data.
Here are some of the functions available in MATLAB used for curve fitting:
Function Description Example

polyfit P = POLYFIT(X,Y,N) finds the coefficients of a polynomial P(X) of >>polyfit(x,y,1)
degree N that fits the data Y best in a least-squares sense. P is a
row vector of length N+1 containing the polynomial coefficients
in descending powers, P(1)*X^N + P(2)*X^(N-1) +...+ P(N)*X +
P(N+1).
polyval Evaluate polynomial. Y = POLYVAL(P,X) returns the value of a
polynomial P evaluated at X. P is a vector of length N+1 whose
elements are the coefficients of the polynomial in descending
powers. Y = P(1)*X^N + P(2)*X^(N-1) + ... + P(N)*X + P(N+1)
These techniques use a polynomial of degree N that fits the data Y best in a least-squares sense.
A polynomial is expressed as:
( )
where are the coefficients of the polynomial.
MATLAB represents polynomials as row arrays containing coefficients ordered by descending

powers.
3.2.1 Linear Regression

Here we will create a linear model of our data on the form:
This is actually a polynomial of 1.order
Example:
x y
0 15

1 10
2 9
3 6
4 2
5 0
We will find the model on the form:
We will use the polyfit function in MATLAB.
The following code will solve it:
x=[0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ,5];
y=[15, 10, 9, 6, 2 ,0];
n=1; % 1.order polynomial
p = polyfit(x,y,n)
The answer is:
ans =
-2.9143 14.2857
This gives the following model:
We can also plot the measured data and the model in the same plot:
x=[0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ,5];
y=[15, 10, 9, 6, 2 ,0];
n=1; % 1.order polynomial
p=polyfit(x,y,n);
a=p(1);
b=p(2);
ymodel=a*x+b;
plot(x,y,'o',x,ymodel)

We see this gives a good model based on the data available.
[End of Example]
Task 6: Linear Regression
Temperature, T [ oC] Energy, u [KJ/kg]

100 2506.7
150 2582.8
200 2658.1
250 2733.7
300 2810.4
400 2967.9
500 3131.6
Plot u versus T.
Find the linear regression model from the data
Plot it in the same graph.
[End of Task]

3.2.2 Polynomial Regression

In the previous section we used linear regression which is a 1.order polynomial. In this section we will
study higher order polynomials.
In polynomial regression we will find the following model:
( )
Example:
x y
0 15
1 10
2 9
3 6
4 2
5 0
We will found the model of the form:
( )
We will use the polyfit and polyval functions in MATLAB and compare the models using different
orders of the polynomial.
We will investigate models of 2.order, 3.order, 4.order and 5.order. We have only 6 data points, so a
model with order higher than 5 will make no sense.
We use a For loop in order to create models of 2, 3, 4 and 5.order.
The code is as follows:
x=[0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ,5];
y=[15, 10, 9, 6, 2 ,0];
for n=2:5 %From order 2 to 5

p=polyfit(x,y,n)
ymodel=polyval(p,x);
subplot(2,2,n-1)
plot(x,y,'o',x,ymodel)
title(sprintf('Model of order %d', n));
end
The polyfit gives the following polynomials:

p =
0.0536 -3.1821 14.4643
p =
-0.0648 0.5397 -4.0701 14.6587
p =
0.1875 -1.9398 6.2986 -9.4272 14.9802
p =
-0.0417 0.7083 -4.2083 10.2917 -11.7500 15.0000
Using the values, we get the following models:
( )
( )
( )
( )
This gives the following results:
As expected, the higher order models match the data better and better.
Note! The fifth order model matches exactly because there were only six data points available.
[End of Example]
Task 7: Polynomial Regression

x y
10 23
20 45
30 60
40 82
50 111
60 140
70 167
80 198
90 200
100 220
→ Use the polyfit and polyval functions in MATLAB and compare the models using different orders
of the polynomial.
Use subplots and make sure to add titles, etc.
[End of Task]
Task 8: Model fitting
Height, h[ft] Flow, f[ft^3/s]

0 0
1.7 2.6
1.95 3.6
2.60 4.03
2.92 6.45
4.04 11.22
5.24 30.61
→ Create a 1. (linear), 2. (quadratic) and 3.order (cubic) model. Which gives the best model? Plot the
result in the same plot and compare them. Add xlabel, ylabel, title and a legend to the plot and use
different line styles so the user can easily see the difference.
[End of Task]
3.3 Numerical Differentiation

The derivative of a function ( ) is a measure of how y changes with x. MATLAB is a numerical
language and do not perform symbolic mathematics (... well, that is not entirely true because there is
Symbolic Toolbox available for MATLAB, but this Toolkit will not be used in this course).
MATLAB offers functions for numerical differentiation, e.g.:


diff Difference and approximate derivative. DIFF(X), for a vector X, is >> dydx_num=diff(y)./diff(x);
[X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)].
polyder Differentiate polynomial. POLYDER(P) returns the derivative of >>p=[1,2,3];
>>polyder(p)
the polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of vector P.
POLYDER(A,B) returns the derivative of polynomial A*B.
A numerical approach to the derivative of a function ( ) is:
This approximation of the derivative corresponds to the slope of each line segment used to connect
each data point that exists. An example is shown below:
Example:
We will use Numerical Differentiation to find on the following function:
based on the data points (x=-2:2):
x y
-2 4
-1 1
0 0
1 1
2 4

First, we will plot the data points together with the real function using the following code:
x=-2:0.1:2;
y=x.^2;
plot(x,y)
hold on
x=-2:2;
y=x.^2;
plot(x,y, '-oc')
We know that the exact solution is:
We will use this to compare the results from the numerical differentiation with the exact solution.
The code is as follows:
x=-2:2;
y=x.^2;
dydx_num=diff(y)./diff(x);
dydx_exact=2*x;
dydx=[[dydx_num, NaN]', dydx_exact']
This gives the following results (left column is from the numerical derivation, while the right column
is from the exact derivation):
dydx =
-3 -4

-1 -2
1 0
3 2
NaN 4
Note! NaN is added to the vector with numerical differentiation in order to get the same length of
the vectors.
If we plot the derivatives (numerical and exact), we get:
If we increase the number of data points (x=-2:0.1:2) we get a better result:
[End of Example]

Task 9: Numerical Differentiation
Given the following equation:
Find analytically (use “pen and paper”).
Define a vector x from -5 to +5 and use the diff function to approximate the derivative y with respect
to x ( ).
Compare the data in a 2D array and/or plot both the exact value of and the approximation in the
same plot.
Increase number of data point to see if there are any difference.
Do the same for the following functions:
( )
[End of Task]
3.3.1 Differentiation on Polynomials

( )
The differentiation of the Polynomial will be:
( ) ( )
Example
Given the polynomial
( )
We can rewrite the polynomial like this:
( )
The polynomial is defined in MATLAB as:

>> p=[1, 0, 0, 2]
We know that:
The code is as follows
>> p=[1, 0, 0, 2]
p =
1 0 0 2
>> polyder(p)
ans =
3 0 0
Which is correct, because
( )
with the coefficients:
And this is written as a vector in MATLAB.
[End of Example]
Task 10: Differentiation on Polynomials
Consider the following equation:
Use Differentiation on the Polynomial to find
[End of Task]
Task 11: Differentiation on Polynomials
Find the derivative for the product:
( )( )
Use the polyder(a,b) function.
Another approach is to use define is to first use the conv(a,b) function to find the total polynomial,
and then use polyder(p) function.
Try both methods, to see if you get the same answer.
[End of Task]

3.4 Numerical Integration

The integral of a function ( ) is denoted as:
∫ ( )
An integral can be seen as the area under a curve. Given ( ) the approximation of the Area
(A) under the curve can be found dividing the area up into rectangles and then summing the
contribution from all the rectangles:
∑( ) ( )
This is known as the trapezoid rule.
We approximate the integral by using n trapezoids formed by using straight line segments between
the points ( ) and ( ) for as shown in the ﬁgure below:
The area of a trapezoid is obtained by adding the area of a rectangle and a triangle:

MATLAB offers functions for numerical integration, such as:

[X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)].
quad Numerically evaluate integral, adaptive Simpson quadrature. >>
Q = QUAD(FUN,A,B) tries to approximate the integral of
calar-valued function FUN from A to B. FUN is a function handle.
The function Y=FUN(X) should accept a vector argument X and
return a vector result Y, the integrand evaluated at each
element of X. Uses adaptive Simpson quadrature method
quadl Same as quad, but uses adaptive Lobatto quadrature method >>
polyint Integrate polynomial analytically. POLYINT(P,K) returns a

polynomial representing the integral of polynomial P, using a
scalar constant of integration K.
Example:
Given the function:
We know that the exact solution is:
The integral from 0 to 1 is:

We will use the trapezoid rule and the diff function in MATLAB to solve the numerical integral of
from 0 to 1.
The MATLAB code for this is:
x=0:0.1:1;
y=x.^2;
avg_y = y(1:length(x)-1) + diff(y)/2;

A = sum(diff(x).*avg_y)
Note!
The following two lines of code
avg_y = y(1:length(x)-1) + diff(y)/2;
A = sum(diff(x).*avg_y)
Implements this formula, known as the trapezoid rule:
∑( ) ( )
The result from the approximation is:
A =
0.3350
If we use the functions quad we get:
quad('x.^2', 0,1)
ans =
0.3333
If we use the functions quadl we get:
quadl('x.^2', 0,1)
ans =
0.3333
[End of Example]
Task 12: Numerical Integration
Use diff, quad and quadl on the following equation:

Find the integral of y with respect to x, evaluated from -1 to 1
Compare the different methods.
The exact solution is:
∫ ( ) ( )|
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Compare the result with the exact solution.
Repeat the task for the following functions:
( )
[End of Task]
3.4.1 Integration on Polynomials

( )
In MATLAB we can use the polyint function to perform integration on polynomials. This function
works the same way as the polyder function which performs differentiation on polynomials.
Task 13: Integration on Polynomials
Consider the following equation:
Find the integral of with respect to (∫ ) using MATLAB.
[End of Task]

4 Optimization
Optimization is important in control and simulation applications. Optimization is based on finding the
minimum of a given criteria function.
In MATLAB we can use the fminbnd and fminsearch functions. We will take a closer look of how to
use these functions.

fminbnd X = FMINBND(FUN,x1,x2) attempts to find a local minimizer X of >> x = fminbnd(@cos,3,4)
x =
the function FUN in the interval x1 < X < x2. FUN is a function 3.1416
handle. FUN accepts scalar input X and returns a scalar
function value F evaluated at X. FUN can be specified using @.
FMINBND is a single-variable bounded nonlinear function
minimization.
fminsearch X = FMINSEARCH(FUN,X0) starts at X0 and attempts to find a >> x = fminsearch(@sin,3)
x =
local minimizer X of the function FUN. FUN is a function handle. 4.7124
FUN accepts input X and returns a scalar function value F
evaluated at X. X0 can be a scalar, vector or matrix. FUN can be
specified using @.
FMINSEARCH is a multidimensional unconstrained nonlinear
function minimization.
Example:
Given the following function:
( )
We will use fminbnd to find the minimum of the function.
We plot the function:
27
28 Optimization
We write the following MATLAB Script:
x = -5:1:5;
f = mysimplefunc(x);
plot(x, f)
x_min = fminbnd(@mysimplefunc, -5, 5)
where the function (mysimplefunc.m) is defined like this:
function f = mysimplefunc(x)
f = x.^2 + 2.*x + 1;
This gives:
x_min =
-1
→ The minimum of the function is -1. This can also be shown from the plot.
[End of Example]
Note! If a function has more than one variable, we need to use the fminsearch function.
Example:
( ) ( ) ( )

29 Optimization
We will use fminsearch to find the minimum of the function.
The MATLAB Code can be written like this:
[x,fval] = fminsearch(@myfunc, [1;1])
where the function is defined like this:
function f = myfunc(x)
f = 2*(x(1)-1).^2 + x(1) - 2 + (x(2)-2).^2 + x(2);
Note! The unknowns x and y is defined as a vector, i.e., ( ) ( ) .
[ ]
If there is more than one variable, you have to do it this way.
This gives:
x =
0.7500
1.5000
fval =
0.6250
→ The minimum is of the function is given by and .
We can also plot the function:
clear,clc
[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:0.1:2, -1:0.1:3);
f = 2.*(x-1).^2 + x - 2 + (y-2).^2 + y;
figure(1)
surf(x,y,f)
figure(2)
mesh(x,y,f)
figure(3)
surfl(x,y,f)
shading interp;
colormap(hot);
For figure 3 we get:

30 Optimization
[End of Example]
Task 14: Optimization
( )
→ Plot the function
→ Find the minimum for this function
[End of Task]
Task 15: Optimization
( ) ( ) ( )
This function is known as Rosenbrock's banana function.
The function looks like this:

31 Optimization
The global minimum is inside a long, narrow, parabolic shaped flat valley. To find the valley is trivial.
To converge to the global minimum, however, is difficult. But MATLAB will hopefully do the job for
us.
Let’s see if MATLAB can do the job for us.
→ Plot the function
→ Find the minimum for this function
[End of Task]

5 Control System Toolbox
There are available lots of additional toolboxes for MATLAB. Toolboxes are specialized collections of
M-files built for solving particular classes of problems, e.g.,
 Control System Toolbox

 Signal Processing Toolbox
 Statistics Toolbox
 System identification Toolbox
 etc.
Here we will take a closer look at the “Control System Toolbox”.
Control System Toolbox builds on the foundations of MATLAB to provide functions designed for
control engineering. Control System Toolbox is a collection of algorithms, written mostly as M-files,
that implements common control system design, analysis, and modeling techniques. Convenient
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) simplify typical control engineering tasks. Control systems can be
modeled as transfer functions, in zero-pole-gain or state-space form, allowing you to use both
classical and modern control techniques. You can manipulate both continuous-time and
discrete-time systems. Conversions between various model representations are provided. Time
responses, frequency responses can be computed and graphed. Other functions allow pole
32
33 Control System Toolbox
placement, optimal control, and estimation. Finally, Control System Toolbox is open and extensible.
You can create custom M-files to suit your particular application.

6 Transfer Functions
It is assumed you are familiar with basic control theory and transfer functions, if not you may skip
this chapter.
6.1 Introduction
Transfer functions are a model form based on the Laplace transform. Transfer functions are very
useful in analysis and design of linear dynamic systems.
A general transfer function is on the form:
( )
( )
( )
Where is the output and is the input.
First order Transfer Function:
A first order transfer function is given on the form:
( )
( )
( )
there
is the Gain
is the Time constant
A 1.order transfer function with time-delay has the following characteristic step response:
34
A first order transfer function with time-delay has the following transfer function:
( )
( )
( )
Where is the time-delay.
A 1.order transfer function with time-delay has the following characteristic step response:
MATLAB have several functions for creating and manipulation of transfer functions:

tf Creates system model in transfer function form. You also can >num=[1];
>den=[1, 1, 1];
use this function to state-space models to transfer function >H = tf(num, den)
form.
pole Returns the locations of the closed-loop poles of a system >num=[1]
>den=[1,1]
model. >H=tf(num,den)
>pole(H)

zero Find the zeros

step Creates a step response plot of the system model. You also can >num=[1,1];
>den=[1,-1,3];
use this function to return the step response of the model >H=tf(num,den);
outputs. If the model is in state-space form, you also can use this >t=[0:0.01:10];
>step(H,t);
function to return the step response of the model states. This
function assumes the initial model states are zero. If you do not
specify an output, this function creates a plot.
lsim Creates the linear simulation plot of a system model. This >t = [0:0.1:10]
>u = sin(0.1*pi*t)'
function calculates the output of a system model when a set of >lsim(SysIn, u, t)
inputs excite the model, using discrete simulation. If you do not
conv Computes the convolution of two vectors or matrices. >C1 = [1, 2, 3];
>C2 = [3, 4];
>C = conv(C1, C2)
series Connects two system models in series to produce a model >Hseries = series(H1,H2)
SysSer with input and output connections you specify
feedback Connects two system models together to produce a closed-loop >SysClosed = feedback(SysIn_1,
SysIn_2)
model using negative or positive feedback connections
c2d Convert from continuous- to discrete-time models
d2c Convert from discrete- to continuous-time models
Before you start, you should use the Help system in MATLAB to read more about these functions.
Type “help <functionname>” in the Command window.
6.2 Tasks
Task 16: Transfer function
Use the tf function in MATLAB to define the transfer function above. Set and .
Type “help tf” in the Command window to see how you use this function.
Example:
% Transfer function H=1/(s+1)

num = [1];
den = [1, 1];
H = tf(num, den)
[End of Task]
Second order Transfer Function:
A second order transfer function is given on the form:
( )
( )

Where
is the gain
zeta is the relative damping factor
[rad/s] is the undamped resonance frequency.
Task 17: 2.order Transfer function
Define the transfer function using the tf function.
Set
→ Plot the step response (use the step function in MATLAB) for different values of . Select as
follows:
Tip! From control theory we have the following:
So you should get similar step responses as shown above.

[End of Task]
Task 18: Time Response
( )
Plot the time response for the transfer function using the step function. Let the time-interval be from
0 to 10 seconds, e.g., define the time vector like this:
t=[0:0.01:10]
and then use the function step(H,t).
[End of Task]
6.3 Analysis of Standard Functions

Here we will take a closer look at the following standard functions:
 Integrator
 1. Order system
 2. Order system
Task 19: Integrator
The transfer function for an Integrator is as follows:
( )
→Find the pole(s)
→ Plot the Step response: Use different values for , e.g., . Use the step function in
MATLAB.
[End of Task]
Task 20: 1. order system
The transfer function for a 1.order system is as follows:

( )
→ Find the pole(s)
→ Plot the Step response. Use the step function in MATLAB.
 Step response 1: Use different values for , e.g., . Set

 Step response 2: Use different values for , e.g., . Set
[End of Task]
The transfer function for a 2. order system is as follows:
( )
( )
Where
 is the gain
 zeta is the relative damping factor
 [rad/s] is the undamped resonance frequency.
→ Plot the Step response: Use different values for , e.g., . Set and K=1. Use
the step function in MATLAB.
Tip! From control theory we have the following:

So you should get similar step responses as shown above.
[End of Task]
Special case: When and the poles are real and distinct we have:
( )
( )( )
We see that this system can be considered as two 1.order systems in series.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
Set and

→ Plot the Step response. Set K=1. Set , ,

, , , . Use the step
function in MATLAB.
[End of Task]

7 State-space Models
It is assumed you are familiar with basic control theory and state-space models, if not you may skip
this chapter.
7.1 Introduction
A state-space model is a structured form or representation of a set of differential equations.
State-space models are very useful in Control theory and design. The differential equations are
converted in matrices and vectors, which is the basic elements in MATLAB.
We have the following equations:
This gives on vector form:
̇
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
⏟ ⏟
̇
⏟ ⏟ ⏟
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
⏟ ⏟
⏟ ⏟ ⏟
This gives the following compact form of a general linear State-space model:
Example:
42
Given the following equations:
These equations can be written on the compact state-space form:
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇
⏟ ⏟
⏟ [ ]
[End of Example]
MATLAB have several functions for creating and manipulation of State-space models:

ss Constructs a model in state-space form. You also can use this >A = [1 3; 4 6];
>B = [0; 1];
function to convert transfer function models to state-space >C = [1, 0];
form. >D = 0;
>sysOutSS = ss(A, B, C, D)
>den=[1,-1,3];
>step(H,t);
>u = sin(0.1*pi*t)'
Example:
% Creates a state-space model
A = [1 3; 4 6];
B = [0; 1];
C = [1, 0];
D = 0;
SysOutSS = ss(A, B, C, D)
[End of Example]

7.2 Tasks
Task 23: State-space model
Implement the following equations as a state-space model in MATLAB:
→ Find the Step Response
→ Find the transfer function from the state-space model using MATLAB code.
[End of Task]
Task 24: Mass-spring-damper system
Given a mass-spring-damper system:
Where c=damping constant, m=mass, k=spring constant, F=u=force
The state-space model for the system is:
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ]
Define the state-space model above using the ss function in MATLAB.
Set , , (try also with other values to see what happens).
→Apply a step in F (u) and use the step function in MATLAB to simulate the result.
→ Find the transfer function from the state-space model
[End of Task]
Task 25: Block Diagram
Find the state-space model from the block diagram below and implement it in MATLAB.
Set
And b=1, c=1
→ Simulate the system using the step function in MATLAB
[End of Task]

8 Discrete systems
It is assumed you are familiar with basic control theory and discretization of continuous systems, if
not you may skip this chapter. You should know about transfer functions and state-space models.
For Simulation and Control in computers discrete systems are very important.
Given the continuous linear state space-model:
Or given the discrete linear state space-model
Or it is also normal to use the same notation for discrete systems:
But the matrices is of course not the same as in the continuous system.
MATLAB has several functions for dealing with discrete systems:

c2d Convert from continuous- to discrete-time models. You may >>c2d(sys,Ts)
>>c2d(sys,Ts,‘tustin’)
specify which Discretization method to use
d2c Convert from discrete- to continuous- time models >>
Task 26: Discretization
46
47 Discrete systems
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇
[ ]
Set some arbitrary values for , and .
Find the discrete State-space model using MATLAB.
[End of Task]
8.1 Discretization
In order to discretizate a continuous model there are lots of different methods to use. One of the
simplest is Euler Forward method:
where is the sampling time.
As shown in a previous chapter, MATLAB have lots of built-in functions for solving differential
equations numerically, but here we will create our own discrete model.
Task 27: Discrete Simulation
In this task we will simulate a simple model of a bacteria population in a jar.
The model is as follows:
birth rate=bx
death rate = px2
Then the total rate of change of bacteria population is:
Set b=1/hour and p=0.5 bacteria-hour
We will simulate the number of bacteria in the jar after 1 hour, assuming that initially there are 100
bacteria present.

48 Discrete systems
→ Find the discrete model using the Euler Forward method by hand and implement and simulate the
system in MATLAB using a For Loop.
[End of Task]

9 Frequency Response
In this chapter we assume that you are familiar with basic control theory and frequency response
from previous courses in control theory/process control/cybernetics. If not, you may skip this
chapter.
9.1 Introduction
The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses how a
sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through the system. Each
frequency component is a sinusoidal signal having a certain amplitude and a certain frequency.
The frequency response is an important tool for analysis and design of signal filters and for analysis
and design of control systems. The frequency response can be found experimentally or from a
transfer function model.
We can find the frequency response of a system by exciting the system with a sinusoidal signal of
amplitude A and frequency ω [rad/s] (Note: ) and observing the response in the output
variable of the system.
The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal. When the system is in steady-state it differs from the input signal only in
amplitude/gain (A) and phase lag ( ).
If we have the input signal:
( )
The steady-state output signal will be:
( ) ⏟ ( )
Where is the ratio between the amplitudes of the output signal and the input signal (in
steady-state).
A and is a function of the frequency ω o we may wr te ( ) ( )
For a transfer function
49
( )
( )
( )
We have that:
( ) | ( ( )
)|
Where ( ) is the frequency response of the system, i.e., we may find the frequency response by
setting in the transfer function. Bode diagrams are useful in frequency response analysis.
The Bode diagram consists of 2 diagrams, the Bode magnitude diagram, ( ) and the Bode phase
diagram, ( ).
The Gain function:
( ) | ( )|
The Phase function:
( ) ( )
The ( )-axis is in decibel (dB), where the decibel value of x is calculated as:
The ( )-axis is in degrees (not radians!)
MATLAB have several functions for frequency response:

bode Creates the Bode magnitude and Bode phase plots of a system >num=[4];
>den=[2, 1];
model. You also can use this function to return the magnitude >H = tf(num, den)
and phase values of a model at frequencies you specify. If you >bode(H)
do not specify an output, this function creates a plot.
bodemag Creates the Bode magnitude plot of a system model. If you do >[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn)
>[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn, [wmin
not specify an output, this function creates a plot. wmax])
>[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn,
wlist)
margin Calculates and/or plots the smallest gain and phase margins of a >num = [1]
>den = [1, 5, 6]
single-input single-output (SISO) system model. The gain margin >H = tf(num, den)
indicates where the frequency response crosses at 0 decibels. margin(H)
The phase margin indicates where the frequency response
crosses -180 degrees. Use the margins function to return all gain
and phase margins of a SISO model.
Example:
Here you will learn to plot the frequency response in a Bode diagram.
We have the following transfer function

( )
( )
( )
Below we see the script for creating the frequency response of the system in a bode plot using the
bode function in MATLAB. Use the grid function to apply a grid to the plot.
% Transfer function H=1/(s+1)

num=[1];
den=[1, 1];
H = tf(num, den)
bode (H);
The Bode plot:
[End of Example]
9.2 Tasks
We have the following transfer function:
( )

→ What is the break frequency?
→ Set up the mathematical expressions for ( ) and ( ). Use “Pen & Paper” for this
Assignment.
→ Plot the frequency response of the system in a bode plot using the bode function in MATLAB.
Discuss the results.
→ Find ( ) and ( ) for the following frequencies using MATLAB code (use the bode function):
( ) ( )( )
0.1
0.16
0.25
0.4
0.625
2.5
Make sure ( ) is in dB.
→ Find ( ) and ( ) for the same frequencies above using the mathematical expressions for
( ) and ( ). Tip: Use a For Loop or define a vector w=[0.1, 0.16, 0.25, 0.4, 0.625, 2.5].
[End of Task]
Task 29: Bode Diagram
We have the following transfer function:
( )
( )
( )( )
→ What is the break frequencies?
→ Set up the mathematical expressions for ( ) and ( ). Use “Pen & Paper” for this
Assignment.
→ Plot the frequency response of the system in a bode plot using the bode function in MATLAB.
Discuss the results.
→ Find ( ) and ( ) for some given frequencies using MATLAB code (use the bode function).
→ Find ( ) and ( ) for the same frequencies above using the mathematical expressions for
( ) and ( ). Tip: use a For Loop or define a vector w=[0.01, 0.1, …].
[End of Task]

9.3 Frequency response Analysis

Here are some important transfer functions to determine the stability of a feedback system. Below
we see a typical feedback system.
Loop transfer function ( ):
The Loop transfer function ( ) is defined as follows:
( )
Where
is the Controller transfer function
is the Process transfer function
is the Measurement (sensor) transfer function
Note! Another notation for is
Tracking transfer function ( ):
The Tracking transfer function ( ) is defined as follows:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The Tracking Property is good if the tracking function T has value equal to or close to 1:
| |

Sensitivity transfer function ( ):
The Sensitivity transfer function ( ) is defined as follows:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The Compensation Property is good if the sensitivity function S has a small value close to zero:
| | | |
Note!
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Frequency Response Analysis of the Tracking Property:
From the equations above we find:
The Tracking Property is good if:
| ( )|
The Tracking Property is poor if:
| ( )|
If we plot L, T and S in a Bode plot we get a plot like this:

Where the following Bandwidths are defined:
– crossover-frequency – the frequency where the gain of the Loop transfer function ( ) has
the value:
– the frequency where the gain of the Tracking function ( ) has the value:
- the frequency where the gain of the Sensitivity transfer function ( ) has the value:
Task 30: Frequency Response Analysis
Process transfer function:
Where , where , ,
Measurement (sensor) transfer function:
Where .
Controller transfer function (PI Controller):
Set Kp = 1,5 og Ti = 1000 sec.
→ Define the Loop transfer function ( ), Sensitivity transfer function ( ) and Tracking transfer
function ( ) and in MATLAB.

→ Plot the Loop transfer function ( ), the Tracking transfer function ( ) and the Sensitivity
transfer function ( ) in the same Bode diagram. Use, e.g., the bodemag function in MATLAB.
→ Find the bandwidths from the plot above.
→ Plot the step response for the Tracking transfer function ( )
[End of Task]
9.4 Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems

Gain Margin (GM) and Phase Margin (PM) are important design criteria for analysis of feedback
control systems.
A dynamic system has one of the following stability properties:
 Asymptotically stable system

 Marginally stable system
 Unstable system
The Gain Margin – GM ( ) is how much the loop gain can increase before the system become
unstable.
The Phase Margin - PM ( ) is how much the phase lag function of the loop can be reduced before
the loop becomes unstable.

Where:
 (gain margin frequency - gmf) is the gain margin frequency/frequencies, in

radians/second. A gain margin frequency indicates where the model phase crosses -180
degrees.
 GM ( ) is the gain margin(s) of the system.
 (phase margin frequency - pmf) returns the phase margin frequency/frequencies, in
radians/second. A phase margin frequency indicates where the model magnitude crosses 0
decibels.
 PM ( ) is the phase margin(s) of the system.
Note! and are called the crossover-frequencies
The definitions are as follows:
Gain Crossover-frequency - :
| ( )|
Phase Crossover-frequency - :
( )
Gain Margin - GM ( ):
| ( )|
or:
| ( )|
Phase margin PM ( ):
( )
We have that:
 Asymptotically stable system:

 Marginally stable system:
 Unstable system:
We use the following functions in MATLAB: tf, bode, margins and margin.
Task 31: Stability Analysis

( )
( )
We will find the crossover-frequencies for the system using MATLAB. We will also find also the gain
margins and phase margins for the system.
Plot a bode diagram where the crossover-frequencies, GM and PM are illustrated. Tip! Use the
margin function in MATLAB.
[End of Task]

10 Additional Tasks
If you have time left or need more practice, solve the tasks below.
Task 32: ODE Solvers
Use the ode45 function to solve and plot the results of the following differential equation in the
interval :
( )
[End of Task]
Task 33: Mass-spring-damper system
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇
Set .
→ Solve and Plot the system using one or more of the built-in solvers (use, e.g., ode32) in MATLAB.
Apply a step in (which is the control signal ).
59
60 Additional Tasks
[End of Task]
Task 34: Numerical Integration
Given a piston cylinder device:
→ Find the work produced in a piston cylinder device by solving the equation:
Assume the ideal gas low applies:
where
 P= pressure
 V=volume, m3
 n=number of moles, kmol
 R=universal gas constant, 8.314 kJ/kmol K
 T=Temperature, K
We also assume that the piston contains 1 mol of gas at 300K and that the temperature is constant
during the process.
Use both the quad and quadl functions. Compare with the exact solution by solving the integral
analytically.
[End of Task]

61 Additional Tasks
Task 35: State-space model
The following model of a pendulum is given:
where m is the mass, r is the length of the arm of the pendulum, g is the gravity, b is a friction
coefficient.
→ Define the state-space model in MATLAB
→ Solve the differential equations in MATLAB and plot the results.
Use the following values
[End of Task]
Task 36: lsim
̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇
[ ]
→ Simulate the system using the lsim function in the Control System Toolbox.
Set c=1, m=1, k=50.

62 Additional Tasks
[End of Task]

Appendix A – MATLAB
Functions
Numerical Techniques
Here are some descriptions for the most used MATLAB functions for Numerical Techniques.
Solving Ordinary Differential Equations

MATLAB offers lots of ode solvers, e.g.:

ode23
ode45
Interpolation
MATLAB offers functions for interpolation, e.g.:

interp1
Curve Fitting
Here are some of the functions available in MATLAB used for curve fitting:

polyfit P = POLYFIT(X,Y,N) finds the coefficients of a polynomial P(X) of >>polyfit(x,y,1)
degree N that fits the data Y best in a least-squares sense. P is a
row vector of length N+1 containing the polynomial coefficients
in descending powers, P(1)*X^N + P(2)*X^(N-1) +...+ P(N)*X +
P(N+1).
polyval Evaluate polynomial. Y = POLYVAL(P,X) returns the value of a
polynomial P evaluated at X. P is a vector of length N+1 whose
elements are the coefficients of the polynomial in descending
powers. Y = P(1)*X^N + P(2)*X^(N-1) + ... + P(N)*X + P(N+1)
63
64 Appendix A – MATLAB Functions
Numerical Differentiation
MATLAB offers functions for numerical differentiation, e.g.:

[X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)].
polyder Differentiate polynomial. POLYDER(P) returns the derivative of >>p=[1,2,3];
>>polyder(p)
the polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of vector P.
POLYDER(A,B) returns the derivative of polynomial A*B.
Numerical Integration
MATLAB offers functions for numerical integration, such as:

[X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)].
quad Numerically evaluate integral, adaptive Simpson quadrature. >>
Q = QUAD(FUN,A,B) tries to approximate the integral of
calar-valued function FUN from A to B. FUN is a function handle.
The function Y=FUN(X) should accept a vector argument X and
return a vector result Y, the integrand evaluated at each
element of X. Uses adaptive Simpson quadrature method
quadl Same as quad, but uses adaptive Lobatto quadrature method >>
polyint Integrate polynomial analytically. POLYINT(P,K) returns a

polynomial representing the integral of polynomial P, using a
scalar constant of integration K.
Optimization
MATLAB offers functions for local minimum, such as:

fminbnd X = FMINBND(FUN,x1,x2) attempts to find a local minimizer X of >> x = fminbnd(@cos,3,4)
x =
the function FUN in the interval x1 < X < x2. FUN is a function 3.1416
handle. FUN accepts scalar input X and returns a scalar
function value F evaluated at X. FUN can be specified using @.
FMINBND is a single-variable bounded nonlinear function
minimization.
fminsearch X = FMINSEARCH(FUN,X0) starts at X0 and attempts to find a >> x = fminsearch(@sin,3)
x =
local minimizer X of the function FUN. FUN is a function handle. 4.7124
FUN accepts input X and returns a scalar function value F
evaluated at X. X0 can be a scalar, vector or matrix. FUN can be
specified using @.
FMINSEARCH is a multidimensional unconstrained nonlinear
function minimization.

65 Appendix A – MATLAB Functions
Control and Simulation

Here are some descriptions for the most used MATLAB functions for Control and Simulation.

plot Generates a plot. plot(y) plots the columns of y against the >X = [0:0.01:1];
>Y = X.*X;
indexes of the columns. >plot(X, Y)
tf Creates system model in transfer function form. You also can >num=[1];
>den=[1, 1, 1];
use this function to state-space models to transfer function >H = tf(num, den)
form.
pole Returns the locations of the closed-loop poles of a system >num=[1]
>den=[1,1]
model. >H=tf(num,den)
>poles(H)
>den=[1,-1,3];
>step(H,t);
>u = sin(0.1*pi*t)'
conv Computes the convolution of two vectors or matrices. >C1 = [1, 2, 3];
>C2 = [3, 4];
>C = conv(C1, C2)
series Connects two system models in series to produce a model >Hseries = series(H1,H2)
SysSer with input and output connections you specify
feedback Connects two system models together to produce a closed-loop >SysClosed = feedback(SysIn_1,
SysIn_2)
model using negative or positive feedback connections
ss Constructs a model in state-space form. You also can use this >A = eye(2)
>B = [0; 1]
function to convert transfer function models to state-space >C = B'
form. >SysOutSS = ss(A, B, C)
bode Creates the Bode magnitude and Bode phase plots of a system >num=[4];
>den=[2, 1];
model. You also can use this function to return the magnitude >H = tf(num, den)
and phase values of a model at frequencies you specify. If you >bode(H)
do not specify an output, this function creates a plot.
bodemag Creates the Bode magnitude plot of a system model. If you do >[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn)
>[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn, [wmin
not specify an output, this function creates a plot. wmax])
>[mag, wout] = bodemag(SysIn,
wlist)
margin Calculates and/or plots the smallest gain and phase margins of a >num = [1]
>den = [1, 5, 6]
single-input single-output (SISO) system model. The gain margin >H = tf(num, den)
indicates where the frequency response crosses at 0 decibels. margin(H)
The phase margin indicates where the frequency response
crosses -180 degrees. Use the margins function to return all gain
and phase margins of a SISO model.
margins Calculates all gain and phase margins of a single-input >[gmf, gm, pmf, pm] = margins(H)
single-output (SISO) system model. The gain margins indicate
where the frequency response crosses at 0 decibels. The phase
margins indicate where the frequency response crosses -180
degrees. Use the margin function to return only the smallest
gain and phase margins of a SISO model.

Faculty of Technology
Kjølnes Ring 56
N-3918 Porsgrunn, Norway
www.hit.no
Hans-Petter Halvorsen, M.Sc.
Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics
E-mail: hans.p.halvorsen@hit.no
Blog: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/
Room: B-237a

MATLAB Course - Part 2

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Telemark University College

Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics

So You Think You Can

Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control

MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and visualization in an integrated

The MATLAB Course consists of 3 parts:

 MATLAB Course – Part I: Introduction – MATLAB Basics

Course Homepage: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/?lab=matlab

MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and visualization in an integrated

For more information about MATLAB, etc., please visit http://home.hit.no/~hansha/

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv

2 Differential Equations and ODE Solvers ......................................................................................... 2

2.1 ODE Solvers in MATLAB ........................................................................................................... 4

3 Numerical Techniques .................................................................................................................... 9

3.2 Curve Fitting .......................................................................................................................... 12

3.2.1 Linear Regression .......................................................................................................... 12

3.2.2 Polynomial Regression .................................................................................................. 15

3.3 Numerical Differentiation...................................................................................................... 17

3.3.1 Differentiation on Polynomials...................................................................................... 21

3.4 Numerical Integration ........................................................................................................... 23

3.4.1 Integration on Polynomials ........................................................................................... 26

5 Control System Toolbox................................................................................................................ 32

6 Transfer Functions ........................................................................................................................ 34

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 34

6.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 36

6.3 Analysis of Standard Functions ............................................................................................. 38

7 State-space Models ...................................................................................................................... 42

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 42

7.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 44

8 Discrete systems ........................................................................................................................... 46

8.1 Discretization ......................................................................................................................... 47

9 Frequency Response ..................................................................................................................... 49

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 49

9.2 Tasks ...................................................................................................................................... 51

9.3 Frequency response Analysis ................................................................................................ 53

9.4 Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems ................................................................................. 56

10 Additional Tasks ............................................................................................................................ 59

Appendix A – MATLAB Functions .......................................................................................................... 63

Solving Ordinary Differential Equations ....................................................................................... 63

Numerical Differentiation ............................................................................................................. 64

Control and Simulation ..................................................................................................................... 65

MATLAB Course - Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control

 Differential Equations and ODE Solvers

MATLAB can solve these equations numerically.

Note! Different notation is used:

This document will use these different notations interchangeably.

where ,where is the time constant

The solution for the differential equation is found to be:

Set and the initial condition ( ) .

The Code is as follows:

This gives the following Results:

There are different functions, such as ode23 and ode45.

Where @mydiff is defined as a function like this (“mydiff.m”):

MATLAB Course - Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control

2.1 ODE Solvers in MATLAB

In MATLAB you define a function for these differential equations:

MATLAB Course - Part II: Modelling, Simulation and Control

Using the ode45 function gives the following code:

[t,y] = ode45(@mydiff, [-1,1], [1,1]);

This gives the following plot: