TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

ISSUES OF CONCERN IN THE COASTAL ZONE OF GOA

Kalidas Sawkar, Ligia Noronha,
Antonio Mascarenhas and O.S. Chauhan

Introduction

When Goa joined the Indian Union in December 1961, its only large industry was the export of
its rich ores of iron and manganese. Goans depended on indigenous fish and coconuts for their vital
nutritional requirements. The popularity of milk and vegetables amongst local inhabitants was low, and
most of their dietary and other consumer items were imported. Before 1961, Goa had very little
"development" in the modern sense of the term. With rich coastal biodiversity and abundant natural
resources, the quality of life and the social fabric was good. Its main assets were its genial and peace
loving people, a tranquil and unspoiled environment, and an absence of population pressure l .

Tourism was adopted as a key sector for Goa's development, not only for the well·established
reasons of increasing income and employment but also for its potential to generate non·manual
employment in a state with an increasingly educated work force and limited industrial growth. Fearing
industrial pollution, the planners and decision-makers opted for tourism as an avenue to earn the state's
income over increased industrial development in addition to, mining. Except at academic levels, very little
awareness and understanding existed back then among planners about the processes of the life support
systems of the coastal environment and the interactive roles played by each component. This paper
highlights the issues and the implications of tourism on the coastal marine and the socio·economic
environment of Goa.

Nature and Growth of Tourism in Goa

Most of the tourism in Goa is concentrated in the coastal stretches of Bardez, Salcete, Tiswadi
and Marmagao. Over 90 percent of domestic tourists and over 99 percent of the international tourists
frequent these areas. Consequently, beach tourism is the only type that is avidly encouraged by
policymakers and other concerned parties alike. Goa is visited by two types of tourists with distinct needs
which this state satisfies. The first is the domestic tourists, who comprise 80 percent of all tourists. These
people come in search of the culture that is "different" from the rest of India, as the Goan image holds a
degree of mysticism, a sense of freedom and "unconventional" dress style. The second is the
international tourists who visit Goa purely for the natural environment-sun and beaches. Within the
category of international tourists are there are two sub-categories: backpackers and charter tourists.
Although both visit Goa for the beaches, they stay away from each other. The backpackers are not found
in areas of charter tourists; they prefer to mingle and live with the local communities. Whereas, the
charter tourists tend to stay in the luxury starred hotels. Domestic and international tourists also differ in
terms of the areas they frequent. For the domestic tourist, the beaches hold limited appeal, so domestic
tourists remain away from the places frequented by the international tourists.

The timings of visits are clearly different for the domestic and the international tourists. In
previous decades, a clear off season for all tourists could be identified, today this is not so for domestic

1 Alvares, C. 1993. "Fish, Curry and Rice: A Citizen's Report on the State of the Goan Environment." Ecoforum.
Goa, p. 260; Mascarenhas, A. et al. 1997. The Coastal Zone of Goa: Then and Now. Abstract 29. Seminar on
Coastal Zone Environment and Management. Moogalore University. February 12·14, pp. 50·52.

1
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tQJJ.t~9;~, who come throughout the year albeit in larger numbers in the non-monsoon months. Conversely,
international tourists avoid the monsoon months, as for them the use of the beach is the prime attraction
to come to Goa.

Table I gives the share of domestic and international tourists over the last 15 years. The bulk of
tourists coming to Goa are domestic, and this trend has grown considerably in the last few years.

Table 1. Sbare of Domestic and International Tourists of Goa

Year Total tourists Shareo! Shareo! Year Total tourists Shareo! Shareo!
domestic international domestic international
("/0) ("/0) ("/0) ("/0)
1981 439,015 93.33 6.67 1989 862,443 89.40 10.60
1982 477,165 94.13 5.87 1990 881,323 88.16 11.84
1983 530,015 93.67 6.33 1991 835,067 9D.63 9.37
1984 669,992 90.71 9.29 1992 896,010 86.45 13.55
1985 775,212 88.05 11.95 1993 969,234 82.39 17.61
1986 834,081 88.31 11.69 1994 1,059,595 80.16 19.84
1987 861,448 89.02 10.98 1995 1,107,705 79.31 20.69
1988 854,935 89.11 10.89 1996 1,150,000 78.26 21.74

Source: India, Government of Goa, Department of Tourism. Personal Communications.

The various factors that have contributed to this rise in domestic tourism are:

• increased disposable income of the middle class,

• increased urbanization and stress of living in cities and towns,
• increased ownership of cars, which is making domestic tourism more attractive, especially
among the upper-middle and middle classes' ,
• improved employment benefits, such as the leave travel concession,
• development of inexpensive mass transport and improved connections to various places of
tourist interest',
• increased number of cheap accommodations and resorts,
• greater advertising targeted at domestic tourists both by the central and the state governments,
as well as the tourist industry, and
• development of time sharing of holiday accommodations, that is being targeted at the middle
class.

According to official tourism statistics, while the period of 1981-86 saw an increase in domestic
and international tourists, the period of 1986-91 saw a slow down in growth rates for domestic tourists
and a fall in growth rates for international tourists (Table 2). )
Table 2. Growtb of Tourism in Goa

, For example, the number of registered cars, jeeps and taxis has gone up sharply from 310,000 in 1960 to 3,330,000
in 1993.
3 The commissioning of the coastal Konkan Railway and the modernization of South-Central Railway will
considerably increase the accessibility of Goa to the rest of India. A form of weekend tourism is likely to emerge
from this, which may have environmental and economic impacts similar to cruise tourism in the Carribean Islands.
 3

Average Annual Growth Rates (%)

Period Domestic International
1981/82-86/87 7.98 27.20
1986/87-1991/92 2.75 -1.34
1991/92-95/96 3.90 31.00

Source: India, Government of Goa, Department of Tourism. Personal Communications.

Tourist arrivals in Goa have increased over the last five years with a higher rate of growth of
international tourists than domestic tourists. Goa's growing importance on the Indian tourist map for
international tourists can be seen from Table 3. While in the early 1980s, the share of international tourist
that came to Goa was less than 3 percent, by the mid-1990's, the share has increased to over
10 percent.

Table 3. International Tourist Arrivals in India

Year Tourist arrivals Share ofGoa in total Year Tourist arrivals Share ofGoa in total
in-India tourist arrivals in . in India tourist arrivals in
(millions) India (%) (millions) India ("/0)
1981 1.26 2.4 1989 1.74 5.2
1982 1.29 2.3 1990 1.71 5.9
1983 1.30 2.3 1991 1.68 7.8
1984 1.21 4.9 1992 1.87 6.4
1985 1.26 7.1 1993 1.82 9.3
1986 1.45 6.2 1994 1.87 11.2
1987 1.48 6.4 1995 2.10 10.9
1988 1.59 5.9
Source: Center for Monitoring the Indian Economy. 1995.Basic Statistics ofthe Indian Economy; and India,
Government of Goa, Department of Tourism. Personal Communications.

In_the earlier years, the international tourist was one in search of alternative lifestyles and
mingling with local communities; however, in more recent years, a considerable homogenization of the
traveler has occurred in terms of package tourism. In the 1980s, the domestic tourist came from the
middle class and from the adjoining states; however, now domestic tourists that come to Goa are
diversifying, as the place attracting a number of the rich young elites from more distant states. In /
response to these changes, the tourism industry in Goa has evolved into a curious mix of low-budget
tourism and up-market hotel development, a mix that is marked with tensions and potential conflicts over
the appropriation of resources'. !

Impacts of Tourism in Goa

4 Wilson, D. 1997. "Paradoxes of Tourism in Goa." Annals of Tourism Research 21(1): 52-75; Wilson, D. 1997.
"Strategies for Sustainability: Lessons from Goa and Seychelles." Sustainable Tourism. M. Stabler (Ed.)
Wallingford: CAB International.
 4

Tourism development among policy-makers tends to be discussed in terms of the factors that are
of concern to the national and the state governments. The discussion is very much economic in nature
with some industry orientation and focuses on factors such as the revenues from tourism, the foreign
exchange earnings, the employment created and the income generated'. The focus has always been on the
implications of tourism development on the economy of Goa and on the relations among the various
components of its tourism industry. The microlevel impact of tourism on the destination area immediately
around it has been relatively less studied, if at a1l6 • The impacts of such a large-scale, diversely interactive
activity as tourism should be more inclusive of all components. Tourists travel to and from their
destinations, are accommodated, fed and entertained. All these activities require extensive infrastructural
networks and support services that may not remain limited to the geographical positions of a tourist's
movements. Moreover, the effects result very much from the interactions among the tourists and the
agents in the destination area. 7

Economic Aspects

The foreign exchange earning potential of the tourism industry is one of the main attractions for
its support by national governments, while state governments are more concerned with its contribution to
local income, taxes and employment. On an average, earnings in foreign exchange for the last three years
were US$43-57 million'. It is estimated that tourism contributes to around 13.7 percent of Net State
Domestic Product; 7 percent of employment and 7 percent to state tax revenues. The money spent by
domestic and international tourists is received by different segments of the industry which provide the
supporting goods and services.

Tourist receipts can be classified into five categories: accommodation and food, shopping,
internal travel, entertainment and miscellaneous items. Table 4 provides an overview of the distribution
of expenditures among the five categories for international and domestic tourists.

Moreover, in 1992, about 90 percent of the domestic tourists who came to Goa spent less than
US$35 per capita per day. Of the international tourists, about 40 percent spent less than US$35 per capita
per day and about 41 percent spent more than U5$70 per capita per day. As mentioned earlier, however,
this trend is changing today (Table 5). In the last few years indications are that the domestic tourist
coming to Goa is increasingly from the more affluent segments of society, and the international tourist
have increasingly been more of the inexpensive charter packages.

, See Kirloskar Consultants Ltd. 1994. Report on Study a/Tourism Industry in Goa. December. I
6 See the Indian Institute of Social Sciences (1989) for an attempt at studying socio-economic impacts.
7 Impact studies tend to treat destination areas as passive receipients of the impacts of tourism. This is however not
so and the need to understand the procesees of interaction between tourists and host communities is crucial to an
understanding of impacts.
• This figure is probably an underestimate, as it is a record of foreign currency converted in Goa; however, a
considerable amount of foreign currency that is spent in Goa is converted at the first port of entry, typically Mumbai
(Bombay) or New Delhi. If India's total foreign exchange earnings from tourism are considered and Goa is
apportioned an amount based on the share of tourists that come to Goa, then the amount rises to around
USSI 15 million.
 5

Table 4. Distribution of Expenditures for International and Domestic Tourists

InternatIOnal Iounsts DomestIc Iounsts
Category
(%) (%)
Accommodations and food 53.95 58.20
Shopping 24.84 26.70
Internal transport 13.63 10040
Entertainment 2.61 1.80
Miscellaneous expenses 4.97 2.90

Average length of stay 9 days 5 days

. Total amount spent per visit US$590 US$IIO

Source: Kirloskar Consultants Ltd., 1994. Report on Study ofTourism Industry in Goa. December.

Table 5. Estimated Distribution of Expenditures and Distribution of Tonrists in 1992

Type of Percentage distribution ofdaily expenditures Average total
tourist (USS) expenditures
<II 11-34 34-51 51-69 >69 per stay (US$) *
DomestIc 63 27 4 3 3 105
International 18 22 II 8 41 590

• Average length of stay for a domestic tourist is estimated to be 5 days; 9 days for an international tourist.
Source: Kirloskar Consultants Ltd., 1994. Report on Study ofTourism Industry in Goa. December.
Table 7.2.

These expenditures form the direct output of the industry. However, the industry buys goods and
services from other sectors of the economy. This additional output produced through inter-industry
spending is the indirect output of the industry and is normally estimated using multipliers. It is not quite
clear how much tourism is actually benefiting the Goan economy as a whole because a large part of the
goods required to support the tourism industry is brought from outside the state.

Tourism: Food and Agriculture

Food and beverages comprise the largest component of the expenditure of domestic tourists
(40 percent) and second largest component of the expenditures (accommodations being the largest), of
the international tourist (20.5 percent). Increasing the amount of local food used in the tourism industry is
a way of increasing backward linkages from tourism, involving the local community and therefore,
moving toward more diversified and sustainable development. Yet, policymakers have not focused on
strengthening the economic linkages between tourism and the food sector. The hotel food supply chain \
has not been studied in Goa and local surplus production from agriculture and fishing could be potentially
integrated into this chain as an additional means to generate local income. However, a careful balance
must be struck between producing for tourists' requirements and ensuring food supply at reasonable
prices to the locals.
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Regional Imbalances

As previously mentioned, most of the tourism development in Goa is concentrated in the four
coastal stretches of Bardez, Salcete, Tiswadi and Marmagao. These areas are, similarly, the most
developed regions of Goa, accounting for approximately 66 percent of Goa's Gross State Domestic
Product (GSDP). They have dense settlements and are more developed in terms of infrastructural support
services. About 70 percent of small-scale units, 78.5 percent of the capital investment in small industry
and over 68 percent of the employment in this sector are found here. Historically, the region developed
relatively faster than !!!e.rest of the state due to its coastal location.,which provided easy access for sea
trade and was attractive for settlement. There are a number of interesting locations with tourism potential
exist in the hinterland; however, very little has been done to develop them. Hence, there is a considerable
imbalance between the coastal and the hinterland regions in infrastructural and other indicators of
economic development.

Investment in the Tourist Industry

Since tourism's acceptance as the primary avenue through which to develop, it has grown in
scope to be comparable with mining, the only other industry in Goa. State expenditures on the tourism
industry has doubled over a period of 10 years. Expenditures amounted to approximately Rs.15 million in
1986-87, and they grew to approximately Rs.30 million by 1996-97 (Table 6).

Table 6. Expenditures oftbe State on Tourism per Plan

Annual plan Actual expenditures
(Rs. Millions)
1992-93 22.96
1993-94 25.93
1994-95 27.01
1995-96 29.25
1996-97 30.00
EIGHT PLAN (1992-97) 135.15

Source: India, Government of Goa, Deparnnent of Town and Country

Planning and Department of Statistics and Evaluation Deparnnent.
Personal Communications.

Private investment also increased. If the investment per room by hotel category, which was
estimated by Kirloskar Consultants 1994, investment in the hotel industry has risen from Rs.2.08 billion
to Rs.3.25 billion in 1996, an increase of Rs.I.19 billion in just 2 years. If the type of hotels that have
been built over the last two years is analyzed, investment in starred hotels increased by 39.5 percent
during this period while that in other hotels has gone up by 47.5 percent". Tollrism studies suggest that the \
financial performance of the hotel industry is poor compared to several other industries in the state
although no evidence has been presented to back this claim 10.

9There are six categories of approved hotels in India ranging from one- to five-star deluxe. Approval ratings are
granted by the Deparnnent of Tourism based on suitability criteria for intemational tourists. These starred hotels are
required to maintain certain minimum standards of services and amneities.
10 India Institute of Social Sciences. 1989. Tourism in Goa: Socio-Economic Impacts. New Delhi; Kirloskar
Consultants Ltd. 1994. Report on Study of Tourism Industry in Goa. December.
 7

From the statistics available and through observation, local participation in the tourism industJy .is
high in terms of the number of small hotels and paying guest accommodations, yet the bulk of economic
investment is concentrated in just a few hotels. Thus, using just the accommodation sector as a proxy for
the tourism industry as a whole in 1996, almost half of all investment in the sector was in the hands of
just four large hotels; the largest hotels together controlled 69 percent of all investment, and the balance
was made up by smaller hotels.

Seasonality ofIncome and Employment

The industry peaks and troughs: October-February being the good months and June-August being
the lean months due to the monsoon. This seasonality requires the tourism industry to respond by
adjusting the output in terms of the services it provides which affects hotels, restaurants and their
employees. Because of the search and initial training costs that the employer faces, and because of the
need to cater to sudden spurts of demand, a hiring and firing policy is not cost-effective to an employer ll .
The first reaction of employers is to keep labor, but reduce the work hours, a situation akin to holding
inventories of labor in excess of demand. This strategy is supported by employing unskilled labor during
the peak season, who are then laid off during the off season as the costs of hiring and firing unskilled
labor are not high. A sample survey indicates that the highest seasonality of income (in terms of lower off
season earnings) and the highest seasonality of employment (in terms of hours worked per week) are
experienced by the smaller hotels". It is the unskilled workers who experience most sharply the swings of
income and employment in this industJy. This is a social cost of the industJy to which hitherto scant
attention has been paid.

Social Aspects

Shifts in Population and Traditional Occupations

In the tourist belts of Calangute-Candolim in Bardez, a shift in the composition of the resident
population has occurred to include a large number of migrants from the states of Karnataka, Rajasthan
and Kashmir due to potential employment in the tourism industry. Most of these people are engaged in
selling artisanal pieces, handicrafts and garments. It cannot be denied that tourism has also given a boost
to local art and handicrafts; however, the commercialisation of such arts and crafts has resulted in a
certain deterioration in their quality as they are being manufactured for bulk sale. At another level, Goan
cultural practices are being used as tourist attractions, such as Carnival and Shigmo, which have been
given a certain orientation to suit the demand of tourists. Much of the spontaneity of these practices has
been lost".

Moreover, some of the villages along the coasts have become very tourist-oriented and thus,
shifted away from their traditional occupations. A couple of decades ago, these villages were
predominantly fishing- or agricultural-oriented. Tourism has increased land prices and encouraged locals \
to sell their land, thereby sharply increasing the competition for land in the tourist belt. It can be argued
that tourism has accelerated the decline of agriculture in Goa, by providing a viable alternative for the
lateral transfer of investment capital, land, and labor by the locals. In the tourist belt, land conversion

11 D'Douza, E. 1997. Economy and Institutions: Essays on Goa. Bombay: Himalayan Publishing House.
12 ibid.
13 ibid.
8

from agriculture to non-agriculture uses has occurred". In the fishery sector, while fishermen do not
always compete with tourists for shore space, there are instances on the Goan coasts where traditional
fishing operations have been constrained by lack of shore space. In some areas, fishing ports and the
houses of fishermen have been displaced by resort development.

Economic forces are driving social forces here. On the one hand, expectations of higher returns,
from the sale of land to builders and/or from hiring out houses to tourists rather than from actively
engaging in agriculture or fishing are creating incentives for shifting occupations. On the other hand,
social forces are at work in the sense that tourism provides locals with an opportunity to keep their
women at home rather than have them till the soil or sell fish in the market. This is perceived as a
movement upwards for the locals, and a factor that cannot be ignored in the dynamics of the intersectoral
movement of land and labor. Often large tourism development projects require the displacement of some
of the original inhabitants of the area. Some of those displaced by present projects, chose to invest their.
compensations in capital assets, e.g., taxis, and have become to a degree upwardly mobile in an economic
sense. However, there are others who due to their initial circumstances are unable to move along the same
path, and instead become marginalized, having to replace self-employment for menial jobs in the very
resorts that have displaced them. The issue of income distribution needs to be examined.

Impacts on the Goans' Sense of Community

One of the impacts of tourism on the Goan community is the "creeping expropriation" felt by the
locals. This feeling of being pushed out arises from the fact that starred hotels have effectively gained
control over beach resources, which locals have used for generations, and are selling access to them at a
price. The are~that is available to them as commons is increasingly reduced and overpopulated, causing
the locals to avoid the beaches as a whole.

Consequently, the growth of tourism in Goa has been accompanied by strong anti-tourism
activism". Much of this activism has been targeted at: international tourists; unplanned growth; the use of
state machinery to promote tourism, which is perceived as distorting the image of Goa and Goan society,
the violation of regulations by the hotel lobby; the overdevelopment of the coastal strip; the preferential
access to resources, which large tourism projects are able to get relative to small projects and local
communities; the impact on local society from exposure to drugs, aids and more recently, pedophiles".
The bottom-line is that there has been little involvement of the public in the policy decision-making
process resulting in a strong sense of alienation about decisions that are affecting the lives of the local
community.

Environmental Aspects

Coastal zone environment is particularly fragile and can be divided into two areas: the marine \
part and the land part. For the purpose of this discussion, coastal waters, bays, backwaters, creeks, tidal
inlets, and estuaries are considered as components of the marine part of the coastal zone. The sandy

14 While conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural is prohibited by law, the Government of Goa has granted
leniency in certain circumstances given the high price of land and the demand for housing.
" The most prominent groups are lagrut Goenkaranchi Fauz (JGF), Citizens Concerned about Tourism (CCAT),
Saligao Nagrik Samiti and the Goa Foundation. .
16 This critique is found in the various publications of the aforementioned groups, was reported in local newspapers
and more recently, is summarized in the Master plan for Tourism in Goa: Statement of Objectives and
Recommendations, 1997, submitted to the government by five NGOs. Also see, Alvares (1993) for an environmental
critique of tourism in Goa.
 9

beaches along with two dunes (one which runs along the seashore, and another that runs parallel but
about 100 to 500 meters away from the seashore) and their vegetation are considered components of the
land part. In between these dunes there lies a sandy plain, which acts as a buffer zone between the main
land and the sea. 17

Impacts to the Marine Part ofthe Coastal Zone

The marine part of the coastal zone provides many functions and in the present context are:

• To support marine flora including subtidal varieties, such as mangroves. The

mangrove ecosystem itself serves as a habitat for diverse types of species of birds
and marine biota, in addition as the protection of the coastline from erosion, tides and
storms 18 .
• To support a wide variety of marine organisms including mammals. The marine
organisms among themselves form a very intricate, well-established food chain
starting with the chemical constituents of sea water called nutrients.
• To function as a natural thermostat which balances the climate on the subregional,
regional and global scales.
• To disperse riverine load effectively in near-shore regions.

Most of the above functions are interactive in nature. In the coastal current movement, the most
important force is the tidal cycle, which drives the sea water along the shoreline, bays, creeks and
upstream through the mouths of rivers and estuaries. Other important forces are the near shore and
riverine, or estuarine currents. All these currents carry natural sediment load and any other marine
discharge, resulting from manmade activities, and deposits them at a site defined by an equation
containing parameters, such as current velocity, counter currents, topography of the seabed or riverbed
and other oceanographic factors. The transportation capacity of the currents has to be understood in terms
of its effect on marine biota. For example, a rise of a few degrees in temperature of a sea water body
would adversely effect species occurrence and predominance among biota, which in turn could influence
other life forms. Also, a sudden appearance or disappearance of a species due to anthropogenic factors
may cause stress in other species. Given the interactiveness and complexities of the coastal environment,
any developmental activity should to be preceded by the Environmental Impact Assessment studies to
forestall environmental degradation.

The following impacts on the marine part of the coastal zone have been observed while surveying
the ecosensitive coastal areas of Goa. They have been represented in a flowchart in the Annex. The work
was carried out by National Institute of Oceanography on request from the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government ofIndia, in August/September, 1996 19 •

• Loss of mangroves: Thick mangroves on the outskirts of Panaji, at Sao Pedro near
Old Goa, around Talpona backwaters and at innumerable other locations are being
reclaimed. In addition to the biological impacts of the loss of mangroves, the tidal

17 Lobo, U. 1988. "Environmental Aspects of Silica Sand Mining from Coastal Sand Dunes." Earth Resources for
Goa's Development. pp. 521-523.
18 Jagtap, TJ., V.S. Chavan and A.G. Untawale. 1993. "Mangrove Ecosystems of India: A Need for Protection."
Ambia. v 21, pp. 252-254.
19 National Institute of Oceanography. 1996. Comments on the Coastal Zone Management Plans of Goa. Report
submitted to India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. New Delhi.
10

waters could flood the surrounding coastal areas causing erosion and thus opening
the estuarine banks to storm surges20 •

• Reduced fish catch and species: A steady decrease in the total annual fish catch has
been observed in Goa. The catch has declined from 105.44 thousand tones in
1993-94 to 101.90 in 1994-95 and in 1995-96, to 87.82 thousand tones". More
specifically, at Sancoale-Chicalim Bay, the decrease in production of certain varieties
of shellfish and crabs, both local delicacies, is believed to be due to the land
reclamation of mangrove swamps and to the construction of roads to the Sao Jacinto
Island and at Talpona. More generally, one or more of the following factors may be
responsible for the reduction in fish catch:

a) Unscientific fishing practices: These can include the use of nets with a mesh size
smaller than permissible during spawning periods and the fishing beyond sustainable
yields. These practices are pursued due to high demand for fresh seafood in the
market.
b) Loss of spawning grounds: Reasons for this could be mangrove deforestation, land
reclamations and siltation. Short-term economic gains from the development of these
areas is obviously preferred over the long-term benefits of the conservation of
ecology.
c) Introduction of anthropogenic material: Any disturbance at any step in the marine
food web may inadvertently affect other species. The introduction of untreated
sewage and waste to the environment would give rise to toxic algal blooms wiping
out many species 22 • Increased turbidity and sedimentation can also affect the benthic
communities.

Erosion: Dispersion of sediment load at any given point depends upon a number of
• parameters related to marine currents. Any activity which causes disturbances in
these parameters, could alter the sites of deposition and result in erosion, accretion or
siltation and changes in the ecology of that area, such as land reclamations, the
extraction of sand or the construction of jetties23 • Consequently, there are a large
number of cases where coastal stretches have been subjected to the forces of erosion.
Prime examples are Campal and Caranzalem near Panaji, Palolem, Agonda and
many other places, where a considerable amount of construction activities have
occurred24 .

• Accretion/siltation: Accretion and siltation is occurring. An island is in the process of

formation upstream of the mouth of River Talpona. Due to sand bar formation at the

20 Field, C. 1995. Journey amongst Mangroves. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems.
Okinawa, Japan: John Witzig and Company, p. 140.
" The Navhind Times. 1997. "Goa's Fish Catch Shows Down Trend". 29 March.
22 Madhupratap, M. and A.H. Parulekar. 1993. "Estuarine Biology and Management." Environmental Impact on
Aquatic and Terrestrial Habitats, pp. 215-226.
23 Carter, R.W.G. 1998. Coastal Environments-An Introduction to Physical, Ecological and Cultural Systems of
Coastlines. London: Academic Press, pp 607; Nordstrom, K.F. 1994. Developed Coasts. Coastal Evolution-Late
Quaternary Shoreline Dynamics. R.W.G. Carter and C.D. Woodroffe (Eds.) London: Cambridge University Press,
pp.477-510.
24 Lobo, U. 1988. "Environmental Aspects of Silica Sand Mining from Coastal Sand Dunes." Earth Resources for
Goa's Development, pp. 521-523.
 Jl

mouth itself, which has been more pronounced in the last few years, .the river is
navigable only during high tides. In addition, local fishermen have noted siltation in
the river bed. All these observations suggest disturbances in the natural sediment
load dispersion patterns in the River Talpona.

Impacts to the Land Part of the Coastal Zone

The land part of the coastal zone mainly comprises sandy areas along with the dunes and its
vegetation cover. This part provides the following functions:

• To protect the coast from the forces of the oceans,

To replenish the sand on the beach that is carried away by the sea,
• To gather the sand that is blown landward by the wind with the help of dunes and its
• vegetation, and
• To serve as habitats for numerous organisms, including turtles.

Sandy areas are also used for tourism development:

To mix the sand with cement for construction purposes, and

• To develop the land.
•
All along the coastline of Goa, for example, between Chapora and Sinquerim in Bardez",
Caranzalem and Miramar in Panaji, Salcete Coast in Central Goa and in Galgibaga, Talpona, Palolem in
South Goa, there has been a boom in construction activities, most of which are for tourism or for
associated purposes. To make space for and to use them as a component of cement for construction, sand
is being extracted in substantial amounts. When the environmental functions are weighed against the
economic services that sand performs, the fact that the former are not priced, tilts the demand in favor of
the economic user-groups. There is need to quantify and monitor such sand losses and their ecological
impacts. '

The following impacts have been observed on the coastal stretches of Goa due to development
activities:

• Loss of sand dunes: Sand dUI!e§_have borne the brunt of construction activities along
the coastal stretches of Goa26 • Anjuna and Baga-Calangute-Candolim stretches in
North Goa, and Salcete beaches comprising Betalbatim, Colva, Varca, Cavelossim
and Mobor in central Goa, were the first beaches to lose their dunes. Our survey
showed South Goa to be the next in line as in Galgibaga, two dunes, 10 meters high,
have already been flattened into plateaus at half the heights to make way for
construction.

" William, A. 1997. "Burgeoning Construction May be Epitaph to Queen of Beaches." The Navhind Times.
4 March, pI.
26 Lobo, U. 1988. "Environmental Aspects of Silica Sand Mining from Coastal Sand Dunes." Earth Resources for
Goa's Development, pp. 521-523;Mascarenhas, A. 1990. "Why Sand Dunes are Needed." The Herald 21
December, p. 4; Mascarenhas, A. 1996. "The Fate of Sand Dunes of Goa." Voices for the Oceans. International
Ocean Institute oflndia, p. Ill.
12

Endangered species: Four species of turtles have been reported to frequent the
• beaches at Morjim, Miramar, Bogmalo and Palolem, covering almost the entire
stretch of the Goan Coast". The "Save The Turtles" campaign of the Goa
Foundation, a local Non-Governmental Organization, carried jointly with the Forest
Department of the Government of Goa, reported that the number of sea-turtles
visiting their nesting sites on different beaches in Goa particularly in Morjim, is
steadily decreasing".

• Tidal ingress: The ceaseless mining of sand and sand-dunes have effectively razed
gentle slopes of sand which stop the tides from rushing further on the shore. The
consequent tidal ingress has reduced the area of beach at different places, such as
Miramar in Panaji, Baga-Calangute-Candolim-Sinquerim stretch and Anjuna in
Bardez, and in Salcete and Monnugao on the north and central coasts of Goa.

Impacts of Recreational Activities

Recreational facilities affecting the coastal environment are generally, but not limited to, those
related to upscale tourist activities. These are:

• Swimming pools: The water for this is invariably drawn from subsurface aquifers.
The withdrawal of large amounts of ground water in a limited area can be detrimental
to the water table of the region, particularly since it is a source of drinking water.
Additionally, some parties owning wells with a good underground stream of fresh
water sell their water at Rs.IOO (US$2.5) per 500 litre tank to fill these swimming
pools. Consequently, the groundwater levels in some coastal areas is decreasing and
is frequently accompanied with salt water intrusions. The manifestation of sea water
intrusions in the form of salt water in wells along the coastal belt from Chapora to
Aguada has been observed in coastal aquifer studies 29 •

• Water sports: Motor boats used in shallow coastal waters continuously disturb the
habitats of endangered species and other marine life. Moreover, they tend to degrade
water quality by the discharge of oil and grease.

• Beach driving: Tourists regularly drive on the beaches during low tide. Concrete
ramps have even been constructed to take the vehicles on the beaches such as at
Palolem.

• Beach accommodations: In the initial states of tourism in Goa, beach shacks became
popular due to their small numbers, economical rates and simple decor; however,
after several decades, these structures crowd the shorelines without any comfortable
space among them, and they lack ecofriendly toilet facilities and proper refuse

27 Gramopadhye, A. 1997. "Earth Day Special: Think Big." The Herald. 21 April, p. 8.
" The Navhind Times. 1997. "Sea Turtles on the Run as Humans Take over Beaches." Feb. 20, p I.
29 Kalavampara, G. 1994. Preliminary Assessment of Salt Water-Fresh Water Interface between Fort Aguada and
Candolim Coast, North Goa. Msc. thesis. Goa University, p. 71; Carneiro J. R.L. 1996. Use of Hydrochemical
Techniques for Detection of Sea Water Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers between Fort Aguada and Fort Chapora.
North Goa. Msc. Thesis. Goa University, p. 130.
 13

collection, all of which often result in waste invariably find its place in the coastal
waters.

• Sanitation: Goa lacks modern treatment and disposal systems for both sewage and
garbage. Even the internationally famous beach stretch of Baga-Calangute-
Sinquerim, does not have rudimentary toilet facilities. Tourists, locals, shop owners
and the hordes of migrant laborers, who are employed by construction companies
along the beaches, have no other option than to use the beaches to answer the call of
the nature.

• Beach litter: Plastics are among the very serious problems in a number of Goa's
beaches, and an action plan is urgently needed to mitigate the problem 3•• Both the last
mentioned problems could be solved through improved enforcement of regulations
and infrastructual improvements.

Impacts of Expanded Transport

Even though tourists in Goa are almost exclusively accommodated in coastal areas, they arrive
and depart Goa by some kind of transportation operating in other areas of the state. While the air and sea
travel would cause negligible damage to the environment in broad terms, motor vehicles cause air
pollution by their uncontrolled exhaust fumes.

Also, the alignment of the Konkan Railway has broad reaching environmental impacts. The
laying of the tracks for the railway in Goa, especially through wetlands and tidal marshes at Maxem and
between Bali and Mayem along with numerous bridges on the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine fronts, has been
done without proper hydrodynamic and geomorphological studies". The gigantic embankments, several
kilometers long, supporting the rail lines along the lowlands of Goa have lead to substantial alterations in
physical, chemical, biological and geomorphological setups. Blocking, diminuting or increasing the tidal
flow has resulted in a major redistribution of sediments giving rise to erosion/deposition or
deposition/erosion with conspicuous changes in shorelines or near-£hore realms. Mangrove s\vamps have
been destroyed; tidal regimes disrupted; paddy fields flooded, and the embankments are sinking due to
soft underlying strata 32. A comprehensive analysis of the environmental impacts of the Konkan Railway
alignment is needed to study such questions as the following. Is the siltation taking place in the
backwaters and estuarine regions of Canacona in South Goa due to river runoffs carrying haphazardly
dumped material from the digging out ofthe railroad? To what extent has the Konkan Railway Alignment
through ecosensitive areas contributed to the environmental degradation of estuarine/coastal areas of
Goa? In board terms, factors other than tourism could be responsible for the observations made above,
but the contributions of the tourism industry in all these situation should be identified given the criticality
of the coastal environment demands.

Tourism Policy

3. Alvares, C. 1993. "Fish, Curry and Rice: A Citizen's Report on the State of the Goan Environment." £Coforum.
Goa, p. 260; William, A. 1997. "Garbage, Vendors Tum Idyll into Nightmare." The Navhind Times. 3 March, p.l.
31 ibid.

32 Alvares, C. 1993. "Fish, Curry and Rice: A Citizen's Report on the State of the Goan Environment." Ecoforum.
Goa, p. 260; Gadgil, M. and S. Chandran. 1993. "Konkan Lessons-A Railway Project and the Environment."
Frontline. 26 March, p. 62; Mascarenbas, A. 1992. "Our Estuaries in Peril." The Herald. 20 April, p. 4;
Mascarenbas, A., K. Sawkar and 0.5. Chauhan. 1997. The Coastal Zone of Goa: Then and Now. Abstract 49.
Seminar on Coastal Zone Environment and Management. Mangalore University, 12-14 February, pp. 50-52.
14

In the wake of the report, "Our Common Future", by United Nation's Commission on
Environment and Development in 1983, India passed its own Environment Protection Act in 1986. This
was followed by a Notification in February 1991, inviting the governments of India's coastal states and
union territories to prepare Coastal Zone Management Plans for their respective territories. The much
publicized Rio Summit in June 1992, along with Indian environmental norms, started a land race for
coastal development regardless of the laws, regulations and conventions in vogue. The land race got
started probably because the coastal resource users experienced inertia in the implementation of various
legislation on the part of the authorities.

It seems increasingly clear that (i)despite several important pronouncements and regulatory
mechanisms in place, local planning does not always adhere to guidelines and regulations and (ii)where it
does adhere, planning and development regulations have been observed in the breach. Thus, the
Government of Goa, in October 1988, published its Regional Development Plan, anticipating, among
other activities, the growth of tourism by 2001 A.D. In this plan, a strategy is outlined":
/
"[The] location of new beach resorts should be considered not only from point of view of
land availability but also from the consideration of beach resource ecology, based on the
Environmental Assessment Studies. Further, spreading thinly on all available sandy beach
stretches from T7erekhollArambol in the north to BetullAgonda in the south is not advisable
from the standpoint of conservation ofresources both natural and man-made. Instead, it is
suggested that beach-head developments at certain selected centers should be encouraged. "

Despite these admirable commitments toward conservation and the protection of the coastal
environment and ecology, the Regional Development Plan for Goa 2001 A.D. does not contain any
reference to the "no development zone" of 2001500 meters from the high-tide line along the seashores,
which had been much debated around the country in the early 1980s; nor does it mention the
Environment Protection Act of 1986 of the Government of India". Moreover, the Coastal Zone
Management Plans, prepared by the Department of Town and Country Planning of Goa in 1995 and 1996
for approval by the Central Government, actually recommend tourism-related development for almost the
entire length of the Goan coastline, barring only a few places, which contradicts the Department's own
guidelines.

The current policies and relaxed enforcement thereof have led to the haphazard and uncontrolled
growth of townships. Places like Calangute and Candolim in Bardez and Colva in Salcete have become
over commercialized and haphazard in their development pattern. These areas have a number of
unauthorized constructions, which have paid little heed to local planning rules, infrastructural supports or
aesthetics. During the 1980s and the early 1990s, the lure of catering to tourists especially, international (
tourists and the hope of making rapid profits have led to considerable investment in resorts and
apartments. Today there are signs of over investment, this is spreading a price war". When a certain
location is to be developed as a prominent tourist area requiring extensive infrastructural and other
support services, it gets developed as a small township. This increases its real estate value manifold,

" D'Souza. J.A. et. al., 1988. The Regional Plan for Goa, 2001 A.D. India, Government of Goa, Department of
Town and Country Planning, October, p. 108.
34 India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. 1991. The Gazette ofIndia. Notification: S.O. No. 114 (E), February 20.
"Wilson, D. 1997. "Paradoxes of Tourism in Goa. Annals of Tourism Research. 21 (1), pp. 52-75 and Wilson, D.
1997. "Strategies for Sustainability: Lessons from Goa and Seychelles" in Sustainable Tourism. M. Stabler (Ed.)
Wallingford: CAB International.
 15

inducing other sectors of the society to set up business and residences in these areas as well. A quick look
at the developments along the coasts of Goa and the future plans for it, reveals that:

i) these follow the ideas submitted in the CZM plan of Goa (which is yet to be fonnally
approved) rather than its Regional Development plan; and,

ii) the tourists are almost exclusively accommodated along the 105 km stretch of the
coastline while little effort has been made to adhere to the regional plans of creating
other types of tourism besides beach tourism.

One successful example of regulated tourism development is Seychelles, an island nation in the
Indian Ocean. It spared its beaches from concretization and allowed resorts to come almost entirely
amongst the coconut groves just behind the sandy stretches, taking care of the coastal marine
environment'•. This policy, unfortunately, is not in place in Goa where constructions are allowed as close
to the waterline as possible.

Conclusions

Although tourism is concentrated along the coastal zone in Goa, it has had a number of positive
benefits in tenns of increased incomes, increased employment, added avenues for upward mobility for
locals, increased revenue and increased foreign exchange earnings. However, there are also some socio-
economic and environmental impacts associated with these benefits that need to be highlighted. These
impacts have arisen as a result of the trajectory that tourism has followed in Goa and can be summed up
as follows:

I. The growth of coastal tourism has been rapid and uncontrolled.

2. The seasonal nature of tourism has led to swings in employment and income most
markedly in the small sector and to the unskilled worker.
3. There has been no clear nor finn policy relating to tourism; most decisions have been
on a purely ad hoc basis, except for a marked predisposition to upmarket tourism.
The policy initiatives that have been introduced are not attentive to local concerns.
This has led to some disaffection among locals toward tourists that needs to be
studied.
4. There has been a marked spatial concentration of tourism development along the
coast, which is leading to heavy demand for resources in these places. Cumulatively,
this results in concentration and congestion of population, enonnous increase in the
density of construction, and related infrastructure and facilities.
Consequently, there has been an overall decline in the agricultural sector in the state.
/'
5. It poses major changes in land use, shortages of resources, such as land and water,
and damage to coastal aquifers, the sand dune system, and mangrove vegetation.
6. Spawning and breeding grounds have been lost due to anthropogenic activities
related to tourism; consequently, fish populations are decreasing and traditional
fishing activities are on the decline.
7. The principles of sustainability and the nonns related to the conservation of the
environment and ecology are generally ignored; the coastal environment is becoming
irreversibly degraded as evidenced by the concretization of beaches.

,. Wilson, D. 1997. Strategies for Sustainability: Lessons from Goa and Seychelles in Sustainable Tourism.
M. Stabler (Ed.) Wallingford: CAB Intemational.
 16

It is clear that there is much to be learned about the impacts of tourism in Goa, and that further
planning and development requires information gaps to be filled. More specifically, the following actions
are needed:

I. A careful study on the type of tourism that best suits Goa: up-scale, low budget or a
combination of the two.
2. Recognition that tourism is a vulnerable industry, subject to the fads of the trade;
hence, tourism cannot be allowed to permanently change the face of the coast in the
long run.
3. A systematic study of the environmental impacts of tourism, through perhaps, a life
cycle analysis, and the valuation of the environment to enable its integration into
decision-making.
4. An understanding of the processes that make the Goan coast a preferred tourist
destination rather than the hills or the hinterland areas.
5. A monitoring and management system to ensure the effectiveness of coastal and
environmental regulations. The development of sustainability markers would be a
way to ensure this. Such markers will enable both the industry and government to
identify the emerging issues and to facilitate mitigation before problems becomes
unmanageable. They can also serve as the basis for monitoring changes in the
ecosystem, social and economic spheres.
6. The integration of the principles of coastal environment and ecology into the
planning stage of any coastal activity, as preventative rather than remedial measures.
7. An environmental impact assessment and studies of Goa's coastal stretches including
estuaries and backwaters.
8. Policies which recognize the type of interconnections among tourism, local
communities and the environment, to ensure that tourism contributes to a sustainable
development agenda.

About the Authors

Kalidas Sawkar, Antonio Mascarenhas and o.S. Chauhan are from the National Institute of
Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India. Ligia Noronha is from the Tata Energy Research Institute,
Western Regional Centre, Miramar, Panaji, Goa, India.

Authors' Acknowledgment

The authors thank Mr. E. D'Silva, ED! of the World Bank, Washington, DC for requesting National
Institute of Oceanography to contribute this paper. They are grateful to Dr. E. Desa, Director, National
Institute of Oceanography, for permission to present it. Dr. L. Noronha wishes to thank Dr. A. Siqueira,
Department of Sociology, Goa University, for insightful discussions on socio-economic aspects of
tourism.
 17

References
Alvares, C. 1993. "Fish, Curry and Rice: A Citizen's Report on the State of the Goan Environment."
Ecoforum. Goa, p. 260.

Carneiro, J. R.L. 1996. Use of Hydrochemical Techniques for Detection of Sea Water Intrusion in
Coastal Aquifers between Fort Aguada and Fort Chapora, North Goa. Msc. Thesis. Goa
University, p.l30.

Carter, R. W.G. 1988. Coastal Environments-An Introduction to Physical, Ecological and Cultural
Systems ofCoastlines. London: Academic Press, p. 607.

Center for Monitoring of the Indian Economy. 1995. Basic Statistics ofthe India Economy.

D'Souza, E. 1997. Economy and Institutions: Essays on Goa. Bombay: Himalayan Publishing House.

D'Souza, J.A. et al· 1988. The Regional Plan for Goa, 2001 A.D. India, Government of Goa, Department
of Town and Country Planning, October, p. 108.

Field, C. 1995. Journey amongst Mangroves' International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems. Okinawa,
Japan. Australia: John Witzig and Company, p. 140.

Gadgil, M. and S. Chandran. 1993. "Konkan Lessons-A R~ilway Project and Environment." Frontline.
26 March, p. 62.

Gramopadhye, A. 1997. "Earth Day Special: Think Big." The Herald, 21 April, p. 8.

India, Government of Goa, Department of Tourism. 1987. Master Plan for Tourism Development in GC'a
(Draft Report)- July, p. 130.

India, Government of Goa, Department of Tourism. Personal Communications.

India, Government of Goa, Departments of Statistics and Evaluations. Personal Communications.

India, Government of Goa, Department of Town and Country Planning. I 996a. Coastal Zone
Management Plans for Goa, p. 69.

India, Government of Goa, Department of Town and Country Planning. Personal Communications.

India Institute of Social Sciences. 1989. Tourism in Goa: Socia-Economic Impacts. New Delhi.

India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. 1991. The Gazette of India. Notification;
S.O. No. 114(E), February 20.

Jagtap, T.G., V.S. Chavan and A. G. Untawale. 1993. "Mangrove Ecosystems of India: A Need for
Protection." Ambio. v22, pp. 252-254.

Kalavampara, G. 1994. Preliminary Assessment of Salt Water-Fresh Water Interface between

Fort Aguada and Candolim Coast, North Goa. Msc. Thesis. Goa University, p. 130.
18

Kirloskar Consultants Ltd. 1994. Report on Study ofTourism Industry in Goa· December.

Lobo, U. 1988. "Environmental Aspects of Silica Sand Mining from Coastal Sand Dunes." Earth
Resources for Goa's Development, pp. 521-523.

Madhupratap, M. and A.H. Parulekar. 1993. "Estuarine Biology and Management." Environmental
Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Habitats, pp. 215-226.

Mascarenhas, A. 1990. "Why Sand Dunes are Needed." The Herald. 21 December, p. 4.

Mascarenhas, A. 1992. "Our Estuaries in Peril." The Herald. 20 April, p. 4.

Mascarenhas, A. 1996. "The Fate of Sand Dunes of Goa." Voices for the Oceans. International Ocean
Institute oflndia, p. III.

Mascarenhas, A., K. Sawkar and 0.5. Chauhan. 1997. The Coastal Zone ofGoa: Then and Now. Abstract
49. Seminar on Coastal Zone Environment and Management. Mangalore University, 12-14
February, pp. 50-52.

Naik, S. 1997. The Navhind Times. March 19.

National Institute of Oceanography of India. 1996. Comments on the Coastal Zone Management Plans of
Goa. Report submitted to India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. New Delhi.

The Navhind Times. 1997. "Sea Turtles on the Run as Humans Take over Beaches." February 20, p. I.

The Navhind Times. 1997. "Goa's Fish Catch Shows Downward Trend." March 20, p. I.

Nordstrom, K.F. 1994. "Developed Coasts." Coastal Evolution-Late Quaternary Shoreline Dynamics.
R.W.G. Carter and C.D. Woodroffe (Eds.) London: Cambridge University Press, pp. 477-510.

William, A. 1997. "Garbage, Vendors Turn Idyll into Nightmare." The Navhind Times. 3 March, p. I.

William, A. 1997. "Burgeoning Construction May Be Epitaph to Queen of Beaches." The Navhind Times.
4 March, p. 1.

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Wilson, D. 1997. "Strategies for Sustainability: Lessons from Goa and Seychelles." Sustainable Tourism.
M. Stabler (Ed.) Wallingford: CAB International.
 19

ANNEX

IMPACTS OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES IN

CLOSE PROXIMITY TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The field surveys undertaken during the survey of ecosensitive coastal areas of Goa show trends
outlined in the flowchart depicted below:

I
Acquisition of land for construction
I
1
I Development of plot
I
~ 1 o~
IDemolition of orchards I I I
I Razing of sand dunes Reclamation of land I
1 1 1
Destruction of Loss of mangroves-
Loss of agricultural beach dynamism, spawning and nursing
and horticultural tidal ingress, grounds for fish,
produce for locals loss of protection endangered species.
against storm surges. Changes in estuarine,
tidal, shore .currents.

1 1 1
Deforestation, Erosion/accretion Reduced fish catch
import of lost produce, loss of property and species diversity.
changing dietary habits, Erosion!accretion!

~L
. . .

----
nsmg pnces siltation
- [\

I Environmental Degradation
I
1
Progressively Decreasing Number of Tourists
I I
Source: National Institute of Oceanography ofindia. I996b. Comments on the Coastal Zone Management Plans of
Goa. Report submitted to India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. New Delhi.