Social Science Vol 1 PDF

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
STANDARD TEN
SOCIAL SCIENCE
Vol- I
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
(Published under New Syllabus)
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possess all
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II

Table of Contents
History
Unit 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01
Unit 2 The World between two World Wars 19
Unit 3 World war II 34
Unit 4 The World after World War II 49
Unit 5 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 67
Geography
Unit 1 India - Location, Relief and Drainage 82
Unit 2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98
Unit 3 Components of Agriculture 112
Unit 4 Resources and Industries 132
Unit 5 India - Population, Transport, Communication and Trade 150
Civics
Unit 1 Indian Constitution 169
Unit 2 Central Government 180
Unit 3 State Government 195
Economics
Unit 1 Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction 210
Unit 2 Globalization and Trade 224
III

HOW TO USE THE BOOK
Learning Objectives
The scope of the lesson is presented
Introduction
The subject to be discussed in the lesson is Introduced
QR Code
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video aids for getting experiential learning
Do You Know?
Provides additional information related to the
subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students
Infographs
Visual representations intended to make the complex simple and
make the students grasp difﬁcult concepts easily
Fun with History

Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups
Summary
Describes the main points brieﬂy in bullets for recapitulation
Exercise
For self-study and self evaluation
Glossary
Key words and technical terms
explained at the end of the lesson for clarity
Reference
List of books and net sources for further reading
ICT Corner
Using technology for learning activites, which enables
the students to access degital sources relevant to their lessons.
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• Tap the QR code icon to scan QR codes in the textbook.
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IV

Unit - 1
Outbreak of
World War I and
Its Aftermath
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
The race for colonies leading to rivalry and clashes among the great powers of Europe
Emergence of Japan as the strongest and most aggressive power in East Asia
Colonialism's impact on Africa
Causes, course and results of the First World War
Treaty of Versailles and its provisions
Causes, course and outcome of the Russian Revolution
Foundation, functioning and failure of the League of Nations
Introduction 1.1 Scramble for Colonies

1914 is a turning point in world history. The Capitalist Countries’ Race for
political and social processes that began in 1789 Markets
culminated in the First World War that broke
The aim of capitalistic industry was
out in that year and decisively shaped the course
to produce more and more. The surplus
of the twentieth century. Historians therefore
wealth thus produced was used to build more
call this as ‘the long nineteenth century’. This
factories, railways, steamships and other such
was the first industrial war that drew on the
undertakings. Revolution in the means of
economic resources of the entire world, and also
communication and transportation in the latter
affected large sections of the civilian population.
half of the nineteenth century facilitated the
The political map of the world was redrawn.
process of European expansion in Africa and
Three major empires lay shattered by the end
other places.
of the War: Germany, Austria–Hungary, and
the Ottomans. The biggest outcome of the War Capitalism produced huge contrasts. The
was the Russian Revolution. It was a unique contrasts were: extreme poverty and extreme
event as well as the first revolution of its kind wealth, slum and skyscraper, empire-state and
in world history. For the first time, countries dependent exploited colony. A striking feature
tried to bring about world peace through the of nineteenth century was that Europe emerged
League of Nations. In this lesson, we discuss the as the dominant power while Asia and Africa
circumstances leading to the outbreak of the were colonized and exploited. Within Europe,
First World War and its repercussions, including England held a pre-eminent position as the
the Russian Revolution and the formation of an world leader of capitalism. An ever-growing
international peace organisation, namely the demand for markets and raw materials made
League of Nations.
1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

the capitalist powers race around the world for been colonised. Only Africa was left. The
expanding their empire for exploitation. occupation, division and colonisation of Africa
took place from 1881 to 1914. The industrial
Rise of Monopoly Capitalism achievements of Germany in the latter half of
After 1870, the alliance of industry and the nineteenth century gave her a dominating
finance seeking profits in markets for goods and position in Europe. But when Germany came
capital, which was an essential characteristic of on the scene the avenues of exploitation were
imperialism, became evident in the latter half limited, as the world was largely occupied by
of the nineteenth century. The old ideas of free the other imperialist powers. As there was
trade collapsed. There were trusts in the USA and nowhere else to expand, the imperialist powers
cartels in Germany. These powerful combines and tried to grab other’s possession. After 1870,
corporations dominated governments. England, France, Belgium, Italy and Germany
joined in the scramble for colonies.
A trust is an industrial organisation
engaged in the production or distribution Clashes amongst Great Powers
of any commodity. The trust would possess Despite the lead in industrial growth and
adequate control over the supply and price the control of a vast empire England was not
of that commodity to its own advantage. satisfied. England was in competition with
The term cartel refers to an association Germany and the United States, which were
based upon a contractual agreement producing cheaper manufactured goods and
between enterprisers in the same field of thus capturing England’s markets. National
business. The objective was to exercise a rivalry led to frequent clashes between these
monopolistic influence on the market. great powers in Asia and Africa and Europe.
Imperialism and its Essential The imperialist urge of the period is

Characteristics best illustrated by the following statement
of Cecil Rhodes, Imperialist Prime Minister
Capitalism inevitably led to imperialism. of South Africa, ‘The world is nearly all
According to Lenin, imperialism is the highest parcelled out, and what there is left of it is
stage of capitalism. Besides being a market being divided up, conquered, and colonised.
for surplus goods, colonies served another To think of these stars that you see overhead
purpose. Large-scale mass production at night, these vast worlds which we can
needed vast supplies of raw materials. never reach. I would annexe the planets if I
Rubber, oil, nitrates, sugar, cotton, tropical could; I often think of that. It makes me sad
foodstuffs, mineral, etc., were raw materials to see them so clear and yet so far.’
which were necessary to monopoly capitalists
everywhere. The need to control the sources
Asia: The Rise of Japan
of raw materials inevitably led to imperialism.
Imperialism was not just about colonies. It In Asia, Japan during this period
became a total system, the logic of which was (Meiji era from 1867 to 1912), imitating
total militarisation and total war. Western nations had become their equal in
many respects. Though the outlook of the
1.2 Rivalry of Great Powers rulers still remained feudal, Japan took to
Western education and machinery. With a
Europe modern army and navy, Japan had emerged
In the nineteenth century, European as an advanced industrialised power. In
powers had colonised many other countries. imperialistic aggressions also Japan followed
By1880, most of the Asian countries had the Europe. In 1894 she forced a war on
Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2

China. The crushing defeat of China by little Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan
Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
After 1905 Japan took control of Korean
surprised the world. Despite the warning
domestic and foreign policy. The assassination
of the three great powers Russia, Germany
of a prominent Japanese diplomat provided
and France – Japan annexed the Liaotung
the excuse in 1910 for Japan’s annexation
peninsula with Port Arthur. By this action
of Korea. The confusion in China following
Japan proved that it was the strongest nation
the downfall of the Manchu dynasty in 1912
of the East Asia.
provided Japan an opportunity for further
Japan, however, in view of the pressure expansion. Japan now demanded not only
mounted by European Powers, soon gave the transfer of German rights in Shantung to
up its claim over Port Arthur. Russia took Japan and the recognition of Japanese hold
advantage of this and sent a large army to over Manchuria, but the appointment of
Manchuria. Japan entered into an alliance Japanese advisers to the Chinese government.
with England in 1902 and demanded that This strong-arm diplomacy aroused the
Russia withdraw troops from Manchuria. hostility of both China and the European
Russia underestimated Japan. In 1904 the Powers.
war began between the two countries. In this
Russo-Japanese War, Japan defeated Russia Colonisation and its Fallout
and got back Port Arthur. After this War In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was
Japan entered the “charmed circle of the great under European rule. By 1900 practically
Powers”. the whole of Africa was colonised. Britain,
France and Belgium had divided the
THE WORLD WAR I W

N
E
S
AUSTRIA - HUNGARY
BELGIUM
RUSSIA
GREAT BRITAIN
CANADA
GERMANY
BOSNIA
FRANCE
SERBIA
ITALY TURKEY JAPAN
MOROCCO GREECE
LEGEND INDIA
TRIPLE ENTENTE AFRICA
BRITISH EMPIRE
FRENCH EMPIRE
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA
GERMAN EMPIRE
ITALIAN EMPIRE
NEW ZEALAND
AUSTRO -
HUNGARIAN EMPIRE
OTHERS Not to Scale

continent between them, leaving a few areas Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was formed the
for Germany and Italy. Britain, France, Russia Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia.
and Germany also established “spheres of
influence” in China. Japan took over Korea Violent Forms of Nationalism
and Taiwan. France conquered Indo-China. With the growth of nationalism, the
The US took the Philippines from Spain, and attitude of “my country right or wrong I
Britain and Russia agreed to partition Iran. support it” developed. The love for one
The first European attempts to carve out country demanded hatred for another country.
colonies in Africa resulted in bloody battles. England’s jingoism, France’s chauvinism and
The French had to fight a long and bitter war Germany’s Kultur were militant forms of
to conquer Algeria and Senegal. The British nationalism, contributing decisively to the
lost to the Zulus (1879) and to the Sudanese outbreak of War.
Army (1884). The Italian army suffered a
Aggressive Attitude of German
devastating defeat at the hands of an Ethiopian
Emperor
army at Adowa (1896).
Emperor Kaiser
Causes, Course and Wilhelm II of Germany
1.3 was ruthlessly assertive
Results of World War I
and aggressive. The
(a) Causes Kaiser proclaimed that
Germany would be the
European Alliances and
leader of the world.
Counter-Alliances
The German navy was
In 1900 five of the European Great expanded. The sea being Kaiser Wilhelm II
Powers were divided into two armed camps. considered a preserve of England ever
One camp consisted of the Central Powers- since Napoleon’s defeat at Trafalgar (1805),
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Under Germany’s aggressive diplomacy and rapid
the guidance of Bismarck, they had formed the building of naval bases convinced Britain that
Triple Alliance in 1882. The understanding a German navy could be directed only against
was that Germany and Austria would help her. Therefore, Britain embarked on a naval
each other. The other camp consisted of race, which heightened the tension between
France and Russia. Their alliance was formed the two powers.
in 1894 with the promise of mutual help if
Germany attacked either of them. An isolated Hostility of France towards
Britain wanted to break her isolation and Germany
approached Germany twice but in vain. As France and Germany were old rivals.
Japan was increasingly hostile towards Russia, Bitter memories of the defeat of 1871 and loss
as France was the ally of Russia, it preferred to of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany rankled in
ally with Britain (1902). The Anglo-Japanese the minds of the French. German interference
Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance in Morocco added to the bitterness. The
with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over British agreement with France over Morocco
Morocco and Egypt. This resulted in the was not consented by Germany. So Kaiser
Entente Cordiale (1904). In return for letting Wilhelm II intentionally recognised the
the French have a free hand in Morocco, independence of the Sultan and demanded
France agreed to recognize the British an international conference to decide on the
occupation of Egypt. Britain subsequently future of Morocco.
reached an agreement with Russia over Persia,

Imperial Power Politics in the second half of the eighteenth century, Greeks
Balkans followed by others began to secede, one after
another, from Turkish control. Macedonia
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908,
had a mixed population. There were rivalries
an attempt at creating a strong and modern
among Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and later
government in Turkey, provided both Austria
Montenegro for the control of it. In March
and Russia with the opportunity to resume their
1912 they formed the Balkan League. The
activities in the Balkans. Austria and Russia met
League attacked and defeated Turkish forces
and agreed that Austria should annexe Bosnia and
in the first Balkan War (1912–13). According
Herzegovina, while Russia should have freedom
to the Treaty of London signed in May 1913
to move her warships, through the Dardanelles
the new state of Albania was created and the
and the Bosporus, to the Mediterranean. Soon
other Balkan states divided up Macedonia
after this, Austria announced the annexation of
between them. Turkey was reduced to the
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria’s action aroused
area around Constantinople.
intense opposition from Serbia. Germany gave
Austria firm support. Germany went to the extent
of promising that if Austria invaded Serbia and
in consequence Russia helped Serbia, Germany
would come to Austria’s assistance. The enmity
between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak
of war in 1914.
The Balkan Wars

Turkey was a powerful country in the Treaty of Bucharest
south west of Europe in the first half of
eighteenth century. The Ottoman empire The division of Macedonia, however, did
extended over the Balkans and across not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia
Hungary to Poland. The Empire contained and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated.
many non-Turkish people in the Balkans. The Second Balkan War ended with the signing
Both the Turks and their subjects of different of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.
nationalities in the Balkans indulged in the
most frightful massacres and atrocities. The Immediate Cause
Armenian genocide is a frightful example. The climax
to these events
in the Balkans
occurred in
Sarajevo in
Bosnia. On 28
June 1914 the
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand,
nephew and heir Franz Ferdinand
to Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
was assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb.
Austria saw in this an opportunity to eliminate
Taking advantage of the political and economic Serbia as an independent state. Germany
instability of the Turkish Empire from the thought that it should strike first. It declared

war on Russia on 1 August. Germany had no War in Western or French Front
quarrel with France, but because of the Franco-
Germany steamrolled and smashed the
Russian Alliance, the German army which was
resistance of the people of Belgium. On the
planning a war against both France and Russia
side of the Allies, the burden of the fighting
wanted to use the occasion to its advantage. The
fell on the French army. Within a month Paris
German violation of Belgian neutrality forced
seemed almost doomed.
Britain to enter War.
Battles of Tannenberg and Marne
(b) Course of the War
Meanwhile
Two Warring Camps
Russian forces
Central Powers
i n v a d e d
The warring nations were divided into East Prussia.
two. The Central powers consisted of Germany, G e r m a n y
Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Italy defeated them
which was earlier with Germany and Austria decisively. In Battle of Tannenberg
had left, as her attempt to recover Trentino in the battle of Tannenberg Russia suffered heavy
north east Italy, where Italians lived in majority losses. Yet this caused distraction and helped
but remained as part and parcel of Austria- to relieve the pressure on the western front
Hungary, was not supported by Germany. Italy The French army made all out efforts to drive
remained a neutral country when the War broke away the invading Germans. At the Battle of
out. But it decided to enter the War hoping to the Marne (early September 1914), the French
gain the territory in the north - east. Britain, succeeded in pushing back the Germans.
France and Italy signed the secret Treaty of Paris was thus saved. The battle of Marne is a
London in April 1915, by which Italy agreed memorable for trench warfare.
to enter the War against the Central Powers in
return for this territory after the War.
Tr e n c h
Allies Wa r f a r e :
Trenches or
Nine states that opposed the Central
ditches dug by
powers were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy,
troops enabled
the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania
soldiers to
and Greece. Romania and Greece declared
safely stand and
war on the Central Powers in 1916 and 1917
protect themselves from enemy fire. The typical
respectively but played little part in the war.
trench system in World War consisted of two
Most Americans wanted their country to
to four trench lines running parallel to each
remain neutral and so in the first three years
other. Each trench was dug in a type of zigzag
the United States gave only moral support and
so that no enemy, standing at one end, could
valuable material aid to Britain and France.
fire for more than a few yards down its length.
Tsar’s Abortive Attempts The main lines of trenches were connected to
for Peace each other and to the rear by a series of linking
trenches through which food, ammunition,
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia suggested to fresh troops, mail, and orders were delivered.
the Powers that they meet together to bring The sheer quantity of bullets and shells flying
about an era of universal peace. In response, through the air in the battle conditions of First
two Peace Conferences were held at The World War compelled soldiers to burrow into
Hague in Holland in 1899 and 1907 but in the soil to obtain shelter and survive.
vain. Russia fought on the side of the Allies.

Battle of Verdun Shantung. There was no war in the Far East.
Japan made use of the occasion to threaten
Between February and July 1916, the
China into ceding valuable concessions and
Germans attacked Verdun, the famous
privileges.
fortress in the French line. In the five-month
Battle of Verdun two million men took part In the Balkans
and half of them were killed. The British The Austro-German army in coordination
offensive against Germans occurred near the with Bulgaria crushed Serbia. Serbia came
River Somme. In this four-month Battle of under German rule. Rumania watched the
Somme Britain lost 20,000 men on the first course of the War and in August 1916 joined
day. The battle of Verdun, however, decided the Allies. Rumania also passed under Austro-
the fortunes of the War in favour of the Allies. German occupation.
War in Eastern or Russian front Fate of Colonies of Germany in Africa
In the eastern front, Russian troops The German colonies in western and
repeatedly defeated the Austrians. But the eastern Africa were also attacked by the Allies.
Russians were in turn defeated by the Germans. As these colonies were quite far from Germany
Russia had the worst trained and equipped army they could not receive any immediate help,
and therefore Russian losses were the greatest. and therefore surrendered to the Allies.
In 1917, the Tsarist regime in Russia was
Italy falls to Austrian onslaught
overthrown in a revolution. Russia wanted peace
and consequently it signed the Treaty of Brest- Italy formally joined the Allies in the
Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany. After war in May 1916. Italians were fighting with
this, the position of Germany became strong. the Austrians and continued to sustain their
It appeared as if the Allies were going to lose. resistance. But when the Germans came to
However, USA came to their rescue and played Austria’s help, the Italians collapsed.
the final decisive role in crushing Germany. Central Powers’ Victories
Minor Theatres of War The Central Powers successfully occupied
In the Middle East Belgium and a part of France in the north-
east, Poland, Serbia and Romania.
Turkey also fought on the side of the
central powers.Though Turkey met with The epicentre of the struggle was the
initial success and the Allies suffered western front and the seas. As the Allies
reverses, particularly in Mesopotamia and controlled the sea-routes, they cut off the
Gallipoli, ultimately Turkey was defeated.The supply of food and other material reaching
Turks tried to attack Suez Canal, but were the Central Powers. In Germany and Austria
repulsed. Britain attacked Turkey in Iraq, and women and children suffered from hunger
later in Palestine and Syria. In Arabia, taking and privation. Germany attacked England
advantage of the growing Arab nationalism by air. Bombs were thrown on London and
a revolt was engineered by a British Agent. places where there were major factories. Later
Britain attacked Turkey directly and tried to aeroplanes were used for targeting civilian
capture Constantinople. But the Turks put up population. The Germans introduced poison
a brave fight. gas and soon both sides resorted to its use.
Naval Battles and America’s
In the Far East
Entry into the War
China also joined the allies. Japan was
In 1916 a naval battle (Battle of Jutland)
able to capture the province of Kiauchau given
had taken place in the North Sea. The British
by the Germans to China in the province of

won the battle. Thereafter Germany started The Peace
their submarine warfare and their cruisers Conference opened
went roaming about, interfering with the in Paris in January
shipping of the Allies. One of these was the 1919, two months
famous Emden, which bombarded Madras. As after the signing
a counter measure to the blockade the Germans of the armistice.
proclaimed in January 1917 that they would Woodrow Wilson
sink even neutral ships in certain waters. This (USA), L loyd
meant that all ships in British waters, whether George (Prime
owned by countries involved in the War or Minister of England)
not, would be targets for German submarines. and Clemenceau
Lusitania, an American ship, was torpedoed (Prime Minister of A News paper
by a German submarine. There was a lot of France) played a Report
resentment in the USA and President Wilson very important part in the deliberations.
declared war against Germany in April 1917. Faced with a threat of a renewed war, the
America’s entry with its enormous resources German government was forced to agree to
made Allied victory a foregone conclusion. the terms. On 28 June, 1919 the peace treaty
was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
Provisions of the Treaty

1. Germany was found guilty of starting the War
and therefore was to pay reparations for the
Emden Sinking of Lusitania losses suffered. The Reparation Commission
G e r m a n set up for deciding the compensation
submarines were decided on 6,600 million pounds to be paid
extremely effective. in instalments. All Central Powers were
During March and directed to pay war indemnity.
April 1917 about six German Submarine 2. The German army was to be limited to
hundred merchant ships were sunk. 100,000 men. A small navy was allowed,
but there were to be no submarines and
(c) The Armistice and Treaty of no air force.
Versailles 3. The union of Austria and Germany was
forbidden and Germany was to acknowledge
Germany ultimately surrendered in
and respect the Independence of Austria.
November 1918. The armistice took effect
from 11 November 1918. Germany was forced 4. Germany was forced to give up all
to accept harsh terms by the political situation the rights and titles over her overseas
at home with the abdication of the Kaiser. possessions to the allies. All German
colonies became mandated territories
Peace Conference in Paris under the League of Nations.
5. Germany was forced to revoke the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (with Russia) and
Bucharest (Bulgaria).
6. Alsace–Lorraine was returned to France.
7. The former Russian territories of Finland,
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be
Paris Peace Conference independent

8. Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark 6. Italy was much disappointed at the peace
and some small districts to Belgium. settlement. Despite suffering heavily she
9. Poland was recreated with a corridor to was given merely small places such as
the Baltic containing the German port of Trieste, Istria and the south Tyrol.
Danzig which was to be a free city under 7. The population of Europe was so mixed that
the auspices of League of Nations. it was impossible to draw up clear national
10. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the frontiers with ethnic homogeneity. Finally,
Allies. The area on the east bank of the the settlement created many national
Rhine was to be demilitarized. minorities within states. Countries gave
promises to respect the rights of minorities.
President Wilson laid down his Fourteen
But often relations turned bitter.
Points, which were to be followed by the Allies.
The most important one he highlighted was Separate treaties were drawn up and
the need for ‘a general association of nations signed by the Allies with Austria, Hungary,
for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees Bulgaria and Turkey. The Treaty with Turkey
of political independence and territorial (Treaty of Sevres), though accepted by the
integrity to great and small states like’. One of Sultan, failed because of the resistance of
his interesting points was an opportunity to Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his followers.
Russia ‘for the independent determination of
Fallout of the First World War
her own political development and national
policy, and assistance also of every kind that The First World War left a deep impact
she may need or desire.’ on European society and polity. Through
conscription, and through air raids, the War
Criticism of the Peace Settlement had involved and affected far more of the
1. The defeated powers were absent from population than in the past. In the whole of
negotiations. The peace settlement, a the previous century, from the Napoleonic
dictated one, was based on the principle, Wars to the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913,
‘to the victor belongs the spoils and the Europe had lost fewer than 4.5 million men.
allies are the victors’. Now, at least 8 million had died in four years,
2. Self-determination was the principle, which while more than twice as many were wounded,
was one of the fourteen points of Woodrow and many crippled for life. Millions more
Wilson for restoring peace, applied to all had succumbed to the worldwide influenza
the peoples except the German. of 1918. The outcome, in all countries, was
3. The reparation of 6,600 million pounds imbalance between the sexes—a shortage
was beyond Germany’s capacity to pay. of men. Soldiers came to be placed above
4. Germany was weakened, politically and civilians. Aggressive war propaganda and
economically. But instead of having the large national honour occupied centre stage in the
Russian and Austro–Hungarian empires on public sphere. Popular support grew in favour
her eastern frontier, she was now bordered of dictatorship in state governance.
by small weak and new states. The War and its aftermath turned out to be
5. Wilson betrayed the Germans and a stirring period of history. The most striking of
Austrians to whom he had made all was the rise and consolidation of the Soviet
promises. In 1920 the United States took Union, the U.S.S.R or the Union of Socialist and
to a policy of isolation, when the Senate Soviet Republics, as it was called. The United
refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. States of America escaping all the troubles
Only a greatly weakened France, with the the Western Europe had to suffer prospered
qualified support of Britain, was left to
exceedingly in the post-War years. America
face Germany’s potential strength.

entered the War as a debtor country but it too had their impact on India, such as the
emerged as the money-lender to the world in revolution in Russia. The defeat of Turkey in
the aftermath of the War. World War I and the severe terms of the Treaty
Another outstanding event of this period of Sevres signed thereafter undermined the
was the awakening of the colonies and their position of Sultan of Turkey as Khalifa. Out of
inspired attempts to gain freedom. In Asia and the resentment was born the Khilafat Movement.
Africa powerful movements and in some places India and Indians had taken an active part
even rebellions against Western imperialism in the War believing that Britain would reward
became order of the day. India's loyalty. But only disappointment was
Turkey’s rebirth as a nation thanks to in store.Thus the War had multiple effects on
the role played by Mustafa Kemal Pasha was Indian society, economy and polity.
remarkable. Kemal Pasha modernised Turkey
and changed it out of all recognition. He put Russian Revolution
1.4
an end to the Sultanate and the Caliphate. The and its Impact
support of the Soviet Union was of great help
to him. Introduction
All the struggles for freedom in Asia and The biggest outcome
Africa illustrated how the new spirit abroad of the War, the Russian
was affecting the minds of men and women in revolution, was unique in
distant countries of the East simultaneously. world history. The socio-
The War gave a great fillip to the women’s political and economic
movement in the West and the East. conditions prevailing in
Russia were brought to a
Impact on India head by the vast losses and sufferings caused
The First World War had a significant by the War. There were really two revolutions
impact on India. Even though Europe was the in the year 1917, one in March and the other
main theatre of the War, fighting took place in in November. On the abdication of the Tsar
others parts of the world as well. The British the bourgeois government which followed,
recruited a vast contingent of Indians to serve in wanted to continue the war. But the people
Europe, Africa and West Asia. After the War, the were against it. So there was a second great
soldiers came back with new ideas which had an uprising under the guidance their leader
impact on the Indian society. India contributed Lenin, who seized power and established a
£ 230 million in cash and over £ 125 million in communist government in Russia.
loans towards war expenses. India also sent war
materials to the value £ 250 million. This caused Causes of the Revolution
enormous economic distress. There were grain Social Causes
riots as poor people looted shops. Towards the
In Russia Peter the Great and Catherine
end of the War India too suffered under the
II attempted westernisation without changing
world-wide epidemic of influenza. (£ - symbol
the social conditions. The Russian peasants
of Pound sterling)
were serfs tied to lands owned by wealthy
The War conditions led to the rise of Home Russians. After Russia’s defeat in the Crimean
Rule Movement in India. The Congress was War, some reforms were introduced. In 1861
reunited during the war. Western revolutionary Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom and
ideas influenced the radical nationalists and so the emancipated the serfs. But they were not
British tried to suppress the national movement given enough land to subsist. These peasants
by passing repressive acts. International events became the powder keg for the revolution.

The labourers and workers whose number and violence in which the governor-general of
had increased on account of industrialisation Moscow, an uncle of the Tsar, was killed by a
were aggrieved as they got very low wages. bomb. Nicholas was forced to grant a constitution
and establish a parliament, the Duma. This was
Role of Revolutionaries no longer satisfactory to the left-wing parties that
The spread of revolutionary ideas among formed a Soviet (council) of worker's delegates in
the intelligentsia and their repression by the St Petersburg, led by Trotsky. Similar Soviets were
Tsar’s government made the socialistically set up in other cities. The Duma gave the middle
inclined students to carry their propaganda to classes, a voice in government. So the moderates
the peasantry. In course of time these students were supportive of the government’s policy, while
disillusioned with the outcome of their work the left wing continued their opposition.
with the peasants, took to “terrorism”. Yet the
revolutionary forces swelled, with the joining Opposition to Tsar and
of the many minority groups like Jews and Dissolution of Duma
Poles. Soon, based on the Marxist philosophy, The outbreak of the First World War had
new ideas began to take shape and a Social and temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as
Democratic Labour Party was formed. The Russia allied to France and Britain. As there
Marxists declared themselves against acts of was rumour of a palace revolution. Nicholas
terrorism. They believed that the working class made himself the Commander-in-Chief of
had to be roused to action, and only by such the army. At the end of 1916, Rasputin, who
mass action could they achieve their goal. had a domineering influence over the Tsar
and the Tsarina, was murdered by a member
Autocracy of the Tsar of the Tsar’s family. The members of the St.
Tsar Nicholas II Petersburg Soviet were arrested. Whenever
of Romanov dynasty the Duma opposed the Tsar’s move, it was
had little experience of dissolved and fresh elections held. Without
government. His wife change of government policy, the fourth
Tsarina Alexandra was Duma ended with the revolution of 1917.
a dominant personality
and Nicholas was under Popular Uprisings
her strong influence.
Nicholas mistrusted
most of his ministers Tsar Nicholas II
and he was surrounded by flatterers. Determined
that Russia should not be left out in the scramble
for colonial possessions, Nicholas encouraged
Russian expansion in Manchuria. This provoked
a war with Japan in 1904. The resulting Russian
defeat led to strikes and riots. On 23 January
1902 Father Gapon, a priest, organised a march
of men, women and children on the Tsar’s Revolution of 1917
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg demanding a
Even on 23 February 1917, when the
representative national assembly and agrarian
socialists celebrated International Working
and industrial reforms. But police and soldiers
Women’s Day on that day, the Tsar seemed
fired on the procession. Hundreds were killed and
unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on
many thousands wounded. The events of this day
the morning of 2 March. Though none called
(known as Bloody Sunday) led to riots, strikes
for strikes fearing that the time was not

ripe for militant action, the bread shortages in a workers’ council, or Soviet. The workers’
among women textile workers, many with delegates in the Soviet were influenced by the
husbands in the army, forced them to go underground left-wingers. Those in the Duma
on strike anyway and march through the were able to form a provincial government
factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the with the consent of the Soviets. The Soviet was
Russian Empire. Masses of women workers dominated by Mensheviks and the minority
demanding “Bread for workers” waved their Bolsheviks were timid and undecided. The
arms towards factory workers and shouted situation changed with the arrival of Lenin.
“Come out!” “Stop work!” The city’s 400,000
workers joined the movement the next day Lenin was born in
(24 February). 1870 near the Middle
Volga to educated parents.
Abdication of Tsar
Influenced by the ideas of
The government used the troops to break Karl Marx, Lenin believed
the strike. But soon mutinies broke out in the that the way for freedom
barracks. The Tsar ordered a declaration of was through mass action. Lenin
martial law. But his order was not broadcast He spent his time taking classes for study
in the city, as there was no one to do this job. groups of factory workers in St Petersburg
The Tsar then tried to return to Petrograd. on Marxism. He was arrested in 1895 and
The railway workers stopped his train. The kept in Siberia. The Social Democratic Party,
generals at the front and some leaders in split on the issue of organisation and strategy.
Petrograd, frightened by these developments Lenin gained the support of a small majority
pleaded with the Tsar to abdicate. On 15 (bolshinstvo), known as Bolsheviks, which
March, Nicholas II abdicated. became the Bolshevik Party. His opponents,
The revolutionary Tamil poet in minority (menshinstvo), were called
Bharathiyar cheerfully welcomed the Mensheviks.
revolution in Russia by penning these
poetic lines….. Failure of Provisional Government
The Mother Great, the Power supreme, Lenin was in Switzerland when the
Turned her glance benign towards Russia, revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued
The Revolution of the Age, revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the Soviets’
soon won over the workers’ leaders. Devastated
Behold the wonder, rises high
by war time shortages, the people were attracted
The tyrant howling falls down limp, by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace and Land.’ But
The shoulders of the heavenly gods, the Provisional government made two grave
Are swelling now with joy and pride, mistakes. First, it postponed a decision on the
Eyes hot with unshed tears, the demons, demand for the redistribution of land and the
Perish. O people of the world, other was government decided to continue with
the war. Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted
Behold this mighty change!
their posts and joined those who had resorted
to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in
Provisional Government
Petrograd led by Bolsheviks. The government
There were two parallel bodies to take banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks.
on government functions. One was of the Trotsky was also arrested. Kerensky became
bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma, Prime Minister leading a new coalition of
comprising propertied classes. On the other liberals and moderate Socialists. Faced with an
there were workers’ delegates drawn together

attempted coup Kerensky tried in September to Pravda is a Russian word meaning “Truth”.
dismiss both the government and the Soviet. It was the official newspaper of the
Takeover by the Bolshevik Party Communist Party of the Soviet Union from
under Lenin’s leadership 1918 to 1991.
In October Lenin persuaded the
Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on 1.5 League of Nations
immediate revolution. Trotsky prepared
a detailed plan. On 7 November the key Structure and Composition
government buildings, including the Winter The Covenant of the League was worked
Palace, the Prime Minister’s headquarters, out at the Paris Peace Conference and included
were seized by armed factory workers and in each of the treaties that were signed after
revolutionary troops. On 8 November 1917 the First World War. It was largely due to
a new Communist government was in office the pressure from President Wilson that this
in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin. The task was accomplished. In drawing up the
Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian constitution of this organization, the ideas of
Communist Party. Britain and America prevailed.
Outcome of the Revolution The League consisted of five bodies:
the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat,
The Russian Communist Party
the Permanent Court of Justice, and the
eliminated illiteracy and poverty in Russia
International Labour Organisation. Each
within a record time. Russian industry and
member-country was represented in the
agriculture developed remarkably. Women
Assembly. It discussed general policy and
were given equal rights, including rights to
any decision taken in the Assembly had to be
vote. Industries and banks were nationalised.
unanimous. The Council was the executive of
Land was announced as social property.
the League. Britain, France, Italy, Japan and
Land was distributed to poor peasants. Lenin
the United States were originally declared
thought the most important factor for the
permanent members of the Council. Each
fall of Provisional government was its failure
member had one vote and since all decisions
to withdraw from World War. So Lenin
had to be unanimous, even the small nations
immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful
possessed the right of veto.
of the harsh terms dictated by the Central
Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from The secretariat of the League of Nations
the War to concentrate on the formation of was located at Geneva. Its first Secretary
new government. In March 1918 the Treaty of General was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain.
Brest– Litovsk was signed. The staff of the secretariat was appointed by
the Secretary General in consultation with
Global Influence of the Russian the Council. The International Court of
Revolution Justice was set up in The Hague. The court
The revolution fired people’s imagination was made of fifteen judges. The International
across the world. In many countries, communist Labour Organisation comprised a secretariat
parties were formed. The Russian communist and general conference which included four
government encouraged the colonies to fight representatives from each country.
for their freedom. Debates over key issues,
land reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights,
and gender equality started taking place in a
global context.

Objectives of the League disarmament. In 1925 the Council of the League
set up a commission to hold a Disarmament
The two-fold objective of the League of
Conference to sort out the problem. But the
Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace
proposed conference materialised only in
in the world and to promote international
February 1932. In this Conference, Germany’s
cooperation in economic and social affairs.
demand of equality of arms with France was
The League intended to act as conciliator
rejected. In October Hitler withdrew Germany
and arbitrator and thereby resolve a dispute
from the Conference and the League.
in its early stages. If wars should break out
despite arbitration, the members should apply Japan attacked Manchuria in September
sanctions to the aggressor first economic and 1931 and the League condemned Japan. So
then military. Japan also followed the example of Germany
and resigned from the League. In the context
The difficulty in achieving the objectives
of Italy’s attack on Ethiopia, the League applied
was increased from the beginning by the
sanctions. As the sanctions came into effect, Italy
absence of three Great Powers namely USA (did
resigned from the League in 1937. Thereafter
not become a member), Germany (a defeated
the League was a passive witness to events,
nation) and Russia. The latter two joined in
taking no part in the crises over the Rhineland,
1926 and 1934. While Germany resigned in
Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. The last
1933, Russia was expelled in 1939.
decisive action it took was in December 1939
Activities of the League when Russia was expelled for her attack on
Finland. The Assembly did not meet again and
The League was called in to settle a number the League of Nations was finally dissolved in
of disputes between 1920 and 1925. The League 1946.
was successful in three issues. In 1920 a dispute
arose between Sweden and Finland over the Causes of Failure
sovereignty of the Aaland Islands. The League The League appeared to be an organisation
ruled that the islands should go to Finland. In the of those who were victorious in the First World
following year the League was asked to settle the War. Though it had a world-wide membership,
frontier between Poland and Germany in Upper it became very much the centre of European
Silesia, which was successfully resolved by the diplomacy.
League. The third dispute was between Greece
The unanimity of members was required for
and Bulgaria in 1925. Greece invaded Bulgaria,
all its decisions on political issues. Since it lacked
and the League ordered a ceasefire. After
the military power of its own, it could not enforce
investigation it blamed Greece and decided that
its decisions.
Greece was to pay reparations. Thus the League
The founders of this peace organisation
had been successful until signing of the Locarno
underestimated the power of nationalism. The
Treaty in 1925. By this treaty, Germany, France,
principle of “collective security’ could not be
Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy mutually
applied in actual practice.
guaranteed peace in Western Europe. Thereafter
Germany joined the League and was given a When Italy, Japan and Germany, headed
permanent seat on the Council. After two years by dictators, refused to be bound by the orders
the US and Russia began to participate in the of the League, Britain and France were the only
non-political activities of the League. major powers to act decisively. But they were not
enthusiastic supporters of the League, as it was
Violations the brainchild of Wilson who could not even
One of the major problems confronting convince his country to join the League.
the European powers was how to achieve

SUMMARY
Capitalistic countries’ ever growing demand for markets and raw materials leading to scramble
for colonies and the resultant clashes amongst great powers in Europe are discussed.
Rise of Japan as an Imperial Power in Asia is highlighted
Division of Europe into two warring camps and the resultant alliances and counter-alliances
are detailed.
Important factors responsible for the outbreak of World War I such as growth of violent forms
of Nationalism, aggressive attitude of Germany, France’s hostility towards Germany for the loss
of its territories, Alsace and Lorrain, power politics in Balkans are explained.
Conduct of War in Western, Eastern Fronts and in minor theatres of War is described.
America’s entry into the War in the context of launch of submarine battles by Germany and the
decisive victory won by the Allies are outlined.
Paris Peace Conference and the provisions of Versailles Treaty are analysed.
Fallout of the First World War, with focus on Russian Revolution causes, course and impact are
elaborated.
First world peace organisation the League of Nations and its role in preventing wars and
promoting peace are critically examined.
GLOSSARY
skyscraper tall building of many stories பலமாடிகள் க�ொண்ட உயரமான கட்டிடம்
monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை
devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு
jingoism blind patriotism, especially in the pursuit கண்மூடித்தனமான நாட்டுப்பற்று

of aggressive foreign policy
chauvinism extreme patriotism அதிதீவிரப்பற்று
kultur thinking highly of German civilization ஜெர்மானியக் கலாச்சாரத்தை மிக

and culture உயர்வாக நினைப்பது
trench a long narrow ditch பதுங்குக் குழி
repulse drive back எதிரியை விரட்டிஅடித்தல்
torpedo attack or sink (a ship) with a torpedo மூழ்கடி
reparation compensation இழப்பீடு
homogeneity the quality or state of being homogenous ஓரினத்தன்மை

bourgeois characteristic of the middle class, typically முதலாளித்துவ
with reference to its perceived materialistic
values or conventional attitudes
intelligentsia intellectuals or highly educated people அறிவுஜீவிகள், நுண்ணறிவாளர்கள்
as a group, especially when regarded as
possessing culture and political influence
persuade cause (someone) to do s omething வற்புறுத்து
through reasoning or argument

2. The new state of Albania was created
according to the Treaty of _____________
EXERCISE signed in May 1913.
3. Japan entered into an alliance with
I. Choose the England in the year _____________.
correct answer 4. In the Balkans _____________ had mixed
1. What were the three major empires shattered population.
by the end of First World War? 5. In the battle of Tannenberg _____________
a) Germany, Austria Hungary, and the suffered heavy losses.
Ottomans 6. _____________ as Prime Minister
b) Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia represented France in Paris Peace
c) Spain, Portugal and Italy Conference.
d) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy 7. _____________ became Prime Minister
2. Where did the Ethiopian army defeat the leading a new coalition of liberals
Italian army? and moderate Socialists before Lenin
a) Delville b) Orange State established the Bolshevik government.
c) Adowa d) Algiers 8. Locarno Treaty was signed in the year
3. Which country emerged as the strongest in _____________.
East Asia towards the close of nineteenth
III. Choose the correct statement
century?
a) China b) Japan 1. i) Italy remained a neutral country when
c) Korea d) Mongolia the World War broke out.
4. Who said “imperialism is the highest ii) Italy was much disappointed over the
stage of capitalism”? peace settlement at Versailles.
a) Lenin b) Marx iii) The Treaty of Sevres was signed with Italy.
c) Sun Yat-sen d) Mao Tsetung iv) Italy was denied even small places such
5. What is the Battle of Marne remembered for? as Trieste, Istria and the south Tyrol.
a) air warfare b) trench warfare a) i) and ii) are correct
c) submarine warfare d) ship warfare b) iii) is correct
c) iv) is correct
6. Which country after the World War I took
d) i), iii) and iv) are correct
to a policy of isolation?
a) Britain b) France 2. i) The Turkish Empire contained many
c) Germany d) USA non-Turkish people in the Balkans.
ii) Turkey fought on the side of the central
7. To which country did the first Secretary
powers
General of League of Nations belongs?
iii) Britain attacked Turkey and captured
a) Britain b) France
Constantinople
c) Dutch d) USA
iv) Turkey’s attempt to attack Suez Canal but
8. Which country was expelled from the were repulsed.
League of Nations for attacking Finland? a) i) and ii) are correct
a) Germany b) Russia b) i) and iii) are correct
c) Italy d) France c) iv) is correct
II. Fill in the blanks d) i), ii) and iv) are correct
1. Japan forced a war on China in the year 3. Assertion: Germany and the United States
_____________. were producing cheaper manufactured
goods and capturing England’s markets.

Reason: Both the countries produced 2. German Emperor
required raw material for their industries. a) What was the nature of Emperor Kaiser
a) Both A and R are correct Wilhelm II of Germany?
b) A is right but R is not the correct reason b) What was the violent form of Germany
c) Both A and R are wrong called?
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A. c) Why did Kaiser Wilhelm intervene in
4. Assertion: The first European attempts the Morocco affair?
to carve out colonies in Africa resulted in d) What happened to Germany’s colonies
bloody battles. in Africa?
Reason: There was stiff resistance from the 3. Balkan Wars
native population. a) Why was Balkan League formed?
a) Both A and R are correct b) What was the outcome of the first
b) A is right but R is not the correct reason Balkan War?
c) Both A and R are wrong c) Who were defeated in this war?
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A. d) What was the name of the Treaty signed
IV. Match the following at the end of this second Balkan War?
1 Treaty of Brest- Litovsk - Versailles VII. Answer the following in detail
2 Jingoism - Turkey
Russia with 1. Discuss the main causes of the First World War.
3 Kemal Pasha -
Germany 2. Highlight the provisions of the Treaty of
4 Emden - England Versailles relating to Germany.
5 Hall of Mirrors - Madras 3. Explain the course of the Russian
V. Answer briefly Revolution under the leadership of Lenin.
1. How do you assess the importance of 4. Estimate the work done by the League of
Sino-Japanese War? Nations, pointing out the reasons for its failure?
2. Name the countries in the Triple Entente. VIII. Activity
3. What were the three militant forms of
nationalism in Europe? 1. Students can be taught to mark the places
4. What do you know of trench warfare? of battles and the capital cities of the
5. What was the role of Mustafa Kemal countries that were engaged in the War.
Pasha? 2. An assignment or a project work on the role of
6. Highlight the global influence of Russian Indian soldiers in different battle fields across
Revolution? the globe and the casualties they suffered
7. List out any two causes for the failure of during the War be attempted by the students.
the League of Nations. IX. Map Work
VI. Answer all the questions
Mark the following countries on the world
given under each caption
map.
1. Imperialism 1. Great Britain 2. Germany
a) What do you know of monopoly 3. France 4. Italy
capitalism? 5. Morocco 6. Turkey
b) How did Japan emerge as an imperial 7. Serbia 8. Bosnia
power? 9. Greece 10. Austria-Hungary
c) Why did the industrial countries need 11. Bulgaria 12. Rumania
colonies in the nineteenth century?
d) What were the contrasts capitalism
produced?

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.D. Cormvell, World History in the Twentieth Century, London: Longman, 1972
2. David Thomson, Europe since Napoleon, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990
3. Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of extremes, 1914 – 1991, London: Abacus, 1994.
4. Hew Strachan, The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2014).
Timeline
• 1914 - Outbreak of World War I
• 1917 - Russian Revolution
• 1918 - End of the World War I
• 1919 - Treaty of Versailles
• 1920 - Establishment of League of Nation
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you will learn

about Time Line Events of World
War -I
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Click on ‘Learn’ in menu and Select ‘Interactive Timeline’
• Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events
Website URL:
https://www.theworldwar.org/

Unit - 2
The World
between Two
World Wars
Learning Objectives
 T he post-World War I developments leading to the Great Depression,
and its impact on politics across the world.
 T he unjust provisions of Treaty of Versailles and the rise of fascist
governments led by Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany.
 A nti-colonial struggles and the decolonisation process in the colonized world: Case
Studies of Indo-French in South-East Asia and India in South Asia.
 E uropean Colonisation in Africa – The case of Britain in South Africa.
 I ndependence struggles and political developments in South America
Introduction But they had to soon confront their protector

turned exploiter, the USA.
The First World War shattered the
global capitalist system based on European As we saw in the last chapter, the crisis in
imperialism. The European powers were the Western world had led to the outbreak of
gravely weakened by the War, financially World War I. We now turn to the social and
and politically. The trade and financial political developments in the world after the
imbalances left by the war and the harsh peace end of the War.
that followed created instabilities throughout
the 1920s. The conflict between the workers 2 The Great Depression
and the ruling classes that controlled the
Developments in the
government became intense. As a result of 2.1
this Fascism emerged in Italy and Germany. post-World War I
Anti-colonial struggles got intensified as the The First World War led to the expansion
colonial powers were weakened by the War. of certain industries in the hope that the war-
The Soviet Union’s role in extending solidarity time boom would continue. However, when
to the struggling nationalist movements also the War came to an end, the industries that
went a long way in accelerating the process of grew to meet war-time requirements had to be
decolonisation in Asia. It was the high noon abandoned or modified. Huge stocks had to be
of imperialism in Africa during the inter-war disposed off and large numbers of workers had
period. In contrast, the independence to the to be sacked. This bred dissatisfaction among
Latin American countries had occurred even the working classes. The situation was made
before the first half of nineteenth century. worse by the political complications caused
19 The World between Two World Wars

by the Treaty of Versailles. A new wave of Breakdown of the International
economic nationalism which expressed itself System of Exchange
in protectionism or in tariff barriers affected
Despite emergency measures such
world trade. The war also placed a heavy
as cutbacks in expenditure and increased
burden of debt on every European country.
taxation, the situation did not improve in
Withdrawal of American Capital England. So England decided to leave the
Gold Standard. Immediately a great number
At the end of the World War I, America of countries left the gold standard. Each
was financially in a sound position. As the nation adopted a policy of protectionism and
moneylender to the world America encouraged devaluation of currency. Devaluation forced
the flow of capital into Europe, which helped the creditors to stop lending. This led to a world-
European debtor countries. The capital outflow wide credit contraction. Thus the defensive
also found outlet in new investments. But these measures adopted by various nations to
investments yielded profits only after a period. In safeguard their economic interests led to an
the meantime, a slump in the U.S. economy forced unprecedented decline in world economic
the government to impose restrictions on the activity. As its effect was deep and prolonged
export of capital. This resulted in a steep decline in economists and historians call it the Great
the volume and value of exports all over the world. Depression.
Stock Market Crash in the US Repercussion in Politics
The withdrawal of American capital was The Depression changed the political
aggravated by the US market crash in 1929. The conditions in several countries. In England,
first huge crash occurred on 24 October 1929. the Labour Party was defeated in the general
This discouraged investors and consumers to elections of 1931. In the USA, the Republican
such an extent that more and more people began Party was rejected by the people in successive
to sell their shares and dispose of their stocks. elections for about twenty years after the
But there were no buyers. This was followed by Depression.
the failure of American banks. The American
financiers were forced to recall their own funds Gold Standard is a monetary system where a
invested abroad. The stoppage of loans to country’s currency or paper money carried
Germany by America led to the failure of two a value directly linked to gold. Countries in
large German banks. The Bank of England also the Gold Standard agreed to convert paper
found itself in bankruptcy. money into a fixed amount of gold.
Rise of Fascism and

2.2
Nazism
(a) The Impact of War in Italy
The first of the nations of Western Europe
to turn against the old ruling regime was Italy.
During World War I the primary task of Italy was
to keep the Austrians occupied on the Southern
Front, while the British, French and Americans
cornered Germany into submission along the
New York Stock Market Crash, 1929-30 battle lines in Flanders. The financial cost of the
participation in the War was huge. Moreover,
after the War, in the sharing of the spoils, Italy
The World between Two World Wars 20

got less than she expected. The country suffered was murdered. The
heavy losses in a war that was unpopular with opposition parties
both socialists and pro-Austrian Catholics. boycotted the
The nationalists were equally unhappy with the Parliament in protest.
marginal gain in territory from the Treaty of Mussolini reacted by
Versailles. The War resulted in inflation. There banning opposition
were frequent protests and strikes. People held parties and censoring
the rulers responsible for the humiliation at the press. Opposition
Versailles. leaders were killed
Mussolini
Emergence of Mussolini or imprisoned.
Assuming the title of Il Duce (the leader),
In the elections held November 1919 in in 1926 he became a dictator with power to
the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, Italian legislate. He passed a law forbidding strikes
socialists, proclaiming that they were following and lockouts. Unions and employers were
Bolshevism (Communism in Soviet Russia), organized into corporations which would
won about a third of the seats. Mussolini, son settle wages and working conditions. In 1938
of a blacksmith and qualified as an elementary Parliament was abolished and was replaced by
school master, in the end became a journalist with a body representing the Fascist Party and the
socialist views. A forceful speaker, Mussolini corporations. This new arrangement bolstered
began to support the use of violence and broke Mussolini’s dictatorial control of the economy,
with the socialists when they opposed Italy’s as well as enabling him to wield enormous
entry into the War. When the Fascist Party was power as head of the administration and the
founded in 1919 Mussolini immediately joined armed forces.
it. As Fascists stood for authority, strength and
discipline, support came from industrialists, Mussolini’s Pact with Pope
nationalists, ex-soldiers, the middle classes and In order to give respectability to the Fascist
discontented youth. The Fascists resorted to Party, Mussolini won over the Roman Catholic
violence freely. In October 1922, in the context Church by recognising the Vatican City as
of a long ministerial crisis, Mussolini organised an independent state. In return the Church
the Fascist March on Rome. Impressed by recognised the Kingdom of Italy. The Roman
the show of force, the King invited Mussolini Catholic faith was made the religion of Italy
to form a government. The inability of the and compulsory religious teaching in school
Democratic Party leaders to combine and act was ordered. The Lateran Treaty incorporating
with resolution facilitated Mussolini’s triumph. the said provisions was signed in 1929.
Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian Italy during the Great Depression
ultra-nationalism, characterised by
dictatorial power, forcible suppression of During the years of the Great Depression
opposition and strong regimentation of the much publicised public works of building
society and of the economy, which came to new bridges, roads and canals, hospitals
prominence in early 20th-century Europe. and schools did not provide solution to the
–Wikipedia. unemployment problem. In 1935, Mussolini
invaded Ethiopia. This was useful to divert
Fascists under Mussolini attention of the people away from the economic
troubles. Mussolini drew admiration from
In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of
ruling classes elsewhere in Europe. Among
the electors, 65 per cent of the votes were cast
them was a rising figure among nationalist,
for the Fascists. Matteotti, a socialist leader,
anti-Semitic circles in Munich was Adolf Hitler.
who questioned the fairness of the elections

(b) Germany in the post-War
From 1918 to 1993 Germany was a
republic. The factors which led to the eventual
triumph of Fascism in Germany were many.
Between 1871 and 1914 Germany had risen to
dizzy heights of economic, political and cultural
accomplishments. Germany’s universities, its
science, philosophy and music were known
all over the world. Germany had surpassed Hitler
even Britain and the US in several fields of
industrial production. As we saw in the earlier The Nazi State of Hitler
chapter this was at the root of the outbreak of Republican government fell, as the
the First World War. Then came the crushing Communists refused to collaborate with the
defeat in the First World War. The German Social Democrats. Thereupon industrialists,
people were demoralized. The reparations and bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President
other clauses in the Treaty of Versailles caused Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as
acute discontent and hardship. This was utilized Chancellor in 1933. The Nazi state of Hitler,
by reactionary forces to spread the idea that known as Third Reich, brought an end to the
Socialists and Jews had let down the nation, and parliamentary democracy.
had even caused the Germany’s defeat.
Hitler replaced the flag of the Weimar
Germany’s defeat and humiliation at the republic by the swastika banners of National
end of World War I caused a deep shock to the of Socialism. Germany was converted into a
German people. The Great Depression further highly centralised state. All political parties
deepened their frustration and prompted them except the Nazi party were declared illegal. The
to turn against the Republican government. army of brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-
Evolution of German Fascism troopers was expanded. The Hitler Youth was
created, and the Labour Front set up. Trade
The origin of German fascism goes back unions were abolished, their leaders arrested.
to 1919 when a group of seven men met in Strikes were made illegal, wages were fixed
Munich and founded the National Socialist by the government, and the Labour Front was
German Workers’ Party (abbreviated as Nazi used by the Nazis to control industry. Total state
Party). One of them was Adolf Hitler. Hitler had control was extended over the press, the theatre,
developed violent political biases against Jews. the cinema, radio and over education.
He associated Judaism with Marxism. During
World War I, he served in the Bavarian army. The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led
A gifted speaker, he could whip up the passion by Josef Goebbels, who manipulated public
of the audience. In 1923 Hitler attempted to opinion through planned propaganda. He once
capture power in Bavaria. His premature launch said, ‘any lie frequently repeated will ultimately
of the National Revolution on the outskirts of gain belief.’ The Gestapo or Secret State Police
Munich landed him in prison. During his time was formed and run by Himmler.
in prison wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), an Nazi Policy towards Jews
autobiographical book containing his political
ideas. In the Presidential election of 1932, the Along with the repressive measures, Hitler’s
Communist Party polled about 6,000,000 votes. government followed a policy of repressing
Alarmed capitalists and property owners tilted Jewish people. The Jews were removed from
towards supporting fascism Hitler exploited government positions, excluded from the
this opportunity to usurp powers. universities and deprived of citizenship.

Jewish businesses were closed down, and their Anti-Colonial
establishments were attacked. After the outbreak Movements and
of World War II concentration camps, barracks 2.3
Decolonisation
surrounded by electrified fences and watch
towers, were built where Jews were interred and Processes in Asia
used as forced labour. Later they were turned into
extermination camps where industrial means of Decolonisation is a process through which
murder such as gas chambers were used to kill colonial powers transferred institutional
them. It is estimated that about 6 million Jews in and legal control over their colonies to the
Europe were killed in what the Nazis termed ‘The indigenous nationalist governments.
Final Solution’. The Nazi state also exterminated
gypsies, and other itinerant communities, and
(a) French Indo-China
the mentally challenged.
Rise of Anti-Colonialism
Himmler’s second in command was
Heydrich, who was responsible for the Indo-China (today’s Cambodia, Laos
concentration camps. and Vietnam) had shown its discontent right
from the beginning of the French occupation
Defiance of the Treaty of (1887). While the Indo-Chinese resisted
Versailles the imposition of French language and
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and culture, they learned from them the ideas of
Hitler, apart from being Chancellor, became revolution. During the First World War about
both President and Commander–in-Chief of 100,000 Indo-Chinese fought in France and
the armed forces. Hitler’s foreign policy aimed returned with first-hand knowledge of how
at restoring the armed strength of Germany the French had fought and suffered during
and annulling provisions of Versailles Treaty. the War. Communist ideas from mainland
His deliberate attempts to breach the Treaty of China were also a major influence. Many
Versailles (discussed in the next lesson) led to became convinced that the considerable
the outbreak of Second World War. wealth of Indo-China was benefiting only
Social Democratic Party was founded as the General German Workers Association on 23
May 1863 in Leipzig. Founder was Ferdinand Lassalle. German elites of the late 19th century
considered the very existence of a socialist party a threat to the security and stability of the newly
unified Reich, and so Bismark outlawed this party from 1878 to 1890.
Despite laws prohibiting the party from holding meetings and distributing literature,
the Social Democratic Party attracted growing support. Following World War I, the Social
Democratic Party played a central role in the formation of the Weimar Republic. But the failure
to win favourable terms from the Allies and the country’s severe economic problems led to a drop
in people's support.
Although its core support among blue-collar workers remained intact, it lost support
among white-collar workers and small businessmen, many of whom switched their loyalty to the
conservatives and later to the Nazi Party. The Social Democratic Party was outlawed soon after
the Nazis came to power. The leading Social Democrats were arrested and sent to concentration
camps. However, in 1945, with the fall of Hitler, the Social Democratic Party was revived. It was
the only surviving party from the Weimar period with a record of opposition to Hitler.

the colonial power. At the turn of the (b) Decolonisation in India
twentieth century growing nationalism led Dyarchy in Provinces
to sporadic violent outbursts. In 1916 there
was a major anti-colonial revolt which was The decolonization process
crushed brutally. There were also guerrilla started in India from the beginning of
activities in Tongking, the place from where the twentieth century with the launch
Ho Chi Minh was to arrive. of the Swadeshi Movement in 1905. The
outbreak of the First World War brought
The Emergence of Viet Minh
about rapid political as well as economic
The mainstream
changes. In 1919, the Government of India
political party in
Act introduced Dyarchy that provided
Indo-China was the
Vietnam Nationalist for elected provincial assemblies as well
Party. Formed in as for Indian ministers to hold certain
1927, it was composed portfolios under Transferred Subjects. The
of the wealthy and Montague declaration read: ‘Increasing
middle class sections association of Indians in every branch
of the population. In of the administration and the gradual
1929 the Vietnamese development of self-government in India
soldiers mutinied, Ho Chi Minh as an integral part of the British Empire.
and there was a failed attempt to assassinate the This measure of the British government
French Governor-General. This was followed by a was “to buy the political peace needed to
large scale peasant revolt led by the Communists. expand the tax base.” The Indian National
The revolt was crushed followed by what is called Congress rejected Dyarchy and decided to
“White Terror.” Thousands of rebels were killed.
boycott the legislature.
After the White Terror, Ho Chi Minh left
for Moscow and spent the 1930s in Moscow and Lack of Measures to Industrialise
China. When France was defeated by Germany India
in 1940, Ho Chi Minh and his lieutenants used Despite the discriminating protection
this turn of events to advance the Vietnamese given to certain select industries such as
cause. Crossing over the border into Vietnam in sugar, cement, and chemicals, there was
January 1941, they organized the League for the no change in the colonial economic policy.
Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh. This Incentives were provided for the British iron
gave renewed emphasis to a distinct Vietnamese and steel industry by guaranteeing purchasing
nationalism. contracts. But in the case of indigenous
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) was born in Tongking. When Ho Chi Minh was twenty one, he
went to Europe. After working as a cook in a London hotel, he went to Paris. In the Paris
peace conference, he lobbied for the independence for Vietnam. His articles in newspapers
and especially the pamphlet, French Colonialism on Trial, made him well known as a Vietnam
nationalist. In 1921 he became a founder-member of the French Communist party. Two years
later he went to Moscow and learnt revolutionary techniques then. In 1925, he founded the
Revolutionary Youth Movement. After the peasant revolt he led was crushed in 1930, he went
to Moscow again. Inspired by Mao Tse Tung, he returned to Indo-China after the Japanese
invaded it organized the communists and carried on his anti-colonial struggle. He also played
an inspirational role leading the war against the USA.

industries, support was only in the form of Impact of Depression on Indian
providing “technical advice and education, Agriculture
and the establishment of pioneer factories in The ‘Great Depression’ also dealt a
new industries”. However, even this policy was death blow to Indian agriculture and the
soon abandoned as many British enterprises indigenous manufacturing sector. The value
were opposed to this . of farm produce, declined by half while the
land rent to be paid by the peasant remained
India in the days of Great
unchanged. In terms of prices of agricultural
Depression
commodities, the obligation of the farmers
The ‘Great Depression’ of 1929 had to the state doubled. Farmers and Indian
a disastrous impact on British trade and manufacturers therefore had to sell their
business. Foreign investment declined, gold and silver reserves to subsist. The great
particularly in the heavy industry sector like fall in prices prompted Indian nationalists
railway building. For the colonial government to demand protection for the internal
the expansion of trade was the only ideal economy. The 1930s saw the emergence of the
mode of economy, as it guaranteed easy Indian National Congress as a militant mass
access to indirect tax revenue (for example: movement. The call given by the Congress
custom duties) and foreign currency. Britain for a Civil Disobedience Movement, evoked
transmitted the effects of Depression to its tremendous response in rural India. Left
colonies. Bilateral trade treaties between radicalism was also very much in evidence.
Britain and the member states of the British
Empire were signed at an economic summit
in Ottawa in 1932, in which the participants
(including India) agreed to give preference to
imperial (British) over non-imperial goods.
Gandhi’s Dandi Yatra

Government of India Act, 1935
The British had to appease the Indian
Delegates in Ottawa Conference 1932 nationalists and the outcome was the passage
of the Government of India Act, 1935. This
India was forced to adhere to the policy
provided for greater power to the local
of balancing the budget. The government
governments and the introduction of direct
of British India also raised revenue tariffs
elections. In the 1937 elections the Congress
mainly to gain foreign currency. Britain’s
won a resounding victory in most of the
need for gold in the crisis years was met from
provinces. However the decision of Britain to
the export of gold from India. By overvaluing
involve India in the Second World War, without
Indian currency, the British made imports
consulting the popular Congress ministries,
cheaper. The currency exchange policy fuelled
forced the latter to resign from office.
tensions between the colonial government
and its subjects, and intensified the political
agitation against British rule.

The Boer War lasted for three years,
Anti-Colonial
2.4 1899-1902. Initially, the Boers were
Movements in Africa successful. But by the first half of 1900,
Colonisation of Africa the Boer army was defeated. Pretoria was
The African coastline had been explored occupied. The Boers took to guerrilla
in the sixteenth century and a few European fighting. This continued for about two years.
settlements had come about. But the interior In retaliation the British destroyed farms
of Africa was unknown to the outside world and crops. They set up internment camps for
until the last quarter of nineteenth century. Boer women and children. Shortage of food,
European colonisation began after about medical and sanitary facilities caused the
1875. The Berlin Colonial Conference of death of 26,000 people. The British annexed
1884–85 resolved that Africa should be the two Boer states. Boers were however
divided into spheres of influence of various promised self-government in due course. In
colonial powers. The war between the British 1907 full responsible government was given
and Boers in South Africa, however, was in to the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
defiance of this resolution. The four states formed into a union and
the South Africa Act passed by the British
Boer Wars parliament in 1909 provided for a Union
Parliament at Cape Town. The Union of
South Africa came into being in May 1910.
The descendents of original Dutch settlers of

South Africa, also known as Afrikaners, were
called Boers. Their language is Afrikaans.
Nationalist Politics in South Africa

There were two main political parties:
the Unionist Party which was mainly British,
and the South Africa Party which had largely
Boer War Afrikaners (Boers). The first Prime Minister,
Botha belonged to the South Africa Party
The relations between the two British
ruled in cooperation with the British. But
colonies of Natal and Cape Colony and the
a militant section of the South Africa Party
two independent Boer states of the Transvaal
formed the National Party under Herzog.
and the Orange Free State had long been
Herzog wanted a twin policy of supremacy
unfriendly. The discovery of gold in Transvaal,
of Whites over Blacks and Afrikaners over
in 1886, led to large numbers of British
British. In the 1920 elections the National
miners settling in and around Johannesburg.
Party gained forty-four seats. The South
The Boers hated these people whom they
Africa Party, now led by Smuts, secured
referred to as Uitlanders (foreigners). The
forty-one seats. At this juncture the British-
Boers taxed them heavily apart from denying
dominated Unionist Party merged with
political rights. So the question was whether
the South Africa Party. This gave Smuts
the British or the Boers were to be supreme
a majority over the militant Afrikaner-
in South Africa. Fearing attacks from the
controlled National Party.
British, the Boers armed themselves and
decided to attack.

Racist Policy against the Blacks Dominion Status for South Africa
The Afrikaners South Africa had gained Dominion
pursued a harsher, Status, and thus had full control over foreign
racist policy towards policy. The world economic depression
the blacks and the brought unemployment and bankruptcy.
minority Indians. In Labour withdrew its support given to
the National Party. Smuts believed that a
1923 an Act was passed
coalition government was required to solve
to confine the native Smuts the country’s economic problems. Therefore
residents to certain
the South Africa Party and the National
parts of towns. Already an Act of 1913 had
segregated black and white farmers, which
Dominion Status: Prior to 1939, each of the
made it impossible for the blacks to acquire later day British Commonwealth countries
land in most parts of the country. The 1924 such as Canada, New Zealand, the Union of
elections were won by the National Party South Africa, Ireland (Eire), were accorded
with the support of the Labour movement, dominion status. The Imperial Conference
composed mainly of white miners. The of 1926 described Great Britain and the
Act passed in 1924 prevented blacks from dominions as ‘autonomous communities
striking work and from joining trade unions. within the British Empire, equal in status,
In the Cape Province the voting right to in no way subordinate one to another in any
blacks was abolished. Native Blacks suffered aspect of their domestic or external affairs,
in all spheres: social, economic and politics. though united by a common allegiance to the
Crown’.
Apartheid in South Africa

Apartheid, which means separateness, became the racial policy of the Nationalist
Party in 1947. From 1950 onwards a series of laws came to be enforced. The whole
country was divided into separate areas for the different races. Marriage between white
and non-white was forbidden. Nearly all schools were brought under government
control so that education different from that of the Whites could be implemented
for Africans. University education was also segregated. Apartheid is based on the
belief that the political equality of White and Black in South Africa would mean
Black rule. Since this would imperil the European interests, it was decided to keep the Africans in
permanent subjection through force. Verwoerd, who was prime minister of South Africa from 1958 to
1966 was the brain behind the apartheid policy. The African National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912
fought the practice of racism. Repression was let loose against the leaders of the Congress. The ANC
was banned and its leader Nelson Mandela was put behind bars. Mounting pressure at the global level
helped to end the racist regime in South Africa. In 1990 the ban on ANC was lifted and Mandela freed
after 27 years. In the elections held subsequently the Africans were allowed to vote and ANC won the
election and Mandela became
the first black president of
South Africa. Even though
apartheid was dismantled the
Whites completely dominate
the economic sphere.
Practice of Apartheid Nelson Mandela

Party united in 1934 to form the United European Colonisation and its
South Africa National Party or United Party Impact
for short. In spite of misunderstandings and
disagreements, the Smuts–Herzog alliance
lasted until 1939.
South Africa during World War

and in its Aftermath
When the World War II broke out,
the United Party split on the issue of South
African support for Britain in the war against
Germany. Smuts opposed Nazism and wanted
South Africa to help Britain. Herzog was
sympathetic towards Hitler, and favoured a
policy of neutrality. The Parliament, however,
decided in favour of war, and Herzog resigned.
Smuts continued to function as the Prime Latin America
Minister until 1948, With the passing away of
Herzog, many in the Party led by him joined In the sixteenth century (around 1519)
the Nationalists. The 1948 election gave the when the Aztecs were at the height of their power,
the whole empire collapsed before a handful of
Reunified National Party a majority over the
adventurers led by a Spaniard named Hernan
truncated United Party.
Cortes. Mexican civilisation collapsed. With
it the great city of Tenochtitlan also perished.
Political Developments This is one of the world's worst genocides. The
2.5
in South America other famous Conquistador (conqueror) was
also a Spaniard by name Francisco Pizarro. who
Mayas and Aztecs
led the conquest of the Incan Empire. Later the
Before the European discovery of Spaniards made Peru a part of their dominions.
America three centres of civilisations existed
The Aztecs were a military nation. They
there in Mexico in Central America and
had military colonies and garrisons, and
in Peru in South America. The Maya, the
a network of military roads. There was
Inca and the Aztec Civilizations were highly
outward security and peace in the empire,
advanced. There were several states in each
but people were ruthlessly oppressed and
of these areas of civilisation. Well organised
exploited.
and strong governments existed. Around
the eleventh century, large cities formed By the late 18th century, demand for political
into a league of Mayapan (centre of Maya freedom, administrative autonomy and economic
civilisation of Native Americans American self-determination was articulated throughout
Indians). For over hundred years the League Latin America. There were bloody conflicts
of Mayapan lasted. Though Mayapan was between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the
destroyed towards the close of twelth British and the French colonizers. These struggles
century, other cities continued. Aztecs from led by Toussaint L'Ouverture during 1791-1804
Mexico conquered the Maya country in the ended in the Haitian people’s independence from
fourteenth century and founded their capital the colonial control of France. Haiti thus became
city of Tenochtitlan. For nearly two hundred the first Caribbean country to throw off slavery
years the Aztecs ruled their empire. and French colonial control.

I renouncing the claim to the Portuguese throne
declared independence of Brazil.
The Monroe Doctrine
The fight for independence intensified
when Napoleon fell in 1815. Some of the
European kings wanted to help the king of
Spain to crush the revolutionaries in the South
American colonies. But Monroe, the President
of the USA, came up with his famous Monroe
Hernan Cortes conquering Mexico doctrine, which declared that if Europeans
interfered anywhere in America, north or
south, it would amount to waging a war against
the United States. This threat frightened the
European powers. By 1830 the whole of South
America was free from European domination.
Thus the U.S. protected the South American
republics from Europe; but there was no one
to protect them from the Protector, the United
States.
Disunity among Latin American

Nationalists
Latin American nationalists fought not
Pizarro only Spain and Portugal but also each other. In
1821 Central America seceded from Mexico.
Impact of Napoleonic Invasion of
Later (1839) Central America itself split
Spain and Portugal
into five republics (Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua).
Uruguay split from Brazil in 1828. In 1830
Venezuela and Ecuador seceded from Gran
Columbia, the republic created by Bolivar.
US Imperial Interests
At the dawn
Simon Bolivar- Pedro I of the twentieth
El Liberator
century the United
The American and French Revolutions States had occupied
provided inspiration to the Latin Americans. The Cuba and Puerto
Napoleonic invasion of Spain and Portugal in 1808 Rico, after defeating
quickened the process of liberation Struggle in the Spanish in 1898.
South America. Already the spirit of independence From 1898 to 1902
was growing under the leadership of Simon Cuba was under US
Bolivar, called El Liberator, the liberator. In the military rule. When
case of Brazil, the Portuguese royal family in the the Americans finally
context of conquest of Portugal by Napoleon fled left they retained Theodore Roosevelt
from Lisbon and thereby assisted the transition of a naval station in
Brazil from colony to independent nation. Pedro

Cuba. The US also retained its right to intervene Latin America protested American
in Cuban internal affairs. President Theodore intervension and disliked their “dollar
Roosevelt’s attitude to Latin American countries imperialism”. The opposition to political
was summed up in the words: ‘Speak softly and intervention produced a change in US policy
carry a big stick.’ The Monroe Doctrine had after 1933. Franklin Roosevelt in his “Good
barred European interference in the affairs of the Neighbour” policy agreed that the US would not
American continent. Roosevelt made an important intervene in the internal affairs of any state, and
amendment to the doctrine in 1904. It authorised would give economic and technical assistance
US intervention in Latin America ‘in order to to Latin America.
maintain order.’ After effecting this amendment,
the US became the dominant influence not only Dollar Imperialism, the term used
politically but also in economics. to describe the policy of the USA in
maintaining and dominating over distant
Emergence of Middle Class and lands through economic aid.
Working Class
The independence movement facilitated SUMMARY
transfer of political authority. But it engendered  Intensification of anti-colonial struggles
no social or economic change. With the masses commenced from the end of the First
excluded from the decision-making process, World War
politics became the preserve of oligarchic  Th
e harsh decisions in the Paris Peace
families and military cliques. From the middle Conference against the defeated
of the nineteenth century, oligarchic republics countries destabilised the ruling
based on alliances of regional elites began to regimes and created a climate for the
operate. Brazil remained an exception, until the rise of fascism especially in Italy and
monarch fell in 1889. With political stability Germany.
and economic opportunity the country received  Th
e economic slump originating in the
large numbers of migrants from southern US in 1929 and subsequently affecting
Europe. Economic growth, urbanization and all capitalist countries in the world
industrial growth in countries like Argentina, resulted in changes in polity and society.
Chile, Brazil and Mexico helped consolidate  Anti-colonial struggles gained strength
the hold of the middle class and the emergence despite repressive measures in French
of militant working class organisations. At the Indo-China.
same time American power and wealth came to  Decolonisation process was quickened
dominate Central and South America. during the inter-war period in India.
 Foundation and consolidation of
Great Depression in South European rule in Africa after the Berlin
America Colonial Conference of 1884-85.
The situation created by the Great Depression  British subdued Afrikaners and set up a
made it impossible for oligarchic regimes to union of South Africa, which was racist
accommodate the rising expectations of several in nature.
assertive groups. In Mexico, there was violent  T
he Munroe Doctrine prevented
social protest involving dissatisfied segments colonisation of Latin American countries
of the oligarchy, middle-class intellectuals, and by European powers and thereby ensured
peasant communities. Elsewhere electoral early sovereign status to them. Later this
reform enabled newer social groups to obtain was regarded by Latin Americans as a cover
political power through the ballot box. for American intervention and exploitation
of the resources of their countries.

GLOSSARY
solidarity a bond of unity, support for a common cause ஒற்றுமை உணர்வு,

ப�ொதுக்காரியத்திற்கான ஆதரவு
slump a sudden severe or prolonged fall in the price விலைவீழ்ச்சி, சரிவு
bankruptcy insolvency, financial ruin திவால், கடன் தீர்க்க முடியா நிலை
devaluation a decrease in the value of a country's currency பணமதிப்புக் குறைதல்
a general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing
inflation
power of money பணவீக்கம்
intimidation threat, the act of making fearful மிரட்டல், அச்சுறுத்தல்
bolstered strengthened வலுப்படுத்தினர்
demoralized having lost confidence or hope, disheartened மனத்தளர்ச்சி அடைதல், நம்பிக்கை
இழத்தல்
manipulate
control or influence a person or situation cleverly, கெட்டிக்காரத்தனமாய் அல்லது
unfairly to achieve a specific purpose சூழ்ச்சியாய் கையாளு
annulling declaring invalid or null and void செல்லாதாக்கல், ரத்துசெய்தல்
tremendous huge, extremely large பிரம்மாண்டமான
articulate expressing an idea or feeling clearly தெளிவாகப் பேசுதல்
oligarchy a small group of people having control of a country குழு ஆட்சி
6. Who was the brain behind the apartheid

EXERCISE policy in South Africa?
a) Verwoerd b) Smut
c) Herzog d) Botha
I. C
hoose the correct
answer 7. Which quickened the process of liberation
in South America?
1. With whom of the a) Support of US
following was the Lateran Treaty signed b) Napoleonic Invasion
by Italy? c) Simon Bolivar’s involvement
a) Germany b) Russia d) French Revolution
c) Pope d) Spain 8. Name the President who made amendment
2. With whose conquest did the Mexican to Munro doctrine to justify American
civilization collapse? intervention in the affairs of Latin America
a) Hernan Cortes b) Francisco Pizarro a) Theodore Roosevelt b) Truman
c) Toussaint Louverture d) Pedro I c) Eisenhower d) Woodrow Wilson
3. Who made Peru as part of their dominions?
II. Fill in the blanks
a) English b) Spaniards
c) Russians d) French 1. The founder of the Social Democratic
4. Which President of the USA pursued Party was _____________.
“Good Neighbour” policy towards Latin 2. The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led by
America _____________.
a) Roosevelt b) Truman 3. The Vietnam Nationalist Party was formed
c) Woodrow Wilson d) Eisenhower in _____________.
5. Which part of the world disliked dollar 4. The Secret State Police in Nazi Germany
imperialism? was known as _____________.
a) Europe b) Latin America 5. The Union of South Africa came into
c) India d) China being in May _____________.
6. The ANC leader Nelson Mandela was put
behind the bars for ________ years

7. _____________ were a military nation. V Answer briefly
8. Boers were also known as 1. What do you know of the White Terror in
_____________. Indo-China?
III. Choose the correct statement 2. Discuss the importance of Ottawa
Economic Summit.
1. i) During World War I the primary task of 3. Explain the Monroe Doctrine.
Italy was to keep the Austrians occupied 4. What was the result of Mussolini’s march
on the Southern Front on Rome?
ii) G ermany took to Fascism much later 5. Point out the essence of the Berlin Colonial
than Italy. Conference, 1884-85.
iii) The first huge market crash in the US 6. How did Great Depression impact on the
occurred on 24 October 1929. Indian agriculture?
iv) The ban on African National Congress 7. Explain the reason for the Smuts–Herzog
was lifted in 1966. alliance
a) i) and ii) are correct 8. Define “Dollar Imperialism.”
b) iii) is correct
VI. A nswer the questions given
c) iii) and iv) are correct
under each caption
d) i), ii) and iii) are correct
1. Anti-Colonial Struggle in Indo-China
2. Assertion: A new wave of economic a) Define the concept of decolonisation
nationalism which expressed itself in b) What were the three States that formed
protectionism affected the world trade. Indo-China
Reason: This was because the USA was c) How did Communist ideas help in
not willing to provide economic aid to the developing the spirit of anti-colonialism.
debtor countries. d) Which was the mainstream political party
a) Both A and R are correct in Indo-China?
b) A is right but R is not the correct
2. Ho Chi Minh
explanation
a) Where was Ho Chi Minh born?
c) Both A and R are wrong
b) How did Ho Chi Minh become a popular
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
Vietnam Nationalist?
3. Assertion: The Berlin Colonial c) What do you know of Ho Chi Minh's
Conference of 1884–85 had resolved that Revolutionary Youth Movement?
Africa should be divided into spheres of d) How was the League for Independence
influence of various colonial powers. called in Indo-China?
Reason: The war between the British and
3. Political developments in South America?
Boers in South Africa, however, was in
a) By which year did the whole of South
defiance of this resolution.
America become free from European
a) Both A and R are right
domination?
b) A is right but R is not the right reason
b) How many republics came into being
c) Both A and R are wrong
from the Central America?
d) A is wrong and R has no relevance to A
c) In which year was Cuba occupied by the
IV. Match the Following USA?
1. Transvaal - Germany d) What made oligarchic regimes
2. Tongking - Hitler unpopular in South America
3. Hindenburg - Italy VII. Answer in detail
4. Third Reich - gold
1. Trace the circumstances that led to the
5. Matteotti - guerilla activities
rise of Hitler in Germany.

2. Attempt a narrative account of how the REFERENCE BOOKS
process of decolonization happened in India
during the inter-war period (1919-39). 1. Richard Overy (ed.) Complete History of
3. Describe the rise and growth of nationalist the World (London: HarperCollins, 2007)
politics in South Africa. 2. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
World (New Delhi: Orient Longman,
VIII. Activity
2007).
1. Each student may be asked to write an
3. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the
assignment on how each sector and each
Twentieth Century (London: Longman,
section of population in the USA came to be
1972).
affected by the Stock Market Crash in 1929.
2. A group project work on Vietnam War is 4. E.H. Gombrich, A Little History of the
desirable. An album or pictures, portraying World (London: Yale University Press,
the air attacks of the US on Vietnam and the 2008).
brave resistance put up by the Vietnamese 5. Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World
may be prepared. History (New Delhi: Penguin Books,
2004).
Timeline
• 1922 - Mussolini’s March on Rome
• 1927 - Formation of Vietnam Nationalist Party
• 1929 - The Great Depression
• 1933 - Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany
• 1935 - Mussolini invaded Ethiopia

Unit - 3
World War II
Learning Objectives

� To acquaint ourselves about the political and economic developments
after World War I which ultimately led to World War II
� To understand the course of the War, in general; in particular, to learn
the main events which were turning points in the War
� To know the effects of World War II
Rise of the United States and the USSR as the two superpowers
Beginning of the age of nuclear weapons and high defence spending
Establishment of international agencies to promote peace and development in all
countries
� To understand the “holocaust”, and the mass killing of Jews in Nazi
Germany leading to the creation of the state of Israel as the homeland of Jews
� To acquire knowledge about the international organisations established after the
War to create a new international order:
United Nations and the associated international organisations.
World Bank and its agencies.
International Monetary Fund and its objectives.
� To understand the “welfare state”; welfare states of Western Europe after World War II.
Introduction The total number of deaths in World

War I is estimated to be 20 million (of whom
The first half of the twentieth century 9.7 million were soldiers), and 21 million
witnessed two wars which devastated the wounded. In World War II, the total death
world. World War I was fought from 1914 toll was 24 million military personnel and
to 1918 and World War II began in 1939 and nearly 50 million civilians. In both wars, the
ended in 1945. While the world at large had combined forces of Great Britain, France,
experienced many wars, these two wars are Russia and the United States fought against a
referred to as “World” wars because of the war alliance led by Germany. Germany’s allies
extended areas of the conflict and the very were Italy and Japan in World War II.
high death toll of civilians as well as armed
combatants. Both wars were fought on several In addition to the terrible human
fronts across Europe, Asia and Africa. cost, the financial cost of the War II was
World War II 34

also huge. It was five times higher than the were calculated at $10 billion dollars by Britain,
figure for World War I. World War II also and $15 billion dollars by the United States.
witnessed unprecedented levels of brutality However, France and Belgium were able to insist
against non-combatant civilian populations, on war reparations of $33 billion dollars, which
gross violation of international protocols on Germany protested saying it was beyond its
the treatment of prisoners of war, many of capacity to pay. The Germans offered to pay 100
whom were tortured and killed. Innumerable billion gold marks (approximately $ 25 billion).
atrocities were committed against the people
living in conquered regions. Failure of League of Nations
The end of World War II signalled a The Treaty also set up the League of
change in the world order and political Nations, as we have seen in Lesson 1, on the
configurations among the major powers. initiative of President Woodrow Wilson of
In addition, an era of large-scale social and the United States. The League was expected
economic change across the world was to mediate between countries and take action
ushered in. against countries which indulged in military
aggression. However, the United States was
Causes, Course and not interested in playing a global role or
3.1 any role in European politics. The popular
Effects of World War II
mood favoured the traditional isolationist
(a) Causes approach, and therefore the United States
The devastation caused by World War I did not become a member of the League. The
was of such magnitude that it was referred to as other Allied nations were also determined to
The Great War, or The War to End All Wars. The maintain a non-interventionist attitude and,
belligerent nations, especially the Allies, had no in consequence, the League remained an
desire for a second prolonged conflict, and this ineffectual international body.
was the main driving force behind their actions
after the end of World War I. The immediate Post-War Crisis and Germany
and primary cause of World War II was the As mentioned above the three main
aggressive military offensive undertaken by a clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, especially the
resurgent Germany and a fast developing Japan. imposition of penal reparations caused great
However, the root causes of the War are more discontent in Germany. The interwar period
complex. Let us try to understand them in was a time of severe economic downturn in
detail. Western Europe as well as the United States.
Britain was facing massive unemployment
Germany and Treaty of Versailles,
and its economy was nearly crippled by the
1919
General Strike of 1926. The United States was
The Treaty of Versailles ending World War I faced with the Great Depression after 1929.
was signed in June 1919. Among the many clauses The problems which many countries faced in
of the Treaty, three in particular caused great the post-World War I decades led to the rise
resentment among the Germans. (i) Germany of extreme right wing dictatorships in Italy
was forced to give up territories to the west, north (Mussolini), Germany (Hitler) and Spain
and east of the German border; (ii) Germany had (Franco).
to disarm and was allowed to retain only a very
Germany experienced both high
restricted armed force (army, navy and air force);
unemployment and severe inflation after
(iii) as reparations for the War, Germany was
the War, and its currency became practically
expected to pay for the military and civilian cost
worthless. There are several pictures of the
of the War to the Allied nations. War reparations
1920s when ordinary people had to carry
35 World War II

money in wheelbarrows to buy bread. This Hitler’s claim was that the German speaking
was blamed on the war reparations which people should be united in to one nation.
Germany was forced to pay, though in the final
analysis, the demands for war reparations Allies and Non-Intervention
were moderated over several rounds of There were also acts of aggression by
negotiations. Italy and Japan. Italy invaded Ethiopia in
1935 and Albania in 1939. Emperor Haile
Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League of
Nations, but got no help. In the East, Japan was
pursuing its policy of military expansion. In
1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, and in 1937
it invaded China and seized Beijing. All these
Huge worthless money for bread were ignored by the Allies and the League of
Nations was unable to take any action.
The Rise of Adolf Hitler
In spite of all these manifestations of
Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the military activity by Germany, Italy and Japan,
general discontent among the Germans. Britain and France continued to be non-
Gifted with great oratorical skills, he was interventionist. The mood in Britain was not in
able to sway the people by his impassioned favour of starting another war. Prime Ministers
speeches, promising a return to the glorious Baldwin and Chamberlain did not feel justified
military past of Germany. He founded the in intervening in a region which was not officially
National Socialist party, generally known as in their sphere of interest. The United States was
“the Nazis”. The fundamental platform on totally indifferent to the outside world, and was
which Hitler built his support was the notion concerned with the revival of the economy after
of the racial superiority of the Germans as a the Great Depression.
pure, ‘Aryan’ race and a deep-seated hatred of
the Jews. Hitler came to power in 1933 and Munich Pact
ruled Germany till 1945.
A further factor was that the western
In direct contravention of the clauses of
powers and the Soviet Union distrusted each
the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler began to re-
other. In 1938, Prime Minister Chamberlain
arm Germany. The recruitment for the armed
concluded the Munich Pact with Germany,
forces and the manufacture of armaments and
which was a shameful acceptance of
machinery for the army, navy and air force
Germany’s invasion of Czechoslovakia to
with large amounts of government spending
annex German-speaking Sudetenland. In 1939
resulted in an economic revival and solved
the Soviet Union independently concluded
the problem of unemployment in Germany.
a non-aggression pact with Germany. The
Italy’s break with Britain and France in continued passivity of the Allies and the
the wake of Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia reluctance to start building up their armies
resulted in better relationship between Italy were also contributory causes of the extended
and Germany. In 1936, before Germany scale of World War II.
invaded the Rhineland, which was supposed
Though Hitler gave an assurance in
to be a demilitarised zone, Rome - Berlin
the Munich Pact that Germany would
Axis had come into being. Later, with Japan
not attack any other country, this was
joining this alliance, it became Rome-
broken immediately. In 1939 he invaded
Berlin-Tokyo Axis. In 1938, Hitler invaded
Czechoslovakia. Poland was attacked next,
Austria and Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland in
and this was the final act which resulted in
Czechoslovakia was German speaking, and
World War II 36

the declaration of war by Britain and France Europe, the war was fought by the Allies
against Germany. In Britain, Prime Minister against Germany and Italy. In the Asia Pacific,
Chamberlain resigned in 1940 and Winston the Allies fought Japan. The two theatres of
Churchill, who had always warned about war will be discussed separately. The war in
Hitler and his military ambitions, became Europe also extended to North Africa which
Prime Minister. had been occupied by Germany.
World War II was a modern war fought
with heavy military equipment such as tanks,
submarines, battleships, aircraft carriers,
fighter planes and bomber planes. This
involved a very large resource base, since all
this equipment needed to be manufactured.
There had to be raw materials, manufacturing
capacity and technical inputs to improve the
military hardware. This was an expensive and
prolonged war of attrition. Almost every foot
of territory was fought for step by step, so that
Munich Pact the final capitulation of the Axis powers came
(b) Course of World War II more than a year after the Allies invaded
Nature of the War mainland Europe in June 1944.
World War II was fought on two distinct
fronts - Europe and the Asia Pacific. In
N
WORLD WAR II AXIS VS ALLIED POWERS ARCTIC OCEAN W E

S
UNITED
STATES U S S R
UNITED NORWAY
DENMARK
CANADA KINGDOM POLAND
MOSCOW
NETHERLANDS GERMANY
BELGIUM HUNGARY
UNITED NORTH FRANCE ROMANIA
SAN STATES ATLANTIC
NORTH FRANSICO BULGARIA
OCEAN CHINA JAPAN
PACIFIC ITALY GREECE
OCEAN
HAWAI
ISLAND
INDIAN
BRAZIL OCEAN
SOUTH SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN
NEW
Axis Power Countries ZEALAND
Allied Power Countries SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
ANTARCTIC OCEAN
37 World War II

Outbreak of War formed the nucleus of the Free French army
under General de Gaulle. Britain would have
Britain and France declared war on
found it difficult to regroup if so many of her
Germany in September 1939. In June 1940,
soldiers had been lost at Dunkirk.
Italy joined Germany, and in September 1940,
Japan also joined the Axis powers. Battle of Britain– By July 1940, it was
feared that the Germans were planning to
There was little
invade Britain. Hitler wanted to force Britain
action immediately
to accept his proposals for peace by a
after the declaration
prolonged air-borne bombing campaign. The
of war. Britain had
German air force began to attack specific
already begun to
targets, especially the ports, airfields and
build up its military
industrial installations. In September 1940,
capabilities, and all Blitzkrieg London was bombed mercilessly, an action
young men were
known as The Blitz. By October 1940, night
conscripted for military duty. The first years
bombing raids on London and other industrial
of the War were a time of spectacular successes
cities began.
of the Germany army which occupied
Denmark and Norway and later France. By This campaign
1941, all of mainland Europe till the Russian failed because with
frontier was under the Axis powers. The the aid of a newly
German army followed a tactic of ‘lightning developed and top
strike’ (Blitzkrieg) to storm into various secret device ‘radar’
countries and overrun them. for detecting aircraft
while still at a Hurricanes -
The British Royal
distance, the fighter Royal Air Force
Navy continued to be the
planes of the Royal
most powerful among
Air Force (Spitfires
the European naval
and Hurricanes) were
forces and ensured that
able to inflict severe
a sea-borne invasion of
losses on the German
Britain was not possible. British Royal Navy
bombers. The raids
However, Britain depended on large scale imports
stopped after October
of food, raw materials and industrial goods by Spitfires -
1940. Saluting the
sea from its Empire and the US. To attack this, Royal Air Force
bravery of the Royal
Germany developed a fleet of submarines which
Air Force Churchill said in a speech, that
caused havoc, especially in the Atlantic Ocean
“Never was so much owed by so many to so
area, by sinking a large number of civilian ships
few”. The Germans dropped their plans to
carrying supplies to Britain.
invade Britain because of the failure of the air
Important Events battle.
Dunkirk – In May 1940 more than “We shall defend our island, whatever the
300,000 British and French soldiers were cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches.
forced back to the beaches in Dunkirk. We shall fight in the fields and in the
Though they were under heavy fire, there was streets. … We shall never surrender.” This
no all-out attack by the Germans and 338,000 inspirational speech by Winston Churchill
men were rescued by the British by calling on in June 1940 boosted the morale of the
all men who had boats or small ships which British people when there were real fears of
could be put to use. The French soldiers an invasion by Germany.
World War II 38

Lend Lease 1941–1945 war planners hoped to achieve that end
with Fall Blau (“Operation Blue”). On June
President Roosevelt realized that the
28, 1942, operations began with significant
United States had to change its policy of
German victories.
isolation, but could not intervene directly
in the War in Europe, because it was not Russian people suffered not only from bad
politically feasible. So he started a programme working and living conditions, but also from
of “Lend Lease” in March 1941. Arms, food, ill-treatment at German hands in the occupied
military equipment and other supplies were areas. There were about 15 million civilian
sent to Britain, disguised as a “loan”, which deaths during the war, and about 10 million
would be returned after use. This augmented members of the armed forces were killed. All
the resources of Britain to a great extent. together over one-tenth of Russia’s population
Between 1941 and 1945, the total aid under died. Yet the people remained loyal to the
Lend Lease amounted to $46.5 billion. government, despite Hitler’s hopes of an anti-
Stalin revolution. They successfully defended
Invasion of Russia 1941-1942
the city of Stalingrad. It stopped the German
In June 1941 the German army invaded advance into the Soviet Union and marked
Russia. The long-term objectives of this the turning of the tide of war in favour of
move were to seize prime land for settling the Allies. Russians consider it to be one of the
Germans, to destroy the communist greatest battles of their Great Patriotic War.
regime, and also exploit Russia’s natural
resources, especially oil. The German Battle of El Alamein 1942
strategy of lightning strikes was initially In the early
successful and the army penetrated 1000 years of the War,
miles into Russian territory very soon. The German forces
German army then marched on Moscow. under General
But ultimately, the resistance by the Soviet Rommel were
army, and the fierce Russian winter defeated remarkably
the German army. successful in Battle of El Alamein
occupying North Africa rapidly, leaving the
Battle of Stalingrad (17 July
British with only Egypt. The Allied forces under
1942 to 2 February 1943)
General Montgomery counter-attacked and
In August defeated the German and Italian forces at El
1942, the Germans Alamein in North Africa. The German army was
attacked Stalingrad. chased across the desert, out of North Africa.
Stretching about This provided the base for the Allied forces to
30 miles (50 km) invade Italy.
along the banks
of the Volga Battle of Stalingrad Surrender of Italy 1943
River, Stalingrad was a large industrial city Mussolini
producing armaments and tractors. Capturing had been thrown
the city would cut Soviet transport links with out and the new
southern Russia, and Stalingrad would then government of Italy
enable the invading Germans to have access surrendered to
Surrender of Italy
to the oil fields of the Caucasus. In addition, the Allies in 1943.
seizing the city that bore the name of Soviet However, the Germans set Mussolini up in
leader Stalin would serve as a great personal a puppet regime in the north. Mussolini was
and propaganda victory for Hitler. German killed in April 1945, by Italian partisans.
39 World War II

End of Hitler while Japan was a
modern nation with
The Allied forces under the command of
moral values similar
General Eisenhower invaded Normandy in
to western ideas.
France. Slowly, the German army was forced
back. But the Germans fought back and the War Pearl Harbour
continued for nearly another year, and finally 1941
ended in May 1945. Hitler committed suicide in Pearl Harbour attack
April 1945. On December
1941, Japan attacked American naval
From 1944, the installations in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, without
Russian army began to warning. The idea was to cripple America’s
attack Germany from Pacific fleet so that Japan would not face any
the East and captured opposition in its offensive against South-
much of Eastern Europe Surrender of east Asian countries. Many battleships and
and Poland. In 1945, German Forces
numerous fighter planes were destroyed.
they occupied parts of Berlin, so that Germany The United States declared war on Japan,
was divided into two sections after the War. with Britain and China also joining in. This
War in the Asia-Pacific Region brought together both the Asia Pacific and the
European war into one common cause. Most
Japan had entertained visions of a glorious
importantly, it brought the United States with
empire, very much on the same lines as Hitler.
its enormous resources into the war as a part
The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in
of the Allies.
1931.Though China appealed to the League of
Nations, this act of aggression did not attract Japanese Aggression in
the attention of the United States or Britain. In South-east Asia
1937, Japan invaded China, and seized Beijing
The Japanese had spectacular success in
(Peking, as it was then known) which had
their plan to extend their empire throughout
traditionally been the capital of China. The
South-east Asia. Guam, the Philippines, Hong
region around Shanghai was also captured, and
Kong, Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East
Nanjing (Nanking), the capital was captured at
Indies (Indonesia) and Burma, all fell to the
the end of the year. The Japanese army indulged
Japanese. The Allies faced many reverses in
in the biggest slaughter ever known in history in
the Pacific region because of their inadequate
Nanjing. Civilians were killed en masse for sport,
preparation. The colonial rulers, especially
and all females – from children to old women –
the British, withdrew from their territories,
were raped, and many were tortured and killed
leaving the local people to face the atrocities of
after being raped. Guangzhou (Canton) and
the Japanese. Burma, Malaya, Singapore and
many other parts of China were overrun. The
the Dutch East Indies also had a considerable
Chinese army, under Chiang Kai-shek retreated
population of Indians and Chinese. Many
to the west to the hilly country from where they
Indians walked all the way from Burma to the
continued to fight the Japanese.
Indian border, facing many hardships. Many
China appealed to the League of Nations, died of disease and exhaustion. Those who
but this was in vain since the western powers remained suffered under the Japanese.
were not interested in being involved in a
region so far from their sphere of interest. The Battle of Midway and Battle of
western nations, particularly Britain, also had Guadalcanal 1942
an in-built bias, in that China was viewed as The US navy defeated the Japanese navy
a morally decadent, worn-out, feudal society in the Battle of Midway, which turned the tide
World War II 40

in favour of the 15 August 1945 and formally signed 2
Allies. The Battle of September 1945 bringing an end to World
Guadalcanal in the War II.
Solomon Islands was The horrendous long-term effects on the
a combined offensive local population of the radiation from the
involving the army atomic bombs were not clearly understood at
Battle of Guadalcanal
and the navy, and the time.
lasted for several months. Both were crushing
defeats for the Japanese. (c) Effects of the War
After this, the American forces were able to New geo-political power alignment:
re-take the Philippines. Gradually the Japanese World War II changed the world in
were thrown out of most of their conquered fundamental ways. The world was polarized
territories. In 1944, the combined British into two main blocs led by superpowers, one
and Indian armies were able to push back the led by the United States with a pronounced
Japanese who attempted to invade the north- anti-Communist ideology, and the other by
east of India. Then, along with the Chinese, they Soviet Russia. Europe was divided into two:
pushed the Japanese out of Burma, and liberated Communist and non-Communist.
Malaya and Singapore.
Nuclear proliferation: The United States
Hiroshima and Nagasaki,August and the Soviet Union entered into a race to
1945 have more nuclear powered weapons. They
built a large stockpile of such weapons. Britain
As a top secret
and France also developed their own nuclear
project, using the latest
weapons. Countries began to devote large
scientific advances, the
amount of resources in developing more and
US developed an atomic
more powerful weapons of great destructive
bomb immensely more
power, and defence spending sky-rocketed in
powerful than conventional
many countries.
explosives. The Japanese
generals refused to surrender and finally the International agencies: The mistakes of
US dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. a weak and ineffectual League of Nations were
As the Japanese still refused to surrender, not repeated. Many international agencies,
another atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. in particular the United Nations, the World
Japan ultimately announced surrender on Bank and the International Monetary Fund
came into existence providing a forum for
N countries large and small.
ATOM BOMB BLAST AT JAPAN 1945 W E
CHINA S In addition to these major changes, other

IA
SS
important social and economic changes also

RU
took place in the post-War world. Colonial

JAPAN powers were forced to give independence to
NORTH PACIFIC former colonies in a process of decolonization.
KOREA OCEAN
India was the first to achieve independence.
SOUTH In subsequent years, these newly independent
KOREA
HIROSHIMA TOKYO nations began to make their voices heard in the
international arena. Women started entering
the labour force in greater numbers. Societal
NAGASAKI Not to Scale
notions of stable social relations (marriage,
41 World War II

family) changed as more and more women
became economically independent. The word ‘holocaust’ is used to describe the
genocide of nearly six million Jews by the
Holocaust and Germans during World War II. Annihilating
3.2 the Jews was one of the main items on the
Its Fallout political agenda of Hitler and the Nazis. Hitler
After Hitler came to power, the Jews were was able to play on the anti-Jewish feelings
persecuted in many ways. They were deprived (anti-Semitism) which were common in
of their civil rights, their properties were Germany and, in fact, throughout Europe. Jews
confiscated and many were confined to ghettos. were scattered all across Europe and many had
Eventually, the Nazis came up with the notion of become prominent in business, in performing
the Final Solution, which was to exterminate the arts and professional fields. Money-lending
Jews completely. Jews in Germany and in all the was a major business activity among Jews and
countries overrun by the Nazis were rounded up this strengthened the prejudice against them.
and transported in cattle cars to concentration Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice
camps. Here they were subjected to inhuman clearly depicts the dislike and distrust of Jews
living conditions, torture, horrible medical among the people. The character of Shylock is
experiments supposedly in the name of science. a stereotype. The movie, Fiddler on the Roof,
Finally they were killed in gas chambers. Nearly is about the anti-Jewish pogrom in nineteenth
six million European Jews were killed in these century Russia when an entire village of Jews
extermination camps. The killing continued till is forced to move out by an order of the Tsar.
the end of the war, when the surviving inmates
of different concentration camps were rescued rights in 30 articles. The UN adopted this
by the invading Allied armies. Other ethnic historic Charter on 10 December 1948. This
groups, especially the Romani gypsies were also day (10 December) is observed globally as
killed in the concentration camps. Human Rights Day. Provisions of some
ninety national constitutions since 1948,
Universal Declaration of Human according to the Franklin and Eleanor
Rights Roosevelt Institute in New York, can be
In the aftermath of the Holocaust the traced to this Declaration.
UNO in its Charter, pledged to promote
universal respect for and observance of Birth of Israel
human rights and fundamental freedoms for A major outcome of the Holocaust
all without distinction to race, sex, language was the creation of the state of Israel
and religion. The UN efforts to protect as a homeland for the Jews. While this
human rights on a global basis resulted in the was historically the original home of the
constitution of UN Commission on Human Jews during Roman times, the Jews had
Rights. A committee constituted under dispersed across Europe, and the region was
its auspices was chaired by the widow of predominantly populated by Muslims by
President Franklin Roosevelt. The members the twentieth century. Carving out a Jewish
of the Commission included Charles Malik state in this region has created continuous
of Lebanon, P.C. Chang of Nationalist tensions in west Asia. There is a continuous
China, John Humphrey of Canada, and Rene state of hostility between the Arab states
Cassin of France. The Universal Declaration and Israel. Israel has occupied large parts
of Human Rights was its important of Palestinian homelands. Israel derives
contribution. The Universal Declaration of vast support from the United States.
Human Rights set forth fundamental human
World War II 42

New International each one - big or small - has
3.3 an equal vote in the United
Order
Nations.
By 1941 the United States and Britain
began to give serious consideration to the need General Assembly
for international cooperation for achieving and Security
lasting peace among all nations. International Council
economic and financial stability were also
The United Nations UN Headquarters,
important objectives. All these would need
functions almost like any New York
international organizations with members of
government, through
the various nations across the world working
its principal organs which are similar to the
together for these common objectives. This
legislative, executive and judicial wings of a state.
ultimately resulted in the establishment of
In the General Assembly is the body in which
the United Nations, the World Bank and the
each member state is represented. It meets once
International Monetary Fund, with many
a year and issues of interest and points of conflict
associated organizations which deal with
are discussed in the Assembly. The Security
basic issues of importance for all societies and
Council has fifteen members. Five countries - the
countries.
United States, Britain, France, Russia and China
International agencies had been - are permanent members, and there are ten
established after World War I. But the temporary members who are elected in rotation.
League of Nations unfortunately proved to be These two bodies function like a legislature. Each
ineffectual. The International Labour Office of the permanent members has the right to veto
(ILO) located in Geneva in Switzerland, any decision by the other members of the Security
however, is still active and continues to work Council. This right has often been used to block
on issues relating to labour and employment. major decisions, especially by the superpowers,
the US and Russia. Major issues and conflicts are
United Nations discussed in the Security Council.
The first initiative for the United Nations
came from the United States and Britain in 1941 Administrative Structure
when they issued a joint declaration known The executive wing of the United
as the Atlantic Charter. This stated that after Nations is the UN Secretariat. It is headed by
the destruction of Nazi tyranny, there would the Secretary General, who is elected by the
be peace for all countries General Assembly on the recommendation of
so that all people could the Security Council. The Secretary General,
live their lives in freedom along with his cabinet and other officials,
from fear and want. This runs the United Nations. The International
Declaration of the United Court of Justice, headquartered at The Hague
Nations was accepted Symbol of UN in Holland, is the judicial wing of the United
by all the 26 countries Nations. The Economic and Social Council
which were fighting against the Axis powers (ECOSOC), the fifth organ of the United
(Germany, Italy and Japan) on New Year’s Day, Nations, is responsible for coordinating all
1942.The Charter of the United Nations was the economic and social work of the United
signed on June 26, 1945 by 51 nations. India Nations. The regional Economic Commissions
which was not an independent country then functioning for regional development across
also was a signatory to the Charter. Now the the various regions of the world (Asia Pacific,
United Nations has 193 member states and West Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America)
are organs of ECOSOC. They have been very
43 World War II

successful, and have been headed by eminent both established in 1945 after the Bretton
economists like Gunnar Myrdal. Woods Conference in 1944. Located in
Washington D.C. in the United States,
Other Important Organs of the UN
they have the same membership, since a
Associated organizations deal with areas
country cannot be a member of the Bank
of critical interest to the world at large like food,
without being a member of the Fund.
health and education, and culture. These are:
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), World
Health Organisation (WHO), UNESCO (UN
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation).
There are also special organizations funded
voluntarily by member countries. The two best
known among them are UNICEF (United Nations
Children’s Fund) which promotes child health and
welfare across the world, and the UNDP (United
Nations Development Programme), which
focuses on development.
Bretton Woods Conference
Activities of the UN The two main organs of the World Bank are
Over the decades, the United Nations the International Bank for Reconstruction
has expanded its activities in response to and Development (IBRD) and the
the changing problems facing the world. International Development Agency (IDA),
Thus, in the 1960s, decolonization was an Together they are often referred to as the
important issue. Human rights, the problems World Bank. The main responsibility of the
of refugees, climate change, gender equality IBRD in the initial years was to fund the
are all now within the ambit of the activities reconstruction activities under the Marshall
of the United Nations. A special mention Plan in the European countries devastated by
must be made of the UN Peacekeeping force, the war. The agenda later expanded to
which has acted in many areas of conflict all promote economic development in poorer
over the world. The Indian army has been an countries and the Bank lends money to
important part of the peacekeeping force and various countries for developmental projects.
has been deployed in many parts of the world. A further area of interest is poverty alleviation,
especially in the rural areas of developing
"We, the peoples of the United Nations, countries. The International Development
determined to save succeeding generations Agency (IDA) also lends money to
from scourge of war, which twice in our governments for developmental activities.
lifetime has brought untold sorrow to These loans are “soft” loans, and are given at
mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental very low rates of interest for a period of 50
human rights, in the dignity and worth of the years. The International Finance Corporation
human person, in the equal rights of men and (IFC) mainly functions with private
women, and of nations large and small …”. - enterprises in developing countries.
from The Preamble to the United Nations In recent years the Bank is actively
promoting the achievement of the Millennium
World Bank Development Goals which aim at improving
living standards, removing illiteracy,
The World Bank and the empowering women and improving maternal
International Monetary Fund, referred and child health, improving the environment
to as the “Bretton Woods Twins”, were and eradicating AIDS.
World War II 44

International Monetary Fund (IMF) unemployment which were experienced after
The International Monetary Fund was World War I. A comprehensive programme of
primarily the brainchild of Harry Dexter social welfare schemes in addition to ensuring
White and John Maynard Keynes, the famous that the people enjoyed civil and political rights
economist. It was formally organized in 1945 were therefore adopted. While non-democratic
with 29 member countries. It now has a governments (for example, Nazi Germany or
membership of 189 countries. Its primary communist states), also provide comprehensive
objective is to ensure financial stability and welfare services, the term welfare state is used
development across the world. The main only for states where the people also enjoy
agenda is to promote international monetary civil and political liberties. All the countries
cooperation, expansion of international trade in Western Europe are now welfare states,
and exchange stability. The Fund lends money where the citizens are provided free health
from its resources to countries facing balance and social services. However presently welfare
of payments problems (because they are unable states are experiencing great stress due to aging
to pay for their imports). It however imposes populations immigration, etc.
stringent conditions on the borrowing nations In 1942, the Report commonly known
to tighten their budgets, practice fiscal as the Beveridge Report was published in the
prudence and reduce their expenditure. This is United Kingdom which proposed a series
often unpopular, especially among the of measures which the government should
developing countries which may have to cut adopt to provide citizens with adequate
down on various programmes which provide income, health care, education, housing
subsidies to the people. and employment to overcome poverty and
disease which were the major impediments
The objectives of the IMF are: “to foster to general welfare.
global monetary cooperation, secure financial
After the War, the Labour party was
stability, facilitate international trade, promote
voted into power in Britain. It promised to
high employment and sustainable economic
undertake steps to look after the people “from
growth and reduce poverty around the world.”
the cradle to the grave”. Legislation was
enacted to provide comprehensive free health
Post-War Welfare coverage to the citizens through the National
3.4
States in Europe Health Service and monetary benefits like old
The term Welfare State refers to the concept page pensions and unemployment benefits,
that the government is responsible for the childcare services and family welfare services.
social and economic welfare of the people, thus These are in addition to universal, free school
expanding the role of the state beyond providing education to all children.
defence and maintaining law and order. The The benefits can either be achieved
state now intervenes in many ways to protect through cash transfers, like old age pensions
the welfare of the people, for instance, through and unemployment compensation, or
laws which protect workers in the workplace through free services. In addition, these
by prescribing the number of working hours, countries also try to minimize economic
minimum wages and safe working conditions disparities through progressive taxation by
and so on. Throughout Europe, after the War, taxing the higher income groups at relatively
governments and the people did not want high rates.
to return to the economic hardships and
45 World War II

SUMMARY
The War lasted from 1939 till 1945 and was fought in almost every part of the world, in Europe,
Africa and the Asia Pacific. The Allies, initially Britain and France, and subsequently the USSR
(Russia) and the United States, fought against the Axis powers - Germany, Italy and Japan.
Initially both the German army in Europe and Japan in the East were very successful. However, after
the United States with its enormous resources also joined the Allies, both Germany and Japan were
defeated after many prolonged fighting. The War ended in Europe in May 1945, but it ended in Asia
only in August 1945, after the Americans dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The post-War world saw the rise of two superpowers, namely the United States and the USSR. Both
countries were in an arms race, especially to build their nuclear weapons.
During the War, the Nazis resorted to killing the Jews in concentration camps. Nearly six million
Jews were transported to these camps, tortured and killed.
GLOSSARY
devastation/ havoc total destruction பேரழிவு
belligerent one eager to fight / aggressive ப�ோர் நாட்டம்
resurgent rising again மீண்டெழுகிற
resentment a feeling of deep and bitter anger கடுங்கோபம்
reparations compensation exacted from a defeated nation இழப்பீடுகள்
by the victors
armaments weapons ப�ோர்த்தளவாடங்கள்
reluctance unwillingness தயக்கம்
conscripted compulsory military service கட்டாய இராணுவ
சேவைக்கு அழைக்கப்பட்ட
morale sense of confidenc மனத்திண்மை
slaughter kill a large number of people indiscriminately வதைத்துக் க�ொல்லுதல்
proliferation a rapid increase பல்கிப் பெருகுதல்
confiscated seized / took away பறிமுதல் செய்யப்பட்ட
ghettos slums குடிசைத்தொகுதி
veto a vote that blocks a decision / negative vote மறுப்பாணை / எதிர்வாக்கு
ambit range வரம்பு / எல்லை
scourge eternal suffering மீளாத்துயரம்
stringent tough கடுமையான
2. Who initiated the formation of League

EXERCISE of Nations?
a) Roosevelt b) Chamberlain
c) Woodrow Wilson d) Baldwin
I. C
hoose the 3. Where was the Japanese Navy defeated
correct answer by the US Navy?
1. When did the Japanese a) Battle of Guadalcanal
formally sign of their surrender? b) Battle of Midway
a) 2 September, 1945 b) 2 October, 1945 c) Battle of Leningrad
c) 15 August, 1945 d) 12 October, 1945 d) Battle of El Alamein
World War II 46

4. Where did the US drop its first atomic c) iii) and iv) are correct
bomb? d) (i ) is correct and ii), iii) and iv) are wrong
a) Kavashaki b) Innoshima 2. Assertion: President Roosevelt realised
c) Hiroshima d) Nagasaki that the United States had to change its
5. Who were mainly persecuted by Hitler? policy of isolation.
a) Russians b) Arabs Reason: He started a programme of
c) Turks d) Jews Lend Lease in 1941.
6. Which Prime Minister of England who a) Both A and R are correct
signed the Munich Pact with Germany ? b) A is right but R is not the correct reason
a) Chamberlain b) Winston Churchill c) Both A and R are wrong
c) Lloyd George d) Stanley Baldwin d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
7. When was the Charter of the UN signed? IV. Match the Following
a) June 26, 1942 b) June 26, 1945 1. Blitzkrieg - Roosevelt
c) January 1, 1942 d) January 1, 1945 2. Royal Navy - Stalingrad
8. Where is the headquarters of the 3. Lend Lease - Solomon Island
International Court of Justice located? 4. Volga - Britain
a) New York b) Chicago 5. Guadalcanal - lightning strike
c) London d) The Hague
V Answer the questions briefly
II Fill in the blanks
1. Mention the important clauses of the
1. Hitler attacked---------------- which was a Treaty of Versailles relating to Germany.
demilitarised zone. 2. Who were the three prominent dictators
2. The alliance between Italy, Germany and of the post World War I ?
Japan is known as -----------. 3. How did Hitler get the support from the
3. --------- started the Lend Lease programme. people of Germany?
4. Britain Prime Minister --------------- 4. Describe the Pearl Harbour incident.
resigned in 1940. 5. What do you know of Beveridge Report?.
5. Saluting the bravery of the ------------- 6. Name the Bretton Woods Twins.
------ Churchill said that “Never was so
7. What are the objectives of IMF?
much owed by so many to so few”.
VI.
Answer the questions given
6. ------------- is a device used to find out the
under each caption
enemy aircraft from a distance.
1. Battle of Stalingrad
7. The Universal Declaration of Human
a) When did Germany attack Stalingrad?
Rights set forth fundamental human b) What were the main manufactures of
rights in --------------articles. Stalingrad?
8. After the World War II ---------------- was c)
What was the name of the plan
voted into power in Great Britain. formulated by Hitler to attack Stalingrad?
III. Choose the correct statement d) What is the significance of the Battle of
1. i) B anking was a major business activity Stalingrad?
among Jews. 2. Japanese Aggression in South-east Asia
ii) Hitler persecuted the Jews. a) Name the South-east Asian countries
which fell to the Japanese.
iii) In the concentration camps Jews were
b) Account for the setback of Allies in
killed.
the Pacific region?
iv) The United Nations has currently 129
c) What is the significance of Battle of
member countries in it.
Midway?
a) i) and ii) are correct
d) What happened to the Indians living in
b) i) and iii) are correct Burma?
47 World War II

3. General Assembly and Security Council 3. Marking the Allies and Axis countries,
a) List the permanent member countries as well as important battlefields of World
of the Security Council. War II in a world map.
b) What is the Holocaust?
IX. Map Work
c) Who was the Chairperson of the UN
Commission on Human Rights? Mark the following on the world map.
d) What is meant by veto? 1. Axis Power Countries
2. Allied Power Countries
VII. Answer in detail
3. Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Hawai Island, Moscow,
1. Attempt an essay on the rise and fall of
San Fransico
Adolf Hitler.
2. Analyse the effects of the World War II.
REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Assess the structure and the activities of
the UN. 1. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth
Century, London: Longman, 1972.
VIII. Students Activity
2. C.V. Narasimhan, The United Nations - An
1. Group project involving students to Inside View, New Delhi: Vikas, 1988.
prepare an album with pictures on 3. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 23 (1962
different phases of the World War II. edition).
2. A debate in the class on the success or failure
4. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
of the UN in preserving World Peace.
World (Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007)
Timeline
• 1939 - Outbreak of World War II
• 1940 - Battle of Britain
• 1941 - Pearl Harbour incident
• 1942 - Battle of Stalingrad
• 1945 - End of World War II
• 1945 - Formation of UNO
ICT CORNER
Steps
• Click on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location
• Select any year from the bottom time line (Ex.1939) and select the
‘box’ to learn more about the World War II events.
Website URL:
https://www.abmc.gov/sites/default/files/interactive/interactive_files/WW2/
index.html
World War II 48

Unit - 4
The World After

World War II
Learning Objectives
Communist Revolution in China
Cold War and the Non-Aligned Movement
Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Arab–Israeli Wars and Vietnam War
European Economic Community and European Union
Fall of Berlin Wall and the End of Cold War Era
Introduction of US control, European countries started the

European movement in the form of Council
In the aftermath of Second World War of Europe. This developed into the European
a new era began. It was the beginning of the Common Market and finally into what is today
decline of European colonial empires and the the European Union. The Cold War period
independence of colonies in Asia and Africa. If ended with the fall of Berlin Wall.
the effects of World War I led to the communist
revolution of Russia, the Second World War
played a big part in the communist revolution in
4.1 Chinese Revolution
China. The emergence of the US and the USSR as (a) China in the Pre-War Period
super powers resulted in the division the world
into two antagonistic blocs. A cold war (see the In its long history, Chinese civilization
box item) situation triggered deadly conflicts in was more advanced than that of Europe.
Korea, Cuba, Vietnam and West Asia. But by the end of the nineteenth century, its
progress had halted. The Manchus, the ruling
Under the Marshall Plan for dynasty, had governed China since about
reconstruction of the war-ravaged Europe, the 1650. The entire administration system was in
US won the trust of the great powers in Europe. the hands of a bureaucracy of scholar-officials
Soviet Russia, by demonstrating solidarity with called mandarins who came from the landed
the liberation struggles of countries in Asia gentry. The mass of peasant population was
and Africa, earned the goodwill of the latter. poverty-stricken, and suffered from high
The Non-Aligned Movement played a rents, high taxes, and shortage of land. There
limited role in containing the conflict between was very little industry, though some railways
the two power blocs. In a bid to wriggle out and engineering works had been built.
49 The World After World War II

middle-class leaders. Dr. Sun Yat-sen was
one among them. On hearing the news of the
rising in a newspaper in the United States
Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was
immediately elected provisional president of
the new Chinese Republic. But Yuan Shih-
kai, who had earlier served as a minister
Taiping Rebellion in the Manchu administration, had full
Discontent with the political and control of the modern army in the north. He
economic system resulted in a number of succeeded in persuading those responsible
peasant uprisings. The Taiping Rebellion for the ascension of the young Emperor to
(1850–64) was a major rebellion. The death toll prevail on him to abdicate. A republic was
was 20 million. At a time when the government also set up.
was becoming unpopular and weak, European Dr. Sun Yat-sen
pressure on China to open its doors to foreign (1866–1925)
trade was also increasing. In the two opium Born in a poor
wars of 1832 and 1848, China was defeated family near Canton, Dr.
and was compelled to open its ports to western Sun Yat-sen, the father
powers. The opening of China to western of modern china was
imperialism led to economic exploitation and educated in a mission
the impoverishment of the Chinese people. school and became a
The European presence produced a Christian. He was then
profound hatred of foreigners. This combined trained as a doctor of medicine in Hong
with military defeat, led to more pressing Kong. Evincing interest in politics he took
demands for reforms from the Western- part in a rising against the Manchus in 1895.
educated intellectuals. In 1898, the young As the rising failed, Sun Yat-sen spent the
Emperor, initiated a series of reforms known next sixteen years in exile. He used this
as the Hundred Days of Reform. But these time to spread his nationalist ideas amongst
reforms aroused tremendous opposition Chinese students and others living overseas.
from the powerful conservatives and the In 1905 he founded in Tokyo the political
Dowager-Empress Tzú Hsi. She imprisoned party which in 1912 became the Kuomintang
the Emperor and reversed the reforms. or the National People’s Party. Dr. Sun Yat-
sen’s three principles were Nationalism,
Despite its incompetence and weakness,
Democracy, and People’s livelihood with
the Manchu government lasted until two
Socialism as the ultimate object.
years before the First World War.
(b) The Chinese Revolution 1911 (c) Yuan Shih-kai and After
The disintegration of the Manchu The unity of China under Yuan Shih-kai
dynasty began with the death of the Dowager- lasted for four years. During this time it was
Empress in 1908. The new emperor was two- clear that Yuan was opposed to both democracy
years old and the provincial governors began and republicanism. The Kuomintang Party
to assert their independence. In October was crushed. Yuan lost prestige in the eyes
1911 the local army mutinied and the revolt of nationalism, when he agreed to the
spread. Provincial governors removed the demand of Japan to have economic control
Manchu garrisons and proclaimed their of Manchuria and Shantung. On his death in
independence. Already there were a few 1916 a new President was appointed for the
The World After World War II 50

next twelve years as a centralised mass
but the government party and helped to build
was central only in up a revolutionary army.
name. During this The Whampoa Military
period of anarchy in Academy was founded near
China, Marxist ideas Canton, with the assistance
were developing in of Russian officers. Its first
the north of China, director was Chiang Kai-
parallel to Sun-Yat- shek. On the staff in charge Chou En Lai
sen’s activities in of political activities was
the coastal cities Chou En Lai, as an alliance had been formed
between Shanghai Yuan Shih-kai between the Chinese Communist Party and
and Canton. the Kuomintang.
Mao Tse-tung Kuomintang and
(1893–1976) Chiang Kai Shek
Mao was born in
Hunan in south-east After the death of Sun
China. His father was a Yat Sen the Kuomintang
wealthy peasant, and a firm was organised on
supporter of the Manchus. communist lines, but it
Mao, who was very fond of reading, soon did not adopt communist
showed his ability and entered the Junior policies. The leader of
College at Changsha. This was the year the Kuomintang was
(1911) when the Revolution had broken Chiang Kai-shek. While
out in China. Mao joined the revolutionary the Communist Party Chiang Kai-shek
army but soon left and enrolled in the was under Mao Tse Tung and Chou En Lai.
Teachers’ Training College in Changsha. As an avowed critic of Communists, Chiang
He then moved to Peking and served as removed all of them from important positions
an assistant librarian in Peking University. in the party. The communists increased their
In the following year Mao began his full- influence among the workers and peasants
fledged political activities of Hunan and and obtained recruits for their army. The
emerged as a staunch Communist. Kuomintang represented the interests of the
landlords and capitalists.
(d) Communist Party of China Chiang Kai-shek started conquering
China. Starting from Canon, by the end of
With the Revolution and the breakup of the
1925, he had captured Hanko. In early 1927
old society, Confucian thought was generally
he successfully laid siege on Shanghai and
side-lined and after the Russian Revolution
Nanking. He removed all communists in the
of 1917, the ideas of Marx and Lenin became
Kuomintang Party. In 1928 he was successful
popular among intellectuals. In 1918 a Society
in capturing Peking. Once again there was a
for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking
central government in China.
University. Among the students who attended
was Mao Tse-tung. Mao as Organizer of Peasants
In the meantime, Sun Yat-sen, sent Chiang Mao had understood that the Kuomintang
Kai-shek to Moscow to seek Russian support. grip on the towns was very strong. So he
The Russians in turn sent Michael Borodin concentrated his energies on organizing the
to China, who reorganised the Kuomintang peasantry. When the relationship between

Kuomintang and Communist Party broke developing Manchuria as a military base. Mao
a few hundred Communists led by Mao believed that Chiang Kai-shek was necessary
retreated into the wild mountains. Here they for some time to hold together Kuomintang
stayed for the next seven years. As the army of to fight the Japanese. As a consequence of
Mao was gradually growing, the Kuomintang this pragmatic policy, the attacks on the
was unable to penetrate the mountains. communists gradually stopped. At the same
The campaign against the communists was time a stronger line was adopted towards
distracted as Chiang Kai-shek had to deal with Japanese expansion. But the Japanese occupied
the constant threat from Japan and also the the whole of the eastern half of China, as the
attacks from war lords. Kuomintang armies were not strong enough.
The Long March 1934 Communist Victory

As Chiang Kai-shek had built a circle With the surrender of the Japanese (1945),
of fortified posts around the communist both the Kuomintang and the communists
positions, Mao wanted to move out of Hunan sought to occupy the Japanese areas. In this
for safer territory. By 1933 Mao had gained race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities
full control of the Chinese Communist party. and railways soon fell into their hands. Even
In 1934, the Communist army of about the area around Peking was soon controlled
100,000 set out on the Long March. This by Chiang Kai-shek’s forces, largely because
march has become legendary. The marchers of the military aid given by the USA.
were continually harassed by Kuomintang With the massive support provided by
forces, by local war lords and by unfriendly the USA Kuomintang government controlled
tribesmen. Of the 100000 who set out, only the administration, ports and communication
20,000 finally reached northern Sheni late system. But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the
in 1935, after crossing nearly 6000 miles. peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
They were soon joined by other communist Mao was keen on obtaining the support of
armies. By 1937 Mao had become the leader the middle class. So he declared that what the
of over 10 million people. Mao organised communists wanted was the rule of the people,
workers and peasants’ councils in villages of not the dictatorship of the proletariat; the end of
Shensi and Kansu and established the base exploitation, not absolute equality.
for the eventual Communist takeover of
China. Mao continued the use of guerrilla
tactics, but also ordered large-scale military
movements. Cities fell one by one and Chiang
Kai-shek’s army began to disintegrate quickly.
In the summer of 1948, Communist control
had been established over most parts of China.
National People’s Congress

In September 1949, before fighting had
Mao’s Long March
ended in the south of China, the people’s
Japanese Aggression Political Consultative Conference met in
Peking. Consisting of over 650 delegates from
Japanese interest in taking control over the Communist Party and other left-wing
Korea led to aggression against China which organizations, the conference elected the
was weak and backward. Japan continued Central Governing Council with Mao as its
to occupy north Chinese provinces while Chairman.

The establishment of the People’s 2. Marshall Plan
Republic of China under the leadership of
The US conceived the Marshall Plan
Mao Tse Tung was a world-shaking event.
to bring the countries in western Europe
There were now two mighty Communist
under its influence. The plan sought to help
powers in the world —the Soviet Union and
the countries of Europe with American
People’s Republic of China.
dollars to facilitate their early recovery
Denial of UNO Membership from the destruction caused by the Second
World War.
The United-States refused to recognize the
People’s Republic of China for more than two The United States
decades. Instead, the government of Chiang was much concerned that
Kai-shek in Taiwan (Formosa) was given poverty, unemployment,
recognition due to the pressure of the US. and dislocation caused
by the post-World War
Cold War: Rivalry II period were increasing
4.2 between the US and the appeal of communist
the Soviet Union parties in western
Marshall
Europe. The Secretary
of State, George C. Marshall, advanced the
Cold War
idea of a European self-help programme to
The rivalry that developed after World
be financed by the United States. Sixteen
War II between the US and the USSR and
nations, became part of this programme.
their respective allies created tension which
Administrative and technical assistance
is referred to as Cold War. The two super
was offered through the Economic
powers were organised after the War into
Cooperation Administration (ECA) of the
rival military alliances. They did not take
United States. European nations received
recourse to weapons. Instead they waged
nearly $13 billion in aid with shipments
war on political, economic and ideological
of food, staples, fuel and machinery and
fronts. The term ‘Cold War’ was first coined
later in investment in industrial capacity
by the English writer George Orwell (1945).
in Europe. Marshall Plan funding ended in
1951.
1. Truman’s Policy of
Formation of Military
Containment of Communism 4.3
Alliances
In 1948 the Soviets had
established socialist governments (a) NATO
in the countries of eastern Europe
The United
that had been liberated from the
States and its
Nazis by the Soviet Army. The
European allies
Americans and the British feared
formed the North
the permanent Soviet domination Truman
Atlantic Treaty
of eastern Europe. Truman, the president of USA,
Organization
pursued a policy of containment of communism.
(NATO) to resist
The Soviets were however determined not
Soviet aggression in Europe (1949). It was
only to maintain control of eastern Europe,
an inter-state military alliance between the
but also keen on spreading Communism
countries of North America and Europe. The
world-wide.

major member countries included Canada, armed forces of the member countries with
Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, its headquarters in Moscow was setup. The
Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Warsaw Pact was dissolved in 1991 following
Portugal and the United Kingdom. Later the break-up of USSR.
Greece and Turkey joined the organization
(1952). Germany joined the NATO in (d) CENTO or the Baghdad Pact
1955. The chief objective of NATO was the
In 1955 Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain,
peace and security in the North Atlantic
Pakistan and Iran signed a pact known as
region. The members agreed that an armed
Baghdad Pact. In 1958 the United States joined
attack against any one of them would be
the organisation and thereafter it came to be
considered as an aggression against all the
known as the Central Treaty Organization.
members of NATO. However even after
This treaty was open to any Arab nation
the fall of the Soviet Union NATO has
desiring peace and security in the region.
continued to expand. It had 29 members in
CENTO was dissolved in 1979.
2017, including all seven non-Soviet former
Warsaw Pact nations.
(e) High Military Expenditure on
(b) SEATO or Manila Pact (1954) both sides
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization As a result of the military alliances,
(SEATO) was organized for the collective military expenditure on both sides kept
security of countries in Southeast Asia. increasing even in peace time. America
Following the signing of the Manila Pact had used the nuclear bomb against Japan to
(1954) by the US, France, England, New convey its destructive capability to the Soviet
Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand Union. In response the Soviet Union tested
and Pakistan. Member countries of SEATO the nuclear bomb in 1949. There was intense
were committed to prevent communism competition to develop more and more
from gaining ground in the region. Unlike destructive nuclear weapons.
the NATO alliance, SEATO had no joint
The conflict between the two sides led
commands with standing forces.
to many international crises after the end
(c) Warsaw Pact of World War II. The danger of the use of
nuclear weapons that could destroy the entire
As a counter to humankind was palpable. While both sides
the NATO, Soviet encouraged intellectuals to propagate their
Union organized views, intellectuals like Bertrand Russell
the Soviet-bloc called for nuclear disarmament. Peace
countries for a united movements and popular organizations such
military action, as Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament came
under the Warsaw into existence in Europe to warn the world of
Pact. In December the dangers of a nuclear war.
1954, a conference
of eight European
4.4 Korean War
nations namely,
Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, The Korean War made the Cold War
East Germany, Poland, Romania and Russia really hot. Since Korea was partitioned as
took place in Moscow. They concluded North and South (1945), each side sought
the treaty on May 14, 1955. This is known to win legitimacy by unifying the country.
as the Warsaw pact. A joint command of The President of North Korea Kim II

(People’s Republic Tito (Yugoslavia), Nasser (Egypt), Nehru
of Korea) decided (India), Nkrumah (Ghana) and Sukarno
to act before his (Indonesia). The basic principles of non-
southern rival, alignment, as listed in the statement issued
Syngman Rhee (the at the Belgrade (a Serbian city, then part of
Republic of Korea), Yugoslavia) Conference, were: peaceful co-
got the chance. He existence, commitment to peace and security,
launched an attack no military alliance with any super power,
in June 1950, with no permission for any super power to build
the tacit support its military base in its territories. With the
of Stalin. Both Kim collapse of Soviet Union, the idea of non-
and Stalin did not alignment lost relevance.
expect the US to Korean War
intervene. The war
lasted for three years. The human cost was
enormous. But the Korean people gained
nothing. The final demarcation line was the
same as at the beginning. This futile Korean
War sums up the Cold War.
Third World Countries

The capitalist countries led by the U.S.
were politically designated as the First World,
while the communist states led by the Soviet 4.6 The Cuban Revolution
Union came to be known as the Second
The United States had its satellite states
world. States outside these two were called
in Central America (Honduras, El Salvador,
Third World. When the term was originally
Nicaragua, Panama and Guatemala), the
introduced, the Third World principally
Caribbean (Cuba, the Dominion Republic and
consisted of the developing world, the former
Haiti) and east Asia (the Philippines, South
colonies of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Korea, South Vietnam and Thailand). These
With the break-up of the Soviet Union in
states were governed by ruling groups made
1991, and the process of globalisation and
up of military personnel, landed gentry and
economic competitiveness, the term has lost
occasionally of local capitalists. This made
its relevance.
them dependent on US aid. At times the US
intervened for a change of government to
4.5 Non-Aligned Movement suit its economic and strategic interests. Its
The Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was used
emerged in the wake of decolonization that for this purpose. For example, in 1954, the
followed World War II. At the Bandung (a city CIA organized the overthrow of a reformist
in Indonesia) conference (1955), the newly government in Guatemala. Five years later the
independent countries of Asia and Africa gave US tried to prop up the corrupt and dictatorial
a call for abstaining from allying with any of Cuban regime of Batista against the seizure of
the two Super Powers. It also pledged to fight government by Fidel Castro and his colleague
all forms of colonialism and imperialism. Che Guevara.
The NAM held its first conference at
Belgrade in 1961 under the leadership of

After Castro since they had expected independence at
took power, the the end of World War I. Britain’s promise to
US-owned oil Zionist leaders that it would allocate one of the
refineries on the Arab lands, Palestine, to Jewish settlers from
island refused to Europe further embittered the Arabs. There
process Russian was growing Arab antagonism towards Zionist
oil. Castro Fidel Castro settlers, as they bought land from rich Arabs
nationalized and Che Guevara and evicted the local peasant families who had
them. The US been cultivating it for centuries.
retaliated by ending the arrangement by which At the end of October 1945, the Jewish
it bought the bulk of Cuba’s sugar. Castro underground organizations like Irgun Zvai
nationalized the US-owned sugar companies. Leumi (Zionist Para-military Organization) and
and ended the US monopolies in electricity the Stern Gang (Zionist Terrorist Organization)
and telephones. All these gravely threatened
American economic interests.
Zionist Movement
Cuban Missile Crisis
In Palestine, the ancient home of Jews, only
In April a few thousand Jews were living in 1900.
1961, while Some 15 million were scattered around
landing an Europe and North America. (This is referred
army of Cuban to as the Diaspora.) These Jews had been
exiles on the subjected to systematic persecution for
island of Bay centuries. But in the late nineteenth century
of Pigs, the the persecution in Russia (where two-
US bombed Cuban Missile Crisis thirds of the world’s Jews lived), France and
C u b a n Germany was intense. Some Jews emigrated
airfields with the objective of overthrowing to Palestine, while many more went to the
Castro’s regime. US warships surrounded United States and Britain. In 1896 Thodore
Cuba. The Kennedy government had received Herzel, a Viennese journalist, published a
intelligence that the USSR was secretly pamphlet called The Jewish State in which he
installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. Finally, called for the creation of a Jewish national
the Soviet President Khrushchev agreed to home. Next year (1897) the World Zionist
withdraw the missiles and thus the Missile Organisation was founded.
Crisis was defused.
Eventually the two sides reached an A r a b
agreement. The Soviet Union removed the Nationalism
missiles from Cuba on an understanding Since the dawn
that the US would never invade Cuba again. of the twentieth
In secret the US also had to agree to remove century Arab
their nuclear missiles from Turkey and Italy. nationalism was Arab League Summit
growing in Syria
4.7 Arab-Israeli War and Iraq. Subsequently nationalism became
intense in Egypt. In March 1945 The Arab
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) had
League was formed in Cairo. Its founder
provided for mandates in Turkish Arab Empire.
members were Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon,
France was given the mandate for Syria and
Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Yemen.
Lebanon, and Britain for Iraq, Palestine and
Jordan. This arrangement upset the Arabs

began to launch terror attacks on a large scale. allowed to occupy the canal zone to protect
Railways, bridges, airfields and government the canal. Egypt refused and on 31 October
offices were blown up. The British government, Britain and France bombed Egyptian airfields
presented the dispute to the UN for a decision. and other installations as well as the Suez
Succumbing to the pressure of great Canal area. However, under pressure of world
powers, the UN resolved to partition the opinion, Britain and France ended hostilities
British mandate of Palestine into a Jewish on 6 November. India represented by Nehru
state and an Arab state (29 November 1947). played a crucial role in resolving the crisis.
Clashes broke out almost immediately
between Jews and Arabs in Palestine.
The Israelis, won control of the main road
to Jerusalem and successfully repulsed repeated
Arab attacks. By early 1949 the Israelis managed
to occupy all of the Negev (a desert and semi-
desert region of southern Israel) up to the former
Egypt-Palestine frontier, except for the Gaza
Strip (a self-governing Palestinian territory). Suez Canal crisis
As a result of separate armistice agreements
between Israel and each of the Arab states, a Arab–Israeli War 1967
temporary frontier was fixed between Israel and
Ever since the formation of the Palestinian
its neighbours. In Israel, the war is remembered
Liberation Organization (PLO), Israel came
as its War of Independence. In the Arab world, it
to be attacked frequently by Palestinian
is treated as the Nakbah (“Catastrophe”) as a large
guerrilla groups based in Syria, Lebanon and
number of Arabs became refugees. Israel was
Jordan. Israeli resorted to violent reprisals. In
admitted into the UN immediately much against
November 1966 an Israeli strike on the village
the wishes of Arabs. Israel was established as a
powerful state of Al-Samū in the Jordanian West Bank, left 18
to assist dead and 54 wounded. Israel’s air battle with
We s t e r n Syria in April 1967 ended in the shooting down
interests – six Syrian MiG fighter jets.
particularly the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)-
US – in return It is an umbrella political organization
for arms and representing the world’s Palestinians –
financial aid. all Arabs and their descendants who lived
Declaration of the State of Israel
in mandated Palestine before the creation
Suez Canal Crisis (1956)
of the State of Israel in 1948. It was formed
In Egypt, in a coup in 1952, Colonel Nasser in 1964 to federate various Palestinian
became its President. In 1956 he nationalized groups that previously had operated
the Suez Canal, which undermined British as clandestine resistance movements. It
interests. With the failure of diplomacy, came into prominence after the Arab-Israeli
Britain and France decided to use force. Israel War of June 1967. The PLO was engaged in a
saw this as an opportunity to open the Gulf protracted guerrilla war against Israel during
of Aqaba to Israeli shipping and put a stop the 1960s, ’70s, and ’80s before entering into
to Egyptian border raids. On 29 October peace negotiations in the 1990s. Yasser Arafat
Israeli forces invaded Egypt. Britain used was its most prominent leader.
this opportunity to demand that its troops be

In his bid to demonstrate Egypt’s support for Yasser Arafat
Syria Nasser mobilized Egyptian forces in (1924–2004)
the Sinai, seeking the removal of UN emergency In 1969, Yasser
forces stationed there on May 18. On May 22 he Arafat became chairman
closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping. of the PLO’s executive
King Hussein of Jordan signed a mutual defence committee a position he
pact with Egypt. Accordingly, it was decided to held until his death in
place Jordanian forces under Egyptian 2004. Yasser Arafat was
command. Soon, Iraq too joined the alliance. appointed commander-in-chief of the all
Palestinian Arab guerilla forces in September
Israel’s Offensive
1970. At this time the PLO was driven out of
Following the mobilization of Arab Jordan after Palestine factions attempted to
states by Nasser, on June 5, Israel staged a overthrow the government of King Hussein.
sudden pre-emptive air strike that destroyed Arafat and the PLO eventually found their
more than 90 percent of Egypt’s air force on way to Beirut which remained the center of
the tarmac. A similar air assault incapacitated PLO operations against Israel until 1982.
the Syrian air force. Within three days the Wearing a Harley disguised pistol and
Israelis had achieved an overwhelming carrying an olive branch and dressed in a
victory on the ground, capturing the Gaza military uniform, his appearance raised
Strip and all of the Sinai Peninsula up to the world awareness of the Palestinian cause.
east bank of the Suez Canal. An eastern front Arafat was elected by the central council of
was also opened on June 5 when Jordanian the PLO as the first president of the state of
forces began shelling West Jerusalem. On Palestine on April 2, 1989.
June 7 Israeli forces drove Jordanian forces
out of East Jerusalem and most of the West The Arab losses in the war were heavy.
Bank. The defeat demoralized both the Arab public
and the political elite. The Six-Day War
also marked the start of a new phase in the
conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
The conflict created hundreds of thousands of
refugees and brought more than one million
Palestinians in the occupied territories under
Israeli rule.
Arab–Israeli War 1973

Egypt and
Syria under
King Hussein of Jordan and Egypt’s Nasser
Presidents Anwar
Sadat and Hafez al-
UN Intervention Assad respectively
The UN Security Council called for concluded a
a ceasefire. While Egypt, Jordon and Israel secret agreement
responded to the call favourably Syria in January 1973 Anwar Sadat and
continued to shell villages in northern Israel. to bring their Hafez al-Assad
On June 9 Israel launched an assault on the armies under one command. Assad was
fortified Golan Heights and capturing it. Syria keen on retrieving Golan Heights. Aware
accepted the ceasefire on June 10. that his country’s weapons were outdated,

Sadat offered the Israelis a peace deal, if recognized the Viet Minh government, while
they withdrew from Sinai. Israel rejected the the Western powers recognized the new
offer. Egypt and Syria launched a sudden and Vietnam government of Bao Dai.
surprise attack on the Yom Kippur religious While the French were receiving
holiday (6 October 1973). Though Israel considerable financial aid from America, the
suffered heavy casualties it finally pushed Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese
back the Arab forces. But this time, due to communist government. The French troops
UN intervention, Israel was forced to return were eventually defeated. The Geneva
to its 1967 position. Arabs gained nothing Conference (1954) that met on Korea and
out of this war too. By way of mediation Indo China decided that Vietnam was to
the USsucceeded in asserting its hegemony be an independent state but temporarily
over the region and its oil. Its strategy of divided; the Viet Minh to control the north
encouraging hostility between states and and Bao Dai to head the government the
peoples resulted in a succession of wars – south. Cambodia and Laos were to be
civil war in Lebanon, and the war between independent.
Iraq and Iran in the 1980s, Israel’s invasion of
Lebanon in 1982 and the US-led war against With a population of 16 million
Iraq in 1991. North Vietnam became a Communist state
with Ho Chi Minh as President. South
Vietnam, approximately of the same size
4.8 Vietnam War and population, was ruled by Ngo Dinh
By the end of Second World War Viet Diem. Diem refused to hold the elections to
Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. decide on a united Vietnam. The US initially
Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi supported the Diem regime as it hoped
Minh in Hanoi. This Viet Minh government of establishing a strong non-communist
quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. government in South Vietnam as a bulwark
However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam against the spread of communism in Asia.
that the British in the south and the Chinese in However, by 1962, it was clear that Diem was
the north should defend Indo-China from the incapable of controlling the situation. This
Japanese. But Ho Chi Minh had established his led to the posting of more US armed forces
control very firmly and so, early in 1946, the in the area.
British and Chinese troops had to withdraw,
leaving the French and Viet Minh to confront The government’s survival in South
each other. In March the two governments Vietnam depended on increasing amounts
(French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement of US support. In 1965 marines landed at
by which North Vietnam was to be a free state, Danang naval base, and there were 33,500 US
within an Indo-Chinese Federation. But the troops in the country within a month. The
new French constitution included all overseas number increased and there were 210,000
colonies in a French Union. by the end of year. The US bombed both
North and South in the hope that it could
In 1949 the French attempted to secure
force the liberation forces to abandon the
the support of the population by declaring
struggle. The fighters of North Vietnam,
Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia independent
trained in guerilla warfare, had grown out
within the French Union, retaining only
of spontaneous struggles against a repressive
foreign affairs and defence under French
regime. They sustained their resistance
control. However, the problem of Indo-China
without bowing to the US. The American
soon became involved in the Cold War. China,
troops also used bacteriological weapons.
Russia and the East European countries

Incendiary bombs such as napalm and Agent capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was liberated.
Orange (to defoliate the forest cover) were North and South Vietnam were formally united
used. Vast areas of Vietnam were devastated as one country in 1976. The city of Saigon was
and hundreds of thousands of people killed. renamed as Ho Chi-Minh City after the great
The American forces too suffered heavy leader of the Vietnamese people.
casualties. The emergence of Vietnam as a united
and independent nation was an historic event.
A small country had succeeded in winning
independence and unification in the face of
the armed opposition of the greatest power
in the world. The help given to Vietnam by
the socialist countries, the political support
extended by a large number of Asian and
African countries, and the solidarity expressed
by the peoples in all parts of the world, helped
American Bombing of North Vietnam in achieving this.
Escalation of the total military outlay
caused the US big business to protest. The 4.9 Towards European Union
youths rebelled against the conscription and
(a) Council of Europe
the horrors of war. Thousands of Americans
refused to be drafted in the US army and many One of the momentous decisions taken in
American soldiers deserted. Anti-Vietnam the post-War II era was to integrate the states
War protests rocked universities and colleges of Western Europe. In doing so the Europeans
across the US and in Europe, and became part wanted (1) to prevent further European wars
of the 1960s counterculture. No other single by ending the rivalry between France and
issue united millions of people all over the Germany. (2) to create a united Europe to resist
world as the war of Vietnam. However, the US any threat from Soviet Russia. (3) to form a
government continued the war even though it third force in the world to counter-balance the
was clear that it could not be won. strength of the US and USSR. (4) to make full
use of the economic and military resources of
Europe by organizing them on a continental
scale. In May 1949 ten countries met in London
and signed to form a Council of Europe.
The Council of Europe with headquarters at
Strasbourg was established with a committee
of foreign ministers of member countries and
a Consultative Assembly, drawn from the
parliaments of foreign countries.
Anti-Vietnam War Demonstations
(b) European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC)
Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn.
The armies of North Vietnam and of the National Since the Council of Europe had no real
Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept across power, a proposal to set up two European
the country routing the American supported organizations was made. Accordingly, the
troops of South Vietnam. By 30 April 1975, all European Defence Community (EDC) and
the American troops had withdrawn and the the European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC) were established. Six countries (France, (e) European Union (EU)
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and
The Maastricht (Netherlands) Treaty signed
Luxemburg belonging to ECSC signed the
on February 7, 1992, created the European
treaty of Rome which established the European
Union. The monetary policy and a common
Economic Community (EEC) or the European
currency (euro) to replace national currencies
Common Market, with headquarters at Brussels.
managed by common monetary institutions
Britain did not join the EEC. Instead it floated a
were subsequently planned and implemented.
European Free Trade Association with Portugal,
Today the European Union has 28 member states,
Denmark,
and functions from its headquarters at Brussels,
Au s t r i a ,
Belgium. In 2017, Britain voted to exit the EU.
N o r w a y,
Sweden and
Switzerland as
Fall of Berlin Wall and
4.10
member states. End of Cold War Era
The division of
Ho Chin Minh City (Saigon) Germany into West (Federal
Republic of Germany) and
(c) E
uropean Economic East (German Democratic
Community (EEC) Republic) led to glaring
The EEC eliminated barriers to the differences in living
movement of goods, services, capital, and standards. West Berlin’s
labour. It also prohibited public policies or economy became prosperous thanks to the
private agreements that restricted market support received from the West under the
competition. A common agricultural policy Marshall Plan. In contrast the USSR had
(CAP) and a common external trade policy little interest in developing the economy of
were evolved. European Common market was East Berlin. Further, people in East Berlin
a remarkable success. Throughout the 1970s suffered from lack of democracy and freedom.
and ’80s the EEC kept expanding. In 1973 the Therefore, people of East Berlin tried to move
United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland were to West Berlin. In West Berlin, on the other
admitted, followed by Greece in 1981 and hand, there was a fear that the Soviets could
Portugal and Spain in 1986. use military force to take West Berlin. In this
context, East German began to construct a
(d) Single European Act (SEA)
wall in 1961 which virtually cut off West Berlin
The Single European Act came into force from East Berlin and the surrounding East
on July 1, 1987. It significantly expanded the German areas. It was heavily guarded with
EEC’s scope giving the meetings of the EPC watch towers and other lethal impediments to
a legal basis. It also called for more intensive stop people from the East. In the late 1980s, as
coordination of foreign policy among member USSR’s hold over Eastern European countries
countries. According to the SEA, each member was weakening, a mass of people assembled on
was given multiple votes, depending on the 9 November 1989 on both sides of the wall and
country’s population. Approval of legislation began to demolish it. Germany was officially
required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all reunited on 3 October 1990. The Berlin Wall
members. The new procedure also increased was more than just a physical barrier. It was a
the role of the European Parliament. symbolic boundary between communism and
capitalism. With the fall of the Berlin Wall,
followed by the collapse of the Soviet Union,
the Cold War era came to an end.

Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of West Germany the US, in the context of President Reagan’s
from 1982 to 1990, and played a crucial role in Star Wars programme, it became necessary
integrating East Germany into West Germany for the Soviet Union to allocate more funds to
in 1990. He thus became the first chancellor the military. The increase in military budget
of a unified Germany after forty five years further strained the Soviet economy.
of division. He was Chairman of Christian By the end of the decade the economic
Democratic union from 1973 to 1998. He was
stagnation the Soviet Union suffered aggravated
committed to the economic integration of
Europe and to French-German cooperation. ethnic tension and promoted regionalism and
With French president Mitterand, Kohl was nationalism. The year 1988 saw the first mass
the architect of the Maastricht Treaty, which protests –first in Armenia, and then in the
established the European Union (EU) and the Baltic States. Earlier Soviet regimes had used
euro currency. severe repression to quell such uprisings. But,
in the context of perestroika and a weakened
economy, Gorbachev could not take recourse to
such brutal measures. The Chernobyl Disaster,
a major accident in a nuclear plant in Ukraine,
in 1986, was another blow. Gorbachev made
moves to stabilise his position by reliance on
conservative forces in 1989 and 1991. But on
each occasion he was interrupted by massive
miners’ strike which came close to cripple the
country’s energy supplies.
Demolition of Berlin wall
Perestroika (‘restructuring’) refers to the
programme introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev
Disintegration of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s to restructure Soviet economic
In the 1970s and early 1980s the Soviet and political system. Along with the policy
of ‘Glasnost’ (‘openness), Perestroika was
Union continued to retain a strong and
intended to energize Soviet economy which
dominant position in international politics. was lagging behind the developed countries
However, its economy was suffering, and was of the capitalist world. Even though the
unable to match the productive capacity of the economy continued to be monitored centrally
first world. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev took elementary reforms oriented towards the
over as head of the USSR. After Brezhnev’s long market were introduced. However, it failed
tenure as General Secretary of the Communist and the contradictions in the economy got
Party and his death in 1982, his successors more intense. As such it failed to arrest the
had died in quick succession. After ‘the thaw’ downward slide of the Soviet economy.
during Nikita Khrushchev’s reign, under
Glasnost (‘openness’) was a policy of
Brezhnev’s rule Soviet Union had relapsed ideologically openness introduced by
into a closed society with little freedom. In Mikhail Gorbachev along with Perestroika
this context, Gorbachev spoke about the in the 1980s. After ‘the thaw’ under Nikita
need for openness (Glasnost) and reform Khrushchev, from the 1960s under Leonid
(perestroika). But his commitment to reform, Brezhnev, the ideological and cultural climate
apart from opposition within the ruling was stifling with dissent being crushed
communist party, did not match the resources ruthlessly. Under Glasnost there was more
available to USSR. In the middle of the 1980s openness, writers who had been censored
about one third of the total GDP was going to earlier were rehabilitated, and there was space
the military. In order to maintain a parity with for criticism of politics and government.

The East European communist states, In the meantime, three Baltic States had
under the Soviet umbrella, were also in a deep formally left the Soviet Union. They were admitted to
economic and social crisis. Gorbachev’s decision the U.N. as independent countries: Estonia, Latvia,
to loosen the Soviet control on the countries and Lithuania. In November 1991 eleven republics
of Eastern Europe created an independent, (Ukraine, Georgia, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
democratic momentum. A series of workers’ Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan,
strikes undermined the communist regimes Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) announced secession
first in Poland and then in Hungary. A wave from the Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they
of demonstrations that swept East Germany would establish a Commonwealth of Independent
led to demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989. States. On 25 December Gorbachev announced
Subsequent to it, regimes in Czechoslovakia, his resignation. For six days the Soviet Union
followed by Bulgaria, fell. An attempt by continued to exist only in name and at midnight on
Romania’s Nicolae Ceaușescu to resist the wave of 31 December 1991, it was formally dissolved. The
change by shooting down demonstrators ended USSR was no more.
in his execution by a firing squad (December Yeltsin was first an ally of Gorbachev.
1989) under the command of his own generals. However, as Mayor of Moscow, Yeltsin won
The televised images of the shooting and the great popularity as a champion of political
fall of the Berlin Wall galvanized the process of and economic freedom. With Gorbachev’s
the breaking up of the communist world. In six introduction of democratic elections for the
months the political map of half of Europe had Soviet parliament, Yeltsin was returned to
been redrawn. power with overwhelming support of a Moscow
In this context, the various nationalities constituency in 1989. The following year he was
inside the various soviet republics of USSR elected President of Russia over Gorbachev’s
became increasingly assertive. The division objections. President Yeltsin advocated greater
within the ruling group was growing ever wider autonomy of the Russian Republic, with
and its control over society becoming more executive presidential system that would allow
difficult. Gorbachev made a last attempt to take him to govern independently of parliament.
a hard line against the disruptionist only to be
challenged by a second great miners’ strike in
1991and huge demonstrations in Moscow. In
response, conservative forces in his government
attempted to take a hard line without Gorbachev.
They used troops in Moscow to stage a coup,
and held Gorbachev under house arrest. But
other military units refused to back them and
as a result power fell into the hands of Boris
Yeltsin, a reformer backed by the West.
Yeltsin Gorbachev
SUMMARY
The history of China becoming a Communist country in the aftermath of Second War is narrated
with the portrayal of developments there after the revolution of 1911.
Rivalry between the US and the USSR, leading to the division of world into two military blocs
and the significance of NATO and Warsaw Pact, are highlighted.

Cold War developments are illustrated with cases of Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis, Arab-
Israeli Wars and Vietnam War.
Launch of Non-Alignment Movement, representing the view-points of Third World countries, is
described.
Establishment of Council of Europe to act independently of the influence of USA that later
developed into European Common Market and into European Union today is explained.
GLOSSARY
antagonistic acting against or indicating பகையுணர்வு க�ொண்ட
wriggle out to avoid doing something நழுவுதல்
the act of rising to an important position or a higher
ascension
level, a movement upward வளர்ச்சி, உயர்வு
legendary celebrated பெருமை வாய்ந்த, புகழ்பெற்ற

disappointed on finding out something is not as
disillusioned
good as hoped அதிருப்தி
abstaining restrain oneself from doing something விலகியிருத்தல், ஒதுங்கியிருத்தல்

embitter cause to feel bitter – to make hateful வெறுப்புணர்ச்சி, கசப்புணர்வு
incapacitated lacking in or deprived of strength or power திறனற்றதாக்குதல், முடமாக்குதல்
bacteriological
weapons
the use of harmful bacteria as a weapon நுண்ணுயிரியல் ஆயுதங்கள்
c) September 1954
EXERCISE d) September 1949
4. The United States and European allies
I. C
hoose the formed _______________ to resist any
Soviet aggression in Europe.
correct answer
a) SEATO b) NATO
1. Who was the first director of Whampoa c) SENTO d) Warsaw Pact
Military Academy? 5. Who became the Chairman of the PLO’s
a) Sun Yat-Sen b) Chiang Kai-Shek Executive Committee in 1969?
c) Michael Borodin d) Chou En Lai a) Hafez al-Assad
2. Which American President followed the b) Yasser Arafat
policy of containment of Communism?. c) Nasser
a) Woodrow Wilson d) Saddam Hussein
b) Truman 6. When was North and South Vietnam
c) Theodore Roosevelt united?
d) Franklin Roosevelt a) 1975 b) 1976
3. When was People’s Political Consultative c) 1973 d) 1974
Conference held in China? 7. Where was Arab League formed?
a) September 1959 a) Cairo b) Jordan
b) September 1948 c) Lebanon d) Syria

8. When was the Warsaw Pact dissolved? 2. i) In 1948, the Soviets had established
a) 1979 b) 1989 left wing government in the countries of
c) 1990 d) 1991 Eastern Europe that had been liberated by
the Soviet Army.
II. Fill in the blanks ii) The chief objective of NATO was to
1. __________________ was known as preserve peace and security in the North
the “Father of modern China”. Atlantic region.
2. In 1918, the society for the study of iii) The member countries of SEATO were
Marxism was formed in ____________ committed to prevent democracy from
University. gaining ground in the region.
3. After the death of Dr. Sun Yat Sen, the iv) Britain used the atomic bomb against
leader of the Kuomintang party was Japan to convey its destructive capability
_________. to the USSR.
4. _____________ treaty is open to any a) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct
Arab nation desiring peace and security b) (i) and (ii) are correct
in the region. c) (iii) and (iv) are correct
5. The treaty of _____________ provided d) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
for mandates in Turkish -Arab Empire. 3. Assertion (A): America’s Marshall Plan
6. Germany joined the NATO in was for reconstruction of the war-ravaged
_________________. Europe.
7. _____________ was the Headquarters of Reason (R): The US conceived the
the Council of Europe. Marshal Plan to bring the countries in the
8. _____________ treaty signed on February Western Europe under its influence.
7, 1992 created the European Union. a) B oth (A) and (R) are correct, but R is
not the correct explanation of A
III. Choose the correct b) B oth (A) and (R) are wrong
statement/statements c) B oth (A) and (R) are correct and R is
1. i) In China (1898) the young emperor, the correct explanation of A
under the influence of the educated d) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct
minority, initiated a series of reforms IV. Match the following
known as the 100 days of reforms.
ii) The Kuomintang Party represented the 1. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen - South Vietnam
interests of the workers and peasants. 2. Syngman Rhee - Kuomintung
iii) Yuan Shih-Kai had lost prestige in the 3. Anwar Sadat - South Korea
eyes of Nationalists, when he agreed to 4. Ho-Chi Minh - Egypt
the demand of Japan to have economic 5. Ngo Dinh Diem - North Vietnam
control of Manchuria and Shantung.
iv) Soviet Union refused to recognize the V. Answer briefly
People’s Republic of China for more than 1. Write any three causes for the Chinese
two decades. Revolution of 1911.
a) (i) and (ii) are correct 2. Explain how in 1928 Kuomintung and
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct Chiang-Kai Shek established Central
c) (i) and (iii) are correct Government in China.
d) (i) and (iv) are correct 3. Write a note on Mao’s Long March.

4. What do you know of Baghdad Pact? VII. Answer in detail
5. What was Marshall Plan?
1. Estimate the role of Mao Tse tung in
6. The Suez Canal crisis confirmed that making China a communist country.
Israel had been created to serve the cause
2. Attempt an essay on the Arab-Israeli wars
of western interests –Elaborate.
of 1967 and 1973.
7. Write a note on Third World Countries.
3. Narrate the history of transformation
8. How was the Cuban missile crisis defused? of Council of Europe into an European
VI. Answer all the questions Union.
under each caption VIII. Activity
1. Cold War 1. Divide the class into two groups. Let one
a) Name the two military blocs that group act as supporters of USA and the
emerged in the Post-World War II. other group act as supporters of Soviet
b) Who coined the term “Cold War” and Union, Organise a debate.
who used it first? 2. Involving the entire class, an album may
c) What was the response of Soviet Russia be prepared with pictures relating to
to the formation of NATO? Korean, Arab-Israeli and Vietnam Wars to
d) What was the context in which Warsaw highlight the human sufferings in terms
Pact was dissolved? of death and devastation.
2. Korean War
a) Who was the President of North Korea REFERENCE BOOKS
during the Korean War?
1. R.D. Cornvell, World History in the
b) Name the southern rival to the Twentieth Century (London: Longman,
President of North Korea. 1972)
c) How long did the Korean War last?
2. Richard Overy, Complete History of the
d) What was the human cost of the War? World (London: Harper Collins, 2006)
3. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 3. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
a) When and where was the first conference World (London: Orient Longman, 2007)
on Non-Aligned Movement held?
b) Who were the prominent personalities
present in the first conference?
c) What were the objectives of NAM? INTERNET RESOURCES
d) L ist out any two basic principles of
Non-Alignment Movement enunciated https://www.brittanica.com
in the Belgrade Conference.
Timeline
• 1934 - Long March
• 1949 - NATO
• 1954 - SEATO
• 1955 - Warsaw Pact
• 1956 - Suez Canal Crisis
• 1961 - Belgrade Conference

Unit - 5
Social and
Religious Reform
Movements in the
19th Century
Learning Objectives
The influence of Western ideas and Christianity in creating a new
awakening in 19th century British India
Contestation in the social and religious sphere – opposition to
practices like sati, slavery, untouchability, and child marriage
Opposition to idolatry, rituals and superstitious beliefs
Contribution of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophical
Society and Aligarh Movement to the regeneration of India
Role played by prominent personalities in bringing about this awakening amongst
Parsees and Sikhs
Social movement of Jyotiba Phule and reform movements in Kerala and Tamilnadu
Introduction Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj and the

Aligarh Movement; and the revivalist movements
English education, introduced with the
such as the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna
object of producing clerks, also produced a
Mission and the Deoband Movement. There were
new English-educated middle class. This class
also attempts to challenge the oppressive social
came under the influence of western ideas and
structure by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana
thoughts. Christianity also had its effect on the
Guru and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga
newly emerging middle class. Though small in
Adigal and Vaikunda Swamigal of Tamilanadu.
number, the educated middle class began to take
The two other notable social reformers of
a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
Tamilnadu Periyar E.V.R. and Iyothee Thassar
The Indian reformers were, however, quite
are dealt with comprehensively in Unit X.
hesitant to subject their old notions and habits
to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to
harmonize both Indian and Western cultures. Early Reform
Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate 5.1
Movements in Bengal
social evils such as sati, female infanticide, and
child marriage and various superstitious beliefs. (a) Raja Rammohan Roy and
The reform movements of nineteenth Brahmo Samaj
century in the realm of religion fall under two Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) was one
broad categories: reformist movements like the of the earlier reformers influenced by the
67 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century

Western ideas to temple in Calcutta, where there was no image.
initiate reforms. He There he laid down that ‘no religion should be
was a great scholar, reviled or slightly or contemptuously spoken off
well-versed in Sanskrit, or alluded to.’ The Samaj forbade idol-worship
Arabic, Persian, and and condemned meaningless religious rites
English apart from and ceremonies. However, from the beginning,
his knowledge in the appeal of the Brahmo Samaj remained
his mother tongue, limited to the intellectuals and enlightened
Bengali. Rammohan Bengalis. Though the Samaj failed to attract the
Roy was opposed to people from the lower sections of society, its
meaningless religious Raja Rammohan Roy impact on the culture of modern Bengal and
ceremonies and all forms of pernicious social its middle class was quite significant.
customs. Yet he wanted to preserve continuity
with the past. In his religio–philosophical (b) Maharishi Debendranath Tagore
social outlook, he was deeply influenced by After the death
monotheism and anti-idolatry. Based on his of Rammohan Roy
interpretation of the Upanishads, he argued (1833), Maharishi
that all the ancient texts of the Hindus Debendranath Tagore
preached monotheism or worship of one God. (1817–1905), the poet
Deeply concerned with the prevailing Rabindranath Tagore’s
customs of sati, child marriage, and polygamy father, carried on the
he published tracts against them and work. He laid down
petitioned the government to legislate against four articles of faith:
them. He advocated the rights of widows to 1. In the beginning
remarry. He wanted polygamy to end. His there was nothing. Debendranath Tagore
opinions were resisted fiercely by orthodox The one Supreme Being alone existed who
Hindus. He appealed to reason and humanity created the Universe. 2. He alone is the God
and compassion of the people. He visited the of Truth, Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and
crematorium of Calcutta to try and persuade Power, eternal, omnipresent, the One without
the relatives of widows to give up their plan of second. 3. Our salvation depends on belief
self-immolation. His campaign played a key in Him and in His worship in this world and
role in forcing the Governor-General William the next. 4. Belief consists in loving Him and
Bentinck’s legislation abolishing sati in 1829. doing His will.
Rammohan Roy condemned the (c ) Keshab Chandra Sen &

subjugation of women and opposed the Brahmo Samaj of India
prevailing ideas that women were inferior
Debendranath was
to men. He strongly advocated education
a moderate reformer.
for women. He gave his full support for the
But his younger
introduction of English language and western
colleagues in the Sabha
sciences in schools and colleges. Rammohan
were for rapid changes.
found in the Upanishads a new revelation of
The greatest of these,
one infinite, divine Being, the eternal Brahman,
Keshab Chandra Sen,
while Hinduism as he saw in the daily life
(1838–84) joined the
around him was a perversion of their teaching.
movement in 1857. He
Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo was greatly influenced
Samaj in 1828. On 20 August 1828 he opened a by Christianity, Keshab Chandra Sen
Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 68

believing in its spirit but not in the person It was also to the credit of Vidyasagar
of its founder. But in 1866 a split occurred that the first age of consent Act was
in the ranks of Brahmo Samaj. Keshab left enacted in 1860. The age for marriage
the Samaj and founded a new organization. was fixed as ten years. It was raised to
Debendranath’s organization, thereafter, came twelve and thirteen years in 1891 and 1925
to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj. After respectively. Sadly, as reported in the Age
Keshab had his fourteen-year-old daughter of Consent Committee (1929), the law
married to an Indian prince, in contravention remained on paper and the knowledge of it
of the Samaj’s condemnation of child marriages, was confined to judges, lawyers and a few
the opponents of child marriage left the Brahmo educated men.
Samaj of India and started the Sadharan Samaj,
which developed anti-Christian tendencies.
steam. A movement similar to the Brahmo
(d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Samaj, but founded in Bombay in 1867,
was Prarthana Samaj. Its founder was
Another Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825–1898).
outstanding The two distinguished members of this
reformer in Samaj were R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice
Bengal was Mahadev Govind Ranade. They devoted
Ishwar Chandra themselves to activities such as inter-
Vidyasagar caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
(1820–1891). remarriage and improvement of women
While Ram and depressed classes. Ranade (1842–1901)
Mohan Roy and was the founder of the Widow Marriage
others looked Association (1861), the Poona Sarvajanik
to western Sabha (1870) and the Deccan Education
rationalist ideas Society (1884).
to reform society, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
Vidyasagar argued that the Hindu scriptures While the above reformers worked among
were progressive. He provided evidence from the upper castes, during the same time Jyotiba
scriptures that there was no sanction for Phule worked for the uplift of depressed
burning of widows or for the prohibition on castes and the cause of women. His book
the remarriage of widows. He wrote a number Gulamgiri (‘Slavery’) is an important work
of polemical tracts, and was the pioneer of that condemned the inequities of caste.
modern Bengali prose. He played a leading
role in promoting education of girls and
helped them in setting up a number of schools.
He dedicated his whole life for the betterment
of the child widows of the Hindu society. The
movement led by Vidyasagar, resulted in the
Widows’ Remarriage Reform Act of 1856.
This Act was intended to improve the lot of
child widows and save them from perpetual
widowhood.
(e) Prarthana Samaj

The Maharashtra region was another
region where reform activities gained Dr. Atma Ram M.G. Ranade
Pandurang

5.2 Hindu Revivalism In 1893 Arya Samaj split over the
question of doctrinal purity. Swami
(a) Swami Dayanand Saraswati Shraddhananda (1857–1926), a charismatic
and Arya Samaj, 1875 figure after Dayananda, accused the group
In the Punjab, running the DAV School of being too
the reform movement Westernized and thereby ignoring the
was spearheaded by founder’s ideology. From 1900 onward, he
the Arya Samaj. It was established his own network of schools, the
founded (1875) by a Gurukulas, which were outwardly modelled
wandering ascetic in after ancient Hindu seats of learning,
the western Gangetic emphasising the study of the Vedas.
plain, Swami Dayanand
Saraswati (1824–83).
Swami Dayanand later (b) Ramakrishna
settled in the Punjab to As we saw earlier, the Brahmo Samaj,
Swami Dayanand
preach his ideas. His book, Saraswati as a response to Christian and rationalist
Satyarthaprakash, enjoyed criticism had criticised idolatry and other
wide circulation. He declared the practices orthodox Hindu practices. The popularity
such as child marriage, the prohibition of that Ramakrishna (l836–86), a simple priest
widow remarriage, and the alleged polluting of Dakshineswar near Kolkata, gained in the
effects of foreign travel had no scriptural latter half of the nineteenth century was a
sanction. The positive principles enunciated response to this. He emphasised the spiritual
by Dayanand were: strict monotheism, union with god through ecstatic practices such
condemnation of idolatry, and rejection of as singing bhajans. An ardent worshipper of
Brahman domination of ritual and social goddess Kali, the sacred mother, he declared
practices. He also rejected superstitious that the manifestations of the divine mother
beliefs in Hinduism, especially Puranic were infinite. In his view, all religions contain
literature and his cry was “go back to Vedas.” the universal elements which, if practised,
Arya Samaj attempted to check the would lead to salvation. He said, “Jiva is Siva”
incidence of religious conversion in (all living beings are God). Why then talk
British India. One of its main objectives of showing mercy to them? Not mercy, but
was counter-conversion, prescribing a service, service for man, must be regarded as
purificatory ceremony called suddhi, God.’
directed at Hindus who had converted to
Islam and Christianity.
The late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries were a period of great turmoil
in undivided Punjab with intense debates
between Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.
The primary achievements of the Arya
Samaj were in the field of social reform and Ramakrishna Ramakrishna Mission,
spread of education. The Samaj started a Belur Math
number of Dayananda Anglo–Vedic schools Ramakrishna Mission
and colleges.
Ramakrishna’s primary achievement
was his ability to attract educated youth

who were dissatisfied with the rational involved in the militant nationalist struggle
orientation of religious reform organizations during the Swadeshi movement following
such as the Brahmo Samaj. After his death the Partition of Bengal were inspired by
in 1886, his disciples organised themselves Vivekananda.
as a religious community and undertook the
task of making his life and teaching known (d) Theosophical Movement
in India and abroad. The chief spirit behind During the nineteenth century, Hindu
this task was Vivekananda. Following religion and culture were being discredited
the organizational structure of Christian in the West, especially due to missionary
missionaries, Vivekananda established propaganda. However, some Western
the Ramakrishna Mission which did not intellectuals looked to the East for spiritual
restrict itself to religious activities but was salvation as a remedy to the materialistic
actively involved in social causes such as orientation of the West. The Theosophical
education, health care and relief in times Society, founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky
of calamities. (1831–1891) and Colonel H.S Olcott (1832–
(c) Swami Vivekananda 1907) played a key role in this. Founded in
the USA in 1875, it later shifted to India at
Narendra Nath Datta (l863–1902), later
Adyar, Chennai in 1886.
known as Swami Vivekananda, was the prime
follower of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
An educated youth, he was drawn to
Ramakrishna’s message. Dissatisfied with
conventional philosophical positions and
practices, he advocated the practical Vedanta
of service to humanity and attacked the
tendency to defend every institution simply
because it was connected with religion.
He emphasized a cultural nationalism and
made a call to Indian youth to regenerate
Hindu society. His ideas bred a sense of self- Madame Blavatsky Colonel H.S
confidence among Indians who felt inferior Olcott
in relation to the materialist achievements of
Theosophical Society stimulated a
the West. He became famous for his addresses
study of the Hindu classics, especially
on Hinduism at the 1893 World Congress
the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
of Religions in Chicago. Despite his fame,
The Theosophical Society also played an
he was condemned by orthodox Hindus for
important role in the revival of Buddhism in
suggesting that the lower
India. Western interest in Hindu scriptures
castes should be allowed
gave educated Hindus great pride in their
to engage in the Hindu
tradition and culture.
rituals from which
they were traditionally Contribution of Annie Besant
excluded. Vivekananda’s
In India the movement became further
ac t ivist ide olog y
popular with the election of Annie Besant
rekindled the desire for
(1847–1933) as its president after the death of
political change among
Olcott. She played a role in Indian nationalist
many western-education
Swami politics, and formed the Home Rule League
young Bengalis. Many
Vivekananada demanding home rule to India on the lines
of the youths who were

of Ireland. Annie Besant (b) Narayana Guru
spread Theosophical ideas
Born to poor
through her newspapers
parents in Kerala,
called New India and
Narayana Guru (1854–
Commonweal.
1928) evolved into a
poet and scholar in
5.3 Anti-Caste Malayalam, Tamil and
Movements Sanskrit. In his days
Annie Besant the people of depressed
(a) Jyotiba Phule classes had no access Narayana Guru
Jyotiba Govindrao Phule was born in 1827 to temples, streets, public tanks and wells and
in Maharashtra. Phule is chiefly known educational institutions. Men and women
belonging to lower castes were not allowed
to wear the upper garments. Disturbed by
the terrible caste tyranny, that the lower caste
people suffered, he dedicated his whole life
for the betterment of the oppressed. He set up
the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam,
an organization to work for the uplift of the
“depressed classes”. He established a grand
temple at Aruvipuram and dedicated it to all. His
movement inspired a radical transformation of
Kerala society, especially among the Ezhavas.
Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule Thinkers and writers such as Kumaran Asan
and Dr Palpu were influenced by his ideas and
as the earliest leader of the non-Brahman carried forward the movement.
movement. He opened the first school for
“untouchables” in 1852 in Poona. He launched (c) Ayyankali
the Satyashodak Samaj (Truth-Seekers Nineteenth-
Society) in 1870 to stir the non-Brahman century Kerala region
masses to self-respect and ambition. Phule was plagued by caste
opposed child marriage and supported widow discriminations of
remarriage, which was prohibited particularly worst kind. Certain
among high-caste Hindus. Jyotiba and his social groups were
wife Savitribai Phule devoted their lives not only considered
for the uplift of the depressed classes and untouchable but also
women. Jotiba opened orphanages and homes un-seeable. However,
for widows. Unlike many contemporary the strident campaigns
nationalists he welcomed British rule and by thinkers such as Ayyankali
missionary activities on the ground that Narayana Guru and Ayyankali (1863–1941)
British rule enabled lower castes to challenge in the context of larger political and economic
the supremacy of Brahmins. His work, changes ushered in tremendous social
Gulamgiri (Slavery) is an important text that changes, especially in the caste structure.
summarized many of his radical ideas.
Ayyankali was born in 1863 at Venganoor
in Thiruvananthapuram then in the princely
state of Travancore. The discrimination he

faced as a child turned him into a leader of an founded a scientific society and translated
anti-caste movement and who later fought for many English books, especially science
basic rights including access to public spaces books into Urdu. He believed that the interest
and entry to schools. Ayyankali challenged of the Muslims would be best served if they
many caste conventions such as clothing bonded with the British Government rather
style; he wore clothes associated with upper than pitch in with the rising nationalist
castes that were prohibited for lower castes. movement. So he advised the Muslims to
He rode on an ox-cart challenging the ‘ban’ take to English education and to concentrate
on untouchables from accessing public roads on it.
used by caste Hindus.
Aligarh Movement
Inspired by Sree Narayana Guru,
Ayyankali founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana S a y y i d
Sangam (Association for the Protection of the Ahmed Khan’s
Poor) in 1907 which campaigned and raised movement,
funds to educate the lower caste Pulaya people. the “Aligarh
m o v e m e n t ,”
5.4 Islamic Reforms is so called
because it was
After the suppression of great revolt
centred around
of 1857 Indian Muslims looked to Western
the Aligarh
culture with suspicion. The community feared
Mo h a m m e d a n
that Western education, Western culture and
Anglo-Oriental
Western ideas would endanger their religion.
college founded
Therefore only a small section of Muslims
by him in Aligarh Muslim University
accepted the new avenues for modern
1875, which is
education. Consequently, Indian Muslims as
a landmark in the history of Indian Muslim
a community lagged behind in comparison to
education. The college was raised to the status
the Hindu elite of various parts of India.
of a university in 1920. Aligarh produced a
Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan huge body of intelligentsia over successive
generations who played a key role in public life.
As Indian Muslims
steadily lost ground in Deoband Movement
education, in the public
services and in general Deoband was a revivalist movement
leadership in India, there organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema
was a realization that there with the twin objectives of propagating the
was no alternative but to pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadith as
accept modern education well as encouraging the spirit of Jihad against
Sayyid Ahmed the foreign and un-Islamic elements. The
if the community was to Khan
go on the path of progress. Ulema under the leadership of Muhammad
The man who gave life and soul to it was Sir QasimWanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmad
Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817–1898). Born in Gangotri (1828-1905) founded the school at
Delhi into a noble Muslim family, Sayyid Deoband in the Saharanpur district of the
Ahmed Khan thought that lack of education, U.P in 1866. The school curricula shut out
especially modern education, had harmed English education and western culture. The
the Muslims greatly and kept them backward. instruction imparted was in original Islamic
He exhorted the Muslims to accept Western religion and the aim was moral and religious
science and take up government services. He regeneration of the Muslim community. The

Deoband School did not prepare its students to reform. Baba Dayal Das, founder of the
for government jobs but for the preaching of Nirankari Movement, stressed the worship of
Islamic faith. god as Nirankar (formless). Rejection of idols,
In politics, the Deoband School welcomed rejection of rituals associated with idolatry,
the formation of the Indian National Congress reverence for the authority of Guru Nanak
in 1885. In 1888 the Deoband Ulema issued and of the Adi Granth formed the essence of
a religious decree (fatwa) against Syed his teachings. He reiterated the prohibition on
Ahmed Khan’s Organisation called “The meat-eating, and liquor consumption.
United Patriotic Association” and “The The Namdhari Movement, founded by
Muhammaden Anglo – Oriental Association.” Baba Ram Singh, was another socio-religious
It is said the Deoband Ulema were mainly movement among the Sikhs. The Namdharis
influenced by their determination to oppose insisted on wearing the symbols of Sikhism
Sir Syed Ahmed’s activities. except the kirpan (sword). Instead Baba Ram
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hassan became the Singh wanted his followers to carry a lathi. It
new Deoband leader. The Jamait-Ul-Ulema considered both men and women equal and
(council of theologians) led by him gave a accepted widow remarriage. It prohibited the
concrete shape to Hassan’s ideas of protection dowry system and child marriage.
of the religious and political rights of the In the wake of the gathering influence of
Muslims in the overall context of Indian unity. Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries,
the Singh Sabha of Amritsar was established.
Its main objective was to restore the purity
5.5 Parsi Reform Movement
of Sikhism. With the support of British, it
In the middle of the nineteenth century established Khalsa College for the Sikhs in
the reform activities of the educated Parsis (the Amritsar. Singh Sabha was a forerunner of
Zoroastrians who had fled from Iran in the tenth Akali Movement.
century in the face of religious persecution)
began in Mumbai. Furdunji Naoroji founded S
ocial Reformers of
the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsis’ 5.7
Tamilnadu
Reform Society) in 1851. Rast Goftar (The Truth
Teller) was the main voice of the movement. (a) Ramalinga Swamigal
The leaders of the Sabha criticized elaborate
Popularly known
ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and
as Vallalar, Ramalinga
funerals. They opposed both infant marriage
Swamigal or Ramalinga
and the use of astrology. Behrramji Malabari
Adigal (1823–1874), was
organized a campaign for legislation against
born in Marudhur, a village
the practice of child marriage. The community
near Chidambaram. After
produced many leaders such as Pherozeshah
his father’s death, his family
Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha who played a big
moved to his brother’s house at Chennai. Despite
role in the early Congress.
having no formal education he gained immense
scholarship. Ramalinga emphasised the bonds
Sikh Reform Movement of responsibility and compassion between living
5.6 (Nirankaris and beings. He expressed the view that ‘those who
Namdharis) lack compassion for suffering beings are hard-
The wave of reform movements did not hearted, their wisdom clouded’. He showed
leave any community untouched. Among his compassion and mercy on all living beings
the Sikhs of Punjab too there were attempts including plants. This he called jeevakarunya.

He established the Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga had no opportunity to have any systematic school
Sangam in 1865 and it was renamed “Samarasa education but acquired knowledge of various
Suddha Sanmarga Satya Sanga” which means religious texts. He preached the ideas of equality
“Society for Pure Truth in Universal self-hood”. and advocated the rights of depressed class
Ramalinga also established a free feeding house people in the face of stiff opposition from upper
for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur castes as well as the princely state of Travancore.
(1867), in the wake of a terrible famine in
south India in 1866. His voluminous songs Vaikunda Swamikal criticised the
were compiled and published under the title rule of the British and the rule of Rajah of
Thiruvarutpa (Songs of Grace). His radical Travancore as the rule of White devils and
views deeply disturbed Saiva orthodoxy, who Black devils respectively.
condemned his writings as Marutpa (songs of
ignorance). He visited Tiruchendur temple and
experienced a new vision. Calling himself
Vaikundar, he requested the people to give up all
the irrelevant rites and rituals in their worship.
His preaching’s against the prevailing religious
order brought about a considerable change
in the attitude of the lower caste people. In
1833, Vaikundar commenced his meditation at
Ramalinga Vadalur Satya Gnana Sabha Samithoppu for the abolition of caste differences
Adigal and social integration of the society. During this
period, he led a life of a hermit.
Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and In south Travancore, there were many
poverty in the country: “I saw poor people, restrictions on lower caste people such as what
emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, they could wear and not wear. At a time when
going to every house, yet their hunger there was prohibition on certain sections on
was not removed, and my heart suffered wearing headgear he advocated the wearing of
intensely. Those who suffer with relentless a turban in protest. It gave a sense of honour
disease, I saw them in front of me and my to the oppressed people and offered a spirit of
heart trembled. I saw those people, poor self-respect. A new confidence was installed
and of unmatched honor, their hearts in the minds of his followers.
weary, and I grew weak.” Like the other contemporary reform
movements of India in the 19 th century, Vaikunda
(b) Vaikunda Swamikal Swamigal condemned the worship of idols. The
Vaikunda Swami low caste people had no temples for their gods,
(1809–1851), one of the they erected small pyramids of mud or bricks
earliest crusaders for in their honor, plastered and white-washed. He
social justice in south considered this kind of worship as an uncivilized
India was born at Sasthan custom. The people sacrificed goats, cocks and
Koil Vilai, the present hens. He condemned these religious customs
Samithoppu, a village and campaigned against animal sacrifice.
near Kanyakumari. Vaikunda Swamigal founded Samathuva
His original name Vaikunda Swamigal Samajam to unite all the people of various
Mudichudum Perumal was changed to castes. He organized inter-dining to accomplish
Muthukutty by his parents due to objection it. Even though he was imprisoned by the
raised by the upper caste Hindus. Muthukutti Maharajah of Travancore, he never gave up his

principles. His followers called him respectfully Pandithar Iyothee Thassar founded the
as Ayya (father). His cult was also known as Advaidananda Sabha to raise the voice for the
Ayya Vazhi (The Path of Ayya). His message temple entry of the “untouchables”. In 1882,
emancipated the people from the unjust social John Rathinam and Iyothee Thassar established
customs and superstitious beliefs. His ideas are a movement called, Dravida Kazhagam and
collected into a text called Akila Thirattu. launched a magazine called Dravida Pandian in
C. Iyothee Thassar 1885. He founded the Dravida Mahajana Sabha
in 1891and organised the First Conference of
Pandithar Iyothee the association at Nilgiris. He started a weekly
Thassar (1845–1914) journal, Oru Paisa Tamilan, in 1907 and
was a radical Tamil published it until his demise in 1914.
scholar, writer, siddha Pandithar Iyothee Thassar was disappointed
medicine practitioner, with the Hindu dharma, which served as the
journalist and socio- basis for propagating and validating caste in
political activist. Born Iyothithassar Hindu society. Influenced by the Theosophist
in Chennai, he was organizer, Colonel H.S. Olcott, he went to Sri
fluent in Tamil, English, Sanskrit and Pali Lanka in 1898 and converted to Buddhism. In
the same year, he founded the Sakya Buddhist
languages. He initiated a new knowledge
Society at Madras to construct the rational
practice by using journalism as a tool to
religious philosophy through Buddhist religion.
make inroads into the print public sphere, He argued that the so-called untouchables were
which, was hitherto an upper caste domain. originally Buddhists who were stigmatized
He campaigned for social justice and worked by Brahminism. He further constructed an
for the emancipation of the “untouchables” alternative history through the interpretation
from the caste clutches. He worked for the of Tamil literature and folk traditions of Tamil
construction of a casteless identity and from a Buddhist standpoint. In addition, he
stated that the revival of Buddhism could
castigated caste hegemony and untouchability.
liberate the people from the evil of caste that
He considered education as an important tool
afflicted the Hindu society. He called the
for empowerment and became the driving “untouchables” Sathi Petham Atra Dravidar
force behind the establishment of several (Casteless Dravidians) and urged them to
schools for the “untouchables” in Tamil Nadu. register as casteless Dravidians in the Census.
SUMMARY
A brief account of Raja Rammohan Roy’s initiatives for social and cultural reforms has been

provided.
The foundation of Brahmo Samaj by Ram mohan Roy and the role played by Maharishi

Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen in carrying forward the Brahmo Samaj activities
after Roy’s death are discussed.
The contribution of M.G. Ranade and Prarthana Samaj with which he was associated are examined.

The attempts made by Arya Samaj under the aegis of Swami Dayanad Saraswati to reform Hinduism

as well as to win converts to the Hindu fold are highlighted.
The radical reformer Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his strivings for women’s cause are described.


The role of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda in the transformation

of Hinduism is explained.
The work of Theosophical Society with Annie Besant as its president is explored along with Aligarh

Movement spearheaded by Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
Reform movements among Parsis and Sikhs are outlined.

The work done by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and IyotheeThassar in Tamilnadu to obtain social

justice for the marginalized and the deprived sections of the population is reviewed.
The social protest movements in Kerala led by Narayana Guru and Ayyankali, and the reform

movements in Tamil Nadu involving Ramalinga Adigal and Ayya Vaikundar are sketched out.
GLOSSARY
Alleged stated but not proved ச�ொல்லப்படும்

Ecstatic in a state of extreme happiness பரவசமான
Voluminous bulky அதிகப் பரிமாணமுள்ள
Reiterated repeat a statement for emphasis வலியுறுத்துதல்
Idolatry the practice of worshipping idols உருவ வழிபாடு

Tract a small booklet சிறு நூல்
Revelation disclosure திருவெளிப்பாடு

Crematorium a place where a dead person’s body is இடுகாடு
burnt
Subjugation the act of bringing something under அடிமைப்படுத்துதல்
control
Scriptures the sacred writings திருமறை நூல்கள்
3. Whose campaign and work led to the

enactment of Widow Remarriage Reform
EXERCISE Act of 1856?
a) Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
b) Raja Rammohan Roy
I. C
hoose the
c) Annie Besant
correct answer
d) Jyotiba Phule
1. In which year was Sati abolished? 4. Whose voice was Rast Goftar?
a) 1827 b) 1829 a) Parsi Movement
c) 1826 d) 1927 b) Aligarh Movement
2. What was the name of the Samaj founded c) Ramakrishna Mission
by Dayanand Saraswati? d) Dravida Mahajana Sabha
a) Arya Samaj 5. Who was the founder of Namdhari
b) Brahmo Samaj Movement?
c) Prarthana Samaj a) Baba Dayal Das b) Baba Ramsingh
d) Adi Brahmo Samaj c) Gurunanak d) Jyotiba Phule

6. Who was Swami Shradhananda? iv) R aja Rammohan Roy was supported by
a) a disciple of Swami Vivekananda Governor General William Bentinck
b) one who caused a split in the Brahmo a) i) is correct
Samaj of India b) i) and ii) are correct
c) one who caused a split in the Arya Samaj c) i), ii) and iii) are correct
d) founder of Samathuva Samajam. d) i), iii) and iv) are correct
7. Who was the founder of Widow 2. i)
Prarthana Samaj was founded by
Remarriage Association? Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang
a) M.G. Ranade ii)
Prarthana Samaj encouraged inter-
b) Devendranath Tagore dining and inter-caste marriage
c ) Jyotiba Phule iii) Jyotiba Phule worked for the upliftment
d) Ayyankali of men.
8. Who was the author of the book iv) Prarthana Samaj had it’s origin in the
Satyarthaprakash ? Punjab.
a) Dayananda Saraswathi
a) i) is correct
b) Vaikunda Swamy
b) ii) is correct
c) Annie Besant
c) i) and ii) are correct
d) Swami Shradanatha
d) iii) and iv) are correct
3. i)
R amakrishna Mission was actively
1. founded the Samarasa Vedha involved in social causes such as
Sanmarga Sangam. education, health care, relief in time of
2. The founder of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha calamities.
was . ii) R amakrishna emphasised the spiritual
3. Satyashodak Samaj was launched by union with god through ecstatic
. practices.
4. Gulumgir was written by . iii)
R amakrishna established the
5. Satyarthaprakash enumerates the positive Ramakrishna Mission
principles of iv) R amakrishna opposed the Partition of
6. Ramakrishna Mission was established by Bengal
. a) i) is correct b) i) and ii) are correct
7. was the forerunner of Akali c) iii) is correct d) iv) alone correct
Movement. 4. Assertion: Jyotiba Phule opened
8. brought tremendous changes orphanages and homes for widows
in the caste structure in Kerala. Reason: Jyotiba Phule opposed child
9. Oru paisa Tamilan was started by marriage and supported widow
. remarriage
III. Choose the correct statement a)Assertion is correct but reason is not apt
to the assertion
1. i)
R aja Rammohan Roy preached b) Assertion is correct and the reason is
monotheism
apt to the assertion
ii) He encouraged idolatry
c) B oth are wrong
iii)
He published tracts condemning
d) R eason is correct but assertion is
social evils
irrelevant

IV. Match the following iii) Point out the major contribution of
Widows Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga Sathya
1 Ayyavazhi - Remarriage Sangam?
Reform Act iv) Where did he establish his free feeding
2 Thiruvarutpa - Nirankari house?
Adi Bramo 3. Deoband Movement.
3 Baba Dayal Das -
Samaj i)
Who were the organizers of this
Iswarchandra Vaikunda Movement?
4 - ii) What were the two main objectives of
Vidyasagar Swamigal
the Movement?
5 Debendranath - Songs of Grace
iii) Who founded the school at Deoband?.
V) Answer briefly iv) Against whom the fatwa was issued by
Deoband Ulema?
1. Mention the four articles of faith laid down
by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore? VII) Answer in detail
2. Discuss Mahadev Govind Ranade’s 1. Compare and contrast the contributions
contribution to social reforms. of Revivalist Movements with that of
3. Assess the role of Ayyankali in fighting for Reform Movements.
the cause of “untouchables.” 2. Discuss the circumstances that led to the
4. Write a note on reforms of Ramalinga Reform movements of 19th century.
Adigal. 3. Evaluate the contributions of Ramakrishna
5. What was the impact of Swami Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda to
Vivekananda’s activist ideology? regenerate Indian society.
6. What are the differences between Reformist 4. Write an essay on the role played by the
Movements and Revival Movements? 19th century reformers towards the cause
7. List the social evils eradicated by Brahmo of Women.
Samaj. VIII) Activity
8. Highlight the work done by Jyotiba Phule for
1. Role-play by students on Reformers and
the welfare of the poor and the marginalized.
their Reforms of the 19th century India.
9. What was the impact of IyotheeThassar’s
2. Debate Social evils of 19th century with
visit to SriLanka.
those of present day.
VI) A
nswer all the questions 3. Students can write an assignment on the
given under each caption present state of the reform organizations
1. Aligarh Movement. discussed in the lesson.
i) What is the main aim of this Movement?
ii) Who is considered the soul of this REFERENCE BOOKS
Movement? 1. Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-Religious
iii) Why were English books translated Reform Movement in British India, New
into Urudu? Edition, Cambridge University Press,
iv) Name the college which was later 2006.
raised to the status of a University? 2. Manickam, S., “Depressed Class
2. Ramalinga Adigal. Movement in South India,” in
i) What is Jeevakarunya? Manikumar K.A. (ed.), History and
ii) What are the Songs of Grace? Society, Tirunelveli, 1996.

3. V. Geetha and S.V. Rajathurai, Towards
a Non-Brahmin Millennium from Iyothee INTERNET RESOURCES
Thass to Periyar, Calcutta, 1998.
4. Mohan, P. Sanal (2013), “Religion, Social https://www.deccanherald.com.
Space, and Identity: The Prathyaksha http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/timesofindia.
Raksha Daiva Sabha and the Making of com
Cultural Boundaries in Twentieth Century
Kerala”, in Joan Mencher(ed.), Life as a
Dalit: Views from the Bottom on Caste in
India, SAGE Publications.
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you will know

about world historic events through
Interactive timeline.
Steps
• Type ‘History of modern India’ in the search box
• Explore the Timeline Events with Pictorial Descriptions.
Website URL:
https://www.timetoast.com/categories

STANDARD TEN
GEOGRAPHY
TN_GOVT_X_Std_Geography_Ch01.indd 81 10-04-2019 09:45:16

Unit - 1
India – Location,
Relief and
Drainage
Learning Objectives
� To understand the strategic importance of India’s absolute and relative
location in the world
� To know the distinct characteristics of major physiographic divisions of India
� To compare the regions of Great Indian plains
� To understand the drainage system of India
� To differentiate the Himalayan and peninsular rivers
Introduction and Sri Lanka are separated by a narrow and

shallow sea called Palk Strait.
India is the seventh largest country in the
world and second largest country in Asia. It India and the World
forms a part of south Asia and is separated by The Indian land mass has a central location
the Himalayas from the rest of the continent. between, the East and the West Asia. India
India accounts for about 2.4 % of the total area and the southward extension of the Asian
of the world with an area of 32,87,263 sq.km. continent. The trans Indian ocean routes which
many of the India states are larger than several connect the countries of Europe in the west and
countries of the world. the countries of East Asia provide a strategic
India’s Land and Water Frontiers central location to India. Thus it helping India
to establish close contact with West Asia, Africa
India shares its 15,200 km long land and Europe from the western coast and with
frontier with Pakistan in the west, Afghanistan South East, east Asia from the eastern coast.
in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in
the north and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the India: A Subcontinent
east. India’s longest border is with Bangladesh India along with the countries of Myanmar,
(4156 km)while the shortest border is with Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and
Afghanistan.(106 km) Sri Lanka is called a subcontinent. This region
About 6,100 km long coastline of India is separated from the rest of Asia by a chain of
is washed on three sides of the country by the mountains in the northwest, north and northeast
Indian Ocean and its two arms namely the and by seas in the south. This region also
Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal possesses a distinct continental characteristics
in the east. The total length of the coast line of in physiography, climate, natural vegetation,
India including the islands is 7,516.6 km. India minerals, human resources etc. Hence India is
known as ‘subcontinent’.
India – Location, Relief and Drainage 82

INDIA LOCATION IN THE WORLD N
W E
S
ARCTIC OCEAN
GREENLAND
A S I A
NORTH
AMERICA EUROPE
PACIFIC ATLANTIC PACIFIC

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
INDIA
AFRICA
SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN

AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
ANTARCTICA
1.1 Location and Extent • The number of Union

India extends from 8°4 'N to 37°6 'N fi nd out Territories along western coast
latitudes and 68°7 'E to 97°25 'E longitudes. and eastern coast
Hence India is located of the north Eastern • Area wise which is the smallest and largest
hemisphere state?
The southernmost point of the country • The states which do not have an international
is Pygmalion Point or Indira Point (6°45'N border or lie on the largest state
latitude) located in the Andaman and Nicobar • Classify into four groups each
Islands. The southernmost point of main land having common frontiers with i) Pakistan
of India is Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). ii) China iii) Myanmar and iv) Bangladesh
The north-south extent of India is 3,214 km
and it extends from Indira Col in Jammu and Amaravati is the new
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the capital of Andhra Pradesh But
south. The east-west extension is 2933 km and according to Andhra Pradesh
it stretches from Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) in Reorganization Act, Hyderabad
the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The will be the capital for both the
Tropic of Cancer (23°30' N) passes through the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telungana till
middle of the country dividing it into two halves 2024 (For 10 years from the act passed).
as northern temperate and southern tropical
lands. India has been politically divided into 29 1.1.1 Indian Standard Time (IST)
states and 7 union territories for administrative The longitudinal difference between Gujarat
convenience. in the west and Arunachal Pradesh in the east
83 India – Location, Relief and Drainage

INDIA
States and Union Territories
W E
S
LEGEND
Country Capital
State Capital
Inter naonal Border line
Thiruvanantha
State Border line
puram
Not to Scale
India - States and Union Territories

is about 30°. The Earth rotates through its axis difference in local time between these two
around 360° in 24 hours. Thus, a difference of places is 29°18' X 4' (minutes) = 1 hour
1° longitude will make a difference of 4 57 minutes 12 seconds (approximately
minutes in time. The difference in longitude 2 hours). Since Arunachal Pradesh is towards
between Gujarat (68°7 'E) and Arunachal east, it will have sunrise about two hours earlier
Pradesh (97°25 ' E) is 29°18'. Hence the than the sunrise at Gujarat which is in the west.

68E 72 76 80 84 88 92 94E 3. The Peninsular plateau
India Extent and Standard Meridian
36N 376’N 36N
4. The Indian Desert
N 5. The Coastal Plains
32 PAKISTAN
W
S
E
6. The Islands
32
CHINA
1.2.1 Himalayan
28 NE
PA
9725’E
Mountains
L
2933 K.m
BHUTAN
The Himalayan Mountains (Northern
t about
st to Wes
Mountains) consist of the youngest and the
Indian Standard Meridian - 8230’ E
687’E Ea
BANGLADESH
I N D I A
24
24 Tropic of Cancer loftiest mountain chains in the world because
North to south about 3214 K.m
20
20
they have been formed only few millions years
ARABIAN BAY OF
ago and also they were formed because of the
folding of the earth crust due to tectonic activity.
SEA BENGAL
16 16
It stretches for a distance of 2,500 km from
the Indus gorge in the west to Brahmaputra
12
12
gorge in the east. The width of the Northern
LAKSHADWEEP
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS Mountains varies from 500 km in Kashmir to
8N (INDIA)
8N 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The Pamir Knot,
84’N SRI
72 76
LANKA 84 88 92
645’ popularly known as the “Roof of the World”
Not to Scale
I N D I A N O C E A N is the connecting link between the Himalayas
and the high ranges of Central Asia. From
the Pamir, Himalayas extend eastward in the
In order to avoid these differences, Indian form of an arc shape. The term “Himalaya” is
standard time is calculated. The local time of derived from Sanskrit. It means “The Abode of
the central meridian of India is the standard Snow”. The Northern Mountains that function
time of India. India’s central meridian as a great wall is grouped into three divisions.
is 82°30' E longitude. It passes through 1) The Trans-Himalayas, 2) Himalayas,
Mirzapur and roughly bisects the country 3) Eastern or Purvanchal hills.
in terms of longitude. The IST is 5.30 hrs
Aravalli range is the
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
oldest fold mountain range in
India.
1.2 Major Physiographic
Divisions of India
The majestic Himalayan peaks in the
north, the beautiful beaches in the south,
the great Indian desert in the west and the
breathtaking natural heritage in the east make
India a geographically vibrant, colourful and
truly incredible country.
There is a varied nature of physiographic
divisions in India. Though the country has many
landforms based on the major differences, it is
divided into the following five physiographic Find the Hill stations which
divisions: fi nd out
are located in Himalayan
1. The Himalayan Mountains Mountains.
2. The Great Northern Plains

t
r Kno
ami
sh P
Ku
Hi
nd
u
INDIA - PHYSICAL DIVISIONS N
W E
S
Shimla
GE
Kai
Mussourie
N
hR
las
AN RA
an
Garwal ge
Ranikhet
SULAIM
Almora iver
Nainital Tsangpo R
Purvanchal
Darjeeling
Guru
shikhar Mount Abu
Dhupgarh
Paradip
Konka
n coa
Vishagapanam
am
tan
lipa
chi
st
Ma
Arma Konda
Palani Hills
Not to Scale
1. The Trans-Himalayas 225 km wide in its central part. They contain

It is also known as western Himalaya’s. the Tethys sediments. The rocks of this region
It lies to the north of the great Himalayan contain fossils bearing marine sediments which
range. It lies in Jammu and Kashmir and are underlain by ‘Tertiary granite’. It has partly
Tibetian plateau. As its areal extent is more in metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the
Tibet, it is also known as Tibetean Himalayas. core of the Himalayan axis. The prominent
The Trans-Himalayas are about 40 km wide in ranges of Trans Himalayas are Zaskar, Ladakh,
its eastern and western extremities and about Kailash, and Karakoram.

2. The Himalayas is less effective over the Greater Himalayas as
It constitutes the core part of northern compared to the other ranges. Almost all the
mountains. It is an young fold mountain. It was lofty peaks of Himalayas are located in this
formed by the movement of Angara land mass range. The notable ones are Mt. Everest (8,848
in the north and Gondwana land mass in the m) and Kanchenjunga (8,586 m). Mt.Everest is
south. The Tethys sea found between these two located in Nepal and Kanchenjunga is located
land masses was uplifted by the compression between Nepal and Sikkim. This range is the
and the resultant landform was the Himalayas. most continuous of all ranges. It is region of
It consists of many ranges. The main divisions permanent snow cover. So, it has many glaciers.
of the Himalayas are the (i) Greater Himalayas, Gangothri, Yamunothri and Siachen are some
(ii) the Lesser Himalayas and (iii)the Siwaliks of them.
Peak Country Height in (ii) T he Lesser Himalayas or The

metres Himachal
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 It is the middle range of Himalayas. Height
Mt.K2 or Godwin India 8611 of this range varies from 3, 700 to 4,500 m. Its
Austen width varies upto 80 km. The major rocks of this
range are slate, limestone and quartzite. This
Kanchenjunga India 8598
region is subjected to extensive erosion due to
Makalu Nepal 8481 heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanization.
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and Mahabharat are
the mountain ranges found in this part. Major
Nanga Parbat India 8126
hill stations of the Himalayas are located in this
Annapurna Nepal 8078 range. Shimla, Mussourie, Nainital, Almora,
Nanda Devi India 7817 Ranikhet and Darjeeling are the familiar ones.
Kamet India 7756
The major passes in the
Namcha Barwa India 7756 Himalayan are Karakoram pass
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728 (Jammu and Kashmir), Zojila
pass, Shipkila pass (Himachal
Himalaya is the home of Pradesh), Bomdila pass
several high peaks. However, it (Arunachal Pradesh), Nathala pass (Sikkim)
holds the record of having the and Jhelepla pass (Sikkim). The Khyber pass
maximum number of highest which connects Pakistan and Afanisthan, and
peaks among any mountain Bolan pass in Pakistan are important passes
range in world. Out of 14 heights peaks in of the Indian subcontinent
this world, Himalayas holds 9.
(iii) T he Siwaliks or Outer
(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Himalayas
Himadri The Siwaliks extend from Jammu and
The Greater Himalayas rise abruptly like a Kashmir to Assam. It is partly made by the
wall north of the Lesser Himalayas. The Greater debris brought by the Himalayan rivers. The
Himalayas are about 25 km wide. Its average altitude varying between 900-1100 metres
height is about 6,000 m. The Greater Himalayas elevation of this range is 1300 m. The width of
receive lesser rainfall as compared to the Lesser Siwaliks vary from 10 km in the east to 50 km
Himalayas and the Siwaliks. Physical weathering in the west. It is the most discontinuous range.

The longitudinal valleys found between the
3. The Central-Nepal Himalayas- Located
Siwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are called
between the rivers of Kali and Tista.
Duns in the west and Duars in the east. These
are the ideal sites for the development of 4. The Assam Eastern Himalayas- Located
settlements in this region. between rivers of Tista and Dihang.
3. Purvanchal Hills 1.2.2 The Great Northern Plains

These are the eastern off-shoot of Himalayas. The fertile land extending across seven
It extended in the north-eastern states of India. north Indian states forms the Great Northern
Most of these hills are located along the border Plains. This extensive plain lies to the south of
of India and Myanmar while others are inside the northern mountains. This plain is one of
India. Dafla Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, the most extensive stretches of the alluvium in
Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, the world and is deposited by the rivers Indus,
Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir Hills, Garo Hills, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. The
Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills are the hills which length of the plain is about 2,400 km and the
are collectively known as purvanchal Hills. width varies from 240 to 320 km. Its width
increases from east to west. It covers an area of
Importance of Himalayas over 7 lakh sq.km.
• Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon
The Great Plains of India is remarkably a
winds and causes heavy rainfall to north
homogeneous surface with an imperceptible
India.
slope. They are formed mostly by the depositional
• It forms a natural barrier to the sub-
process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.
continent.
These rivers deposit enormous quantity of
• It is the source for many perennial rivers
sediments deposited along the foothills and
like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra etc.
flood plains. The important characteristics
• The Northern Mountains are described as
featuress of sediment deposition in the plains
the paradise of tourists due to its natural
areas as follows.
beauty.
• Many hill stations and pilgrim centres a) The Bhabar Plain
like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath and This plain is made up of gravels and
Vaishnavidevi temples are situated here. unassorted sediments deposited by the
• It provides raw material for many forest Himalayan rivers. The porosity of this plain
based industries. is so high that most of the small streams flow
• It prevents the cold winds blowing from over this region disappear. It lies to the south
the central Asia and protects India from of the Siwalik from west to east (Jammu
severe cold. Division to Assam). Its width varies from
• Himalayas are renowned for the rich 8 to 15 km. It is wider in the western plains
biodiversity. (Jammu Division) than in the east (Assam).
This plain is not suitable for cultivation, only big
Longitudinal Divisions of trees with large roots thrive in this region.
Himalayas b) The Tarai Tract
1.
The Kashmir Punjab Himachal It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick
Himalayas- Located between the rivers forests and rich wild life. This tract lies to the
of Indus and Sutlej. south of Bhabar plains. The width of this belt
2.
The Kumaun Himalayas- Located is 15-30 km. The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts
between the rivers of Sutlej and Kali. of the Great Plains, especially in Brahmaputra

Valley due to heavy rainfall. In many states, the of old mud, new mud and marsh. In the delta
Tarai forests have been cleared for cultivation. region, the uplands are called ‘Chars’ while the
marshy areas are called ‘Bils’.
c) The Bhangar Plains
The Bhangar represent the upland alluvial 1.2.3 The Peninsular Plateaus
tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by the The plateau region lies to the south of
older alluviums. The Bhangar land lies above the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest
the flood limits of the rivers. This soil is dark in physiographic division of our country.
colour, rich in humus content, well drained and It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq.km (about
useful for agriculture. half of the total area of the country). It is an old
d) The Khadar Plains rocky plateau region. The topography consists of
a series of plateaus and hill ranges interspersed
The new alluvium tracts along the courses with river valleys.
of the rivers are known as the ‘Khadar’ or ‘Bet’
Aravalli hills mark the north-western
lands. The Khadar tracts are enriched by fresh
boundary of the plateau region. Its northern
deposits of silt every year during rainy seasons.
and north-eastern boundaries are marked by
The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and
the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and Rajmahal
mud. It is highly fertile soil.
hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
e) Delta Plains mark the western and eastern boundaries
The deltaic plain is an extension of the respectively. The altitude of a large portion of
Khadar land. It covers about 1.9 lakh sq.km in the plateau is more than 600 m from mean sea
the lower reaches of the Ganga River. It is an level. The peak of Anaimudi is the highest
area of deposition as the river flows in this tract point in the plateau. Its height is 2,695 m and
sluggishly. The deltaic plain consists mainly is located in Anaimalai. The general slope of
this plateau is towards east. The Great Plateau
On the basis of deposition of sediments by various rivers and topographical characteristics,

the Northern Plains of India is divided into the following four major regions:
a) Rajasthan Plains: It is located to the west of Aravalli range. It covers an area of about 1,75,000 sq.km.
Rajasthan plain is formed by the deposition of the river Luni and the long vanished river
Saraswathi. There are several salt lakes in Rajasthan. The Sambhar salt lake (Pushkar Lake) near
Jaipur is the prominent one.
b) Punjab - Haryana Plains: It lies to the north-east of the Great Indian Desert. This plain is
found over an area of about 1.75 lakh sq.km. The Punjab - Haryana plains are formed by the
deposition of the rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi. This plain acts as water - divide (doab). The two
major watershed it divides are Yamuna – Sutlej and Ganga – Yamuna.
c) Ganga Plains: It extends from the Yamuna River in the west to Bangladesh in the east. The total
area covered by this plain is about 3.75 sq.km. River Ganga and its tributaries such as Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa etc. constitute this plain by their sediments and make
a great plain in India. It is the largest plain of India. The general slope of the entire plain (upper,
middle and lower Ganga plains) is towards east and south-east.
d) Brahmaputra Plains: It is located mainly in the state of Assam. It is a low - level plain located in
the eastern part of the Great Plains of India and is formed by the deposits of river Brahmaputra.
It covers an area of about 56,275 sq.km. These plains create alluvial fans and marshy tracts.

is a part of the Gondwana (very ancient one) b) Deccan Plateau
land mass. Due to the old age, the rivers in this This physiographic division is the largest
region attained their base level and developed part of the plateau region of India. The shape
broad and shallow valleys. of this plateau is roughly triangular. One of
The river Narmada divides the plateau the sides of this triangle is marked by the line
region of India broadly into two parts. The joining Kanniyakumari with Rajmahal Hills
region lying to the north of the Narmada is and this line passes through the Eastern Ghats.
called the Central Highlands and the region The second arm is marked by the Satpura Range,
lying to the south of Narmada is called the Mahadeo Hills, Maikal Range and the Rajmahal
Deccan Plateau. All the major rivers (Mahanadi, Hills. The third arm is marked by the Western
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.) lying to the Ghats. The area of this Plateau is about 7 lakh
south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall square km and the height ranges from 500 to
into the Bay of Bengal. Narmada and Tapti 1000 m above sea level.
are the two rivers situated to the south of the The Western Ghats forms the western
Vindhyas flow westward. Their movement edge of the Peninsular Plateau. It runs parallel
towards west is due to the presence of to the Arabian Sea coast. The northern part
a rift valley in the region. of this range is called as Sahyadris. The height
of the Sahyadris increases from north to
a) Central Highlands
south. Anaimudi is a sort of tri-junction of
The Central Highlands extend between the the Anaimalai Range, the Cardamom Hills
river Narmada and the Northern Great Plains. and the Palani Hills. Kodaikanal is a beautiful
The Aravallis form the west and northwestern hill resort situated on the Palani Hills. Eastern
edge of the Central Highlands. These hills extend Ghats run from southwest to northeast form
from Gujarat, through Rajasthan to Delhi in the the eastern edge of this Plateau. This range
northwesterly direction for a distance of about is also called as Poorvadri. The Eastern
700 km. The height of these hills is about 1,500 m Ghats join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri
in southwest while near Delhi the height is hills, bordering Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
hardly 400 m. Gurushikhar with 1,722 m is the The Eastern Ghats are not continuous like
highest peak of this range. the Western Ghats. The rivers of Mahanadi,
The Western part of the Central Highland Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri have
is known as the Malwa Plateau. It lies to the dissected this range at many places.
southeast of Aravallis and to the north of
Vindhyachal Range. The rivers Chambal, Betwa 1.2.4 The Indian Desert
and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before they
The Thar desert, also known as the Great
join the river Yamuna. The part of the Central
Indian desert is a large arid region in the north
Highlands which extends to the east of Malwa
Plateau is known as Bundelkhand and its western part of the Indian subcontinent that
further extension is known as Bagelkhand. The covers an area of 2,00,000 km2 and forms a
eastern part of the Central High lands which natural boundary between India and pakisthan.
lies in the north-eastern part of the Indian It is the world 7th largest desert, and world 9th
Plateau is known as Chhota-Nagpur Plateau. largest sub tropical desert located in Western
It covers much of Jharkhand, adjacent parts of part of the India.
Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
This region is very rich in mineral resources The desert lies in the western part of the
particularly iron ore and coal. aravalli range and covers 2/3 of Rajasthan
state. There are two major divisions in the
Thar desert. They are known as the Actual

desert region (Marusthali) and the semi and Tamil Nadu. These plains are formed by
desert region (Bhangar). Many different types the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone by the
of sand dunes and salt lakes (Dhands) are east flowing rivers of India. The coastal plain
seen here. consists mainly of the recent alluvial deposits.
This coastal plain has a regular shoreline with
well-defined beaches. The coastal plain between
Mahanadi and Krishna river is known as the
Northern Circars and the southern part lies
between Krishna and Kaveri rivers is called
Coromandal coast. The Marina beach on this
coast in Chennai and it is the second longest
beach in the world. Among the back water lakes
of this coast, lake Chilka (Odisha) is the largest
Thar Desert
lake in India located to the southwest of the
1.2.5 The Coastal Plains Mahanadi delta, the Kolleru Lake which lies
The Peninsula Plateau of India is flanked between the deltas of Godavari and Krishna and
by narrow coastal plains of varied width from the Pulicat Lake lies in the border of Andhra
north to south, known as the Western Coastal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the well known
Plains and the Eastern Coastal Plains. They were lakes in the east coastal plain.
formed by the depositional action of the rivers
and the erosional and depositional actions of the 1.2.6 The Islands
sea-waves. The Indian coastal plains are divided India has two major island groups namely
into the following two divisions: 1) The Western Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. The
Coastal Plains and 2) The Eastern Coastal Plains. former group consists of 572 islands and are
located in Bay of Bengal, and the later one has
1. The Western Coastal Plain 27 islands and are located in Arabian Sea. The
It lies between the Western Ghats and the islands of Andaman and Nicobar are largely
Arabian Sea. It extends from Rann of kutch in tectonic and volcanic origin. India’s only active
the north to Kanniyakumari in the south and volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman
its width varies from 10 to 80 km. It is mainly and Nicobar group of Islands, while the islands
characterised by sandy beaches, coastal sand of the Arabian Sea are mainly coral origin.
dunes, mud flats, lagoons, estuary, laterite
platforms and residual hills. The northern part a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
of the West Coastal Plain is known as Konkan
Plain. The middle part of this plain is known
as Kanara. The southern part of the plain is
known as Malabar coast which is about 550
km long and 20-100 km wide. This part of the
coast is characterized by sand dunes. Along
the coast, there are numerous shallow lagoons
Andaman Islands
and backwaters called Kayals and Teris.
Vembanad is a famous back water lake found These islands are located in an elevated
in this region. portion of the submarine mountains. Since
2. The Eastern Coastal Plain these islands lie close to the equator, the climate
It lies between the Eastern Ghats and the remains hot and wet throughout the year and
Bay of Bengal and, stretches along the states has dense forests. The area of the island group is
of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh about 8,249 sq.km. The entire group of islands

is divided into two. They are Andaman in the 1.3.1 Himalayan Rivers
north and the Nicobar in the south. These These rivers are found in north India and
island groups are of great strategic importance originate from Himalayas. So, they are also called
for the country. Port Blair is the administrative as Himalayan rivers. These are perennial rivers.
capital of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Rivers
The Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman
from Nicobar group. The southernmost tip, the
Indira Point is a part of Nicobar Island. Himalayan
Rivers
Peninsular
Rivers
b) Lakshadweep Islands
This is a small group of coral islands located ¾¾ Indus ¾¾ Mahanadi ¾¾ Cauvery
¾¾ Ganga ¾¾ Godavari ¾¾ Narmada
off the west coast of India. It covers an area of
¾¾ Brahmaputra ¾¾ Krishna ¾¾ Tapti
32 sq. km. Kavaratti is its administrative capital.
Lakshadweep islands are separated from the
Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel. a) The Indus River System
The uninhabited “Pitt Island” of this group has The Indus River is one of the largest rivers of
a bird sanctuary. Earlier, it had three divisions the world. It originates from the northern slope
namely Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi. It of the Kailash range in Tibet near Manasarovar
was named as Lakshadweep in 1973. Lake at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Its length
is about 2,880 km (Only 709 km is in India).
c) Offshore Islands
The river has a total drainage area extending
Besides the two group of islands, India has
11,65,500 sq km in which 321,289 sq km areas
a number of islands along the Western Coast,
are drained in India. The river flows through
Eastern Coast, in the delta region of Ganga and
the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges and creates deep
in the Gulf of Mannar. Many of these islands
are uninhabited and are administered by the gorges. The river runs through Jammu and
adjacent states. Kashmir, turns south near Chillar and enters
Pakistan. Its major tributaries are Jhelum,
1.3 Drainage System of Chenab (Largest tributary of Indus), Ravi, Beas
and Sutlej. It enters into with the Arabian Sea.
India
A drainage system is an integrated system b) The Ganga River System
of tributaries and a trunk stream which collects
and drains surface water into the sea, lake
or some other body of water. The total area
drained by a river and its tributaries is known
as a drainage basin. The drainage pattern of an
area is the result of the geological structure of
the respective areas. The river system provides Ganga River - Haridwar
irrigation, drinking water, navigation, power
The Ganga River system is the largest
as well as grant livelihoods for a large number
drainage system of India it extend over and area
of population. The drainage system of India is
broadly divided into two major groups on the of 8,61,404 sq km in India. The Ganga plain is
basis of their location. They are Himalayan the most densely populated place in India and
rivers and the Peninsular rivers. many towns are developed on the banks of this
river. The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi
from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Khasi
District of Uttarkhand state, at an elevation of

7,010 m. The length of the river Ganga is about 1.3.3 East Flowing Rivers
2,525 km. Its major tributaries from the north a) Mahanadi
are Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghra and from
The river Mahanadi originates near
south, Yamuna (largest tributary of Ganga),
Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and
Son, Chambal etc. The river Ganga is known as flows through Odisha. Its length is 851 km.
the River Padma in Bangladesh. The combined Seonath, Telen, Sandur and Ib are its major
river of Ganga and Brahmaputra creates the tributaries. The main stream of Mahanadi gets
World’s largest delta known as Sundarbans in divided into several distributaries such as Paika,
Bangladesh before joining the Bay of Bengal. Birupa, Chitartala, Genguti and Nun. All these
distributaries form the Delta of Mahanadi
c) The Brahmaputra River System
which is one of the largest deltas in India. The
The river Brahmaputra originates from the Mahanadi empties its water in Bay of Bengal.
Chemayungdung Glacier of the Kailash range
b) Godavari
to the east of Lake Manasarovar in Tibet at an
elevation of about 5,150 m. The total area is Godavari is the longest river (1,465
about 5,80,000 sq km but the drainage area km) with an area of 3.13 lakh km2 among the
lying in India is 1,94,413 sq km This river Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
is known as Tsangpo (Purifier) in Tibet. The It originates in Nasik district of Maharashtra,
length of this river is about 2,900 km (900 km a portion of Western Ghats. It flows through
in India). It enters into India through a gorge in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh namely Dihang. It has many before joining Bay of Bengal. Purna, Penganga,
tributaries. Tista, Manas, Barak, Subansiri are Pranitha, Indravati, Tal and Salami are its major
some of them. This river is called as Jamuna in tributaries. The river near Rajahmundry gets
Bangladesh. After it joins with the river Ganga divided into two Channels called Vasistha and
in Bangladesh, the river is called as Meghna. Gautami and forms one of the largest deltas in
India. Kolleru, a fresh water lake is located in
Characteristics of Himalayan Rivers the deltaic region of the Godavari.
• Originate from Himalayas c) Krishna
• Long and wide The river Krishna originates from a spring
• Perennial in nature at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western
• Unsuitable for hydro power generation Ghats of Maharashtra. Its length is 1,400 km
• Middle and lower courses are navigable and an area of 2.58 lakh sq km. It is the second
longest Peninsular river Bhima, Peddavagu,
1.3.2 Peninsular Rivers Musi, Koyna and Thungabhadra are the major
The rivers in south India are called the tributaries of this river. It also flows through
Peninsular rivers. Most of these rivers originate Andhra Pradesh and joins in Bay of Bengal, at
from the Western Ghats. These are seasonal Hamasaladeevi.
rivers (non–perennial). They have a large
d) Kaveri
seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they
are solely fed by rain. These rivers flow in valleys The river Kaveri originates at Talakaveri,
with steep gradients. Based on the direction of Kudagu hills of Karnataka. Its length is 800
flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the km. The river kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga
West flowing and East flowing rivers. or Ganga of south Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini,
Bhavani, Arkavathy, Noyyal, Amaravathi etc
are the main tributaries of the river Kaveri. In
Karnataka the river bifurcates twice, forming

INDIA RIVERS
Ind N
us AND LAKES
Wular W E
Lake S
us lum
Jhe nab Beas
Ind
e
ChRavi
lej
Sut
Sambar salt Ya
l m Gh
agh a putra
Ga
Lake ba
Luni
un Brahm
Ga
am ara
ng
a
Kosi
h
nd
C
a
ak
n
So
Sa
ba
Hugli
M thi
rn
i
ah
ar
a
barm
Narmada Ma ek Sundarban
ha ha
Sa Tap na
th
Pen i
ga nga
Chilka
Lake
Go
da
va
Krishn
ri
a Kolleru
ra
ad
Lake
bh
ga
Pennaru
n
Tu
Pulicat Lake LEGEND

River
Kavery Lake
Vembanad
Lake Vaigai
Not to Scale
the sacred islands of Srirangapatnam and 1.3.4 West Flowing Rivers

Sivasamudram. While entering Tamil Nadu, a) Narmada
the Kaveri continues through a series of twisted
This river rises in Amarkantak Plateau in
wild gorges until it reaches Hogenakkal Falls
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about 1057 m
and flows through a straight, narrow gorge
and flows for a distance of about 1,312 km
near Salem. The Kaveri breaks at Srirangam
it covers and area of 98,796 sq km and forms
Island with two channels, river Coleroon and
27 km long estuary before outfalling into the
Kaveri. At last, it empties into the Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
at Poompuhar.
It is the largest among the west flowing rivers
of Peninsular India. Its principal tributaries are

Burhner, Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar,
Tawa, Barna and Kolar. • The Indus River system, the Ganga
River system and the Brahmaputra
b) Tapti River system have made the agricultural
The Tapti is one of the major rivers of lands of north India as fertile land.
Peninsular India with the length of about 724 These rivers are perennial in nature.
km. It covers an area of 65,145 sq km. Tapti river • Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmathi
rises near Multai in the Betul district of Madhya rivers confluence with the Arabian Sea.
Pradesh at an elevation of about 752 m. It is
• Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
one of only the three rivers in Peninsular India
Cauvery are the major east flowing
that run from east to west - the others being the
rivers and drain into Bay of Bengal.
Narmada and the Mahi. The major tributaries
are Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray,
Panjhra and Bori. It outfalls into the Arabian
Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
GLOSSARY
Back waters: The part of a river
which are stagnant and do not reach the
In which river the
fi nd out sea as they are pushed by the current.
Gerosappa (jog) fall is
found? Distributary: A branch or outlet
which leaves a main river and does not
rejoin it, carrying its water to the sea or
Recap a lake.
Doab: A land between the two
• India has been physiographically
converging rivers.
divided into five divisions. They are
Northern Mountains, Northern Great Estuary: Mouth of a river where it
Plains, The Plateau region, Coastal enters the sea through a single channel
Plains and Islands. with a hollow.
Perennial Rivers: The rivers
• Northern Mountains are classified into
which flow throughout the year and have
three divisions as Trans-Himalayas,
permanent source of water.
Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
Pass: A narrow gap through the
• Northern Great Plains are divided
mountains providing a route or passage
into four as Rajasthan Plains, Punjab-
way.
Haryana Plains, Gangetic Plains and
Brahmaputra Plains. Peninsula: The land area covered with
ocean on three sides. Subcontinent:
• The Plateau region of India has two A large area of a continent that stands
divisions namely the Central Highlands distinct from the rest of the continent and
and the Deccan Plateau. possesses almost all the characteristics
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands and of a continent.
Lakshadweep are the two major island Standard Time: The local time of
groups of India. central meridian of ones country.
• The Drainage System of India is classified Tributary: A river or stream which
into the north Indian (Himalayan) and contributes its water to main river.
Peninsular rivers.

8. The highest peak in South India is
EXERCISE a. Ooty b. Kodaikanal
c. Anaimudi d. Jindhagada
Characteristics of 9. _____________ Plains are formed by the
South Indian Rivers older alluviums.
• Originate from Western a. Bhabar b. Tarai
Ghats c. Bhangar d. Khadar
• Short and narrow
10. Pulicat Lake is located between the
• Non perennial in nature
states of
• Suitable for hydro power generation
a. West Bengal and Odisha
• Not useful for navigation
b. Karnataka and Kerala
c. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
I. Choose the correct answer
d. Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
1. The north-south extent of India is
II. Match the following
a. 2,500 km b. 2,933 km
1. Tsangpo — Tributary of River
c. 3,214 km d. 2814 km
Ganga
2. The Southern most point of India is 2. Yamuna — Highest peak in India
a. Andaman b. Kanniyakumari 3. New alluvium — River Brahmaputra in
c. Indira Point d. Kavaratti Tibet
3. The extent of Himalayas in the east-west is 4. Mt. Godwin Southern part of East
about Austen (K2) — Coastal Plain
5. Coromandel
a. 2,500 km b. 2,400 km
Coast — Khadhar
c. 800 km d. 2,200 km
4. _________ River is known as ‘Sorrow of III. Give Reasons
Bihar’. 1. Himalayas are called young fold moutains
a. Narmada b. Godavari 2. North Indian Rivers are perennial
c. Kosi d. Damodar
3. Chottanagpur Plateau is rich in mineral
5.
Deccan Plateau covers an area of about resources
__________ sq.km. 4. The great Indian desert is called Marusthali
a. 8 lakh b. 6 lakh
5. The Eastern states are called seven sisters
c. 5 lakh d. 7 lakh
6. The river Gothavari is often referred as
6. A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is Vridha Ganga.
referred to as _________.
a. Coast b. Island IV. Distinguish between the
c. Peninsula d. Strait following
1. Himalayan rivers and Peninsular rivers.
7. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separates
India from _______ 2. Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
a. Goa b. West Bengal 3. Himadri and Himachal.
c. Sri Lanka d. Maldives 4. Western Coastal Plains and Eastern Coastal
Plains.

V. Answer in brief in India and findout it’s tributaries, origin,
1. Name the neighbouring countries of India. length and area.
2. Give the importance of IST.
REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Write a short note on Deccan Plateau.
4. State the west following rivers of India. 1. Husain, M. (2015). Geography of India (6th
5. Write a brief note on the island group of Edition). McGraw Hill Education, New
Lakshadweep Delhi.
2. Siddhartha, K. and Mukherjee, S. (2013).
VI. Answer in a paragraph
Geography through Maps (11th Edition).
1. Explain the divisions of Northern Mountains Kisalaya Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
and its importance to India.
3. Singh, G. (1976). A Geography of India.
2. Give an account on the major peninsular Atma Ram & Sons Publications, New Delhi.
rivers of India.
4. Singh, S. and Saroha, J. (2014). Geography
3. Give a detailed account on the basin of the of India (1st Edition). Access Publishing
Ganga. India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
VII. Map exercises INTERNET RESOURCES

Mark the following in the outline map of
1. http://www.nplindia.in/
India
1. Major mountain ranges – Karakoram, 2. http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/
Ladakh, Zaskar, Aravalli, Western Ghats, 3. http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/iess102.pdf
Eastern Ghats.
4. http://www.scert.kerala.gov.in/images/text_
2. Major rivers – Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, books/chapter%204.pdf
Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna & Kaveri.
3. Major plateaus – Malwa, Chotanagpur,
Deccan.
VIII. Activities
1.
Observe the Peninsular Plateau map of
India and mark the major plateau divisions
of India
2.
Prepare a table showing the major West
flowing and East flowing rivers of peninsular
India.
3. Assume that you are travelling from West
Bengal to Gujarat along the beautiful coasts
of India. Find out the states which you
would pass through?
4. Find out the states through which the river
Ganga flows.
5. Prepare a table showing the major rivers

Unit - 2
Climate
and Natural
Vegetation of
India
Learning Objectives
To describe the factors controlling the climate of India.

To understand the characteristics of different seasons in India.
To know about the rainfall distribution.
To study the different types of natural vegetation and wild life in India.
Introduction 2.1 The factors affecting the

We drink more water during summer climate
and do not drink the same amount of water Climate of India is affected by the factors
during winter. Why do we wear cotton or of latitude, distance from the seas, monsoon
lighter clothes during summer season and wind, relief features and jet stream.
heavy woollen clothes during cold weather
2.1.1 Latitude
season in north India? Why do not we wear
woollen clothes in south India? This is Latitudinally, India lies between 8°4'N
because of the prevalence of varying weather and 37°6'N latitudes. The Tropic of cancer
conditions between north and south India. In divides the country into two equal halves. The
the previous chapter, you have learnt about area located to the south of Tropic of cancer
the landforms and drainage of our country, experiences high temperature and no severe
which dealt with the natural environment. In cold season throughout the year whereas, the
this chapter, you will learn about the climate, areas to the north of this parallel enjoys sub-
rainfall distribution, natural vegetation and tropical climate. Here, summer temperature
wildlife of our country. may rise above 40°C and it is close to freezing
point during winter.
Equable climate is also called 2.1.2 Altitude
as the British climate, Which is When the altitude increases, The
neither too hot nor too cold. temperatures decreases. Temperature decreases
at the rate of 6.50C for every 1000 metres of
ascent. It is called normal lapse rate.
Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98

Hence, places in the mountains are
cooler than the places on the plains. That • Weather refers to the state
is why the places located at higher altitudes of atmosphere of a place at a
even in south India have cool climate. Ooty given point of time.
and several other hill stations of south India • Climate is the accumulation
and of the Himalayan ranges like Mussourie, of daily and seasonal weather
Shimla etc., are much cooler than the places events of a given location over a period of
located on the Great Plains. 30-35 years.
Find out the temperature of onset of southwest monsoon brings down the
fi nd out
Ooty (2240m) if it is 350C in temperature of the entire India and causes
Chennai (6.7m) moderate to heavy rainfall in many parts of
the country. Similarly, the climate of southeast
2.1.3 Distance from the Sea India is also influenced by northeast monsoon.
Distance from the sea does not cause 2.1.5 Relief
only temperature and pressure variations but
Relief of India has a great bearing
also affects the amount of rainfall. A large area
on major elements of climate such as
of India, especially the peninsular region, is
temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction
not very far from the sea and this entire area
of winds and the amount of rainfall. The
has a clear maritime influence on climate.
Himalayas acts as a barrier to the freezing
This part of the country does not have a very
cold wind blows from central Asia and keep
clearly marked winter and the temperature
the Indian subcontinent warm. As such the
is equable almost throughout the year. Areas
north India experiences tropical climate even
of central and north India experience much
during winter. During southwest monsoon,
seasonal variation in temperature due to the
areas on the western slope of the Western
absence of influence of seas. Here, summers
Ghats receive heavy rainfall. On the contrary,
are hot and winters are cold. The annual
vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
temperature at Kochi does not exceed 30°C
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil nadu
as its location is on the coast while it is as
lie in rain shadow or leeward side of the
high as 40°C at Delhi, since it is located in
Western Ghats receive very little rainfall.
the interior part. Air near the coast has more
During this season, Mangalore, located on
moisture and greater potential to produce
the coast gets the rainfall of about 280 cm
precipitation. Due to this fact, the amount of
whereas the Bengaluru located on the leeward
rainfall at Kolkata located near the coast is
side receives only about 50 cm rainfall.
119 cm and it decreases to just 24 cm at
Bikaner which is located in the interior part.
2.1.6. Jet Streams
2.1.4 Monsoon Wind Jet streams are the fast moving winds
blowing in a narrow zone in the upper
The most dominant factor which affects
atmosphere. According to the Jet stream
the climate of India is the monsoon winds.
theory, the onset of southwest monsoon is
These are seasonal reversal winds and India
driven by the shift of the sub tropical westerly
remains in the influence of these winds for a
jet from the plains of India towards the
considerable part of a year. Though, the sun’s
Tibetan plateau. The easterly jet streams cause
rays are vertical over the central part of India
tropical depressions both during southwest
during the mid-June, the summer season ends
monsoon and retreating monsoon.
in India by the end of May. It is because the
99 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India

2.2 Monsoon 2.2.1 Seasons
The word ‘monsoon’ has been derived The meteorologists
from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means recognize the four distinct
‘season’. Originally, the word ‘monsoon’ was seasons in India. They are;
used by Arab navigators several centuries ago, 1. Winter or cold
to describe a system of seasonal reversal of weather season
winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean, (January - February).
especially over the Arabian Sea. It blows from 2. Pre Monsoon or summer or hot weather
the south-west to north-east during summer season (March - May).
and from the north-east to south-west during
winter. 3. Southwest monsoon or rainy season
(June - September).
Monsoons are a complex meteorological
phenomenon. Meteorologists have developed 4. Northeast monsoon season
a number of concepts about the origin (October - December).
of monsoons. According to the Dynamic
concept, Monsoon wind originates due to 1. Winter or cold weather season
the seasonal migration of planetary winds During this period, the vertical rays of
and pressure belts following the position of the sun falls over tropic of capricorn which
the sun. During summer solstice, the sun’s is far away from India. Hence, India receives
rays fall vertically over the Tropic of cancer. the slanting sun’s rays which results in low
Therefore, all the pressure and wind belts temperature. The cold weather season is
of the globe shift northwards. At this time, characterized by clear skies, fine weather,
Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) light northerly winds, low humidity and
also moves northward, and a major part of large day time variations of temperature.
Indian landmass comes under the influence During this season a high pressure develops
of southeast trade winds. While crossing over north India and a north-westerly wind
equator this wind gets deflected and takes the blows down the Indus and Ganges valleys.
direction of southwest and becomes south- In south India, the general direction of wind
west monsoon. During the winter season, is from east to west. The mean temperature
the pressure and wind belts shift southward, increases from north to south, the decrease
thereby establishing the north-east monsoon being sharp as one moves northwards in
(trade winds) over this region. Such systematic the north-western part of the country. The
change in the direction of planetary winds is mean daily minimum temperatures range
known as monsoon. from 22°C in the extreme south, to 10°C
in the northern plains and 6°C in Punjab.
The rain during this season generally
Atacama desert is the driest occurs over the Western Himalayas, Tamil
place on the earth. nadu and Kerala. Western disturbances and
associated trough in westerlies are main
rain bearing system in northern part of the
country. The jet stream plays a dominant
role in bringing these disturbances to
India. These disturbances cause rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh,
and snowfall in the hills of Jammu and
Kashmir. This rainfall is very useful for the
cultivation of winter wheat.

2. Pre Monsoon or summer or Konkan coast in early June and covers the
hot weather season whole country by 15th July. The monsoon
is influenced by global phenomenon like
During this season, the vertical rays of
ElNino.
the sun falls over the peninsular India. Hence,
there is a steady increase in temperature from Prior to the onset of the southwest
south to north. It is practically hot and dry monsoon, the temperature in north India
in the entire country in the initial part of reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach
this season. Weather over the land areas of of monsoon wind over south India with
the country is influenced by thunderstorms lightning and thunder is termed as the
associated with rain and sometimes with ‘break’ or ‘burst of monsoon’. It lowers
hail mostly in the middle and later part. the temperature of India to a large extent.
During this season, temperature starts The monsoon wind strikes against the
increasing all over the country and by April, southern tip of Indian land mass and gets
the interior parts of south India record mean divided into two branches. One branch
daily temperatures of 30°C–35°C. Central starts from Arabian sea and the other from
Indian land mass becomes hot with day-time Bay of Bengal. The Arabian sea branch of
maximum temperature reaching about 40°C southwest monsoon gives heavy rainfall to
at many locations. Many stations in Gujarat, the west coast of India as it is located in the
North Maharashtra, Rajasthan and North windward side of the Western Ghats. The
Madhya Pradesh exhibit high day-time and other part which advances towards north
low night-time temperatures during this is obstructed by Himalayan Mountains
season. and results in heavy rainfall in north. As
Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the
Because of the atmospheric pressure
wind direction, Rajasthan and western part
conditions, the winds blow from southwest
do not get much rainfall from this branch.
to northeast direction in Arabian Sea and Bay
The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves
of Bengal. They bring pre monsoon showers
towards northeast India and Myanmar. This
to the west coast during the month of May.
wind is trapped by a chain of mountains
There are few thunder showers called “Mango
namely Garo, Khasi and Jaintia are mainly
Showers” which helps in quick ripening
responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused
of mangoes along the coast of Kerala and
at Mawsynram located in Meghalaya. Later
Karnataka. “Norwesters” or “Kalbaisakhis”
on, this wind travel towards west which
are the local severe storms or violent
results in decrease in rainfall from east to
thunderstorms associated with strong winds
west. Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall
and rain lasting for short durations. It occurs
is received from this monsoon. Tamil nadu
over the eastern and north eastern parts over
which is located in the leeward side receives
Bihar, West Bengal and Assam during April
only a meagre rainfall.
and May. They approach the stations from the
northwesterly direction.
4. Post monsoon or Retreating or
3. Southwest monsoon or Rainy Northeast monsoon season
Season The southwest monsoon begins to retreat
from north India by the end of September due
The southwest monsoon is the most
to the southward shifting pressure belts. The
significant feature of the Indian climate. The
southwest monsoon wind returns from Indian
onset of the southwest monsoon takes place
landmass and blows towards Bay of Bengal. The
normally over the southern tip of the country
coriolis force deflects this wind and makes it
by the first week of June, advances along the

South West Monsoon In India North East Monsoon In India
N N
W E W E
S S
I N D I A I N D I A
Arabian Bay of Arabian Bay of

Sea Bengal Sea Bengal
Not to Scale Not to Scale
Indian Ocean Indian Ocean

India Monsoons
to blow from northeast. Hence, it is known as
Northeast monsoon or Post-monsoon season. Hots
The season is associated with the establishment Why is Mawsynram, the wettest place
of the north-easterly wind system over the Indian in the world.
subcontinent. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu,
Kerala and south interior Karnataka receive good
amount of rainfall accounted for 35% of their 2.3 Distribution of rainfall
annual total. Many parts of Tamil nadu and some The average annual rainfall of India is
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka receive 118 cm. However, spatial distribution of
rainfall during this season due to the storms rainfall in the country is highly uneven. About
forming in the Bay of Bengal. Large scale losses to 11% area receives over 200 cm of annual
life and property occur due to heavy rainfall, strong rainfall, 21% area receives 125 to 200 cm,
winds and storm surge in the coastal regions. The 37% area receives 75 to 125 cm, 24% area gets
day time temperatures start falling sharply all over 35 to 75 cm and 7% area gets less than 35 cm.
the country. The mean temperature over north- The Western coast, Assam, South Meghalaya,
western parts of the country shows a decline from Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh are
about 38°C in October to 28°C in November. the heavy rainfall areas which get more than
200 cm rainfall. The whole of Rajasthan,
Mawsynram, the place Punjab, Haryana, Western and Southwestern
which receives highest rainfall parts of Uttar Pradesh, Western Madhya
(1141 cm) in the world. It is Pradesh, the entire Deccan Trap or Plateau
located in Meghalaya. region east of Western Ghats except for a
narrow strip along Tamil nadu coast receive a
low rainfall of less than 100 cm. The rest of the
areas receive a rainfall ranging between 100
and 200 cm.

N
W E
S
NATURAL VEGETATION
OF INDIA
Arabian
Sea
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLA

Bay of
Bengal
LASKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
(INDIA)
Tropical Evergreen Forests

Coastal Forests
Tropical Dry Forests
Desert Forests
NDS
Tidal Forests
Not to Scale Eastern Himalaya Forests

Western Himalayan Forests
Indian Ocean Alpine Forests
Cold Desert Forests
2.4 Natural Vegetation are the important environmental controls of

natural vegetation.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community unaffected by man either directly On the basis of the above factors the
or indirectly. It has its existence in certain natural vegetation of India can be divided
natural environment. Natural vegetation into the following types.
includes all plant life forms such as trees, 2.4.1 Tropical Evergreen Forest
bushes, herbs and forbs etc, that grow These forests are found in areas with 200 cm
naturally in an area and have been left or more annual rainfall. The annual temperature
undisturbed by humans for a long time. is about more than 22°C and the average annual
Climate, soil and landform characteristics humidity exceeds 70 percent in this region.
Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Kerala, Andaman-Nicobar Islands, Assam, north Gujarat and south-west Punjab. They
West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, are also found in the very dry parts of the
Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Maharashtra
of forests. The most important trees are rubber, and Andhra Pradesh. Babul, kikar and wild
mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo, palms are common trees found here.
cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar. 2.4.4 Mountain or Montane Forest
These have not been fully exploited due to lack
These forests are classified on the basis of
of transport facilities.
altitude and amount of rainfall. Accordingly two
2.4.2 Tropical Deciduous Forest different types of forests namely Eastern Himalayas
These are found in the areas with 100 to Forests and Western Himalayas Forests.
200cm. annual rainfall. These are called i. Eastern Himalayan Forest: These are
‘Monsoon Forests’. The mean annual found on the slopes of the mountains in
temperature of this region is about 27oC and north-east states. These forests receive
the average annual relative humidity is 60 to rainfall of more than 200 cm. The vegetation
70 percent. The trees of these forests drop their is of evergreen type. The Altitude between
leaves during the spring and early summer. (Sub 1200-2400 m found in this type of forest
Himalayan - Region from Punjab to Assam, sal, oak, laurel, amura, chestnut, cinnamon
Great Plains- Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, are the main trees from 1200 to 2400 m
Bihar, West Bengal, Central India - Jharkhand, altitude oak, birch, silver, fir, fine, spruce
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, South India - and juniper are the major trees from 2400
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra to 3600 m height.
Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala states are
(ii) Western Himalayan Forest: The rainfall
notable for this type of natural vegetation.)
of this region is moderate. These forests are
Teak and sal are the most important trees.
found in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Sandalwood, rosewood, kusum, mahua, palas,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Upto
haldu, amla, padauk, bamboo and tendu are
900 m altitude semi desert vegetation is
the other trees of economic importance. These
found and it is known for bushes and small
forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish,
trees. In altitude from 900 to 1800 m,
sandal oil and perfumes.
chir tree is the most common tree. The
2.4.3 Tropical Dry Forest other important trees of this region are
These are found in the areas with 50 to sal, semal, dhak, jamun and jujube. (height
100 cm. annual rainfall. They represent a High altitude zone of forests
transitional type of forests. These are found 9000
in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western
8000
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern
Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and 7000
East Tamilnadu. The important species are 6000
Eternal snows and glaciers
mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar, Alpine meadows

bamboo, babool, khair etc., 5000
Sub-alpine meadows
Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation: 4000
These are also called as ‘Tropical thorn Coniferous forests
3000
forests’. These are found in the areas having Deciduous broadleaf forests
annual rainfall of less than 50 cm. They have 2000
low humidity and high temperature. These 1000
Evergreen sub-tropical forests
forests are found in north-west India which Sub-equatorial rainforest

includes west Rajasthan, south-west Haryana, 0m

GREEN COVER IN INDIA
Total forest and tree cover 8,02,088 sq km TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
(% of geographical area: 24.39%) FOREST COVER DECREASED
Forest cover in sq km
Year Tree cover Arunachal
2017 93,815 Pradesh
sq km Meghalaya 190
Total forest cover
116
7,08,273
sq km (% of TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
Nagaland
geographical 450
area - 21.54%) MAXIMUM FOREST COVER
INCREASED in sq km
COMPARATIVE FIGURES Tripura Mizoram
Total forest cover (& of total geographical area) 164 531
Telangana
7.2
7.08 (21.54%) 565 Odisha FOREST FIRE
7.0 885
lakh sq km Karnataka
6.8 2012 40,528
6.6 6.40 1,101 2013 25,061
(19.49%) Andhra
6.4
Kerala Pradesh 2014 26,797
6.2 1,043 2,141 2015 22,465
6.0 2016 33,664
1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2009 2013 2017
from 1800 to 3000 m is covered with semi trees. Both the eastern and western coasts
temperate coniferous forests.) Chir, deodar, have this type of forests. The coasts of Kerala
blue pine, poplar, birch and elder are the and Goa are known for this type.
main trees of this region. 2.4.8 Riverine Forest
2.4.5 Alpine Forest These forests are found along the rivers
It occurs all along the Himalayas with on Khadar areas. These are known for
above 2400 m altitude. These are purely having tamarisk and tamarind trees. The rivers of
coniferous trees. Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper Great Plains are more prominent for this type
are the main trees of these forests. The eastern of natural vegetation.
parts of Himalayas has large extent of these forests. 2.5 Wildlife
2.4.6 Tidal Forest The term ‘Wildlife’ includes animals
These forests occur in and around the of any habitat in nature. Wild animals are
deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal non-domesticated animals and include both
influences and as such are also known as delta vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
or swamp forests. The delta of the Ganga- and mammals) and invertebrates (bees,
Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest. The butterflies, moths etc.). India has a rich and
deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna diversified wildlife. The Indian fauna consists
rivers are also known for tidal forests. These of about 81,251 species of animals out of the
are also known as mangrove forest. world’s total of about 1.5 million species.
The faunal diversity of the country consists
2.4.7 Coastal Forest
of about 6500 invertebrates, 5000 molluscs,
These are littoral forests. Generally, 2546 fishes, 1228 birds, 458 mammals,
coastal areas have these types of forests. 446 reptiles, 204 amphibians, 4 panthers and
Casurina, palm and coconut are the dominant about 60,000 species of insects.

The Nilgiri
Tahr is facing
a major threat
in the Western
Ghats. Continuous
poaching activities and Eucalyptus
cultivation hampering its habitat,
the Nilgiri Tahr population is
continuously decreasing.
The Black Buck is

the state animal of
Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana and Punjab.
Our country is home to tigers, lions, of India enacted Wildlife (Protection) Act
leopards, snow leopards, pythons, wolves, in 1972 with the objective of effectively
foxes, bears, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, camels, protecting the wild life of the country and to
wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade
deer species, varieties of bison and the in wildlife and its diversities. United Nations
mighty Asian elephant. Hunting, poaching, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
deforestation and other anthropogenic in 1992 recognizes the sovereign rights of
interferences in the natural habitats have states to use their own Biological Resources.
caused extinction of some species and To preserve the country’s rich and diverse
many are facing the danger of extinction. wildlife a network of 102 National Parks and
In view of this and the role of wild life in about 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the
maintaining ecological balance, conservation country have been created.
and management of biodiversity of India is
necessary at present situation. 2.5 Biosphere Reserves
The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
was constituted in 1952 to suggest means of land coastal environments wherein people are an
protection, conservation and management of integral component of the system.
wildlife to the government. The Government

N
BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA W E
S
Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Cold desert

Pradesh
Nanda Devi
Punjab U
Chandigarh ara
kh
an
Haryana d Dihand-Dibang
l
ha
Delhi ac esh
kanjanjunga u n
Ar Prad
Sikkim Dibru-Saikhowa
Rajasthan
Uar Pradesh Manas Nagaland
Assam
Bihar
Meghalaya
Nokrek Manipur
Rann of Kutch Panna Jharkhand

Tripura
West Bengal Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat Sunderban
Pachmarhi
Achanakmar-
Amarkantak
Diu
garh
Daman
Dadra and Nagar Odisha Simlipal
as
Haveli
Chh
Maharashtra
Telangana
Goa Bay of Bengal

Andra Pradesh
Arabian Sea Seshachalam
Karnataka LEGEND
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
World Network of Biosphere

Puducherry Reserves (UNESCO)
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves
(India)
Tamil Nadu
Lakshadweep Agasthyamalai
(India)
Gulf of
Mannar
Great Nicobar
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean
Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves

The Indian government has established 18
(Gulf of Mannar, Nandadevi, the Nilgiris,
Biosphere Reserves in India which protect larger
Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Sundarbans
areas of natural habitat and often include one or
Agasthiyamalai, Great Nicobar, Kanjanjunga
more National Parks preserves along with buffer
and Amarkantak) of India fall under the list of
zones that are open to some economic uses.
Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO.

S. Biosphere State Recap
No. Reserves
• Climate of India is labelled as “Tropical
Madhya Monsoon Type”.
Achanakmar-
1 Pradesh,
Amarkantak • There are four seasons in India. They are
Chattisgarh
winter season, hot weather, southwest
2 Agasthyamalai Kerala monsoon, and northeast monsoon.
3 Dibru Saikhowa Assam • Prior to the onset of the southwest
Arunachal monsoon, the temperature in north India
4 Dihang Dibang
Pradesh reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach
Andaman and of monsoon wind over south India with
5 Great Nicobar lightning and thunder is termed as – ‘the
Nicobar Islands
6 Gulf of Mannar Tamil nadu break’ or ‘burst of monsoon’.
• Natural vegetation refers to a plant
7 Kachch Gujarat
community unaffected by man either
8 Kanchenjunga Sikkim directly or indirectly.
9 Manas Assam • Natural vegetation can be classified
10 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand as tropical evergreen forests, tropical
11 The Nilgiris Tamil nadu deciduous forests, tropical dry forests,
12 Nokrek Meghalaya desert and semi desert vegetation,
mountain forests, Alpine forests, Tidal
13 Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
forests, etc.,
14 Simlipal Odisha • Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
15 Sundarbans West Bengal land coastal environment whereby people
Himachal are an integral component of a system.
16 Cold desert
Pradesh
17 Sesahachalam hills Andhra Pradesh
GLOSSARY
18 Panna Madhya Pradesh
Climate: The weather conditions
prevailing in an area in general or over
Project Tiger was launched a long period.
in April 1973 with the aim Meteorology: The branch of science
to conserve tiger population concerned with the processes and
in specifically constituted phenomena of the atmosphere, especially
“Tiger Reserves” in India. as a means of forecasting the weather.
This project is benefited tremendously, Season: Each of the four divisions of
with an increase of over 60% - the 1979 the year (spring, summer, autumn, and
consensus put the population at 3,015 - winter) marked by particular weather
while other equally disturbed species like patterns and daylight hou.
the barasingha (swamp deer), rhino and Weather: The state of the atmosphere
elephants also fought back from the brink at a particular place and time as regards
of oblivion. heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine,
wind, rain, etc.
Wildlife: Wild animals collectively;
the native fauna (and sometimes flora)
of a region.

EXERCISE 8. _________ forests are found above 2400m
Himalayas.
a) Deciduous forests
I. Choose the
b) Alpine forests
correct answer.
c) Mangrove forests
1. Meteorology is the
science of _________. d) Tidal forests
a) Weather 9. Sesahachalam hills, a Biosphere reserve is
b) social situated in _________.
c) political a) Tamilnadu b) Andhra Pradesh
d) human c) Madhya Pradesh d) Karnataka
2. We wear cotton during _________. 10. _________ is a part of the world network
biosphere reserves of UNESCO
a) Summer b) Winter
A) Nilgiri b) Agasthiyamalai
c) Rainy d) Northeast monsoon
c) Great Nicobar d) Kachch
3. Western disturbances cause rainfall in
_________. II. Match the following.
a) Tamilnadu b) Kerala 1. Project Elephant — Desert and semi
c) Punjab d) Madhya Pradesh desert vegetation
2. Biodiversity — October-
4. _________ helps in quick ripening of
hotspot December
mangoes along the coast of Kerala and
Karnataka. 3. North east — Littoral forest
monsoon
a) Loo b) Norwester
4. Tropical thorn — Protect the
c) Mangoshowers d) Jetstream
forests elephants
5. _________ is a line joining the places of
5. Coastal forests — The Himalayas
equal rainfall.
a) Isohyets b) Isobar III. Consider the given
c) Isotherm d) Latitudes statements and choose the
correct option from the
6. Climate of India is labelled as _________.
given below ones.
a) Tropical humid
1. Assertion(A): Monsoons are a complex
b) Equatorial climate meteorological phenomenon
c) Tropical monsoon climate Reason(R):Meteorologists have developed
d) Temperate climate a number of concepts about the origin of
monsoons.
7. The monsoon forests are otherwise called as
_________. a) Both (A) and (B) are true: R explains A
a) Tropical evergreen forest b) Both (A) and (B) are true: R does not
b) Deciduous forest explain A
c) Mangrove forest c) (A) is correct (R) is false
d) Mountain forest d) (A) is false (R) is true

2. Assertion(A): The Himalayas acts as a VII. Give reasons for the
climatic barrier. following topics.
Reason(R): The Himalayas prevents cold 1. Western coastal plain is narrow.
winds from central Asia and keep the Indian
Sub-continent warm.(Give option for this 2. India has a tropical monsoon climate.
questions) 3. Mountains are cooler than the plains.
a) Both (A) and (B) are true: R explains A
b) Both (A) and (B) are true: R does not VIII. Write in detail.
explain A
1. Write about southwest monsoon.
c) (A) is correct (R) is false
2. Describe the forests of India.
d) (A) is false (R) is true
3. Write the names of biosphere reserves and
IV. Choose the inappropriate their location in India.
answer.
1. Tidal forests are found in and around____. IX. Map.
(a) Desert
Mark the following on the outline map of
(b) The deltas of Ganga and Brahmaputra
India.
(c) The delta of Godavari
(d) The delta of Mahanadhi 1. Direction of south west monsoon wind.
2. Climate of India is affected by__________. 2. Direction of north east monsoon wind.
(a) Latitudinal extent 3. Areas of heavy rainfall.
(b) Altitude 4. Mountain forests.
(c) Distance from the sea 5. Panna biosphere reserve
(d) Soil
6. Agasthiyamalai biosphere reserve
V. Answer briefly.
1. Define ‘Meteorology’. REFERENCE BOOKS
2. What is meant by ‘normal lapse rate’?
3. What are ‘jet streams’? 1. Attri, S.D. and A.Tyagi, 2010. “Climate
4. Write a short note on ‘Monsoon wind’. Profile of India”, India Meteorological
Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences,
5. Name the four distinct seasons of India.
Govt. of India, New Delhi.
6. What is ‘burst of monsoon’?
2. Singh, S. and J.Saroha, 2014. “Geography
7. Name the areas which receive heavy rainfall. of India”, Access Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
8. State places of mangrove forest in India. New Delhi.
9. Name the trees of tropical evergreen forest. 3. Hussain, M. 2008. “Geography of India” Tata
10. Write any five biosphere reserves in India. McGraw-Hill Publishing House Company
11. What is ‘Project Tiger’? Ltd. New Delhi.
4. Govt. of India, 2014. “India’s fifth National
VI. Distinguish between. report to the Convention on Biological
1. Weather and climate Diversity” Ministry of Environment and
2. Tropical evergreen forest and deciduous Forests.
forest.
3. North east monsoon and South west monsoon.

ICT CORNER
Unit-2 CLIMATE AND NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
Visit school Bhuvan?

School Bhuvan visualizes natural
resources, environment and
their sustainable development in
India.
Steps
• Scroll Down and click on ‘Explore’
• Click on ‘Climate’ in left side menuandSelect ‘Annual Rainfall’
Step -1 Step -2 Step -3
Website URL:
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

Unit - 3
Components of
Agriculture
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature of India’s soil types and their distribution.
To know about the importance of irrigation and multi-purpose
projects in India.
To study about the agriculture, its types and importance.
To understand the livestock and fishing resources of India
To comprehend the problems of farming in India.
Introduction 3.1.1 Types of Soils

Soil is one of the most important natural The Indian Council of Agriculture
resources. India’s varied natural environments Research (ICAR) set up in 1953 divides the
resulted in a great variety of soils compared to soils of India into the following eight major
any other country of similar size in the world. The groups.
rich, deep and fertile soils support high density
of population through agricultural prosperity. Types of Soils in India
3.1 Soils Saline &

Alkaline Soil
Peaty &
Marshy Soil
Soil is the uppermost layer of the land Laterite Soil
1.29%
2.17%
Black Soil
surface, usually composed of minerals, 29.69%
2.62%
organic matter, living organisms, air and Arid & Desert Soil
6.13%
water. Grains in the soil are of three categories Red Soil Forest &
namely, clay, silt, and sand. Soils are generally 28% Mountain
formed by the weathering of rocks under Alluvial Soil Soil
22.16% 7.94%
different conditions. Some soils are formed
by the deposition of agents of denudation.
Soils can vary greatly from one region to the
other.
Components of Agriculture 112

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Alluvial Khadar – light coloured, more siliceous. Ganga and Rice,
soil Bhangar – the older alluvium composed of Brahmaputra
Wheat,
lime nodules and has clayey composition. It is river valleys;
Plains of Sugarcane and
dark in colour.
Uttar Pradesh, Oilseeds
Formation - sediments deposited by streams
Uttaranchal,
and rivers when they slowly loose
Punjab,
Chemical properties - rich in potash,
Haryana, West
phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds
Bengal and
but poor in nitrogen
Bihar
Nature –Sandy-loam-silt-clay
profile shows no marked differentiation
Black soils Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan Maharashtra Cotton, Millets,
trap. and Malwa Tobacco and
Colour - black colour, due to presence of plateaus, Sugarcane
titanium, iron. Kathiawar
Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and peninsula,
magnesium arbonates, high quantities of iron, Telangana and
aluminium, lime and magnesia. Rayalaseema
region of
Rich in potash lime, Aluminium calcium and
Andhra
magnesium poor in Nitrogen Phosphoric acid
Pradesh and
and humus
northern part of
Nature - Sticky when wet Karnataka
High degree of moisture retentivity
Red soils Formation - decomposition of ancient Eastern parts of Wheat, Rice,
crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and Deccan plateau, Cotton,
from rock type southern states Sugarcane and
Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as of Kerala, Tamil Pulses
iron and magnesium. Nadu, Karnataka
and Chota
Deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid
Nagpur plateau
and lime.
(Jharkhand)
Nature - Light texture, porous friable presence
of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red
soils generally consists of Kaolinitic minerals.
Laterite Formation - formed in the regions where Assam hills, Coffee, Rubber,
soils alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It hill summits Cashew nut and
is formed by the process of leaching of Kerala and Tapioca
Chemical properties - Composed mainly of Karnataka and
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium, eastern Ghats
and region of
Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in
Odisha
high level, cannot retain moisture while plains
they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily
retain moisture
113 Components of Agriculture

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Forest and Differ from region to region depending on Coniferous Coffee, tea, rice,
mountain climate. forest belts maize, potato,
soils Formation - due to mechanical weathering of Jammu barley, tropical
caused by snow, rain, temperature variation and Kashmir, fruits and
Chemical properties - are deficient in potash, Himachal various types of
Phosphorus and lime. Pradesh, spices
Uttarakhand
Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the
and Sikkim.
pieces of rock. Their character changes with
Eastern and
the parent rocks. Very rich in humus. slow
Western Ghats
decomposition makes it acidic
Arid and Formation - Due to prevalence of the dry Rajasthan, millets,
desert climate, hightemperature and accelerated Northern barley, cotton,
soils evaporation, the soil is dry, it also lacks humus Gujarat and maize and pulses
content due to the absence of vegetative cover southern Punjab
(with irrigation)
Chemical properties - Contain high
percentages of soluble salts, alkaline with
varying degree of calcium carbonate and
are poor in organic matter; rich enough in
phosphate though poor in nitrogen
Nature - light in colour, low humus,friable
structure, low in moisture
Saline and Formation - formed due to ill drainage Andhra Pradesh
alkaline which causes water logging, injurious salts are and Karnataka.
soils transferred from subsurface to the top soil by the In the drier
capillary action, it causes the salinisation of soils parts of Bihar,
Chemical properties - liberate sodium, Uttar Pradesh,
magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous Haryana,
acid Punjab,
Nature - Consists of un decomposed rock and Rajasthan and
mineral fragments which on weathering Maharashtra
Peaty and Formation - formed in humid regions from the Kottayam and Paddy, jute
marshy organic matter. It is found in the areas of heavy Alappuzha
soils rainfall and high humidity Peaty soils are black, districts of
heavyand highly acidic. Kerala; and
Chemical properties - deficient in potash coastal areas
and phosphate. Contain considerable amount of Odisha and
of soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic Tamil Nadu,
matter; and high proportion of vegetable Sundarbans of
matter. West Bengal,
in Bihar and
Nature - Contain considerable amount of
Almora district
Soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic
of Uttarakhand
matter; and high proportion of vegetable
matter.

Activity
Soil Texture (sand, silt, clay) influence on some properties of soils including water holding
capacity. Find out water holding capacity of soils which given above based on following table.
Property/behaviour sand silt clay
Water holding low Medium to high high
capacity
N
INDIA W E
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS
S
TYPES OF SOILS
Alluvial
Red
Black
Laterite
Forest and Mountain
Arid and Desert
Not to Scale Saline and Alkaline

Peaty and Marshy

3.2.1 Sources of Irrigation
Soil degradation
In India, different sources of irrigation
Soil degradation is an acute problem
are used depending upon the topography,
in India. According to a 2015 report of the
soils, rainfall, availability of surface or
Indian institute of remote sensing (IIRS).
groundwater, nature of river (whether
The estimated the amount of soil .erosion
perennial or non-perennial), requirements of
that occurred in India was 147 million
crops etc. The main sources of irrigation used
hectares.
in different parts of the country are
The main problems of the Indian
soils are i) soil erosion (sheet erosion, • Canal irrigation
Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Ravine • Well irrigation and
and Badland) ii) Degradation of Soil, • Tank irrigation
iii) Water-logging, iv) Saline and Alkaline,
and v) Salt Flats, types of soils are different a) Canal Irrigation
erotion.
It is the second most important source
Methods of Conservation and of irrigation in our country. Percentage of
Management of Soil area under canal irrigation in our country is
24% (source:Statistical year book 2017 during
1. Afforestation
2013-2014)
2. Constructing Dams and Barrages
3. Prevention of Overgrazing Other
4. Improved methods of Agricultural Sources 11% Tanks 3%
practices Canals 24%
Other wells 16%
• Contour method
Tube wells 46%
• Rotation of crops
• Contour bunding
• Strip cropping
• Planting of shelter belts Area under Irrigation
• Adopting the techniques of
Canals are the effective source of
sustainable agriculture are different
irrigation in areas of low level relief, deep,
conservation methods for better
fertile soils, perennial source of water and
soil management.
extensive command area. The canals are of
two types:
1. Inundation Canals: In this, water
3.2 Irrigation is taken out directly from the rivers
Watering of agricultural plants through without making any kind of barrage
artificial means is called irrigation. Being or dam. Such canals are useful for the
a hot country with seasonal and irregular diversion of flood water from the rivers
rainfall, it always needs irrigation to carry and remain operational during rainy
out agricultural activities during dry season.
period. Beside erratic rainfall, prevalence 2. Perennial Canals: These are developed
of high temperature, cultivation of annual from perennial rivers by constructing
crops and hydrophytes, commercial barrage to regulate the flow of water.
farming and porous soil make irrigation In our country, most of the canals fall
an essential one for the agriculture of our under this category. These canals are
country. useful for irrigation.

In India the total area under canal areas are in Ganga Plains, the deltaic region
irrigation is about 15.8 million hectares of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery
in 2014. About 60 percent of the canal and parts of Narmada and Tapti valleys.
irrigated area falls in the northern plains 2. Tube Wells: Tube wells are developed in
of India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, the areas of low water table, sufficient
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Bihar. In power supply and soft subsurface
south and central India, Andhra Pradesh, geological units. Tube wells are
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, predominant in the states of Gujarat,
Chattisgarh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu are Maharashtra, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
the important states where canal irrigation and Tamil Nadu.
is found.
b) Well Irrigation c) Tank Irrigation

A well is a hole or trough, usually A tank is a natural or man-made hollow
vertical, excavated in the earth for bringing on the surface developed by constructing a
groundwater to the surface. Well irrigation is small bund around it across a stream. It is
the most important source of irrigation as it used to collect and store water for irrigation
contributes about 62 percent of net irrigated and other purposes. Irrigation by tanks is
area in India. It is a cheap, dependable, and a very old system in India. It also includes
popular source of irrigation in the country. irrigation from lakes and ponds.
Well irrigation is unavoidable in the region The tank irrigation is popular in the
of low rainfall and becomes an essential one peninsular India due to the following
where the canals and tank irrigation are not reasons:
available. Wells are of two types: i) Open wells • The undulating relief and hard rocks
and ii) Tube wells make difficult to dig canals and wells.
• Natural depressions serve as reservoirs.
As per the Irrigation –
• Absence of perennial rivers.
Statistical Year Book India –
2017, the following states are • Impermeable rock structure which do
the top five with respect to the not permit percolation.
percentage of areas under well • The scattered nature of population and
irrigation during 2013-14. agricultural fields
The following table shows the five
Sl. Name Area in
leading states in tank irrigation:
No. of the State %
1. Uttar Pradesh 26.6
Sl. Name of the Area in Lakh
2. Madhya Pradesh 14.6 No. State Hectares (2013-14)
3. Rajasthan 13.1
1. Tamil Nadu 3.78
4. Gujarat 7.8
2. Andhra Pradesh 3.40
5. Punjab 7.1
Source: Irrigation-Statistical Year Book Madhya
3. 2.64
of India – 2017 Pradesh
4. Telangana 2.30
5. Karnataka 1.54
1. Open Wells: This type of irrigation
is widely practiced in the areas where Source: Irrigation – Statistical Year Book
groundwater is sufficiently available. The India – 2017

Modern irrigation methods Center-pivot irrigation (sometimes called
central pivot irrigation), also called water-
There are many ways in Modern Irrigation
wheel and circle irrigation, is a method of crop
among them mostly practiced and following in
irrigation in which equipment rotates around a
India are using drips, sprinklers and poly houses
pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers
central pivot irrigation
Drip System is used to watering like drops at 3.2.2 Multipurpose River Valley
near the roots of plant. It will cover a tiny area at Projects
plant, but suitable for big trees and horticulture
It is a scientific
plants too which used to grow bigger
management of water
Rain Gun: Rain gun used to spread water resources in our country.
like rain as in name and used to serve for crops Construction of dam
which used to grow upto 4 feets or high also but across rivers is aimed at
we have to adjust sprinklers height as per crop many purposes. Hence,
size. typical usage of Rain guns are in sugarcane,
maize crops.
Pivot irrigation
Irrigation Hydropower
Name of projects River Benefit States
(sq km) (Megawatts)
Damodar Valley project Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal 5,150 .260
Bhakra-Nangal Project (highest Sutlej Punjab, Haryana and 52,609 1,500

gravity dam in the world) Rajasthan
Hirakud Project Mahanadi Orissa 1,41,600 347.5
(longest dam in the world)
Kosi Project Kosi Bihar & Nepal 8,750 19.2
‘(Sorrow of Bihar’.)
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Andhra Pradesh and 1,968 35.
Karnataka
Tehri Dam: Bhagirathi Uttarakhand 6000 1,000 MW
Chambal Valley Project Chambal Rajasthan and - -
Madhya Pradesh
Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Sardar Sarover Project Narmada Madhya Pradesh, 18,450 250
Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Indira Gandhi Canal Project Satlaj Rajasthan, Punjab and - -
Haryana
Mettur Dam Kaveri Tamil Nadu - 40


it is termed as multi-purpose river valley crops with the help of family members and
projects. The various purposes of a dam consumes almost the entire farm produce with
serves are irrigation, hydro power generation, little surplus to sell in the market. Preference
water supply for drinking and industrial is given to food crops. In addition to the
purpose, controlling floods, development of food crops, sugarcane, oilseeds, cotton, jute
fisheries, navigation etc. Generally, majority and tobacco are also cultivated. Traditional
of multipurpose projects are combination of farming method results in low productivity.
irrigation and hydro-power which are the In Punjab, some parts of Rajasthan, Uttar
major aims of the projects. Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh subsistence
farming is practiced.
3.3 Agriculture
b) Shifting Agriculture
Agriculture is the process of producing
This type of agriculture is performed by
food for people, fodder for cattle, fiber and
tribal people in a piece of forest land after
many other desired products by the cultivation
clearing the trees through felling and burning
of certain plants and the raising of domesticated
the trunks and branches. Once the land is
animals (livestock). Though India is industrially
cleared, crops are grown for two to three years
a fast developing nation, still the agriculture
and the land will get abandoned as the fertility
in India employs more than 50 percent of the
of the soil decreases. The farmers then move
population of the country and accounts for
to new areas and the process will be repeated.
about 25 percent of the national income.
They cultivate some grains and vegetable crops
3.3.1 Determinants of Agriculture using the manual labour. It is also called as
“Slash and burn” cultivation.
Agriculture in India is determined by a
set of factors. Some of the important factors: Different names of shifting agriculture in
1. Physical factors: relief, climate and soil. different regions in India
Name Place
2. Institutional factors: Size of farm
Jhum Assam
holdings, land tenure, and land reforms.
Poonam Kerela
3. Infrastructural factors: Irrigation,
Podu Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
power, transport, credit, market,
insurance and storage facilities. Beewar, Mashan, Various Parts of Madhya
Penda, Beera Pradesh
4. Technological factors: High yielding
varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers, c) Intensive Farming
insecticides and machinery.
Intensive farming is an agricultural
3.3.2 Types of Farming intensification and mechanization system
Owing to variations in the physical that aims to maximize yields from available
environment and culture, a variety of farming land through various means, such as heavy
practices and cultivation systems have evolved use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. This
in different parts of India. intensification and mechanization has also been
applied to the raising of livestock with billions
a) Subsistence Farming of animals, such as cows, pigs and chickens,
A considerable proportion of farmers being held indoors. They have become known
in the country practice subsistence farming. as factory farms. Intensive farming is practiced
In this, agricultural land holding is small. in Punjab, parts of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
As the farmers are poor, they can’t apply the and Madhya Pradesh in India.
modern inputs which cost more. They grow

d) Dry Farming
PER DROP MORE
This type of farming is practiced in arid CROP : (Improving water use
areas where irrigation facilities are lacking. efficiency) - Pradhan Mantri
Crops cultivated in these areas can withstand Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
dry conditions. The crops grown generally (PMKSY)
with the help of irrigation are also grown
The Government of India has been
under dry farming. In such circumstances,
implementing Centrally Sponsored
the yields are generally low. Most of the areas
Scheme on Micro Irrigation with the
under dry cultivation entertain only one crop
objective to enhance water use efficiency
per year. This is practiced in drier parts of
in the agriculture sector by promoting
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh etc.
appropriate technological interventions
e) Mixed Farming Agriculture like drip & sprinkler irrigation technologies
Mixed farming is defined as a system of and encourage the farmers to use water
farm which includes crop production, raising saving and conservation technologies.
livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to The following are the five leading
sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer states which account for 78% of the
as possible. total progress under Micro Irrigation
scheme: 1. Andhra Pradesh, 2. Karnataka,
3. Gujarat, 4. Maharashtra, and 5. Tamil
Nadu.
f) Terrace Cultivation

This type of cultivation is practiced
specially in hilly areas, where lands are of
sloping nature. The hill and mountain slopes
are cut to form terraces and the land is used
in the same way as in permanent agriculture.
Mixed Farming Agriculture Since the availability of flat land is limited,
terraces are made to provide small patches
of level land. Soil erosion is also checked
Cropping Seasons in India
Cropping Seasons Major crops cultivated
Northern States Southern States
Kharif Season Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Ragi, Maize,

June–September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, Groundnut
Rabi Season Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds, Rice, Maize, Ragi,

October–March Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar
Zaid Season Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables,

April–June Fodder Fodder

due to terrace formation on hill slopes. In ii) Ploughing or drilling, and iii) Transplanting.
our country, terrace cultivation takes place Due to increased use of High Yielding Variety
in the states of Punjab, Meghalaya, Haryana, (HYV) seeds (CR Dhan 205, AR Dhan 306,
Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and CRR 451 etc.), many of the indigenous varieties
Uttrakhand. were disappeared. In 2016, the first 10 leading
rice producing states are West Bengal (First
in India) Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
Assam, and Haryana.
Terrace Cultivation
3.4 Major Crops Cultivated

in India
The major crops of India are divided into
four major categories as follows:
1. Food crops (wheat, maize, rice, millets,
pulses etc.).
2. Cash crops (sugarcane, tobacco, cotton,
jute, oilseeds etc.).
3. Plantation crops (tea, coffee and
rubber).
4. Horticulture crops (fruits, flowers and
vegetables).
1. Food Crops

Due to its large population, Indian
agriculture is largely dominated by the
food crops. Food crops include cereals and
pulses, amongst which rice, wheat, jowar, Paddy Cultivation
bajra, maize, barley, ragi, gram and tur are
important. Wheat: Wheat is the second most
Rice: Rice is an indigenous crop. India is important food crop of the country, after rice.
the second largest producer of rice in the world It accounts for 22 percent of the total area
after China. It is mainly a tropical crop, growing and 34 percent of the total production of food
mainly with mean temperatures of 24°C and grains in the country. It requires 10-15°C
annual rainfall of 150 cm. Deep fertile clayey or at the time of sowing and 20-25°C at the time
loamy soils are suited well for rice cultivation. It of ripening of grains.
also needs abundant supply of cheap labour. Rice Over 85% of the India’s wheat production
in India is sown in three ways: i) Broadcasting, comes from 5 states namely Uttar Pradesh,

Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya in vegetable protein. They are used as human
Pradesh. Apart from these regions, the black food and feeding cattle. They fix atmospheric
soil tract of the Deccan covering parts of nitrogen in the soil and hence are usually
Maharashtra and Gujarat also contribute a rotated with other crops. India is the largest
major wheat production. producer of pulses. The major pulse growing
areas are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
N
WHEAT PRODUCTION
W E
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
IN INDIA
S
2. Cash Crops

The crops which are cultivated for
commercial purpose are called cash crops.
These crops include sugarcane, tobacco, fibre
crops (cotton, jute, and mesta) and oilseeds.
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is the most
important cash crop of India and is the second
Bay of Bengal
Arabian largest producer in the world. This crop
Sea
provides raw material for the sugar industry
WHEAT
which is the second largest industrial category
of our country. Besides providing sugar, gur
Not to Scale
and khandsari, it supplies molasses for alcohol
Indian Ocean industry and bagasse for paper industry.
India is ranked third in sugar production in
Jowar: Jowar is the third important food
the world after Cuba and Brazil. At the state
crop of our country. It is an indigenous plant
level, Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer
of Africa. The plant has a tendency to grow
of sugarcane followed by Maharashtra,
in adverse climatic conditions. Its grains are
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
rich in carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and
vitamins. Hence, it provides cheap food to the N
large section of the poor population. It is also INDIA W E
MAJOR CASH CROPS S
used as fodder in many parts of the country.

Jowar is essentially a crop of the Peninsular
India. Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya
Pradesh are the leading producers of Jowar.
Bajra: Bajra is an indigenous plant of
Africa. This forms the staple food for poor
people. Its stalks are used as fodder for cattle
and for thatching purposes. Bajra is a crop of
dry region. Rajasthan is the largest producer
of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Gujarat and Maharashtra. LEGEND
Barley: Barley is one of the important SUGARCANE
COTTON
cereals of our country. Besides, being poor JUTE
man’s diet, it is used for making barley water, OILS AND SEEDS
TEA
beer and whiskey. Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh COFFEE
are the two leading producers of Barley. Not to Scale

RUBBER
SPICES
Pulses: Pulses include a large number of

crops which are mostly leguminous and rich India - Cash crops

Cotton: Cotton is the most important cash varieties have been developed by mixing these
crop of India. It provides raw material to the two. India is the second largest producer of tea
largest industry of India. India ranks second after China in the world. Assam is the larger
next to China in the production of cotton. producer of tea in India. Other states are Tamil
About 79% of the total area and production Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal.
in the country were contributed by four states Coffee: Coffee is grown in shade and it
viz., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh grows effectively in the altitudes between 1,000
and Punjab. and 1,500 m above mean sea level. There are
Jute: It is a tropical fibre crops, grows well two main varieties of coffee. They are i) Arabica
in the alluvial soil. It provides raw material for (High quality-cultivated more in India) and ii)
Jute industry. It is used for manufacturing of Robusta (Inferior quality).
gunny bags, carpets, hessian, ropes and strings, India is the 7th largest producer of coffee
rugs, clothes, tarpaulins, upholstery etc. West globally. Karnataka is the leading producer of
Bengal is the leading state both in cultivation coffee in India. It produces 71% in India, and
and production of jute. The other cultivators of 2.5 % in the world (source; coffee board of
jute are Bihar, Assam and Meghalaya. India-2018).
Oil Seeds: Oil seeds, the premier source of Rubber: Rubber plantation were first
fat in the Indian diet are derived from number established in Kerala in 1902. It needs hot and
of crops like groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, wet climatic conditions (temperature above
sesame, linseed, sunflower, castor seed, cotton 20°C and rainfall above 300cm). Most of
seed, niger seed etc. These provide oil and the land under rubber belongs to small land
oilcake which are used for making lubricants, holders. The major rubber growing areas are
varnish, medicine, perfume, candles, soaps, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andaman
manure and cattle feed. Gujarat is India’s and Nicobar Islands.
largest oilseeds producing state. Other major Spices: India has been world famous for its
producer of oilseeds are followed by Rajasthan spices since ancient times. These spices mostly
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra used for flavouring or tampering cooked food
Pradesh. In groundnut production, India is and for preparing medicines, dyes etc. Pepper,
the second largest producer in the world after chillies, turmeric, ginger, cardamom, clove
China. and areca nut are the major spices cultivated in
India. Kerala is the leading producer of spices
3. Plantation Crops
in India.
Plantation crops are cultivated for the
purpose of exports. These are cultivated in 4. Horticulture Crops
large estates on hilly slopes. Cultivation near It refers to the cultivation of fruits, flowers
the coast is preferable as it facilitates exports. and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are
Tea, coffee, rubber and spices are the major important supplement to the human diet, as
plantation crops of India. they provide essential minerals, vitamins, and
Tea: Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly fibres required for maintaining health. India
grows in tropical and subtropical climates. Tea is in the second position in the production of
is a labour intensive and grows faster under fruits and vegetables. Apple is mostly produced
light shade. Tea plants require high rainfall in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir
but its root cannot tolerate water logging. Two and Uttarakhand. Production of banana is
major varieties of tea are cultivated in India. concentrated in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
They are i) Bohea originated from China and Orange is cultivated in Maharashtra,
ii) Assamica from India. A number of hybrid Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and

Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Grape is 3.5.1 Cattle
cultivated mainly in Uttarakhand, Himachal
Cattle constitute 37.3 percent of livestock
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra,
population in India. India has second largest
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
cattle population after Brazil at World level.
India contributes about 13% of the world’s
Among the states, Madhya Pradesh leads with
production of vegetables.
10.3 percent followed by Uttar Pradesh (10.2
percent) and West Bengal (8.7 percent). Cattle
3.5 Livestock population in India belongs to different breeds.
Livestock is an integral component of the These include: 1) Milch Breed, 2) Draught
farming system in India. The livestock sector breed, and 3) Mixed or General breed.
is socially and economically very significant
due to its multi-functional outputs and The following table shows the Livestock
contribution to socio-cultural security. It also population of India in 2012
helps to improve food and nutritional security
Sl. Name of the Population in
by providing nutrient-rich food products,
No. Livestock Lakhs (2012)
generate income and employment and act
as a cushion against crop failure, provide 1. Cattle 1.91
draught power and manure inputs to the crop 2. Goats 1.35
subsector.
3. Buffaloes 1.09
Livestock sector contributes
4. Sheep 0.65
approximately 4 percent of national GDP
(Gross Domestic Product) and 25.6 percent 5. Pigs 0.10
to agriculture GDP. As per 19th Livestock Source: 19th Livestock Census, Department
Census, conducted in 2012 (Government of of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries
India, 2014), India’s livestock sector is one of
the largest in the world with 11.6 percent of 3.5.2 Goats
world livestock population, which consists The goat is the poor man’s cow providing
of cattle (37.3 percent), goats (26.4 percent), milk, meat, skin and hair. It is the main source
buffaloes (21.2 percent), sheep (12.7 percent) of meat for the country. While looking at the
and pigs (2.0 percent) etc. current status of goat population among Indian
states, Rajasthan records first with 16 percent
Distribution of Livestock in India in 2012
followed by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Sl. Name of the Total No. of
3.5.3 Buffaloes
No. State Livestock
in Lakhs (2012) Buffaloes are an important source of milk
supply for India. Uttar Pradesh has the highest
1. Uttar Pradesh 687.2 number of buffaloes (28.2%) followed by
Rajasthan (9.6%) and Andhra Pradesh (7.9%).
2. Rajasthan 577.3
3. Andhra Pradesh 561.0 Livestock Census: First
4. Madhya Pradesh 363.3 Livestock Census in India
was conducted with the title
5. Bihar 329.4 of Dairy Cattle Census in
Source: 19th Livestock Census, Department 1919. Following this, the 19th
of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries Livestock census was conducted in October
2012 and it takes place at every five years.

While looking at the meat, the total
How is livestock census production is 7.4 million tonnes. Uttar Pradesh
conducted in Tamil Nadu? is the leading producer with 1.3 million tonnes
State Government is (18.2 percent), where Maharashtra and West
conducting Livestock Census Bengal are estimated with 0.8 million tonnes
with the help of Department of Animal (11.4 percent) and 0.7 million tonnes (9.6
Husbandry at state level and Regional percent) respectively in the total country’s
Joint Director at Distric level under the production.
guidelines of Government of India Ministry The total wool production of our nation
of Agriculture and farmers welfare, is 43.5 million kilograms. The leading state
Department of Animal Husbandary in the wool production is Rajasthan with
Dairying and Fisheries. 14.3 million kilograms (32.9 percent) followed
The Livestock Census in the country by Jammu and Kashmir with 7.3 million
started in the year 1919 – 1920. Since then it kilograms (16.7 percent) and Karnataka
has been conducted once in every 5 years. So with 6.6 million kilograms (15.1 percent) in
far 19 livestock census has been conducted country’s total wool production.
and the last census was held in the year
2012. The 20 th Live stock Census – 2017
was scheduled to be conducted from 16 th 3.6 Fisheries
July and will end on 15 th October 2017. Fisheries in India are a very important
Source: Government of India – economic activity and a flourishing sector
Instruction manual 201th Livestock Census. with varied resources and potentials. Fishing
in India is a major industry in its coastal
states, employing over 14 million people.
It produces about 3 percent of World’s fish
and occupies second place among the fish
producing nations of the world after China.
It also helps in augmenting food supply,
generating employment, raising nutritional
level and earning valuable foreign exchange.
The length of Indian coastline is 7,517 km
including the coastline of the islands, however
the mainland’s length is 6,100 km. In India,
Livestock fishing is categorised into two types: they are
3.5.4 Dairy, Meat and Wool

Production
According to State / UT Animal
Husbandry Department, during 2016-17,
the total production of milk in our nation is
163.7 million tonnes. At this time, the leading
producer was Uttar Pradesh with 27.6 million
tonnes (16.8 percent) followed by Rajasthan
with 19.4 million tonnes (11.8 percent) and Fisheries
Madhya Pradesh with 13.4 million tonnes (8.2
percent) in total milk production.

1. Marine or Sea Fisheries: It includes coastal, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Kerala,
off-shore and deep sea fisheries mainly on and Tamil Nadu.
the continental shelf upto a depth of 200 m.
Among the coastal states, Kerala leads in the
marine fish production in India. 3.7 Major issues faced by
2. Inland or Fresh Water Fisheries: Rivers, farmers in india
lakes, canals, reservoirs, ponds, tanks etc. Indian agriculture and Indian farmers are
are the sources of fresh water and provide plagued by several problems; some of them are
fresh water fisheries. About 50 percent of the natural and some others are manmade.
country’s total fish production comes from
• Small and fragmented land-holdings: The
the inland fisheries and Andhra Pradesh is
problem of small and fragmented holdings
the leading producer in India.
is more serious in densely populated and
In India, the important varieties of fishes intensively cultivated states in India. About
caught by the fisherman are Cat fish, Herrings, 67 percent of operational land holdings in
Mackerels, Perches, Eels, Mullets etc. In India are marginal holdings (< 1 hectare).
2014-15, the total inland or fresh water fish
• High Costs of Inputs: Seed is a critical
production was 65.77 lakh tonnes and the total
and basic input for attaining higher crop
marine fish production was 34.91 lakh tonnes.
yields and sustained growth in agricultural
In India, the top five fish producing states are
production. Unfortunately, good quality
Major Issues of Farmers


seeds are out of reach for many small and shape. Due to the absence of sound marketing
marginal farmers due to their high price. facility, the farmers have to depend on local
• Infertile Soil: Indian soils have been used traders and middlemen for the disposal
for growing crops over thousands of years of their farm products which is sold at low
without caring much for replenishing. This price. Besides, there is a fluctuation in the
has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils prices of agriculture products.
resulting low productivity. • Inadequate storage facilities: Storage
• Lack of Irrigation: Only one-third of the facilities in the rural areas are either totally
cropped area falls under irrigated area. To absent or grossly inadequate. Under such
make agriculture reliable, irrigation facility conditions the farmers are compelled to sell
has to be developed. their products immediately after the harvest
irrespective of the condition of market.
• Lack of mechanization: In spite of the
large scale mechanization of agriculture • Inadequate transport: One of the main
in some parts of the country, most of the handicaps with Indian agriculture is
agricultural operations in larger parts are the lack of cheap and efficient means of
carried on by human hand using simple transportation. Even at present there are
and conventional tools. lakhs of villages which are not well connected
• Soil erosion: Large tracts of fertile land with main roads or with market centres.
suffer from soil erosion by wind and water. • Scarcity of capital: Agriculture is an
Such kind of areas must be properly treated important industry which requires a
and restored to its original fertility. huge capital. The role of capital plays a
• Agricultural marketing: In rural India, major role in the purchase of advanced
agricultural marketing continues in a bad farm machineries and equipments.
List of important Agricultural Revolutions in India
Revolution Related Product

Yellow Revolution Oil seed Production (Especially Mustard and Sunflower)
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather / Cocoa / Non-Conventional Products
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Fruits / Honey Production / Horticulture Development
Grey Revolution Fertilizers
Pink Revolution Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn Production
Evergreen Revolution Overall Production of Agriculture
Silver Revolution Egg Production / Poultry Production
Silver Fibre Revolution Cotton
Red Revolution Meat Production / Tomato Production
Round Revolution Potato
Green Revolution Food Grains
White Revolution Milk Production

Recap
• Soil is the finest particle found on the earth surface.
• Alluvial soil, black soil, red soil and laterite soil are the major types of soil in India.
• The main sources of irrigation found in India are canal irrigation, well irrigation and tank
irrigation etc.
• Damodar valley projects, Bhakra-Nangal project and Hirakud project are the important
Multipurpose projects of India.
• Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid are the three cropping seasons of India.
• The agricultural crops of India can be divided into food crops, cash crops, plantation
crops and horticultural crops.
• Fishing in India is categorized into marine fishing and inland fishing
GLOSSARY
Soil is the uppermost layer of the land surface composed of minerals,
Soil
organic matter, living organisms and water
Khadar Newer alluvium soil found in valley flooded almost every year
Bhangar Older alluvium soil found in30 mts above flood level
Soil erosion Removal of top soil
Soil conservation Prevention of soil from erosion and protecting its fertility.
Irrigation Watering of plants through artificial means.
Multipurpose projects Construction of dams across rivers aimed at many purposes
It is the process of producing food, feed, fibre and many other
Agriculture desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising
of domesticated plants
EXERCISE c) Soil Survey of India

d) Indian Institute of Soil Science
3. The soils formed by the rivers are:
I. Choose the
a) Red soils b) Black soils
correct answer
c) Desert soils d) Alluvial soils
1. The soil which is
rich in iron oxides is 4. _________ dam is the highest gravity in
__________. India.
a) Alluvial b) Black a) Hirakud dam
c) Red d) Alkaline b) Bhakra Nangal dam
2. Which of the following organization c) Mettur dam
has divided the Indian soils into 8 major d) Nagarjuna Sagar dam
groups?
5. __________ is a cash crop.
a) Indian Council of Agricultural Research
a) Cotton b) Wheat
b) Indian Meteorological Department
c) Rice d) Maize

6. Black soils are also called as: (b) Both (A) and (R)are true and (R) does
a) Arid soils b) Saline soils not explain (A)
c) Regur soils d) Mountain soils (c) (A) is correct (R) is false
(d) (A) is false (R) is true
7. The longest dam in the world is ___________.
a) Mettur dam b) Kosi dam III. Pick the odd one out
c) Hirakud dam d) Bhakra-Nangal dam 1. a) Wheat b) Rice
8. The leading producer of rice in India is c) Millets d) Coffee
________. 2. a) Khadar b) Bhangar
a) Punjab b) Maharashtra c) Alluvial soil d) Black soil
3. a) Inundational canals
c) Uttar Pradesh d) West Bengal
b) Perennial canals
9. Which crop is called as “Golden Fibre” in c) Tanks
India?
d) Canals
a) Cotton b) Wheat
c) Jute d) Tobacco IV. Match the following
10. The state which leads in the production of 1. Sugar bowl a) Mahanadi
coffee is of India
a) West Bengal b) Karnataka 2. Coffee b) Golden revolution
c) Odisha d) Punjab 3. Tehri c) Karnataka
4. Hirakud d) Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
II. Consider the given 5. Horticulture e) Highest dam in the India
statements and choose the
right option given below V. Answer in brief
1. Assertion (A): Horticulture involves 1. Define soil.
cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. 2. Name the types of soil found in India.
Reason (R): India ranks first in the world 3. State any two characteristics of black cotton
in the production of mango, banana, and soil.
citrus fruits. 4. What is Multipurpose project?
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) 5. Define Agriculture.
explains (A) 6. State the types of agriculture practices in
(b) Both (A) and (R)are true: (R) does not India?
explain (A) 7. Name the seasons of agriculture in India?
(c) (A) is correct (R) is false 8. Mention the plantation crops of India.
9. What do you mean by livestock?
(d) (A) is false (R) is true
10. Write a brief note on the categories of
2. Assertion (A): Alluvial soil is formed by the
fisheries in India?
deposition of eroded and decayed materials
brought by the rivers. VI. Give reasons
Reason (R): Paddy and wheat are grown
1. Agriculture is the backbone of India.
well in the soil.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) 2. Rain water harvesting is necessary.
explains (A) 3. Small farms are predominant in India.

VII Distinguish between the
ACTIVITY - 2
following
Complete the following table by
1. Rabi and Kharif crop seasons. your day to day life experience.
2. Inundational canal and perennial canal.
Sl. Food Sources
3. Marine fishing and Inland fishing. No.
4. Alluvial soils and Black soils.
1. Main Rice / Wheat / Millets /
Food
VIII. Answer in a paragraph
1. State the types of soil in India and 2. Milk Cow / Buffalo / Goat /
explain the characteristics and distribution
of soil. 3.
2. Write about any two Multipurpose projects 4.
of India.
5.
3. Bring out the characteristics of Intensive
and Plantation farming.
4. Examine the geographical conditions
favourable for the cultivation of rice and REFERENCE BOOKS
wheat. 1. Singh, G. (1976). A Geography of India.
Atma Ram & Sons Publications, New Delhi.
IX. Hot questions 2. Siddhartha, K. and Mukherjee, S. (2013).
1. Can you imagine a world without Geography through Maps (11th Edition).
agriculture? Kisalaya Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Husain, M. (2015). Geography of India
2. Can you give solutions for the prevailing
(6th Edition). McGraw Hill Education,
water disputes in South India (construction
New Delhi.
of dams / raising of dams / cleaning of
4. Sharma, T.C. and Coutinho, O. (1978).
tanks)?
Economic and Commercial Geography
India (2nd Edition). Vikas Publishing
X. Map exercise
House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
1. Demarcate the major tracts of alluvial 5. Mamoria, C.B. (1980). Economic and
soils. Commercial Geography of India. Shiva
2. Delineate the main regions of black soil. Lal Agarwala & Company, Agra.
3. Locate the Hirakud dam, Mettur dam and
Damodar dam. INTERNET RESOURCES
4. Shade the regions of jute cultivation.. 1. https://extension.psu.edu/introduction-
5. Mark any three tea and coffee growing to-soils-managing-soils
areas. 2. http://mospi.nic.in/statistical-year-book-
india/2017/181
6. Demarcate the regions of desert soil.
3. ht t p : / / w w w. i n d i a - w r i s . n r s c . g ov. i n /
7. Locate the fishing hubs: Tuticorin, Chennai, wrpinfo/index.php?title=Multi_Purpose_
Cochin, Mumbai, Machilipatnam Projects
8. Demarcate: Cauvery delta, Godavari delta 4. http://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/
Volume%20I.pdf

Unit - 4
Resources and
Industries
Learning Objectives
To learn about the resource and its types.

To understand the concept of renewable and non- renewable resources.
To identify the different types and distribution of industries in India.
To analyse the problems of Indian industries.
Introduction eral from the earth is known as mining. The mines

near the earth crust are known as open pit mines
Any matter or energy derived from the
while the deep mines are known as shaft mines.
environment that is used by living things
including humans is called a natural resource. 4.1.1 Types of Minerals
Natural resources include air, water, soil, On the basis of chemical and physical
minerals, fossil fuels, plants, wild life etc. Many properties, minerals are broadly grouped
natural resources are used as raw materials. They under two categories. They are metallic and
play a vital role in the economic development of non-metallic minerals.
any region. Natural resources are classified on
several basis. Based on continued availability, The organisations associated
the resources are categorised into two types. with minerals in India are the
Renewable Resources are those which have Geological Survey of India
natural regeneration after their utilisation. (Headquarter is at Kolkata),
Solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal Indian Bureau of Mines (Headquarter
energy, wave energy etc. are the renewable at Nagpur) and Non-Ferrous Material
resources. Non- Renewable resources are the Technology Development Centre (NFTDC),
sources that cannot be replaced again after located at Hyderabad. The Ministry of Mines
utilisation. Coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. fall is responsible for the administration of all
under this category. mines and minerals (Development and
Regulation Act, 1957).
4.1 Minerals
Mineral is a natural substance of organ- a) Metallic Minerals
ic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and
Metallic minerals are the minerals which
physical properties. The process of extracting min- contain one or more metallic elements in them.
Resources and Industries 132

N composition of many rocks and minerals
W E especially from igneous and metamorphic
S rocks. The total recoverable reserves of
MINERALS OF INDIA iron ore in India are about 9602 million
tons of haematite and 3408 million tons of
magnetite. About 79% haematite deposits
are found in Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
About 93% magnetite deposits occur
in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone
LEGEND contributes about 72% of magnetite
IRON
deposits of India.
MANGANESE
COPPER Jharkhand is the leading producer of iron
BAUXITE ore with 25% the country’s production.
LIMESTONE Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad and
GYPSUM
MICA
Ranchi districts are its major producers.
GOLD
Odisha with 21% production ranks second.
Not to Scale
Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur and
Keonjhar districts are its major producers.
The magnetite production of Chhattisgarh is
Metallic minerals occur in rare, naturally 18% (Rajgarh and Bilaspur are its leadings
formed concentrations known as mineral districts) and the Karnataka is 20%
deposits. These deposits consist of a variety (Chikmangalur, Chitradurga, Shimoga and
of valuable metals such as iron, manganese, Dharwad districts are its major producers).
copper, bauxite, nickel, zinc, lead, gold etc. Andhrapradesh and Karnataka produce about
5% each. Kurnool, Guntur, Cuddapah and
i) Iron ore Anantapur districts in Andhra Pradesh and
Salem, Namakkal, Tiruvannamalai,
Iron ore is the most widely distributed
Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Madurai and
elements of the earth crust, rarely
Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu are notable
occurs in a free state. It enters into the
for the production of iron ore.
SAIL (Steel Authority of India
Iron ores are rocks and minerals Limited): The Ministry of
from which metallic iron can
Steel is responsible for
be economically extracted. The
planning and development of
ores are usually rich in iron
oxides and vary in colour from dark grey, iron and steel industry in India.
bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The
iron is usually found in following form. ii) Manganese
Manganese is a silvery grey element. It
Form of Iron ores Iron Content (%)
is very hard and brittle in nature. It is always
Magnetite 72.4% available in combination with iron, laterite
Hematite 69.9% and other minerals. It is an important mineral
Goethite 62.9% used for making iron and steel and serves
Limonite 55% as basic raw material for alloying. It is the
Siderite 48.2% most important mineral for making iron and
steel. Nearly 10 kg manganese is required for
133 Resources and Industries

manufacturing one ton of steel. It is also used Largest reserves of copper ore is in the
in the manufacturing of bleaching powder, state of Rajasthan (53.81%) followed by
insecticides, paints and batteries. Jharkhand (19.54%) and Madhya Pradesh
(18.75%). Th e states of Andhra Pradesh,
MOIL- Manganese Ore Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
India Limited state-owned Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil
manganese-ore mining Nadu, Telangana, Uttarakhand and West
company headquartered Bengal account for 7.9% of the total copper
in Nagpur. With a market reserves of India.
share of 50%, it was the largest producer of
manganese ore in India. Hindustan Copper Ltd
is a Government-owned-
corporation in the central
Manganese deposits occur mainly public Enterprise under the
as metamorphosed bedded sedimentary Ministry of minies, India.
deposits. Th e largest deposits of manganese is HCL is the only vertically integrated
found in Odisha(44%) followed by Karnataka copper producer in India engaged in a
(22%), Madhya Pradesh (12%), Maharashtra wide spectrum of activities ranging from
& Goa(7% each), Andhra Pradesh (4%) and Mining, Beneficiation, Smelting, Refining
Jharkhand (2%). Rajasthan, Gujarat, Telengana and Continuous Cast Rod manufacturer.
and West Bengal together constitute about 2%
of the India’s manganese resource. Nagpur, Jharkand is the largest producer of
Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts in Maharastra copper with 62% of India’s production.
and Balaghat and Chhindwara districts in Singhbhum and Hazaribagh districts are
Madhya Pradesh are the leading producers. its leading producers of copper. Odisha
Odisha is the third largest producer with 24% is the other major producer with 50.2%
(Sundargarh,Kalahandi, Koraput and Bolangir production. Rajasthan ranks third with 28%
districts are the major ones). Other producers production. Th e districts of Khetri, Alwar
are Andhra Pradesh (13%) and Karnataka and Bhilwara are notables in this state.
(6%). Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, Cuddapah Th e states of Uttarakhand(Dehradun and
and Guntur districts in Andhra Pradesh and Garhwal districts),Andhra Pradesh (Guntur,
the districts of Shimoga, Bellary, Chitradurga Kurnool and Nellore districts), Karnataka
and Tumkur are the important districts of (Chitradurga and Hassan districts) and Tamil
Karnataka. It is the most important mineral for Nadu contributes about 7% of production
making iron and steel. India is the fift h largest each.
producer of manganese in the world.
iv) Bauxite
iii) Copper
Bauxite is an important ore from which
Copper is the first metal that prehistoric aluminium is extracted. It is found in the rock
man has started using for many purposes. consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium
Being flexible, it can be made into utensils oxides. Bauxite is widely distributed as
of any shape. Brass and Bronze are obtained surface deposits in the areas of laterite soil.
when the copper alloys with zinc and tin
respectively. Copper has been commonly
Bauxite is an oxide of
used for making cooking utensils and other
aluminium; the name has been
objects of common utility. In modern days, it
derived after the French word
is extensively used in vast variety of electrical
Le Baux.
machinery, wires and cables

Being light in weight and tough, aluminium has low power loss factor. Since it is a non
is used in the manufacture of aircraft s and conductor of electricity, it is exclusively used
automobile engines. Bauxite is also used in in electrical goods. It is also used in making of
the manufacture of cement and chemicals. lubricants, medicines, paints and varnishes.
The main bauxite deposits occur in The major deposits of mica are found
Odisha – 50.2%, Gujarat – 15.8% (Junagadh, in Andhra Pradesh(41%) with Nellore,
Amreli and Bhavnagar districts), Jharkhand Visakhapatnam, West Godavari and Krishna
– 11.9% (Ranchi and Gumila districts), are its major districts. Other important states
Maharashtra – 9.9% (Sindhu durg and in mica deposits are Rajasthan(21%) and
Ratnagiri), Chhattisgarh – 6.2% (Ballarpur Odisha(20%). Bhilwara, Jaipur and Ajmer
and Durg districts), and Tamil nadu – 2.7%. are the notable districts in Rajasthan and,
Being light in weight and tough, aluminium Rayagada, Bolangir and Sundargarh districts
is used in the manufacture of aircraft s and are the major producers in Odisha. Dhanbad,
automobile engines. Bauxite is also used in the Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbum districts are
manufacture of cement and chemicals. Orissa the major mica mines in Jharkhand state.
is the largest producer of bauxite in India with
approx. 1,370.5 million tonnes. India’s State ii) Lime Stone
and Central Government is very supportive Limestone is associated with rocks
in production of Bauxite and other Industrial composed of either calcium carbonate
Minerals in Orissa, Jharkand, Tamil Nadu. or the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium or mixture of both. Limestone
National Aluminium Company Limited, also contains small quantities of silica,
abbreviated as NALCO, (incorporated alumina, iron oxides, phosphorous and
1981) has units in Odisha at places like sulphur. Limestone is used in the industries of
Angul and Damanjodi. It was incorporated chemicals for soda ash, caustic soda, bleaching
as a public sector enterprise of the Ministry powder, paper, cement, iron and steel, glass
of Mines, Government of India in 1981. and fertilizers. The major producing areas:
Andhra Pradesh produces about 20% with
major concentration in Cuddapah, Kurnool
and Guntur districts. Telengana also
accounts for about 20% of the country’s
b) Non-Metallic Minerals production with the districts of Nalgonda,
Adilabad, Warangal and Karimnagar as
These minerals do not contain metal
major producers. Rajasthan produces about
in them. Mica, limestone, gypsum, nitrate,
18% (Jodhpur, Ajmer, Bikhaner and Kota
potash, dolomite, coal, petroleum etc are the
districts), Madhya Pradesh about 12%
non- metallic minerals.
(Jabalpur and Satna districts) and Tamilnadu
about 8.4% (Salem, Kancheepuram,
i) Mica Tiruchirappalli, Thoothukkudi, Tirunelveli
In ancient time, Mica was used in and Virudhunagar districts) of limestone
ayurvedic medicine. Mica became very production of India. In terms of the reserves
popular with the development of electrical of limestone, the state of Karnataka leads
industry. Abhrak is a good quality mica. It is with 27%, followed by Andhra Pradesh
translucent, easily splitable into thin sheets, and Rajasthan (12% each), Gujarat
flat, colourless, elastic and incompressible. (10%), Meghalaya (9%), Telangana (8%),
Mica is used in making of insulating Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (5%
properties, as it withstands high voltage and each) and the remaining by other states.

iii) Gypsum Coal is available in the form of
Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium sedimentary rocks. It is used in the generation
which occurs as white, opaque or transparent of thermal power. It has close association with
minerals in beds of sedimentary rocks such the industrial development of any country.
as limestone, sandstone and shale. Gypsum Since it is a valuable one, it is called as “Black
is used in the manufacture of cement, Gold”. Based on carbon content, it is classified
fertilizers, wall board, plaster of paris and in to the following types.
in soil conditioning. The state of Rajasthan Anthracite: contains 80 to 90% carbon
alone accounts for 81% of its reserves. 14% of Bituminous: contains 60 to 80% carbon
its reserves is found in Jammu and Kashmir
Lignite: contains 40 to 60% carbon
and 2% in Tamil nadu. The remaining 3%
resources are found in the states of Gujarat, Peat: contains less than 40% carbon
Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Coal is an important source of energy in
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. India with its varied and innumerable uses. It
Rajasthan produces 82% of the country’s can be converted into gas, oil, electricity and
production. Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer thermal power. Besides, it forms a basic raw
are notable districts. Jammu and Kashmir material for the production of chemicals, dyes,
produces 14% of country’s gypsum. Baramula, fertilizers, paints, synthetic and explosives.
Doda and Uri districts are its major producers. Indian coal is mostly associated with
The states of Gujarat (Bhavnagar and Gondwana series of rocks and is primarily
Jamnagar districts), Uttarkhand (Dehradun found in Peninsular India. The states of
and Mussourrie districts), Andra pradesh Jharkhand, odisha, West Bengal and Madhya
(Nellore, Guntur and Prakasam districts) Pradesh alone account for nearly 90% of coal
and Tamil nadu are the other producers with reserves of the country. About 2% of India’s
about 4% each. coal is of tertiary type and is found mostly in
Assam and Jammu & Kashmir.
4.2 Energy Resources
Jharkhand is the largest coal producing state
The resources from in the country followed by odisha, Chhattisgarh,
which the electricity West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
generated are called energy and Maharashtra. The major coal fields of
resources. Electricity is Jharkhand are Bokaro, North Karanpura, South
an important component Karanpura, Giridih, Ramgarh, Daltongunj and
of our life. No day to day Rajmahal. Talcher and Ranapur in Odisha,
activity takes without the Korba and Chirmiri in Chhattisgarh, Umaria
use of this energy. It is also the key factor and Singrauli in Madhya pradesh, Tandur,
for all economic activities and industrial Singareni, Kothagudem and Ramagundam in
development. Energy resources can be
classified into renewable and non-renewable.
Coal India Limited (CIL) is
Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear
an Indian state-controlled
minerals are the sources of non renewable
coal mining company
energy. Water, sun light, wind, bio gas, tides
headquartered in Kolkata,
etc., are the sources of renewable energy.
West Bengal, its field offices
4.2.1 Non-Renewable Energy are located at Dhanbad,
Ranchi, Bilaspur, Nagpur, Sambalpur,
a) Coal
Kothagudam and Asansol. It is the largest
Coal is an inflammable organic substance coal-producing company in the world.
composed mainly of hydrocarbons.

Andhra Pradesh, Wardha, Ballarpur, Chanda Crude oil and Natural Gas Production in
and Kampati in Maharastra and, Raniganj, percentage
Asansol and Mejia in West Bengal are the other 50
major coal fields of India.
47.56
Indian lignite (brown coal) deposits occur
in the southern and western parts of Peninsular 40
40.68
India particularly in Tamil nadu, Pudhucherry
37.86
38.09
37.79
Producon of Crude Oil and Natural Gas (in Percentage)
37.46
36.94
35.68
and Kerala.
36.01
35.41
33.66
32.65
The Ministry of coal has over all
31.90
32.25
30
responsibility of determining policies and
strategies in respect of exploration and
development of coal resource in India. Coal India
20
Limited (CIL), NLC India Limited (NLCIL) and
Singareni Collieries Company limited (SCCL)
are its public sector under takings.
10
b) Petroleum (or) Crude oil

The word petroleum has been derived
from two Latin words petro (meaning 0
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
– Rock) and oleum (meaning oil). Thus Years
petroleum is oil obtained from rocks of the CRUDE OIL (Metric Million Tons)
earth. Therefore, it is also called mineral oil. NATURAL GAS (Billion Cubic Metres)
Petroleum is an inflammable liquid that is Source: India Petroleum and Natural Gas Stascs - 2017-2018.
composed of hydrocarbons which constitute As of 2017, the total estimated crude

90-95% of petroleum and the remaining oil reserves of the country is 604.10 million
is chiefly organic compounds containing tons. From this, 324.24 million tons (54%) are
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organ found in onshore and 279.86 million tonnes
metallic compounds. (46%) are in offshore areas.
Petroleum is used as a source of power The production of crude oil fluctuates
and fuel for automobiles, aeroplanes, ships from year to year from 2011-12 to 2017-18
and locomotives. Lubricants, kerosene, but only with marginal variations. The
vaseline, tar, soap, terylene and wax are its by change is invariably in negative. In natural gas
products. Oil in India is obtained from both production also the trend is negative except
from on-shore and off-shore areas. the last year. The change is high in the first
three years and it is low to moderate in the
remaining years.
The Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas (MOP&NG) is a
ministry of the Government
of India. It is responsible for
the exploration, production,
re f i n i ng , dist r ibut ion ,
marketing, import, export, and
conservation of petroleum, natural gas,
petroleum products, and liquefied natural
gas in India.
India - Oil refinery

Western coast offshore oil fields Eastern coast offshore Fields
1. Mumbai high oil fields (largest 65%) Bharmaputra valley (Dibrugarh and Sibsagar
districts of upper Assam.)
2. Gujarat coast (2nd largest) Digboi oil feilds (oldest fields in country)
3. Basseim oil feild, south of Mumbai high Nahoratiya oil fields (south west of digboi)
4. Aliabet oil feild, south of Bhavanagar Moran-Hugrijan oil field (Southwest of
Nahoratiya)
5. Ankleshwar Rudrasagar-Lawa oil feilds (sibsagar districs
of assam)
6. Cambay-Luni Region Surrma valley (Badarpur, Masimpur,
Patharia)
7. Ahemedabad-Kalol Region offshore of Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of
mannar, Baleshwar coast, Punjab, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh.
c) Natural Gas in the manufacture of plastics and other

Natural gas usually accompanies the commercially important organic chemicals.
petroleum accumulations. It is naturally India has a very large proportion
occurring hydro carbon gas mixture consisting of tertiary rock and alluvial deposits
primarily of methane, but commonly includes
varying amounts of other higher alkanes
and sometimes a small percentage of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphides. It
is formed when layers of decomposed plants
and animals are exposed to intense heat and
pressure over thousands of years. It is used
as a source of energy for heating, cooking
and electricity generation. It is also used as
fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock
Gail (India) Limited

(GAIL) (formerly known
as Gas Authority of
India Limited) is the
largest state-owned
natural gas processing and distribution
company in India. It is headquartered in
New Delhi. It has the following business
segments: natural gas, liquid hydrocarbon,
liquefied petroleum gas transmission,
petrochemical, city gas distribution,
exploration and production, GAILTEL
and electricity generation.

particularly in the extra peninsular India. gas. National Thermal Power Corporation
These sedimentary rocks, which were once [NTPC] was established in 1975. At present
under the shallow seas, hold the possibility of NTPC has 13 coal based super thermal power
harbouring oil and gas deposits. The highest projects and 7 gas / liquid fuel based combined
concentration of natural gas is found in the cycle projects in the states of Assam, Bihar,
Bombay high and basseim oil fields. Jagatia Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Mizoram and
and Gogha in Gujarat, Nahorkatiya and West Bengal. It accounts for over 90% of the
Moran in Assam, Neypaltur, Mangmadam in installed capacity. Tamil nadu produces about
Thanjavur district in Tamil nadu, Baranura 5% of the total thermal electricity produced
and Atharnure ranges in Tripura, Barmer in India. Neyveli, Mettur, Thoothukudi and
and Charaswala in Rajasthan, Miao Pung and Ennore (Chennai) are the important thermal
Laptang areas in Arunachal Pradesh, Firozpur power stations in Tamil nadu.
district in Punjab, Mausar and Maradpur
areas in Jammu and Kashmir and Medinipur b) Nuclear power
in West Bengal are the other areas where
The energy released during nuclear
natural gas reserves have been discovered.
fission or fusion is used to generate
The Gas Authority of India Ltd [GAIL] electricity.
is doing pioneer work in the field of natural Nuclear energy is generated mainly
gas exploration. Discovery of gas made rapid from the minerals of Uranium and Thorium.
strides in the 1985. Oil strikes at Cauvery Nuclear power programme in India was
offshore, at Nanda in Cambay basin and Tarot initiated in 1940’s when ‘Tata Atomic research
in Jaisalmer basin in Rajasthan were major commission was incorporated in August
discoveries during 1988-89. Recently, it has 1948. The first nuclear power station was
been found that Krishna- Godavari delta has setup at Tarapur near Mumbai in 1969 with
reserves of Natural gas. the capacity of 320 mw. Later atomic reactors
were installed at Rawatbhata (335 MW), near
Compressed natural gas Kota in Rajasthan (100 MW), Kalpakkam
(CNG) (methane stored (440 MW) and Kudankulam (2,000 MW) in
at high pressure) is a fuel Tamil nadu and Narora (235 MW) in Uttar
which can be used in place Pradesh, Kaiga in (235 MW) in Karnataka
of gasoline, diesel fuel and propane/LPG. and Kakarapara (235 MW) in Gujarat.
In comparison to other fuels, natural gas
poses less of a threat in the event of a spill,
The Nuclear Power
because it is lighter than air and disperses
Corporation of India Limited
quickly when released. Biomethane
(NPCIL) is an Indian public
– cleaned-up biogas from anaerobic
sector undertaking based
digestion or landfills – can be used.
in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used
It is wholly owned by
in Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Pune,
the Government of India
Kolkata Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi, etc.
and is responsible for the generation of
nuclear power for electricity. NPCIL is
4.2.2 Conventional Energy administered by the Department of Atomic
Sources Energy (DAE) is responsible for designing,
a) Thermal power constructing and operating the nuclear
power stations in India.
Thermal power is generated using fossil
fuels like coal, diesel, petroleum and Natural

4.2.3 Renewable or Non-
Conventional Energy
Resources
a) Hydro power
Power generated from water is termed as
hydroelectricity. Hydro power is the energy
harnessed from running water. Hydro power
is considered as one of the most economic and
non-polluting sources of energy. It contributes
nearly 7% of global electricity production.
The cost of production of hydroelectricity is
relatively low, making it a competitive source
of renewable energy. It is also a flexible mode of
power generation as the quantity of production
can either be increased or decreased very
quickly adapting to changing demands.
NHPC Limited
(National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation) is
located in Faridabad,
India
India is fortunate to have a large potential

of hydropower potential. It is quite unevenly
distributed in India. Of the total hydro-electric solar power systems use lenses or mirrors
potential of the country, rivers of Assam, and tracking system to focus a large area of
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Nagaland and sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics
Tripura account for 30.4%, eastward flowing convert light into an electric current using the
rivers of the peninsular India 20.9%, westward photovoltaic effect.
flowing rivers of the western Ghats (South of
the Tapti) 10.5%, the Ganga Basin (excluding Solar Energy Corporation of India
the potential of Nepal) 11.7%, the Indus Basin Limited
16.0% and the rivers of central India 10.5%.
(A Government of India Enterprise)
The first hydro-electric head quarter is located at New Delhi.
power station in India was
established at “Darjeeling” in
1897.
b) Solar Energy
Solar Power is the conversion of The mass objectives of the solar thermal
sunlight into electricity, either directly energy programme, being implemented by
using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated Source (MNES) are market development,

commercialisation and utilisation of heat d) Biomass Energy
energy requirement of different applications Bio energy may be obtained through
in domestic, institutional and industrial bio-degradable materials like animal dung,
sectors. Solar power is used in water heaters, kitchen wastes, water hyacinth, agricultural
refrigerators, drying, street lighting, cooking, residues and city wastes etc. It is clean and
pumping, power generator, photovoltaic cells, cheap source of energy. India has a potential
salon parts etc. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, of about 18 GW of energy from Biomass.
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh Currently, about 32% of total primary energy
are the major solar power producers. used in India is derived from Biomass.
Energy derived from biomass is mostly used
c) Wind Energy
for domestic purposes.
Wind energy is extracted from air flow
using wind turbines. It is a cheap and pollution e) Tidal and wave Energy
free source of energy. Power from wind mills There are two main sources of ocean
are used for pumping water and to sail propel energy. They are Ocean tides and Ocean
ships. Wind power is plentiful, renewable, waves. It is estimated that India possesses
widely distributed, clean and produces no 8,000-9,000 MW of tidal energy potential. The
greenhouse gas emissions during operation. Gulf of Cambay is the best suited area with
These plants occupy only a less space. about 7,000 mw potential of tidal energy. This
is followed by Gulf of Kachch (1,000MW) and
Tamil nadu has the largest sunderbans (100MW). At present a 900mw
installation of wind turbines tidal power plant is proposed to be set up in
in the country in the the Gulf of Kachch region.
Muppandal-Perungudi area Wave energy potential in India is estimated
near Kanniyakumari is the to be 40,000 MW. An wave energy power plant
largest concentrations of wind farm of 150 KW(maximum) has been installed
capacity at a single location in the world. at vizhinjam near Thiruvananthapuram. An
another plant of this kind has been set up near
The development of wind power in India Andaman& Nicobar Islands.
began in 1986 with first wind farms were set up
in coastal areas of Gujarat (Okha), Maharashtra 4.3 Industries
(Ratnagiri) and Tamil nadu (Thoothukudi) It refers to the activities which converts
with 55 KW Vestas wind turbines. The capacity the raw materials into finished products. This
has significantly increased in the last few years. sector is called as the value addition sector.
India has the fourth largest installed wind On the basis of the source of raw materials,
power capacity in the world. Industries are classified into the Agro based
industries, Forest based industries and
The National Institute of Mineral based industries.
Wind Energy (NIWE), 4.3.1 Agro based industries
Chennai was established These industries draw their raw materials
in Tamil Nadu in 1998 as from agricultural sector. The following part
an autonomous institution discusses the agro based industries in India.
under the administrative
control of the Ministry a) Cotton Textile Industry
of New and Renewable Textile is a broad term which includes
Energy. CIWE main activities include resource cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibre
assessment and testing & certification. textiles. This sector in India with 3400 textiles

mills with installed capacity of more than “Manchester of India”. Presence of black
50 million spindles and 842000 rotors is the cotton soil in Maharastra, humid climate,
second largest in the world. presence of Mumbai port, availability of
hydro power, good market and well developed
The first cotton textile transport facility favour the cotton textile
mill was established at Fort industries in Mumbai.
Gloster near Kolkata in 1818. The major cotton textile industries are
concentrated in the states of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and
Traditional sectors like hand loom, Tamil nadu. Coimbatore is the most important
handicrafts and small power-loom units are centre in Tamil nadu with 200 mills out of
the biggest source of employment its 435 and called as “Manchester of South
for millions of people in rural India”. Erode, Tirupur, Karur, Chennai,
and semi urban areas. The cotton Thirunelveli, Madurai, Thoothukudi, Salem
textile industries contribute and Virudhunagar are the other major cotton
about 7% of industrial output, textiles centres in the state.
2% of India’s GDP and 15% of the
country’s export earnings. It is one of the b) Jute Textiles
largest sources of employment generation in Jute is a low priced fibre used mainly for
the country. With over 45 million employees, making package materials like gunny bags.
the total employment in this industry is well Today jute is blended with cotton and wool to
over 25million worker. At present there are produce textiles. India is the largest producer
1,719 textiles mills in the country. Out of of jute goods contributing 35% of the world’s
which 188 mills are in public sector, 147 in total output. This is the second important textile
cooperative sector and 1,284 in private sector. industry in India after cotton textiles. Jute is the
golden fibre which meets all the standards of
Byssinosis, also called “brown goods packing with its natural, renewable, bio
lung disease” or “Monday degradable and eco-friendly products.
fever”, is an occupational lung
disease caused by exposure National jute board
to cotton dust in inadequately ventilated is headquarter at
working environments. Kolkata.
Currently, India is the third largest

The first jute mill in India was established at
producer of cotton and has the largest loom
Rishra near, Kolkata in 1854 by the English man
arc and ring spindles in the world. At present,
George Auckland. India tops in the production
cotton textile industry is the largest organized
of raw jute and jute goods and second in
modern industry of India. About 16% of
the export of jute goods next to Bangladesh.
the industrial capital, 14% of industrial
Jute production includes gunny bags, canvas,
production and over 20% of the industrial
pack sheets, jute web, carpets, cordage, hessians
labour of the country are engaged in this
and twines. Now jute is also being used in plastic
industry.
furniture and insulation bleached fibres to blend
Ginning is the process of cotton fiber is with wool. It is also mixed with cotton to make
separated from the cotton seed. carpet and blankets. The major jute producing
areas are in West Bengal and concentrated
The higher concentration of textile along the Hooghly river within the radius of six
mills in and around Mumbai, makes it as kilometre of Kolkata. Titagarh, Jagatdat, Budge-

MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA W
N
E
next only to China. Sericulture is
S
a labour intensive industvry and

provides employment to 7.56
million people make to weaker
and marginalised sections of
society.
Karnataka is the largest producer of silk
with an average of 8200 metric tons every
year which is about one third of the total silk
production of India. Other major producers of
silk are West Bengal, Jammu Kashmir, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Assam and Tamil nadu states. India
LEGEND
exports exclusively silk fabrics, silk scarves,
COTTON
SILK dress material and sarees. It exports to the
IRON & STEEL
SUGAR principal countries like Europe, U.S.A, U.K,
PAPER
Russia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Singapore.
Not to Scale
Development Commissioner
Budge, Haora and Bhadreshwar are the chief for Handlooms was set
centres of jute industry. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, up as an attached non-
Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh and Odisha participating office on 20th
are the other jute goods producing areas. November, 1975 under the Ministry of
Commerce. At present it
The first attempt to is functioning under the
produce iron and steel unit Ministry of Textiles having
was set up at Porto Novo in headquarters at Udyog
Tamil nadu in 1830. Bhawan, New Delhi.
c) Silk Industry d) Sugar Industry
CSTRI is the only Sugar can be produced from sugar cane,

research institute in sugar-beets or any other crop which have
the country dedicated sugar content. In India, sugar cane is the main
to the Research source of sugar. At present this is the second
& Developmental largest agro based industry of India after
activities related to silk cotton textiles. India is the world’s second
technology. CSTRI was largest producer of sugar cane after Brazil. This
established in the year 1983 by the Central industry provides employment to 2.86 lakh
Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of workers. Sugar industry is decentralized and
India having head quarter at Bangalore
located near the sugarcane growing areas as
they are weight loosing and bulky to transport.
India has been well known for the
production of silk. Since the ancient times, Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
India is the second largest producer of raw silk sugar, producing about 50% of the country’s

total. Other major producers are Maharashtra, Bengal paper mills at Ballyganj near Kolkata.
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Subsequent successful efforts were made at
Tamil nadu, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana Lucknow in 1879, Titagarh in 1882, Pune in
and Madhya Pradesh states. These states 1887, Raniganj in 1892, Kankinra in 1892 and
account for more than 90% of the sugar mills Naihati in 1918.The raw materials for paper
and sugar production. industry includes wood pulp, bamboo, salai
and sabai grasses, waste paper and bagasse.
4.3.2 Forest based industries
West Bengal is the largest producer of paper
Forest provide us with different types in the country followed by Madhya Pradesh,
of material which are used as raw material Odisha and Tamil nadu states.
for certain industries like paper, lac, sports
goods, plywood etc.
National Newsprint
a) Paper industry and Paper Mills (NEPA) is
Paper Industry has emerged as a at Nepanagar in Burhanpur
diversified and specialized industry in India District of Madhya Pradesh.
that produces numerous types of papers that
comes in various use such as sheet paper, 4.3.3 Mineral based industries
paper boxes, tissues, paper bags, stationery, Mineral based industries use both
envelopes and printed-paper products such as metallic & non metallic minerals as raw
books, periodicals, and newspapers. In India materials. The major mineral based industry
the Soft wood is the principal raw material of country is the iron steel industry
used for making paper especially newsprint
and high class printing papers. Paper is the a) Iron and steel industries
pre-requisite for education and literacy and Iron and steel industry is called a
its use is an index of advancement in these basic metallurgical industry as its finished
two fields as well as the overall well being of product is used as raw material by host of
the society. other industries. Several industries like
engineering, heavy machines and machine
tools, automobile, locomotives and railway
equipment industries use iron and steel as
their primary raw material. Due to this,
the steel producing capacity of a country is
generally taken as an indicator of its level of
industrial development.
Chennai is nicknamed as
the “Detroit of Asia” due to the
presence of major automobile
manufacturing units and allied
industries around the city.
The first paper mill of
India was started in 1812 at
The modernization of the industry was
Serampore in West Bengal.
started in 1907 with the establishment of Tata
Iron and Steel Company at Sakchi, now called
The first successful effort was made Jamshedpur. Iron and steel industry of India is
in 1867 with the setting up of the Royal mainly concentrated in the states of Jharkhand,

S.No Name of Industry Place Establishment Year Product
1 Tata Iron and Steel Jamshedpur, 1911 Pig Iron
Company(TISCO) Jharkhand
2 Indian Iron and Steel Burnpur,Hirapur, 1972 Pig Iron & Crude steel
Company (IISCO) Kulti, West Bengal
3 Visweshwaraya Iron Steel Bhadravati,Karnataka 1923 Alloy and Sponge steel
Ltd(VISL)
4 Hisdustan Steel Ltd (HSL) Bhilai, Chattisgarh 1957 Railway Equipments and
Collaborated with Russia Ship Building
5 Hindustan Steel Ltd(HSL) Rourkela,Odisha 1965 Hot and Cold rolled
Collaborated with sheets, Galvanized sheets
Germany and electrical plates
6 Hindustal Steel Ltd(HSL) Durgapur,West 1959 Alloy steel, Construction
Collaborated with United Bengal materials and railway
kingdom equipments
7 Hisdustan Steel Ltd(HSL) Bokaro, Jharkhand 1972 Sludge and Slog
Collaborated with Russia
8 Salem Steel Ltd Salem, Tamil Nadu 1982 Stainless Steel
9 Vijayanagar Steel Plant Tornagal,Karnataka 1994 Flat steel and Long Steel
10 Visakhapatnam Steel Visakhapatnam, 1981 Hot Metal
Plant(VSP) Andhra Pradesh
West Bengal and Odisha. Proximity to the coal manufacturers which include two wheelers,
fields of Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro and Karanpura commercial vehicles, passenger car, jeep,
and the iron ore mines of Mayurbhanj, Keonjar scooty, scooters, motor cycles, mopeds and
and Brona are responsible for this. This area also three wheelers. Major centres are at Mumbai,
has sufficient deposits of limestone, dolomite, Chennai, Jamshedpur, Jabalpur, Kolkata,
manganese, silicon and dolomite which are Pune, New Delhi, Kanpur, Bengaluru, Sadara,
required for the industry. Lucknow and Mysuru.
4.3.4 Automobile Industry Make in India program

India is set to emerge not only as a large was launched in 2014 to put
domestic market for automobile manufacturers, India on the world map as a
but also as a crucial link in the global automotive major hub for global design
chain. It is one of the most dynamic industrial and manufacturing.
groups in India.
The first automobile industry of India was Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki, Mahindra &
started in 1947. The industry is the Premier Mahindra and Hindustan Motors are the
Automobiles Ltd located at Kurla (Mumbai). largest passenger car manufacturers of Indian
It was followed by the Hindustan Motors Ltd companies in the country. Presence of foreign
at Uttarpara (Kolkata) in 1948. At present, car companies such as Mercedes Benz, Fiat,
India is the 7th largest producer of automobile General Motors, Toyota and the recent entry

MAJOR for thermal power plants, generators,
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS, SOFTWARE AND AUTOMOBILE transformers, switch gears etc. are the
INDUSTRIES IN
INDIA chief products of this industry. The most
N important company in the field of heavy
W E electrical is Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd
S (BHEL). It has its plants at Hardwar, Bhopal,
Hyderabad, Jammu, Bengaluru, Jhansi and
Tiruchirappalli. This Industry covers a
wide range of products including television
sets, transistor sets, telephone exchanges,
cellular telegram, computers and varied
equipments for post and railway, defence and
meteorological department.
Bengaluru is the largest producer of
LEGEND electronic goods in India, hence it is called
SOFTWARE
as the “Electronic Capital of India”. The other
INDUSTRIES major producers of electronic goods centers
AUTOMOBILE
are Hyderabad, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
INDUSTRIES Kolkata, Kanpur, Pune, Lucknow, Jaipur and
ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS
Coimbatore.
Not to Scale
INDUSTRIES
4.3.6 Software Industry
India is home to some of the finest
of passenger car manufacturers BMW, Audi,
software companies in the world. The software
Volkswagen and Volvo makes the Indian
companies in India are reputed across the
automobile sector a special one. Tata Motors,
globe for their efficient IT and business related
Ashok Leyland, Eicher Motors, Mahindra &
solutions. The Indian Software Industry has
Mahindra and Ford Motors are the major Indian
brought about a tremendous success for the
companies which manfacture commercial
emerging economy.
vehicles. MAN, ITEC, Mercedes-Benz, Scania
and Hyundai are the foreign companies engage
in the manfacture of commercial vehicles. Two-
wheeler manufacturing is dominated by Indian
companies like Hero, Bajaj Auto and TVS.
The automobile industries are found in
four clusters viz; Delhi, Gurgaon and Manesar
in North India, Pune, Nasik, Halol and
Aurangabad in West India, Chennai, Bengaluru
and Hosur in South India and Jamshedpur and
Kolkata in East India.
4.3.5 Electrical and Electronic

Industries
Heavy electrical industries manufacture Tidel Park, Chennai
equipment used for power generation, In India, software industry began in
transmission and utilization. Turbines 1970 with the entry of Tata Consultancy
for steam and hydro power plants, boilers

Services (TCS). Along with this, L & T,
Infotech, i-Flex, Accenture, Cognizant, Recap
GalexE Solutions India Pvt Ltd and ITC • Natural resource - raw materials
Infotech are the major software industries obtained naturally from the earth.
in the country. At present, there are more
than 500 software companies all over India. • Renewable resource – the resources
It exports software service to nearly 95 that can be replenished.
countries in the world. • Non renewable resource - the energy
The main centres of IT parks that cannot be replenished easily.
are located in Chennai, Coimbatore,
• Agro based industry – the industries
Thiruvananthapuram, Bengaluru, Mysuru,
that depend on agriculture for their
Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Mumbai, Pune,
raw materials.
Indore, Gandhi Nagar, Jaipur, Noida, Mohali
and Srinagar. • Mineral based industries – the
4.3.7 Major challenges of Indian industries that use minerals as raw
materials.
Industries
Industries in India face many problems. • Forest based industries – the
Some major problems are listed below. industries run with the help of forest
products.
• Shortage and fluctuation in Power Supply.
• Non- availability of large blocks of land.
• Poor access to credit.
GLOSSARY
• High rate of interest for borrowed loan.
• Non- availability of cheap labourers. Biogas: The production of methane
• Lack of technical and vocational training and carbon- di- oxide from plants and
for employees. animal wastes.
• Inappropriate living conditions nearby Fossil fuel: Any naturally occurring
industrial estates.
carbon or hydrocarbon coal, oil and
natural gas.
Wealth Creation
and Sharing
Ore: It is a deposit in the earth crust
Community
Development
Create Jobs with one or more value minerals
Solar power: Heat radiation from

Balanced the sun converted into electricity.
Exports Regional Development
Thermal power station: An
Entrepreneurship
electricity generating plants which burns
coal or oil.
GDP and
Standard of Living
Per Capita Income
Challenges of Indian Industries


9. The nucleus for the development of the
EXERCISE chotanagpur plateau region is
a) Transport
b) Mineral Deposits
I. Choose the
c) Large demand
correct answer.
d) Power Availability
1.
Manganese is used 10. One of the shore based steel plants of India
in______. is located at ___________.
a) Storage batteries a) Kolkata b) Tuticorin
b) Steel Making c) Goa d) Visakhapatnam
c) Copper smelting
d) Petroleum Refining II. Match the following.
2. The Anthracite coal has ___________. 1.
a) 80 to 95% Carbon a. Bauxite 1) Cement
b) Above 70% Carbon b. Gypsum 2) Aircraft
c) 60 to 7% Carbon c. Black Gold 3) Electrical goods
d) Below 50% Carbon d. Iron ore 4) Coal
e. Mica 5) Magnetite
3. The most important constituents of
petroleum are hydrogen and 2.
a) Oxygen b) Water a. Detroit of 1) Gujarat
c) Carbon d) Nitrogen India
4. The city which is called as the mancestor of b. Thermal 2) Thiruvananthapuram
south India is power plant
a) Chennai b) Salem c. Wind farm 3) Andhra Pradesh
c) Madurai d) Coimbatore d. Tidal energy 4) 1975
e. Solar power 5) Chennai
5. The first Jute mill of India was established at
a) Kolkata b) Mumbai III. Answer the following
c) Ahmedabad d) Baroda Questions briefly.
6. The first Nuclear Power station was 1. Define the resource and state its types.
commissioned in 2. Name the states that lead in the production
a) Gujarat b) Rajasthan of Iron ore in India.
c) Maharashtra d) Tamil nadu 3. What are the minerals and its types?
7. The most abundant source of energy is 4. State the uses of magnesium.
a) Bio mass b) Sun 5. What is natural gas?
c) Coal d) Oil 6. Name the different types of coal with their
carbon content.
8. The famous Sindri Fertilizer Plant is 7. Mention the major areas of jute production
located in in India.
a) Jharkhand b) Bihar 8. Name the important oil producing regions
c) Rajasthan d) Assam of India.

IV. Distinguish between. 3. Coal mining centres.
1. Renewable and non-renewable resources. 4. Areas of cultivation of cotton.
2. Metallic and non-metallic minerals. 5. Iron and Steel industries.
3. Agro based industry and mineral based
industry.
REFERENCE BOOKS
4. Jute industry and sugar industry.
5. Conventional energy and non- conventional 1. Singh,S. and J.Saroha – Geography of India,
energy. New Delhi, Access Publishing Inida Pvt Ltd.
V. Answer the following in a 2. Tiwar R.C. – Geography of India, Allahabad,
Prayag Pustak Bhawan.
paragraph.
3. Government of India, Ministry of mines,
1. Write about the distribution of cotton textile
Coal, Textiles, Steel, Petroleum and Natural
industries in India.
gas – Annual report 2017 -18
2. Explain the factors responsible for the
concentration of jute industries in the 4. Annual Reports of the Indian Bureau of
hoogly region. Mines - 2017.
3. Write an account on the major iron and 5. Human geography, Kings page number 323
steel industries of India. 6. Economic and Commercial Geography,
Professor S.A.Ghazi
VI. On the outline map of India
7. Development of industries in India, from
mark the following. Independence till today
1. Iron ore production centres.
2. Centres of Petroleum and Natural Gas
production.
ICT CORNER
Visit school Bhuvan?

School Bhuvan visualizes natural
resources, environment and
their sustainable development in
India.
Steps
• Scroll Down and click on ‘Explore’
• Click on ‘Thematic Serious 2’ in top menuandSelect ‘Mineral’
Website URL:
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

Unit - 5
India - Population,
Transport,
Communication &
Trade
Learning Objectives
To study the levels of urbanization and its impacts in India.

To know about the Human Development in India.
To learn the transport systems of India.
To understand the communication system of India.
To assess the nature of trade in India.
Introduction second most populous country in the world

next only to china. India covers only 2.4
The study on human population is one percent of the land area of the world, but is
of the most important aspects in geography the home of about 17.5 percent of the world’s
of any region. The human population has population. It shows that the proportion of
many components but the most fundamental population of India is far higher than the
are its number, composition, distribution proportion of its area. Thus, a little more than
and density. Therefore, it is essential to one out of every six persons in the world is
study these components. The study on these from India. Our population is almost equal
aspects also would reveal the workforce of to the combined population of the USA,
the country. Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh
The population of India as per 2011 and Japan and total population of these six
census is 1,210.19 million (1,21,01,93,422). countries is 1214.3 million.
It shows an increase of 19.31crores from
the population of 2001. Population Census
5.1.1 Census
of India provides the detailed information
Population census is the total process of
about the demography of India. Along
collecting, compiling, analysing or otherwise
with population, we will study about the
disseminating demographic, economic and
transport and communication of India in
social data pertaining, at a specific time, of all
this chapter.
persons in a country or a well-defined part of a
country. It happens in an interval of ten years.
5.1 Population The data collected through the census are used
The total number of people residing in a for administration, planning, policy making as
country at a specified period of time is called well as management and evaluation of various
the 'Population' of that country. India is the programmes by the government.
India - Population, Transport, Communication & Trade 150

5.1.2 Distribution and Density of and energy resources. Socio-economic factors
Population consists of the religion, culture, political issues,
The term 'Population Distribution' refers economy, human settlements, transport
to the way the people are spaced over the earth’s network, industrialization, ur banization,
surface. The distribution of population in India employment opportunity etc.
is quite uneven because of the vast variation
in the availability of resources. Population is Hots
mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial
centres and the good agricultural lands. On the What could be the reasons for uneven
other hand, the areas such as high mountains,
distribution of population in India?
arid lands, thickly forested areas and some
remote corners are very thinly populated and 5.1.3 Density of population
some areas are even uninhabited. Terrain, P opulation density is a better measure
climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, of understanding the variation in distribution
industries, transport and urbanization are the of population. It is expressed as number of
major factors which affect the distribution of persons per unit area usually per sq km.
population in our country. According to 2011, the average density of
population of India is 382 persons per sq.km.
In India the first census India is one of the most thickly populated
was carried out in the year ten countries of the world. The most densely
1872. But the first complete populated state of India is Bihar and the state
and synchronous census was with least population density is Arunachal
conducted in 1881. And the Pradesh. Among the union territories, Delhi
2011 census represents the fifteenth census is the densely populated one with 11,297 per
of India. sq.km, while Andaman and Nicobar Islands
have the lowest density of population.
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous
state in the country with a population of Hots
199.5 million followed by Maharashtra What are the reasons for the rapid growth
(112.3 million), Bihar (103.8 million) West of population in India?
Bengal (91.3 million) and the combined
Andhra Pradesh (84.6 million). These five
states account for about half of the country’s
population. More than one fourth of the
population live only in the two states of U.P
and Maharashtra. Sikkim is the least populous
state of India(0.61 million). Delhi with 16.75
million population tops among the Union
territories.
The uneven distribution of population in
the country is the result of several factors such
as physical, socio-economic and historical
ones. The physical factors include relief,
climate, water, natural vegetation, minerals
151 India - Population, Transport, Communication & Trade

Spatial pattern of population Density
Density Places
Very Low Density Arunachal Pradesh (17), Andaman and Nicobar Islands
( less than 150 persons per sq.km) (46), Mizoram (52), Sikkim (86) Nagaland (120),
Manipur (122), Himachal Pradesh (123), Jammu and
Kashmir (124) and Meghalaya (132)
Low Density Arunachal Pradesh (17), Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(150 to 300 persons per sq.km) (46), Mizoram (52), Sikkim (86) Nagaland (120),
Manipur (122), Himachal Pradesh (123), Jammu and
Kashmir (124) and Meghalaya (132)
Moderate Density Gujarat (308), The combined Andhra Pradesh (308),
( 300 to 500 persons per sq.km.) Karnataka (319), Tripura (350), Maharashtra (365), Goa
(394), Assam (397) and Jharkhand (414) are the states
with moderate population density. Assam has tea estates,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Jharkhand
High Density Punjab (550), Tamil Nadu (555), Haryana (573), Uttar
(500 to 1000 persons per sq km.) Pradesh (828) and Kerala (859) The union territory of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli(698)
Very High Density West Bengal (1029), Bihar (1102), Lakshadweep (2013),
(greater than 1000 persons per sq Daman and Diu (2169), Puducherry (2598), Chandigarh
km) (9252) and Delhi (11,297).
5.1.4 P opulation Growth and of population is expressed in percentage and

Change is described as the growth rate of population.
The growth rate of population is an The following table shows the decadal growth
important demographic feature. It not only rate of population from 1901 to 2011.
helps in understanding the population Growth of population in India has gone
change that a society has undergone in the through the different phases. Population of
past but also helps in predicting the future the country in 1901 was 238 million and it
demographic characteristics of an area. grew to 1,210 million over a period of little
Population growth refers to the change in the more than a century. The following are the
number of inhabitants of a country/territory different stages of population growth of India.
during a specified period of time. The growth
(Growth Rate of Populaon in India)

14.22% (31,86,60,580)
30
13.31% (36,10,88,090)
11% (27,89,77,238)
5.75% (25,20,93,390)
20
(% of Populaon)
21.54% (1,02,70,15,247)
17.64% (1,21,01,93,422)
-0.31% (25,20,93,390)
21.64% (43,92,34,771)
24.80% (54,81,59,652)
24.66% (68,33,29,097)
23.87% (84,33,87,888)
0% (23,89,96,237)
10
0
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
(Census based on every ten years)
Source: Census of India -2011

The Period of Stagnant Population the countries). Internal migration does not
(1901-1921): During the first phase of change the size of population of a country but
20 years (1901-1921), the population of it influences the distribution of population
India grew by 15 million. The year 1921 in a nation. It plays an important role in
registered a negative growth rate of -0.31% changing the composition and distribution
which happened only once throughout the of population. In India, the mass migration
demographic history of India and is called the is from rural to urban. Unemployment and
year of Great Demographic Divide. under employment in the rural areas are the
The Period of Steady Growth (1921- push factors and the employment opportunity
1951): During the second phase of 30 years and higher wages in the urban areas caused
(1921-1951), the population of India grew by the industrial development are the pull
by 110 million. factors of migration in the country. 45 out
of 121 crores of people in India are reported
The Period of Steady Growth (1951- to be migrants as per 2011 census. Migrants
1981): During the third phase (1951- constitute about 37% of population.
1981), the population of India grew from Migrants are 48% from female and 52%
361 million in 1951 to 683 million in 1981. from male.
Growth rate in this period is almost doubled
when compared to the previous phase of
growth rate. This period is often referred to
as the period of population explosion.
The period of High Growth with
Definite Signs of Slowing Down (1981-
2011): Population of India increased from
685 million to 1210 million during this phase.
The growth rate of population decreased
from one census to other. This marks the
beginning of a new era in the demographic
history of India. Activity
Population change refers to an
increase or decrease of population of an Collect the pictures and make an album
area from one period to another period. of various types of migration.
Population growth is influenced by the birth
rate, death rate and migration. These three 5.2.1 Population composition
make the changes in population. Population composition refers to the
Birth rate refers to the number of live characteristics s uch as age, sex, marital
births per thousand people in a year and the status, caste, religion, language, education,
Death rate refers to the number of deaths per occupation etc. The study of composition of
thousand people in a year. The rapid decline population helps us to understand the social,
in death rate is the major cause of the rapid economic and demographic structure of
growth of population in India. population.
5.2.2 Age composition

5.2 Migration
The age composition of population refers
It is the movement of people across to the number of people in different age
regions and territories. It can be internal groups in a country. It is one of the most basic
(within a country) or international (between characteristics of a population. It helps us

to understand the proportion of population is 74.04%. From this, the literacy rate of male
in dependent and independent category. is 82.14% and the female is 65.46%. It shows
Population of a nation is generally grouped in that still there is a vast gap (16.68%) between
to three broad categories. In India, the children the male and female literacy rates. Kerala
who has less than 15 years of age constitute ranks first in the country with a literacy
29.5% and the people above 60 years constitute rate of 93.91% followed by union territory
8.0%. So, the dependent population in India Lakshadweep with 92.28%. The lowest literacy
is 37.5%and the independent population (16- rate is found in Bihar (63.82 %).
59 yrs) is 62.5%. It shows that our country has
5.2.5 Occupational structure
enormous manpower.
The economically active part of
5.2.3 Sex Ratio a country’s popu lation is enumerated
Sex ratio is defined as the number of during the census operations and stated as
females per 1000 male population. This is workers. Workers are placed under three
an important social indicator to measure the fold categories in census record. They are
extent of equality between males and females main workers, marginal workers and non-
in a society at a given time. workers. According to the Census of India,
all those who had worked for the major
Hots part of the preceding year (at least 6 months
The sex ratio in our country is always or 183 days) are recorded as main workers.
unfavourable to females. Give reasons. Those who worked for less than six months
are recorded as marginal workers and the
According to 2011 census, the sex ratio of the people who have not worked at all comes
country is 940 females per 1000 males. This under non workers. Work participation rate
suggests that the size of female population is denotes the percentage of total workers i.e.,
lower than males. Only in the state of Kerala total main and marginal workers to the total
and the union territory of Puducherry the sex population in an area. The work participation
ratio is greater than 1000. It is 1084 in Kerala rate in India is 39.79% in 2011, out of which
and 1038 in Puducherry. The lowest sex ratio the work participation rate of male is 53.25%
is recorded in the union territory of Daman and the female is 25.51%. From the workers,
and Diu(618). main workers constitute 75.23% and the
remaining 24.77% of the people belong to
The ratio between the marginal workers.
economically active and 5.2.6 Population Dynamics
economically inactive of Human population dynamics is a field
population is termed as that tracks factors related to changes in the
Dependency Ratio. size of population and its characteristics.
Predicting population changes is an
5.2.4 Literacy Rate important aspect of population studies. The
demographic trend affects the economic,
The people who are able to read and
social, and environmental systems. An
write are known as literates. It is an important
increase in human population can affect the
indicator of quality of people. The percentage
quality of natural resources like biodiversity,
of literate people to the total population is
air, land, and water. The size of Population and
termed as literacy rate. There has been a
characteristics undergoes changes constantly.
steady improvement in the literacy levels in
These changes are reflected clearly in every
India. India’s literacy rate as per 2011 census
other aspect of our country.

5.2.7 P roblems of over continues to be the most urbanized state with
Population 48.4% percent of urban population followed by
In India, growing pressure of Population Kerala (47.7%) and Maharashtra (45.2%).
on resource base, created many socio-
S. Type of Towns/ 2001 2011
economic, cultural, political, ecological and
No. UAs/OGs (in (in
environmental problems. The Population
Numbers) Numbers)
problems vary in space and time and differ
from region to region. Some of the major 1 Statutory towns 3799 4041
issues created by the overpopulation in our 2 Census Towns 1362 3894
country are overcrowding, unemployment and
3 Urban 384 475
under employment, low standard of living,
Agglomeration
malnutrition, mismanagement of natural and
agricultural resources, unhealthy environment 4 Out Growths 962 981
etc. Source: Statistical data 2011
5.3 Urbanization As per 2011 Census, there are 7,935 towns

The pr ocess
of (statutory and census) in the country. The
society’s transformation number of towns has increased to 2,774, from
from rural to urban is 2001 census. In 2011, 475 Urban agglomeration
known as urbanization. (UAs) with 981 outgrowths (OGs) have been
The level of urbanization identified as Urban Agglomerations as against
of a place is assessed based 384 UAs with 962 OGs in 2001 Census. Out of
on the size of population 468 UAs belongs to Class I category, 53 UAs have
of the towns and cities and the proportion the population of one million and above each
of population engaged in non agricultural and these urban centres are known as “Million
sectors. These two are closely linked to the Cities”. These are the major urban centres in
process of industrialization and expansion the country. Among the Million Cities, there
of the secondary and tertiary sectors of are three major Urban Agglomerations with
economy. more than 10 million population each and
are known as “Mega Cities”. They are Greater
5.3.1 Urbanization in India Mumbai UA (18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3
The level of urbanization is measured million) and Kolkata UA (14.1million).
in terms of percentage of urban population.
The level of urbanization in the country has 5.3.2 Impact of Urbanization
increased more than three times from 1901 Urbanization and population
to 2011. The percentage of urban population concentration go hand – in – hand and are
of India was 27.82% in 2001 and it rose to closely related to each other. A rapid rate
31.16% in 2011 shows an increase of 3 % in of urbanization in a society is taken as an
a decade. indicator of its economic development.
The level of urbanization varies widely Urbanization is increasing rapidly in the
among the states. Goa is the most urbanized developing countries including India. Rural
state with 62.17% of urban population. to urban migration leads to population
Himachal Pradesh is the least urbanized state explosion in urban areas. Metropolitan cities
with 10.04% of urban population. Among the like Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi have more
Union territories, Delhi is the most (97.50 %) population than that can accommodate.
urbanized region followed by Chandigarh The urban population of India had
(97.25%). Among the major states, Tamil Nadu already crossed the 377million in 2011, which

is more than the total population of USA. By adult population. iii) Income - Measured by
2030, more than 50% of India’s population is gross national income and percapita income.
expected to live in urban areas. The following
are the major problems of urbanization in 5.3.6 Human Development
India. Classification
• It creates urban sprawl. HDI classifications are based on HDI
• It makes overcrowding in urban centres. fixed cut off points, which are derived
from the quartiles of distributions of the
• It leads to shortage of houses in urban
component indicators. The HDI of less than
areas.
0.550 is used for low human development,
• It leads to the formation of slums.
0.550 - 0.699 stands for medium human
• It increases traffic congestion in cities. development, 0.700 - 0.799 for high human
• It creates water scarcity in cities. development and 0.8 or greater for very high
• It creates drainage problem. human development.
• It poses the problem of solid waste
management. 5.4 Transportation
• It increases the rate of crime.
Transport is a system in which passengers
5.3.3 Human Development and goods are carried from one place to
Dr. Mahabub-ul-haq defined as "it is a another. Transport system is considered as the
process of enlarging the range of people’s lifeline of a country. Earlier man travelled on
choice, increasing their opportunities foot or used animals for transport. With the
for education, health care, income and discovery of wheel, transport was made easier
empowerment. It covers the full range and gradually different means of transport
of human choices from a sound physical were developed. There are three major means
environment to economic, social and of transport in the world.
political freedom”.
Means of Transport
5.3.4 Human Development
Indicators: (as per UNDP)
Population trends, health outcomes, Land Water Air
education achievements, national income
and composition of resources, work and Domestic
Road ways Inland
employment, human security, human and airways
Railways waterways
capital mobility, supplementary indicators: International
Pipelines Ocean routes
perceptions of well-being and status of Airways
fundamental rights treaties are the human
development indicators. 5.4.1 Transport Network in India
Transport is one of the most important
5.3.5 Measuring of Human components of infrastructure and it is
Development essential for economic development of a
Human Development Index (HDI) is country, especially for a large country like
a composite index focusing on three basic India. India has a good transport network
dimensions of human development: i) Health of roads, railways, airways and waterways
- Life expectancy at birth ii) Education - providing necessary connectivity between
Expected years of schooling for school age different parts of the country.
children and average years of schooling for the

5.4.2 Roadways N N
Roads play an important role in carrying

W E W E
S S
goods and passengers for short, medium and

long distances. It is highly suitable for short
distance services. It is comparatively easy and
cheap to construct and maintain roads. Road
transport system can establish easy contact
between farms, fields, factories and markets
and can provide door to door transport
services. Roads are the most universal mode
of transport. Indian roads are cost efficient. It
is used by all sections of people in the society.
India has the second longest road network in
the world with a total length of 56,03,293 km
as of 2016. About 85% of passengers and 70 %
of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.
Sher shah suri built the shahi

Not to scale Not to scale
(Royal) road to strengthen and
consolidate his empire from India - Roads
the Indus valley to the Sonar
valley in Bengal. This road from Kolkata fi nd out
The import and National
to Peshawar was renamed as Grand Highways in India and
Trunk(GT) road during the British period. label it on the outline map of
At present, it extends from Amristar to India.
Kolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments:
(a) (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amristar, and (b)
NH-2 from Delhi to Kolkata.
For the purpose of construction and

maintenance, roads are classified into
National Highways (NH), State Highways
(SH), District Roads, Rural Roads (Village
roads), Border Roads and International
Highways. is responsible for the development and
maintenance of National Highways in India.
1. Classification of Roads in India The total length of the National Highways
(NHs) in India is 1,01,011 km which accounts
a) National Highways (NH) for 1.8 % of the total road network length
National Highways form the most important in 2016. The longest National highway is
system of road transportation in India. NH-7 which runs from Varanasi in Uttar
These highways are running through length Pradesh to Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu
and breadth of the country connecting covering a distance of 2369 km. The shortest
capitals of states, major Ports, rail junctions, national highway is NH-47A, which runs
industrial and tourist centres. Ministry of from Ernakulum to Kochi port (Willington
Road Transport and Highways of India, Island) covering a distance of 6 km.

b) State Highways
National Highways Authority
The state highways are usually roads
of India (NHAI) was
that link important cities, towns and
established in 1995. It is an
district headquarters within the state and
autonomous body under the
connect them with national highways or
Ministry of Surface Transport.
highways of neighbouring states. These
roads are administered and financed by state
governments. State Highway runs to the e) Border Roads
length of 1, 76,166 km as of 2016. These are the roads of strategic importance
in border areas. They are constructed and
c) District Roads maintained by Border Roads Organization. It
District Roads provide connectivity was established in 1960 for the development
between the district and taluk headquarters of the roads of strategic importance in the
with the state highways and national northern and northeastern border areas.
highways. District Roads are constructed and Border Roads Organization has constructed
maintained by the Public Works Department world’s highest road joining Chandigarh and
of the states. The total length of the road of Leh in Ladakh. This road runs at an average
this category is 5,61,940 km(16.81%) in 2016. altitude of 4,270 meters.
d) Rural Roads (Village Roads) Golden Quadrilateral: 5,846 km long road of

4/6 lanes connecting, India’s four metropolitan
cities: Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai-Delhi.
This project was launched in 1999.
North–South and East-West Corridors: North-
South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in
Jammu and Kashmir with Kaniyakumari in
Tamil Nadu (including Kochi-Salem Spur) with
4,076km long road. The East-West corridor
has been planned to connect Silchar in Assam
with the port town of Porbandar in Gujarat
with 3,640km of road length. The two corridors
Rural roads connectivity is a key intersect at Jhansi.
component of rural development. These
roads are vital for providing links in the rural Hots
areas. It links the different villages with their What are the highlights and benefits of the
neighbouring towns. They are maintained by Golden Quadrilateral Highways?
Village Panchayats. The total length of rural
roads in India is 39,35,337 km as of 2016. f) Expressways
Rural roads consist of Panchayat roads, (Zilla
These are multi-lane good quality
Parishad, Panchayat Samiti, Gram Panchayat);
highways for high speed traffic. Some of the
roads of the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
important expressways are; (i)Mumbai-Pune
Yojana (PMGSY) and those constructed by
Road, (ii) Kolkata-Dumdum Airport road
the State PWDs.
(iii) Durgapur-Kolkata road and (iv) Yamuna
expressway between Delhi and Agra.
Hots
Find out what are the functions of NHAI.

railways network as of 2017 is 67,368 km
with 7,349 railway stations.
The first train steamed off

from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of
34 km. In 1951, the systems
were nationalized as one unit
“The Indian Railways”. The headquarter
of Indian Railways is New Delhi.
Mumbai-Pune Road
g) International Highways For operations and management, the

These are the roads that link India Indian Railways is organized into 16 zones.
with neighbouring countries for promoting 1) Northern Railway - Delhi 2) North-
harmonious relationship with them. These Western Railway - Jaipur 3) North-Central
highways have been constructed with an aid Railway- Allahabad 4) North-Eastern Railway
from world bank under an agreement with - Gorakhpur 5) North-East Frontier Railway -
the Economic and Social Commission for Guwahati 6) Eastern Railway - Kolkata 7) East
Asia-Pacific (ESCAP). These roads connect coast Railway - Bhubaneswar 8) East-Central
important highways of India with those of the Railway - Hazipur 9) West-Central Railway -
neighbouring countries such as Pakistan, Nepal, Jabalpur 10) Central Railway - Mumbai (VT)
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India the 11) Western Railway - Mumbai (Churchgate)
densest road network is found in the northern 12) Southern Railway - Chennai 13) South-
plains where it is relatively easy to construct Central Railway - Secunderabad 14) South
roads. In mountainous area, it is quite difficult Eastern Railway - Kolkata 15) South-Western
to construct roads. Road density is the highest Railway - Hubball and 16) South East Central
in Kerala and lowest in Jammu &Kashmir. Railway - Bilaspur. The Northern Railway
accounts for the longest route length, followed
5.4.3 Railways by the Western Railway.
Indian railway system is the main artery Activity
of the country’s inland transport. Railways
cater to the needs of large scale movement Prepare a seminar topic about “Role
of traffic, both for freight and passenger, of Railways in Indian Economy”
thereby contributing to economic growth.
On the basis of width of the track, the
Railways are considered as the backbone
Indian railways fall under four categories.
of the surface transport system of India. It
Broad gauge with a width of 1.676 meter,
promotes national integration by bringing
Meter gauge with a width of 1 meter and
people together. It also promotes trade,
Narrow gauge with a width of 0.762 meter
tourism, education etc. Railways help in
and Light gauge with 0.610 meter.
the commercialization of the agriculture
sector by facilitating the quick movement of In recent times, many developments
perishable goods. Its role in transporting raw have taken place in the Indian railways.
materials to industries and finished goods The arrival of Konkan Railway Corporation
to markets is invaluable. Indian railways (KRC), Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS),
network is the largest in Asia and second Metro and Sub-Urban railways provide easy
largest in the world. The length of Indian and efficient means of transport. These are

N
tunnel nearly 6.44 km long is in this route. The
N
W
S
E
states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are
W
S
E
partners in this undertaking.
The rail link between Banihal in Jammu

region and Qazigund in Kashmir valley was
opened in 2013. This rail line passes under
the Pir Panjal Range through a 11.2 km long
tunnel.
b) Metro Railways in India

Not to scale Not to scale
India - Railways
very helpful in avoiding traffic congestion
and over crowding in urban areas.
• The first sub-urban railway

was started in 1925 in
Mumbai.
• C hennai becomes the sixth
Indian city with metro
railway.
There are 8 cities with metro rail
• Gatiman Express is the fastest
connectivity in India. They are Kolkata
operational train in India. This train
(West Bengal), Chennai (Tamil Nadu),
connects New Delhi and Agra and
Delhi, Bengaluru (Karnataka), Gurgaon
touches 160 km/h. This train takes
(Haryana), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Jaipur
a travel time of 105minutes to cover
(Rajasthan) and Kochi (Kerala). The metro
200km journey.
in Kolkata is the first one in India. It is also
called as Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS).
a) Konkan railway As of September 2018, India has 507 km of
One of the important achievements of operational metro lines and 381 stations.
Indian Railways has been the construction of
Konkan Railway in 1998. It connects Roha in
Maharashtra to Mangaluru in Karnataka and The state of Meghalaya has no
the track measures 760 km. It is considered railway network.
as an engineering marvel. On its routes, the
railway crosses 146 rivers and streams, nearly
2000 bridges and 73 tunnels. Asia’s longest

5.4.4 : Pipeline transport: Haldia and Allahabad, measures 1620 km
Pipelines provided a very convenient and includes the stretches of the Ganga-
mode of transport to connect oil and natural Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system. National
gas fields, refineries and to the markets. In Waterway 2: This waterway includes the
the past, these were used to transport water stretch of the Brahmaputra river between
to cities and industries. Now solids can also Dhubri and Sadiya a distance of 891 km.
be transported through a pipeline when National Waterway 3: This waterway extends
converted into slurry. The initial cost of laying between Kollam and Kottapuram in the state
pipeline is high but subsequent running cost of Kerala. It is the first national waterway in
is minimum. It can be laid through difficult the country with 24 hour navigation facilities
terrain as well as under water. It ensures steady along its entire stretch of 205 km.
supply of goods and reduces the transshipment
b) Oceanic Routes
losses and delays are the major advantages of
pipeline transport. Oil field in upper Assam Oceanic routes play an important role in
to Kanpur, from Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar the transport sector of India’s economy. About
in Punjab and gas pipeline from the Hazira 95% of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70
in Gujarat ot Jagadispur in Uttar Pradesh are percent by value moves through ocean routes.
the three important network large network of Coastal shipping plays an important role in
pipeline in the country. transport of bulk goods in India. Shipping is not
only the most economical mode of transport,
5.4.5 Waterways it is also an environment friendly mode. The
A waterway is an important mode of sea and oceanic routes are mainly used for
transport for both passenger and cargo traffic international trade and are connected through
in India. It is the oldest and also the cheapest ports. There are 13 major and 200 minor or
means of transport and most suitable for intermediate ports in India. The major ports
carrying heavy and bulky materials from one are administered by the Central Government
country to another. It is a fuel-efficient and and minor ports are managed and administered
eco-friendly mode of transport. The water by various state governments. The major ports
transport is of two types- Inland Waterways on the east coast are Kolkata (including Haldia
and Ocean water ways(sea routes). Dock), Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Chennai,
Ennore and Tuticorin. The major ports on the
a) Inland Waterways
west coast are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Seva
India has an extensive network of inland (Jawaharlal Nehru Port), New Mangalore,
waterways in the form of rivers, canals, lakes Marmagao and Kochi.
and backwaters. It depends upon the depth
India has four major shipyards. Hindustan
and width of the waterways and the continuity
shipyard in Vishakhapatnam, Garden Reach
of the water flow. The total navigable length of
workshop in Kolkata, Mazagaon Dock in
our country is 14,500 km, out of which about
Mumbai, Kochi Shipyard in Kochi. India is
5,200 km length of rivers and 4,000 km length
the second largest ship owning country in
of canals can be used by mechanized crafts.
Asia and ranks 16th in the World.
The total cargo carried by inland waterways
is just about 0.1% of the total inland traffic 5.4.6 Air Transport
of India. For the development, maintenance Airways are the quickest, costliest, most
and regulation of national waterways in the modern and comfortable means of transport,
country, the Inland water ways Authority was Air transport facilitates connectivity on a
setup in 1986. The major national waterways national, regional and international scale. It has
are: National Waterway 1: It extends between made accessibility easier by connecting difficult

N N
W E W E
S S
Not to scale
terrains like high mountains and sandy deserts. available in the country. These airports are
It carries passengers, freight and mail. Air managed by Airports Authority of India.
transport plays a key role in times of emergency Some of them are Netaji Subhash Chandra
as well as in the event of natural and man-made Bose International Airport, Kolkata,
calamities like floods, epidemics and wars. Chennai International Airport, Chennai,
Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi,
Air transport in India made a beginning
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport,
on 18th February, 1918 when Henry Piquet
Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram International
carried a mail from Allahabad to Naini. In
Airport, Thiruvananthapuram, Sardar
1953, eight different airlines which were in
Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport,
operation in the country were nationalised.
Ahmedabad, Bangalore International Airport,
Domestic Airways fly within the Bengaluru, Rajiv Gandhi International
boundaries of a country and International Airport, Hyderbad etc. Besides this, there are
Airways connect major cities of the world. about 80 domestic airports and about 25 civil
The Indian Air lines and Air India are the enclaves at defence air fields.
two airline services run by the government
of India. Indian Air lines provides the Hots
domestic air services and Air India provides
international air services. Presently, there Why is air travel preferred in the north
are 19 designated international airports eastern states?

a) Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd and today it covers the entire country. The
Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd has been Quick Mail Service functions on the basis
providing Helicopter support services to of the system of PIN (Postal Index Number)
the petroleum sector, including ONGC and code which was introduced in 1972. The
oil India Ltd. It is a public sector company premium products include the Money order,
based in New Delhi. Its operations are based e-money order, Speed Post, Express Parcel
at the Juhu Aerodrome in Vile Parle (West) Post, Business Post, Media Post, Satellite Post,
Mumbai. Pavan-Hans is a Mini Ratna–I Retail Post, Greeting Post, Data Post, Speed
category public sector undertaking. It often Net and Speed Passport Services.
provides services to various state governments In 2007, the Government of
in India particularly north east India Inter India merged the Air India and
Island, Ferry services in Andaman & Nicobar Indian Airlines under National
Islands, services to Lakshadweep Island etc., Aviation Corporation of India
b) Airports Authority of India (AAI) Limited (NACIL). In which
NACIL (A) provides international services,
Airports Authority of India (AAI) was
NACIL (I) provides domestic services and
constituted in 1995. It provides security to
services to neighboring countries in south
Indian Airports. AAI under the ministry of
east Asia and middle East.
Civil Aviation is responsible for creating,
upgrading, maintaining and managing civil Cards and envelopes are considered first-
aviation infrastructure in India. class mail and are airlifted between stations
covering both land and air. The second-
5.5 Communication class mail includes book packets, registered
newspapers and periodicals. They are carried
Communication is a process that involves
by surface mail, covering land and water
exchange of information, thoughts and ideas.
transport.To facilitate quick delivery of mails
Technology does wonders in communication
in large towns and cities, six mail channels
fields. Communication is categorized in to
have been introduced recently. They are
personal and mass communications.
called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel,
5.5.1 Personal Communication Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
Channel and Periodical Channel.
The exchange of information between the
India has one of the largest
individuals is called personal communication.
telecommunication networks in Asia. Apart
It includes post and telegraph services,
from the urban areas more than two-thirds
telephone, mobile phone, short message
of the villages in India have already been
services, fax, internet, e-mail etc. Personal
covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialing
Communication system enables the user to
(STD) telephone facility, while International
establish direct contact.
communication can be made through ISD
The Indian postal network is the largest in (International Subscriber Dialing). There is
the world with 1,55,000 post offices. Of these an uniform rate of STD facilities all over India.
more than 1,39,000 post offices are located in Telephone is a form of oral communication.
rural areas. The postal service was opened to It is considered very essential for the growth
the public in the country in 1837. The first of commerce. It is the most preferred form as
Indian postal stamp was issued in 1852 in it provides instant communication. Mobile
Karachi. Collecting and delivering mail is the phone, fax and internet are the other personal
primary function of the department of posts. communication used in the country.
It introduced the Quick Mail Service in 1975

5.5.2 Mass Communication percent of the Indian population accessed the
Systems internet in 2015. This is a significant increase in
Mass Communication enables millions comparison to the previous years, considering
of people to get the information at the same the internet penetration rate in India stood at
time. It is a great way to provide education about 10 percent in 2011. Furthermore, men
as well as entertainment. It helps in creating dominated internet usage in India with 71
awareness among the people regarding percent to women’s 29 percent.
various national policies and programmes. Print Media: Newspapers are the
The Mass Communication Systems can most common but powerful means of
provide the information to people in communication come under print media.
two methods. They are Print Media and India has many newspapers which carry
Electronic Media. information on local, national and
Electronic Media: Radio broadcasting in international events to the people.
India was started in 1923 by the Radio club
of Bombay. Since then it gained immense 5.5.3 Satellite Communication
popularity and changed the social and cultural Satellite Network
life of people. It was named as All India Radio Satellite
(AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as

Akashwani in 1957. It broadcasts a variety of
programs related to information, education
and entertainment. Special news bulletins Corporate
Headquarters
Enterprise
are also broadcasted on special occasions like Teleport

Emergency
Response
session of parliament and state legislatures.
Internet
Business
Connuity
Television broadcasting has emerged as PSTN Router Data/Internet

Fax
the most effective audio-visual medium for Central
Voice
disseminating information and educating the Office

PSTN= public switched telephone network
Server
masses. Television network in India is known

as Doordarshan (DD) which started Common The use of Satellite in getting a continuous
National Program (CNP) services and it is and synoptic view of larger area has made
extended to the backward and remote rural this communication system very vital for the
areas. country. Satellite images are used for weather
forecasting, monitoring of natural calamities,
Internet (contraction of interconnected
surveillance of border areas etc. The
network) is the global system of
communication through satellites emerged as
interconnected computer networks that
a new era in communication in our country
use the Internet protocol suite to link
after the establishment of Indian Space
devices worldwide. Social media are
Research Organization (ISRO) in 1969.
interactive computer-mediated technologies
that facilitate the creation and sharing Satellite system in India can be grouped
of information, ideas, career interests into two-the Indian National Satellite
and other forms of expression via virtual System (INSAT) and the Indian Remote
communities and networks. With over Sensing Satellite System (IRS).The INSAT,
460 million internet users, India is the established in 1983, is a multipurpose system
second largest online market, ranked only for telecommunication, meteorological
behind China. By 2021, there will be about observation and for various other programs.
635.8 million internet users in India. Despite The INSAT series are used for relaying signals
the large base of internet users in India, only 26 to television, telephone, radio, mobile phone.

It is also useful in weather detection, internet Trade carried on between two or more
and military applications. countries is called International trade. It is
also called as external trade or foreign trade.
The INSAT series, GSAT series,
Export and Import are two components of
KALPANA-1, HAMSAT, EDUSAT are
International trade. Export means goods and
the major communication satellite used
services sold for foreign currency. Import
for communication purpose. GSAT–7A
means goods and services bought from
is the recent launch (December 19, 2018)
overseas producers. Waterways and Airways
for communication programs. INSAT-1B
play a vital role in this type of trade. Foreign
launched on 30th August 1983 is the first
currency is involved in international trade.
communication satellite in INSAT series.
The trade between any two countries is called
Bilateral trade. The trade between more than two
5.6 Trade countries is called Mutilateral Trade.
Trade is an important phenomenon that
decides the economic growth of a country. Hots
Trade is an act (or) process of buying, selling or Find out the major trade blocs which are
exchanging of goods and services. The primitive useful for multilateral trade.
method of trade was known as the Barter
system where goods were exchanged for goods.
5.6.2 Exports
Later on, money was introduced as a medium
of exchange in buying and selling of goods. The The major exports of India are tea, marine
difference in value between the imports and products, ores and minerals, leather products,
exports is called balance of trade. The situation gems and jewels, sports goods, chemicals and
in which the value of exports exceeds the value related products, plastics and rubber articles,
of imports is termed as favourable balance articles of stones, plaster, cement, asbestos,
of trade and the reverse position is termed as mica, glass ware, paper and related products,
unfavourable balance of trade. base metals, optical, medical and surgical
instruments, electronic items, machinery, office
Activity equipments, textiles and allied products.
Collect the names fo different types of 5.6.3 Imports
goods and differentiate it and make a table The major imports are petroleum products,
as perishable and non-perishable goods. pearls, precious stones and semi-precious
stones, gold and telecom instruments.
5.6.1 Types of Trade
Trade in general, is of two types. They Activity
are Internal and International. The trade Collect the countries names and make it as
carried on within the domestic territory of a table of Bilateral trade and multilateral
a country is termed as Internal trade. It is trade countries.
also called as Domestic trade or Local trade.
Land transport (roadways and railways) plays 5.6.4 India’s Trade Performance
a major role in this trade. Local currency is
used in internal trade. It helps to promote The volume of India’s foreign trade has
a balanced regional growth in the country increased many fold since independence.
i.e, tea from Assam, coffee from Karnataka, During 2008 -2009, the volume of trade was
Rubber and spices from Kerala, minerals from 840755 crores and it rose to 1039797 crores
Jharkhand etc., are supplied to different parts in 2016-2017. The import during 2008-2009
of our country. was 1374436 crores and was with a deficit of

40679 crores. The import during 2016–2017
rose to 1396352 crores and was with the deficit
of 356555 crores. It reveals that not only the EXERCISE
balance of trade is unfavourable but also the
increase in the level of deficit.
I. Choose the correct answer
1. The scientific study of different aspects of
Recap population is called
a) Photography
The total number of people residing in b) Demography
a country at a specified period of time is
c) Choreography
called the size of population of that country.
d) Population density.
The growth of population is
determined by the birth rate, death 2.
T he state with highest
rate and migration of people. literacy rate as per 2011 census is
The process of society’s transformation _________.
from rural to urban is known as a) Tamil nadu b) Karnataka
urbanization. c) Kerala d) Uttarpradesh.
Communication is classified into the 3. Human Development is measured in terms
personal and mass communications. of _________.
Trade is an exchange of goods and a) Human Resource Index
services. Internal and International b) Per capita index
trades are its types. Import and
c) Human Development Index
exports are the components of an
International Trade. d) UNDP
4. ______________ transport provides door
to door services.
GLOSSARY a) Railways b) Roadways
c) Airways d) Waterways.
Barter: A direct exchange of goods
between any two parties.No money is 5.
The length of Golden Quadrilateral
involved in the trade. superhighways in India is
Foreign exchange: The mechanism a) 5846 km b) 5847 km
or process by which payments between c) 5849 km d) 5800 km
any two places operating under different 6. The length of navigable Inland waterways
national currency systems are effected in India is
without passing of actual money or gold, etc.
a) 17,500 km b) 5000 km
Harbour: An extensive stretch of
c) 14,500 km d) 1000 km
deep water near the seashore where
vessels can anchor securely. It is used 7.
The National Remote sensing
for exports and imports of goods. Centre(NRSC) is located at ____________.
Port: The commercial part of a a) Bengaluru b) Chennai
harbour with the facility of loading and c) Delhi d) Hyderabad
unloading of goods and space for the
8. The transport useful in the inaccessible
storage of cargo.
areas is

a) Roadways b) Railways 5. Waterways and Airways.
c) Airways d) Waterways 6. Internal trade and International trade.
9. Which of the following is associated with
helicopter service? V. Answer the following in a
a) Air India b) Indian Airlines paragraph
c) Vayudoot d) Pavan Hans 1. What is urbanization? Explain its impacts.
10. The major import item of India is 2. E xplain the importances of satellite
communication in India.
a) Cement b) Jewells
3. Bring out the distribution and density of
c) Tea d) Petroleum
population in India.
II. Match the following 4. Explain the process of measuring Human
Development.
1 Border Road - Satellite
Organisation communication 5. C
lassify and explain the roadways in India.
2 INSAT - Impact of
Urbanization VI. On the outline map of India
3 Mazagaon Dock - 1990 mark the following
4 Urban sprawl - Mumbai 1. National Highway NH-7

2. Major seaports in India.
5 Konkan Railways - 1960
3. Major International Airports in India.
- Hyderabad
4. Densely populated state of India.
5. State of highest literacy in India
III. A
nswer the following
6. Railways zones of India.
Questions briefly
1. What is Human Development?
REFERENCE BOOKS
2. What is migration? State its types.
3. Write any four advantages of railways. 1. D.R.Khullar (2014) India, A comprehensive
4. Write a note on Pipeline network transport Geography.
in India 2. Surender Singh and Jitender Saroha (2014)
5. State the major Inland waterways of India Geography of India, New Delhi: Access
6.
What is communication? What are its publishing
types? 3. Census of India (2011) Provisional
Population Totals, “Urban Agglomerations
7. Define “International trade”.
and Cities”.
8. State the merits of Roadways.
IV. Distinguish between

INTERNET RESOURCES
1.
Density of population and Growth of
population.
1. www.Commerce,gov.in
2.
Personal communication and mass
communication. 2. www.konkan Railway.com
3. Print Media and Electronic Media. 3. www.Community.data.gov.in

4. Roadways and Railways.

STANDARD TEN
CIVICS
Unit I - INDIAN CONSTITUTION.indd 168 10-04-2019 09:56:27

Unit - 1
Indian
Constitution
Learning Objectives
To know about the making of Indian Constitution
To know the Salient features of Indian Constitution
To understand the Fundamental Rights and Duties
To know the Directive Principles of State Policy
To understand the Centre-State relations and the Emergency Provisions
Introduction 1.2 Making of Indian

The Constitution is the fundamental law Constitution
of a country which reflects the fundamental The Constitution of India was framed by
principles on which the government of that a Constituent Assembly setup under the
country is based. It is the vehicle of a Nation’s Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946. The Assembly
progress. More particularly, it is concerned consisted of 389 members representing
with institutional fabric and the framework Provinces (292), States (93), the Chief
of the distribution of powers between the Commissioner’s provinces (3) and Baluchistan
(1). The Assembly held its first meeting on
various organs of the government and between
December 9, 1946. Dr. Sachchidananda
the Union and the States. The concept of
Sinha, the oldest member, was elected as the
constitution was first originated in U.S.A. temporary President of the Assembly. While
the work was in progress, Dr. Sahchidananda
1.1 The Need for Sinha died. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as
a Constitution the President of the Assembly. Similarly, both
H.C. Mukherjee and V.T. Krishnamachari were
All Democratic countries have a constitution
elected as the Vice-Presidents of the Assembly.
that governs them. A constitution puts down
The Assembly met for 11 sessions along with
certain principles that form the basis of any
166 days of meetings. During the discussion,
kind of a state that we as citizens, desire to 2473 amendments were presented. Some of
live in. A constitution tells us the fundamental them were accepted. The Assembly worked
nature of our society. A country is usually through various committees and the draft of
made up of different communities of people the Constitution was prepared by the Drafting
who have different beliefs; it will be helpful Committee under the chairmanship of Dr.
in fulfilling the beliefs of different segments B.R. Ambedkar. He is recognised as the ‘Father
of citizens. of the Constitution of India’.
169 Indian Constitution

It introduces Universal Adult Franchise
and accords the right to vote to all
citizens above 18 years of age without any
discrimination.
It provides single citizenship.
It makes special provisions for minorities,
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, etc.
1.4 Preamble
The term ‘preamble’ refers to the
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
introduction or preface to the Constitution.
After the draft had been It consists of the ideals, objectives and basic
discussed by the people, the principles of the Constitution. It contains
press, provincial assemblies the summary or essence of the Constitution.
and others, the Constitution It has great value and has been described as
was finally adopted on the ‘key to the Constitution’. The Preamble
November 26, 1949, to the Indian Constitution is based on the
contained a Preamble, 22 parts, 395 Articles ‘Objective Resolution’, drafted by Jawaharlal
and 8 Schedules. The drafted Constitution Nehru, which was adopted by the Constituent
came into force on 26th January, 1950. This Assembly on January 22, 1947. It has been
day is known as the Republic Day. It is being amended once by the 42nd Constitutional
observed every year. Amendment Act of 1976, which added three
new words - socialist, secular and integrity.
Prem Behari Narain Raizada was The Preamble begins with the phrase ‘We,
the calligrapher of the Indian the People of India’. This clearly implies
Constitution. The original that the Constitution derives its authority
constitution was handwritten by from the People of India. Thus, we can
him in a flowing italic style. say that the people of India are the source
of our Constitution. The Preamble of our
Constitution states that India is a Sovereign
1.3 Salient features of Socialist Secular Democratic Republic.
Indian Constitution Its aim is to secure to all Indian citizens
It is the lengthiest of all the written Social, economic and political justice. The
constitutions of the world. Constitution guarantees Liberty of thought,
expression, belief, faith and worship to all. It
It has borrowed most of its provisions
gives Equality of status and of opportunity to
from the constitutions of various
all. It wants to promote Fraternity among all
countries.
Indians.
It is partly rigid and partly flexible.
It establishes a federal system of
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
government.
were the important slogans during
It establishes the parliamentary system not the French Revolution in 1789.
only at the Centre but also in the states. They are given importance in the
It makes India as a secular state. Preamble of our Constitution.
It provides an independent judiciary.
Indian Constitution 170

1.5 Citizenship 1.5.3 Loss of Citizenship
The word ‘Citizen’ is derived from the The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes
Latin term ‘Civis’. It means resident of a City three ways of losing citizenship whether
State. The Constitution of India provides for acquired under the Act or prior to it under the
a single and uniform citizenship for the whole Constitution, viz, renunciation, termination
of India. Articles 5 to 11 under part II of the and deprivation.
Constitution deals with the citizenship. 1. It can be voluntarily renounced by a
citizen.
1.5.1 Citizenship Act of 1955 2. It can be terminated if a person acquires
The Citizenship Act of 1955 provides for the citizenship of some other country.
acquisition and loss of citizenship after the 3. The central government can deprive a
commencement of the Constitution. This naturalized citizen, if it satisfied that the
Act has been amended so far eight times. citizenship was acquired by fraud, false
Originally, the Citizenship Act (1955) also representation or concealment of material
provided for the commonwealth Citizenship. facts or indulges in trade with enemy
But, this provision was repealed by the countries or if the person has been sentenced
Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003.
to imprisonment for a period of 2 years.
1.5.2 Acquisition of Citizenship
1.6 Fundamental Rights
The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes
five ways of acquiring citizenship, viz, birth, The Fundamental Rights are enshrined
descent, registration, naturalisation and in Part III of the Constitution from Articles
incorporation of territory: 12 to 35. In this regard, the framers of the
Constitution derived inspiration from
According to the Citizenship Act, 1955, the
the Constitution of USA. Originally,
citizenship could be acquired through any of
the Constitution provided for seven
the following methods.
Fundamental Rights. At present, there are
1. By Birth: All persons born in India on only six Fundamental Rights. Part III of the
or after January 26, 1950 are treated as Constitution is rightly described as the Magna
citizens by birth. Carta of India. While Fundamental Rights are
2. By Descent: A person born outside India available to all persons, certain Fundamental
on or after January 26, 1950 shall be a Rights are available only to Indian Citizens.
citizen of India by descent, if his father is
a citizen of India at the time of his birth. ‘Magna Carta’ is the Charter of
3. By Registration: A person can acquire Rights issued by King John of
citizenship of India by registration with England in 1215 under pressure
appropriate authority. from the barons. This is the first
4. By Naturalisation: A foreigners can written document relating to
acquire Indian citizenship, on application the Fundamental Rights of citizens.
for naturalization to the Government of
India. Right to constitutional remedies
5. By Incorporation of Territory: In the (Articles 32)
event of a certain territory being added A writ is an order or command issued by
to the territory of India, the Government a court in writing under its seal. It is in the
of India shall specify the persons of that nature of a command or prohibition from
territory who shall be citizen of India. performing certain acts that are specified in

I. RIGHT TO EQUALITY II. RIGHT TO FREEDOM
Art. 14 - Equality before law. Art. 19 - Freedom of speech and expression,

Art. 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on assembly, association, movement,
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or residence and profession.
place of birth. Art. 20 - Protection in respect of conviction for
Art. 16 - Equality of opportunity in matters of offences.
public employment. Art. 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty.
Art. 17 - Abolition of Untouchability. Art. 21A - Right to elementary education.
Art. 18 - Abolition of titles except military and Art. 22 - Protection against arrest and detention
academic. in certain cases.
III. RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION IV. RIGHT TO RELIGION
Art. 25 - Freedom of conscience and free

profession, practice and propagation of
religion.
Art. 23 - Prohibition of traffic in human beings Art. 26 - Freedom to manage religious affairs.
and forced labour. Art. 27 - Freedom from payment of taxes for
Art. 24 - Prohibition of employment of children promotion of any religion.
in factories, etc. Art. 28 - Freedom from attending religious
instruction or worship in certain
educational institutions.
V. CULTURAL & EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS
VI. RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES
Art. 29 - Protection of language, script and

culture of minorities. Art. 32 - It allows individuals to seek redressal
Art. 30 - Right of minorities to establish and for the violation of their fundamental
administer educational institutions. rights.
Right to Property (Art. 31) Violation

was deleted from the list of which
of Fundamental Rights by Fu nd ame nt a l
the 44 th Amendment Act, right is associated
1978. It is made a legal right with the theme
under Article 300-A in Part XII of the depicted in the
Constitution. stamps?

the orders of the court. Both the Supreme
The 86 th Amendment Act
Court and the High Courts are empowered
of 2002 changed the subject
to issue five kinds of writs of habeas corpus,
-matter of Article 45 and
mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and
made elementary education
certiorari. That is why the Supreme Court
a fundamental right under
is called the “Guardian of the Constitution”.
Article 21 A. The amended directive
According to Dr. Ambedkar, Article 32 is “the
requires the State to provide early childhood
heart and soul of the Constitution”.
care and education for all children until
(a) Habeas Corpus: Safeguards people from they complete the age of six years.
illegal arrests.
(b) Mandamus: It protects the petitioner who But they are fundamental for the governance
requires legal help to get his work done by of the country. The Government is duty bound
respective public authorities. to apply these principles while making laws.
(c) Prohibition: It prohibits a subordinate They aim at promoting the Social Welfare
of the people. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described
court from acting beyond its jurisdiction.
these principles as ‘novel features’ of the
(d) Certiorari: It quashes an order issued by a
Indian Constitution.
subordinate court by overstepping its ju-
risdiction. Differences between
(e) Quo Warranto: It prevents usurpation of Fundamental Rights and Directive
public office through illegal manner. Principles of State Policy
Suspension of Fundamental Fundamental Directive Principles

Rights of State Policy
Rights
It was derived from It was drawn on
When the President makes a Proclamation
the Constitution of the model of the
of Emergency under Article 352, the
the USA. Constitution of
freedoms guaranteed under Article 19 are
Ireland.
automatically suspended. The President can
suspend other fundamental rights through Even the These are mere
specific orders. These orders must be Government cannot instructions to the
approved by the Parliament. But he cannot take away or abridge Government.
suspend the freedoms given under Arts. 20 these rights.
and 21 (protection in respect of conviction for These are These are not
offences and protection of life and personal enforceable by a enforceable in any
liberty respectively) in any circumstances. court of law. court.
1.7 Directive Principles of These have legal These have moral

sanctions. and political
State Policy
sanctions.
The Directive Principles of State Policy are
enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution These rights The implementation
from Articles 36 to 51. The Constitution does strengthen political of these principles
not contain any classification of Directive democracy in the ensures social
Principles. However, on the basis of their country. and economic
content and direction, they can be classified democracy.
into three broad categories, viz, socialistic, These are natural These lead to
Gandhian and liberal-intellectual. These rights. protect human
principles are not enforceable by the courts. rights.

1.8 Fundamental Duties (i) To safeguard public property and to abjure
violence
The Fundamental Duties in the Indian
Constitution are inspired by the Constitution (j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres
of former USSR. In 1976, the Congress party of individual and collective activity, so that
set up the Sardar Swaran Singh Committee the nation constantly rises to higher levels of
to make recommendations on fundamental endeavour and achievement
duties. The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 (k) To provide opportunities for education to
added some responsibilities of citizens to our his child or ward between the age of six and
Constitution called the Fundamental Duties. fourteen years. (The 86th Constitutional
This amendment added a new part, namely, Amendment Act, 2002 has also introduced
Part IVA to the Constitution. This new part the 11th Fundamental Duty under 51A(k)
consists of only one Article that is Article 51A under which all citizens of India or parents
which for the first time specified a code of ten shall provide opportunities for education to
fundamental duties of the citizens. their children between age of 6 and 14 years)
1.8.1 List of Fundamental Duties 1.9 Centre-State Relations

Article 51A declares it to be the duty of The Constitution of India, being federal
every citizen of India. in structure, divides all powers between
(a) To abide by the the Centre and the States. The Centre-state
constitution and relations can be studied under three heads:
respect its ideals
1.9.1 Legislative relations
and institutions,
the National Flag The Union Parliament has the power
and the National to legislate for the whole or any part of the
Anthem. territory of India, which includes not only the
States but also the Union Territories or any
(b) To cherish and
other area for the time being, included in the
follow the noble
territory of India. The Seventh Schedule of
ideals which in-
the Constitution embodies three lists namely,
spired the national struggle for freedom
the Union List, State List and Concurrent List
(c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity consisting of 97, 66 and 47 items respectively.
and integrity of India The Parliament enjoys the exclusive power to
(d) To defend the country and render national legislate on subjects enumerated in the Union
service when called upon to do so List. The State Legislature has exclusive right to
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of com-
mon brotherhood among all the people of The Union List, State List and
India transcending religious, linguistic and Concurrent List consisting
regional or sectional diversities; to renounce at present 100, 61 and 52
practices derogatory to the dignity of women items respectively. The 42nd
Amendment Act of 1976
(f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of
transferred five subjects to Concurrent List
our composite culture
from State List, that is, education, forests,
(g) To protect and improve the natural envi- weights and measures, protection of wild
ronment including forests, lakes, rivers and animals and birds, and administration of
wildlife, and to have compassion for living justice; constitution and organisation of all
creatures courts excepts the Supreme Court and the
(h) To develop scientific temper, humanism and high courts.
the spirit of inquiry and reform

Language of the judiciary and texts of laws
In 1969, the Tamil Nadu and Special directives.
Government appointed a
three-member committee The First language committee was
under the chairmanship of Dr. appointed in 1955. It submitted its report in
P V Rajamannar to examine the 1956. As a follow up of the report, parliament
entire question of Centre-state relations. enacted the Official Language Act, 1963. The
act laid down that even after 15 year, English
legislate on the State List. Both Parliament and may continued to be used along with Hindi for
State Legislatures have power to legislate on all official purposes of the Union and also for
subjects contained in the Concurrent transaction of business in parliament. Again
List. But in case of conflict between the law through the Official Languages (Amendment)
of the State and the Union on a subject in the Act, 1967, it was provided that the use of
Concurrent List, the law of Parliament prevails. English would continue indefinitely. The
Constitution also permitted certain regional
1.9.2 Administrative relations languages to be used for intra-state official
The Administrative power of a State extends transactions. Initially, the Constitution
only to its own territory and with respect to recognised 14 regional languages which were
which it has legislative competence, whereas included in the Eighth Schedule. At present,
the Union has exclusive executive power over: 22 languages are recognised.
(a) the matters with respect to which Parliament
has exclusive power to make laws and (b) the Activity
exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or List out the recognised languages in the
agreement. Eighth Schedule of the Constitution?
1.9.3 Financial relations

In 2004, the Government of
Article 268-293 in Part XII deal with the
India decided to create new
Financial relations between centre and the
category of languages called
states. The Centre and States are empowered
as “classical languages”. So far,
by the Constitution to impose various kinds
the six languages are granted
of taxes. And certain taxes are imposed and
the classical language status namely Tamil
collected by the centre and divided between
(2004), Sanskrit (2005), Telugu (2008),
centre and states based on the recommendation
Kannada (2008), Malayalam (2013) and
of the Finance Commission appointed by the
Odia (2014).
President under Article 280 of the Constitution.
Late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi appointed
the Sarkaria Commission in 1983 to make an 1.11 Emergency Provisions
enquiry into the Centre-State relations. The The Central Government has been vested
Central government has implemented 180 with extraordinary powers to deal with
(out of 247) recommendations of the conditions of emergency. Three types of
Commission. The most important is the emergencies are envisaged in the Constitution:
establishment of the Inter-State Council in 1990.
1.11.1 National Emergency
1.10 Official Language (Article 352)
Part XVII of the Constitution deals with The President under Article 352 can declare
the official language in Articles 343 to 351. Its emergency if he is satisfied that India’s security
provisions are divided into four heads namely, is threatened due to war, external aggression or
Language of the Union, Regional languages, armed rebellion, or if there is an imminent danger

or threat. When a national emergency is declared made in the Constitution of a country. Article
on the ground of war or external aggression it 368 of the Constitution in Part XX, deals
is known as external emergency. On the other with the powers of Parliament to amend the
hand, when it is declared on the ground of armed Constitution and its procedure.
rebellion it is known as internal emergency. This 1.12.1 Procedure of Amendment
type of emergency has been declared three times
An amendment of this Constitution may be
so far: in 1962, 1971 and 1975.
1.11.2 State emergency initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for
the purpose in either House of Parliament,
(Article 356)
and when the Bill is passed in each House
Under Article 356, the President can declare by a majority of the total membership of
an emergency in a state if the Governor reports that House and by a majority of not less than
that a situation has arisen under which the two-thirds of the members of that House
government of a State cannot be carried on present and voting, it shall be presented to
in accordance with the provisions of the the President who shall give his assent to the
Constitution. The continuance of such an Bill and thereupon the Constitution shall
emergency beyond one year is possible only if stand amended in accordance with the terms
emergency under Art. 352 are in operation or of the Bill. The constitution amendment can
the Election Commission certifies that there be brought about only by the Parliament.
are difficulties in holding Assembly elections. State legislatures cannot initiate for any
Maximum duration of the emergency can be amendment to the Constitution.
three years. In this kind of emergency, the States
lose much of their autonomy in legislative and 1.12.2 Types of Amendments
executive matters. After such an announcement Article 368 provides for three ways of
state legislature is suspended and the State amendments, that is, by a special majority of
is governed by the Governor on behalf of the Parliament and also through the ratification
President. For the first time, the President’s Rule of half of the states by a simple majority. But,
was imposed in Punjab in 1951. some other articles provide for the amendment
of certain provisions of the Constitution by
1.11.3 Financial emergency a simple majority of Parliament, that is, a
(Article 360) majority of the members of each House present
Article 360 authorises the President to and voting (similar to the ordinary legislative
declare financial emergency if he is satisfied process). Notably, these amendments are not
that the financial stability or credit of India deemed to be amendments of the Constitution
or of any of its parts is in danger. In this type for the purposes of Article 368. Therefore, the
of emergency, salaries and allowances of Constitution can be amended in three ways:
any class of persons serving State or Union, 1. Amendment by simple majority of the
including judges of the Supreme Court and Parliament
High Court can be reduced by an order of 2. Amendment by special majority of the
the President. This type of emergency has not Parliament
been declared in India so far. 3. Amendment by special majority of the
Parliament and the ratification of half of
1.12 Amendment of the the state legislatures.
Constitution
The term amendment denotes change, 42 nd amendment of the
improvement and modification. Usually this Constitution is known as the
term is associated with one or more changes mini Constitution.

1.13 Constitutional Reform a three member commission headed by the
Commissions former Chief Justice of India M.M.Punchchi
was set up by the then Government to take a
The National Commission to Review the fresh look at relative roles and responsibilities
Working of the Constitution was set up by a of various levels of Government and their
resolution of the Government of India in 2000 inter-relations.
headed by M.N.Venkatachaliah. In April 2007,
Recap
The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet
Mission Plan, 1946.
The Preamble of our Constitution states that India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular
Democratic Republic.
The word ‘Citizen’ is derived from the Latin term ‘Civis’. It means resident of a City State.
According to Dr. Ambedkar, Article 32 is “the heart and soul of the whole Constitution”.
The Fundamental Duties in the Indian Constitution are inspired by the Constitution of
former USSR.
In 2004, the Government of India decided to create new category of languages called as
“classical languages”.
Article 368 of the Constitution in Part XX, deals with the powers of Parliament to amend the
Constitution and its procedure.
GLOSSARY
Preamble the introduction to the constitution of India முகப்புரை

Secular state A state which protects all religions equally சமயச் சார்பற்ற அரசு
Discrimination unfair treatment of a person or group பாகுபாடு
Writ written command of court நீதிப்பேராணை
Sovereignty supreme power or authority இறையாண்மை
Heritage something handed down from one’s ancestors பாரம்பரியம்
Autonomy independence in one’s thoughts or actions தன்னாட்சி
Imminent coming up உடனடி
Proclamation an announcement பிரகடனம்
EVALUATION
(a)
R epublic, democratic, secular,
socialist, sovereign
I C hoos e the
(b)
S overeign, socialist, secular,
C orre ct
republic, democratic
A ns w e r.
(c)
S overeign, republic, secular,
1 . Which of the socialist, democratic
following sequences
(d)
S overeign, socialist, secular,
in right regarding the
democratic, republic
Preamble?

2 . How many times has the Preamble to the 8. Which one of the following rights was
Constitution of India amended? described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the
( a ) Onc e ( b) Tw ice heart and soul of the Constitution?
( c ) Th r ic e ( d) Ne ver (a) Right to freedom of religion
3 . The Indian Constitution gives to its (b) Right to equality
citizens (c) Right to Constitutional remedies
(a) Double Citizenship (d) Right to property
(b) Single Citizenship 9. How can the Fundamental Rights be
(c) Single Citizenship in some States and suspended?
double in others
(a) If the Supreme Court so desires
(d) None of the above
(b) If the Prime Minister orders to this
4. A foreigner can acquire Indian effect
citizenship through (c) If the President orders it during the
(a) Descent national emergency
(b) Registration (d) All of the above
(c) Naturalisation
10. We borrowed the Fundamental Duties
(d) All of the above from the
5. Find the odd one out. (a) American Constitution
(a) Right to Equality (b) Canadian Constitution
(b) Right against Exploitation (c) Russian Constitution
(c) Right to Property (d) Irish Constitution
(d)Cultural and Educational Rights
11. The Directive Principles can be classified
6. One of the following is not an instance into
of an exercise of a fundamental right? (a) Liberal and Communist principles
(a) Workers from Karnataka go to Kerala (b) Socialist and Communist principles
to work on the farms (c) Liberal, Gandhian and Communist
(b) Christian missions set up a chain of principles
missionary schools (d
) Socialist, Gandhian and Liberal
(c)
Men and Women government principles
employees got the same salary.
12. Under which Article financial emergency
(d) Parents property is inherited by their
children can be proclaimed?
(a) Article 352 (b) Article 356
7. If the fundamental rights of Indian
(c) Article 360 (d) Article 368
citizen are violated, they possess the
right to have an access to 13. The procedure for the amendment of the
(a) The Parliament Indian Constitution is given in
(b) The Attorney General (a ) Ar t icle 352 (b) Ar t i cl e 3 5 6
(c) The President of India (c) Ar t icle 360 (d) Ar t i cl e 3 6 8
(d) The Supreme court of India

14. Which of the following committees/ 5. What are the classical languages in
commissions made recommendations India?
about the Centre-State Relations? 6. What is national emergency?
1. Sarkaria Commission 7. List out the three heads of the relations
2. Rajamannar Committee between the Centre and the States.
3. M.N.Venkatachaliah Commission
V Answer in Detail.
Select the correct answer from the
codes given below 1. Explain the salient features of the
Constitution of India.
(a) 1, 2 & 3 (b) 1 & 2
2. Point out the Fundamental Rights.
(c) 1 & 3 (d) 2 & 3
3. Write briefly on the Right to
II Fill in the Blanks. Constitutional Remedies.
4. Mention the differences between
1. The concept of constitution first Fundamental Rights and Directive
originated in ________. Principles of State Policy.
2. ________was elected as the temporary
President of the Constituent Assembly. VI Project and activity.
3. The Constitution of India was adopted 1. Collect information about the various
on________. members of the Constituent Assembly
4. ________ writs are mentioned in Article and their social background.
32. 2. Collect the pictures of the Members of
5. Fundamental duties have been the Drafting Committee and their social
given to the citizen of India under background.
Article________.
VII Life Skill.
III Match the Following. 1. Prepare a chart containing the Rights
and Duties of citizens and display it in
1. Citizenship Act - Jawaharlal Nehru
your class room.
2. The Preamble - 42nd Amendment
3. The mini - 1955 REFERENCE BOOKS
Constitution
1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the
4. Classical - 1962 Constitution of India, S.C. Sarkar &
language Sons (Private) Ltd, 1982.
5 National - Tamil 2. PM Bakshi - The Constitution of India,
Emergency Universal Law Publishing - an imprint of
LexisNexis, 2018.
IV Give short Answers.
1. What is a Constitution? INTERNET RESOURCES
2. What is meant by citizenship?
3. How many types of fundamental rights https://www.india.org/
are listed by the Indian Constitution? T https://w w w.const itut ion.org/cons/
4. What is a Writ? india/p03.html

Unit - 2
Central
Government
Learning Objectives
To know the powers of the President and Vice President
To Know the about the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
To understand the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
To know about Supreme Court
Introduction Indian constitution, by giving due recognition

to the vastness and plural character of our
The Central Government is the supreme nation, have provided a federal arrangement
government in our country. The head for her governance. The Central Government
quarter of the Central Government is at New consists of three organs, namely, Union
Delhi. Articles 52 to 78 in part V of Indian Executive, Legislature and Judiciary. The
Constitution deals with the Union Executive. Union Executive consists of the President of
Our Constitution provides for a democratic India, the Vice-President, and the Council of
form of government. The makers of the Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, and
Central Government
Executive Legislature Judiciary
President of India Parliament Supreme Court of India
Vice-President Chief Justice of India

Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha
Prime Minister 238 Elected Other Judges 27

12 Nominated
by the State
Assemblies by the President
Council of
Ministers 543 Elected by the people 2 Nominated by the President
Central Government 180
Unit 2 -Central Government(06.03.2019).indd 180 10-04-2019 09:58:36

the Attorney General of India. The Legislature 2.1.1 Qualification for the
is known as the Parliament. It consists of two
election as President
houses, namely the Rajya Sabha and the Lok
Sabha. The Union Judiciary consists of the The constitution lays down qualifications
Supreme Court of India. for a Presidential candidate.
He should be a citizen of India.
2.1 The President of India He must have completed the age of thirty-
five years.
In the scheme
of parliamentary He must not hold any office of profit under
system of the Union, State or local Government.
government He should have the other qualifications
provided by the required to become a member of the Lok
constitution, Sabha.
the President His or her name should be proposed
is the nominal by at least ten electors and seconded
e x e c u t i v e by another ten electors of the Electoral
authority. The College which elects the President.
chief executive of DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
(First President of India) The President cannot be a Member of
the Indian union
Parliament or of a State Legislature; if he is
is the President. He is designated as the First
a member of any legislature, his seat will be
citizen of India. He is the supreme commander
deemed to have been vacated on the date he /
of the armed forces. The President is also the
she assumes the office of President.
Constitutional head of the Union Executive.
He is also responsible for constituting the 2.1.2 Election of the President
judiciary. According to Article 53 of the The President is elected by an electoral
constitution, the executive power of the college in accordance with the system of
Union shall be vested in the President which proportional representation by means
shall be exercised by him directly or through of single transferable vote. The Electoral
officers subordinate to him in accordance with College consists of the elected members of
Constitution. both houses of Parliament and the elected
It is a well known fact that members of the states and elected members
the President of India resides of National Capital Territory of Delhi and
at Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Puducherry. Once elected as the President
Delhi. The residence and the has to take an oath of office before the Chief
office of the President are Justice of India. The President is elected for a
located in the same building. However he term of five years and can be re-elected.
has two other office cum residences where 2.1.3 Powers of the President
he conducts office at least once a year. They
are 'The Retreat Building' at Shimla and the The powers and functions of the President
'Rashtrapati Nilayam' at Hyderabad. These of India can be broadly classified under the
locations one in North and other one is South following categories.
symbolise the unity of the country and unity
Executive Powers
of the diverse culture of the people.
The constitution vests in the President of
India all the executive powers of the Central
Government. Article 77 requires that every
181 Central Government

general election and also at the beginning
List of Presidents of India
of the first session each year. This address
1. Thiru. Rajendra Prasad 1950 to 1962 is essentially identical in nature to a Speech
2. Thiru. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1962 to 1967 from the Throne.The President summons
3. Thiru. Zakir Hussain 1967 to 1969 Parliament at least twice in a year.
4. Thiru. V.V Giri 1969 to 1974
He may send messages to either House of
5. Thiru. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 1974 to 1977
the Parliament with respect to a bill pending in
6. Thiru. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 1977 to 1982
7. Thiru. Giani Zail Singh 1982 to 1987
the House. All bills passed by the Parliament
8. Thiru. R Venkataraman 1987 to 1992
become “Laws of Acts” only after getting
9. Thiru. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1992 to 1997 assent of the President. Money bills cannot
10. Thiru. K R Narayanan 1997 to 2002 be introduced in the Parliament without his
11. Thiru. APJ Abdul Kalam 2002 to 2007 approval. President terminates the sessions
12. Tmt. Pratibha Patil 2007 to 2012 of both or any of the Houses of Parliament.
13. Thiru. Pranab Mukherjee 2012 to 2017 He can even dissolve the Lok Sabha before the
14. Thiru. Ram Nath Kovind 2017 to till now expiry of the term of the House.
He nominates 12 persons who are eminent
executive action of the Union shall be taken in literature, science, sports, art and social
in the name of the President. So he has to service to the Rajya Sabha. He can also
make many appointments to key-offices to nominate two persons belonging to Anglo-
run the administration. Indian Community to the Lok Sabha, if in
He appoints the Prime Minister and the his opinion, that community is inadequately
other members of the Council of Ministers, represented in the House.
distributing portfolios to them on the advice Financial Power
of the Prime Minister. He is responsible for
making a wide variety of appointments. These Money bill can be introduced in
include the appointment of Governors of the Parliament only with his prior
States, the Chief Justice and other Judges of the recommendation. Annual Budget of the
Supreme Court and high Courts, the Attorney Central Government is presented before the
General, the Comptroller and Auditor Lok Sabha by the Union Finance Minister
General, the Chief Election Commissioner only with the permission of the President.
and other Election Commissioners the He causes to be laid before the Parliament
Chairman and other Members of the Union the annual financial statement (the Union
Public Service Commission Ambassadors Budget). The Constitution of India places the
and High Commissioners to other countries. Contingency Fund of India is at the disposal of
the President. No demand for a grant can be
He appoints a commission to investigate
made except on his recommendation. He can
into the conditions of SCs, STs and other
make advances out of the contingency fund
backward classes.He is the supreme
commander of the defense forces of India, in of India to meet any unexpected expenditure.
this capacity the President can appoint Army, He constitutes a finance commission after
Navy, and Air Chiefs. every five years or on the demand of the states
to recommend the distribution of revenues
Legislative Powers between the Centre and the States.
The President is an integral part of the Judicial Powers
Union Parliament. He inaugurates the session
of the Parliament by addressing it after the Article 72 confers on the President power
to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or

remissions of punishment, or to commute Under Article 360, the President is vested
the sentence of any person convicted of an with the power to proclaim Financial
offence. In all cases where the punishment Emergency, if he is satisfied that the financial
or sentence is by a court martial; in all cases stability or, the credit of India or any part of
where the punishment or sentence is for and India is threatened, by any reason.
offence against a Union law; and in all cases
where the sentence is a sentence of death.
The President is not answerable to any court erala and Punjab are the States
K
of law for exercise of his/she power (however where the President’s Rule was
He can be subjected to impeachment by the imposed for maximum number
Parliament). of times i.e., nine times in both
States.
Military Powers
Article 53(2) lays down that “the supreme
command of the Defence Force of the Union
2.1.4 Removal of the President
shall be vested in the President and the
exercise thereof shall be regulated by law”. The President shall hold office for a term of
The President is thus declared to be the five years from the date on which He enters
Supreme Commander of the defence Force of the office. The President may by writing under
the country. In the exercise of this power, it is his hand addressed to the Vice-President,
the President, who can declare war against a resign his office. The President may, for
country and make peace. violation of the Constitution, be removed
from office by impeachment in the manner
Diplomatic Powers provided in Article 61; The Impeachment
The President appoints Indian diplomats to action can be brought about in the form of
other countries and receives foreign diplomats resolution in either house of the Parliament.
posted to India. The ambassador designate It must be supported by not less than One-
becomes ambassador after calling on the Fourth of the total strength of the House for
President and presenting his credentials. All its introduction. The President shall, in spite
treaties and agreements with foreign States of the conclusion of his term, continue to
are entered into, in the name of the President. hold office until his successor enters upon his
office.
Emergency Powers
2.1.5 Privileges of the President
The President has been empowered by
the Constitution to proclaim Emergency. According to Article 361(1) the President,
They are follows: Article 352 confers or the Governor of a state, shall not be
power on the President to make a answerable to any court for the exercise and
proclamation of Emergency on the performance of the powers and duties of his
grounds of war, external aggression, office or for any act done or purporting to be
or armed rebellion. This is known as done by him in the exercise and performance
National Emergency. of those powers and duties.
Article 356 confers power on the
President to make a proclamation of 2.2 Vice-President
State Emergency by declaring that the The vice-President occupies the second
Government in a State cannot be run on highest office in the country. He is accorded
in accordance of the provisions of the a rank next to the President in the official
Constitution. warrant of precedence. This office is

modeled on the lines 2.2.3 Removal of the Vice
of the American Vice- President
President. Article 63
The Vice President may be removed from
of the constitution
his office by a resolution of the Council of
provides for a Vice
States passed by a majority of all the then
President of India.
members of the council and agreed to by the
This office has been
House of the People. A resolution for this
created to maintain the
purpose may be moved only after a notice of
political continuity of DR. RADHA KRISHNAN at least a minimum of 14 days has been given
the state. (First Vice President of India)
of such an intention.
2.2.1 Qualification for the 2.2.4 F unctions of the Vice
election as Vice President President
The constitution lays down qualifications The Vice-President is Ex-Officio Chairman
for a Vice Presidential candidate. of the Rajya Sabha. As the Chairman of the
He should be a citizen of India. House, he carries out several functions.
He must have completed the age of thirty- He regulates the proceeding of the House.
five years. He decides the order of the House.
He must not hold any office of profit under He decides the admissibility of a
the Union, State or local Government. resolution or questions.
He should have the other qualifications He suspends or adjourns the House in
required to become a member of the case of a grave disorder.
Rajya Sabha. He issues directions to various committees
on matters relating to their functions.
2.2.2 E
lection and term of the
Vice-President Casting Vote
Article 66(1) the Vice- According to Article (100)

President, like the president, of the Constitution, the vice-
is elected not directly by president can\only cast his
the people but the method vote when there is a tie over
of indirect election. He is the Bill in the Rajya Sabha.It
elected by the members means that there is need for one vote only
of an electoral college to pass the Bill. So vice-president using his
consisting of the member of both Houses discretion power cast his vote in favor or
of Parliament. The term of office of the against the Bill. No members have any right
Vice President is five years. His office may to oppose his decision.
terminate earlier than the fixed term either
by resignation, death or by removal. He is When the President is unable to discharge
eligible for re-election. The Constitution his duties due to illness or absence from
does not provide a mechanism of succession the country, he attends to the functions
to the office of the Vice – President. Under of the President. When the President is
such circumstances, election to the Vice unable to do so due to sickness or when
the post of President becomes vacant
President shall be held early as possible. Till
due to resignation, death, or removal
then deputy chairman of the Rajya sabha can
by impeachment etc. the Vice-President
perform the duties of the chairman of the can act as the President for a maximum
Rajya sabha. period of six months.

by the President on the advice of the Prime
If the posts of President
Minister. If no party commands absolute
and Vice-President lie vacant,
majority in the Lok Sabha, the President can
Chief Justice of India works
summon the leader of any party who, in his
as President. This situation
opinion, can manage to form a ministry. The
happened in 1969 when Chief
President administers to the ministers the
Justice M.Hidayutalla was appointed as
oath of office and of secrecy. The salaries
President of India.
and allowances of the Prime Minister and the
ministers are determined by the Parliament. A
2.3 Prime Minister person who is not a member of the Parliament
can be appointed as a minister but he has to
Article 74 (1) says:
get himself elected to the Parliament within
There shall be a council
six months. Ministers are individually as well
of ministers with the
as collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
Prime Minster as the
head to aid and advice 2.3.1 Duties and functions of
the President. He may Prime Minister
direct the council
to reconsider their Article 78 mentioned the duties of the
advice, but is bound Prime Minister:
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
by the advice given (First Prime Minister of India) The Prime Minister decides the rank
after reconsideration. of his ministers and distributes various
The post of Prime Minister of India has departments.
adopted the Westminster (England) model of The Prime Minister decides the dates and
constitutional democracy. the agenda of the meeting of the Cabinet
The leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha which he presides.
is appointed by the President as the Prime The Prime Minister is the Head of the
Minister. The other ministers are appointed Cabinet and the other ministers are his
colleagues.
List of Prime Ministers of India The Prime Minister informally consults
two or three of his senior colleagues when
1. Thiru. Jawaharlal Nehru 1947–64 he does not convene a Cabinet meeting.
2. Thiru. Lal Bahadur Shastri 1964–66
The Prime Minister supervises the work
3. Tmt. Indira Gandhi 1966–77
of various ministers.
4. Thiru. Morarji Desai 1977–79
5. Thiru. Charan Singh 1979–80 To converse to the President all decisions
6. Tmt. Indira Gandhi 1980–84 of the Council of Ministers connecting
7. Thiru. Rajiv Gandhi 1984–89 to the government of the affairs of the
8. Thiru. V.P. Singh 1989–90 Union and proposals for legislation.
9. Thiru. Chandra Shekhar 1990–91 The Prime Minister act as the link
10. Thiru. P.V. Narasimha Rao 1991–96 between the President and the Council of
11. Thiru. Atal Bihari Vajpayee May 1996 Ministers.
12. Thiru. D. Deve Gowda 1996–97 The Prime Minister is the leader of the
13. Thiru. I.K. Gujral 1997–98 nation and chief spokesperson of the
14. Thiru. Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1998–2004 country.
15. Thiru. Manmohan Singh 2004–14
As the leader of the nation, the Prime
16. Thiru. Narendra Modi 2014–till now
Minister represents our nation at all

international conferences like the but they do not participate in the meetings of
commonwealth, summit of the non the cabinet unless invited to do so.
aligned nations and SAARC nations.
Deputy Ministers
2.3.2 Council of Ministers They are the lowest ranked ministers in
After the elections, the President of India, the cabinet. They assist either the Ministers
on the advice of the Prime Minister, appoints of Cabinet or State in the performance of the
the council of ministers. Sometimes a non duties entrusted to them.
– member of the Parliament too may be
appointed. However, he must get elected to 2.4 Parliament of India
either of the Houses of the Parliament within The parliament is the legislative organ of the
a period of six months. The Constitution of Union government. Article 79 to 122 in part V
India restricts the number of the Council of of the constitution deal with the organization,
Ministers including the Prime Minister to composition, duration, officers, procedures,
fifteen per cent of the total members of the privileges, powers and so on of the Parliament.
Lok Sabha. The Parliament of India consists of three
parts they are the President, Rajya Sabha (the
Categories of the Ministers council of States) and Lok Sabha (the House
The ministers are classified under three of the People). The Rajya Sabha is the Upper
ranks House and the Lok Sabha is the Lower House
it is termed as bicameral legislature.
(i) Cabinet Ministers
(ii) Ministers of State
(iii) Deputy Ministers.
Cabinet Ministers
The Cabinet is an informal body of
senior ministers who form the nucleus of
administration. Important decisions of the Parliament
government are taken by the Cabinet, such as
2.4.1 Rajya Sabha
defense, finance, external affairs and home.
The Cabinet recommends to the President to The council of State or Rajya Sabha consists
promulgate an ordinance. It is instrumental in of 250 members out of whom 238 represent
moving Amendments to the Constitution. The the states and the Union Territories, elected
Finance bills have their origin in the Cabinet by the method of indirect election.
and then they are introduced in the Lok Sabha The 12nominated members shall be chosen
with the Presidents recommendations. The by the President from amongst persons having
Cabinet decides the foreign policy of the ‘special knowledge or practical experience in
Government approves international treaties the field of literature, science, sports, art and
and plays a significant role in the appointment social service.
of Ambassadors to various countries.
Qualification of the Members
Ministers of State
A person seeking membership of
These ministers belong to the second Rajya Sabha must possess the following
category of ministers in the council. They are qualifications.
also in charge of ministries or departments

He should be a citizen of India. Legislative Assemblies they elect the
He should not be less than 30 years of age. President and Vice President.
He should not hold any office of profit It has power in the impeachment
under any Government. procedure of president and judges of
supreme court and high court.
He should be a person with sound mind
and monetarily solvent. Rajya Sabha has the power to make a state
list subject into National Importance.
He should have such other qualification If two third majority of the members
as may be approved by the Parliament for of Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to
that reason from time to time. support it. Rajya Sabha can also create or
He should not be the member of Lok abolish an All India Service. If majority
Sabha or any other legislature. of members (2/3 of Total Members)
supports it.
Term of House
The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and 4.4.2 Lok Sabha
it cannot be dissolved. The members of the The Lok Sabha is the popular house of
Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of six years. the Indian Parliament and contains elected
One third of the members of Rajya Sabha representatives of the people. Maximum
retire every two years, and new members number of members can be elected for Lok
are elected to fill the seats thus vacated. Sabha is 552. The Lok Sabha as of today has 543
The Vice President of India is the Ex-officio elected members. Out of these, 530 members
Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. The Deputy are elected from different states and 13 members
Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha is elected by from the Union Territories. The President
the members of the Rajya Sabha. generally nominates two members belonging to
the Anglo-Indian community. At present, the
Election
Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.
Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by
the elected members of the ‘State Legislative Qualification of the Members
Assemblies’ in accordance with the system He should be a citizen of India.
of proportional representation by means of He should not be less than 25 years of age.
the single transferable vote. This process of
election is called “indirect election” as they He should have his name in electoral rolls
are not elected by the people directly. in some part of the country.
Functions of the Rajya Sabha

Money Bill
Any bill (except the money bills) needs Rajya Sabha does not have
to be approved by Rajya Sabha to get any power to amend or reject
passed. If the bill gets stuck for more than
the Money bill. Lok Sabha can
six months then President calls for a joint
only introduce Money bill and
session of both the houses to resolve the
deadlock. once it is approved by the Lok Sabha, it is
passed to Rajya Sabha for its approval. If
It has the same power as Lok Sabha,
Rajya Sabha fails to pass it within 14 days
for passing any bill for constitutional
then the bill gets passed without the approv-
amendment.
al of Rajya Sabha. Also, Lok Sabha does not
The members of Rajya Sabha have the need to consider the amendments proposed
electoral power for selection of President,
by the Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha can reject
Vice President. Together with the
all the proposals and pass it.
members of Lok Sabha and all the State

He should not hold any office of profit It has the same power as Rajya Sabha
under the Union or State Government. to participate in case of impeachment
of president and the judges of Supreme
He should be mentally sound and
Court.
economically solvent.
It has equal power as Rajya Sabha
The term of the House in passing any bill for constitutional
amendment.
Generally the Lok Sabha enjoys a term of Lok Sabha members have the power to
five years from the date of its first session. It elect the president, vice president.
can be dissolved by the President before the Motion of no confidence can only be
expiry of its term on the advice of the Prime introduced in Lok Sabha. If it is passed
Minister. The emergency provisions of the then the prime minister and other council
Constitution enable the President to prorogue of ministers need to resign from their post.
or dissolve the Lok Sabha either on the advice
of the Prime Minister or on being convinced Elected members of the
that no party or no alliance of parties enjoys Parliament from Tamil Nadu.
necessary majority support in the House. Rajya Sabha – 18 members

Election Lok Sabha – 39 members

The members of the Lok Sabha are directly
elected by the people of the constituencies 2.4.3 The Speaker
created on the basis of population. The The Lok Sabha is presided over by the
Election Commission of India arranges, ‘speaker’ who is elected by its members. The
supervises and conducts elections to the Lok office of the Speaker occupies an essential
Sabha. For sake of elections to Lok Sabha position in our Parliamentary democracy.
the entire nation is divided into number of The Speaker continues to be in the office even
constituencies which are formed more or less in the houses dissolved, till a new Speaker is
on the basis of the population. elected by the new Lok Sabha. The Speaker
“Universal Adult Franchise” is followed presides over a joint sitting of the two Houses
while electing the members of the Lok Sabha. of Parliament. He has the power to decide
All Indian Citizens above 18 years of age who whether a Bill is Money Bill or an ordinary
are registered as voters will vote for their one. The decision of the Speaker on whether
representatives. a Bill is Money Bill is final. Under the anti
defection of 1985, the speaker is empowered
to decide whether a member of the Lok Sabha
is disqualified or not on the basis of the 10th
schedule of the constitution. While the office
of speaker is vacant or the speaker is absent
from the sitting of the house, the deputy
speaker presides, except when a resolution for
his own removal is under consideration.
Parliament Session
Budget Session from February
Universal Adult Franchise to May
Functions of the Lok Sabha Monsoon Session from July to
Any bill can be introduced and passed in September
the Lok sabha (Including Money Bill). Winter Session from November to December

2.4.4 Powers and Functions of such other duties of a legal character that
the Parliament are assigned to him by the President and
The Parliament of India has the functions of discharge the functions conferred on him
Legislation, overseeing of administration, by the constitution are any other law. In the
passing of Budget, ventilation of public performance of his official duties, Attorney
grievances, discussion of various subjects General of India has the right of audience in
like development plans, international all courts in the territory of India. Further he
relations and internal policies. has the right to speak and to take part in the
Parliament is also vested with powers proceedings of both Houses of the Parliament
to impeach the President and to remove or their joint sitting and any committee of
Judges of the Supreme Court and High the Parliament of which he may be named
Courts, Chief Election Commissioner a member, but without a right to vote. He
and Comptroller and Auditor-General of enjoys all the privileges and immunities that
India in accordance with the procedure are available to a member of Parliament.
laid down in the Constitution.
The Parliament exercises control over the 2.6 Judiciary
executive through asking questions and
supplementary questions, moving motions Judiciary is the third organ of the
of adjournment, discussing and passing government. It plays a vital role in protecting
resolutions, discussing and pushing censure the rights and freedom of the citizens. It
motion or vote of no-confidence. also plays an important role in analyzing and
The Parliament has the power to change interpreting the provisions of laws and the
the boundaries of the States. Constitution.
2.5 Attorney General of Supreme Court

India The “Supreme Court is the Guardian of
the Constitution”. Our constitution provides
The Constitution (Article 76) has provided
for the establishment of an independent and
for office of the Attorney General for India.
integrated judiciary with ‘supreme court’ as
He is the highest law officer in the country.
the uppermost court in the country. Our
He is appointed by the President. He must be
judiciary is autonomous of the Legislative
a person who is qualified to be appointed the
and Executive wing of the Union and State
Judge of the Supreme Court. In other words,
Government. An integrated judiciary means
he must be a citizen of India and he must have
a single judicial hierarchy for the whole
been a judge of some High Court for five years
country. The judiciary plays an important
or an advocate of some High Court for 10
role in defensive the rights and freedom of
years or eminent jurist, in the opinion of the
the citizens. It plays an important role in
President. He holds office during the pleasure
analyzing and interpreting the necessities of
of the President. This means that he may be
laws and the constitution.
removed by the President at any time. He may
also quit his office by submitting his resignation
to the President. The Supreme Court of India,
New Delhi was inaugurated
5.1 Duties and Functions of on January 28, 1950. It
Attorney General of India succeeded the Federal Court
To give advice to the Government of of India, established under the
India upon such legal matters which are Government of India Act of 1935.
referred to him by the President. To perform

in “New Delhi”. It may also sit any other
place in India which may be decided by the
Chief Justice of India with the approval of the
President of India.
2.6.4 Powers and Functions of

the Supreme Court
(a) Judicial Functions
Supreme Court
The “Supreme Court is the Guardian of
2.6.1 Composition of the the Constitution”. The followings are the
Supreme Court functions of the Supreme Court.
At the commencement of the constitution (b) Original Jurisdiction

in 1950 our supreme court consisted of 8 The cases which are brought directly in
judges including the chief justice. At present, the first instance to the Supreme Court come
the Supreme Court consists of 28 judges under original jurisdiction. These may
including the chief justice. be (i) dispute between the Government of
India and one or more States of (ii) Dispute
2.6.2 Appointment of Judges
between two or more states (iii) the cases
The Chief Justice of Supreme Court in India involving fundamental rights (dispute over
is appointed by the President of India. The the enforcement) come under the jurisdiction
other judges are appointed by the President in
of the Supreme Court. The writs issued by
consultation with the collegiums with Chief
the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the
Justice Head.
fundamental rights are, (a) Habeas Corpus
2.6.3 Qualification of Supreme (b) Mandamus (c) Prohibition (d) Certiorari
Court Judges (e)Quo Warranto.
He must be a citizen of India. (c) Appellate Jurisdiction

He should have worked as a Judge of a The Supreme Court is the final appellate
High Court for at least 5 years. court in the country. As regard the Appellate
He should have worked as an advocate of jurisdiction, the Supreme Court hears appeals
High Court for at least 10 years. against the decisions of High Court in “civil,
He is in the opinion of the President, a criminal and Constitutional” cases with a
distinguished Jurist. certificate from the High Court that it is fit to
The constitution also provides for the appeal in the Supreme Court. Such a case can
appointment of judges to the Supreme Court be brought before the Supreme Court only if
on an ad-hoc (temporary) basis. The Chief the High Court certifies that the case invites
Justice and other judges of the Supreme a substantial of law as to the interpretation of
Court hold the office up to the age of 65 the Constitution.
years. The judges of the Supreme Court
(d) Advisory Jurisdiction
can resign before their term by giving their
resignation in writing to the President. The The Constitution confers on the President
Parliament also has power to remove the the power to refer to the Supreme Court any
Judges by invoking impeachment provisions. question of law or fact which in his opinion is
The Supreme Court has its permanent seat of public importance.

(e) Miscellaneous Jurisdiction (f) Judicial Review
The Supreme Court is The power of the judiciary to declare a
The law declared by Supreme Court is law as unconstitutional is known as “Judicial
binding on all courts within the territory Review”. The Supreme Court enjoys this
of India. power. The Supreme Court of India has
Individual Review Power with regard to
The Supreme Court is authorized to
make rules for regulating, generally the 1) Dispute between the Centre and the States
practice and procedure of the court with 2) To interpret and clarify a provision of the
the approval of the President. constitution about which there are some
doubts and differences of opinion.
The Supreme Court has complete control
3) Protecting the fundamental rights,
over its own establishment.
4) Those laws passed by the legislatures which
are not in accordance with the Constitution.
Recap
The Central Government consists of three organs, namely, Union Executive,
Legislature and Judiciary.
President appoints the Prime Minister and the other members of the Council of Ministers.
The Parliament of India consists of three parts they are the President, Rajya Sabha
and Lok Sabha.
The Attorney General for the India is the highest law officer in the country. He is
appointed by the President of India.
The “Supreme Court is the Guardian of the Constitution”.
The Chief Justice of Supreme Court in India is appointed by the President of India.`
GLOSSARY
Terminate bring to an untimely end. முடிவுக்கு க�ொண்டு வருதல்

Contingency fund an amount of money that can be used to pay for எதிர்பாரா செலவு நிதி
problems that might happen.
Pardon Absolving the convict of all guilt and punishment. ப�ொதுமன்னிப்பு
Remission Quantitative reduction of punishment without தண்டனை குறைப்பு
affecting Nature of punishment.
Precedence priority of importance. முன்னுரிமை
Ex-officio because of an office. பதவியின் நிமித்தமாக
EVALUATION b) The Chief Justice

c) The Prime Minister
I. Choose the correct answer d) C ouncil of
1. The Constitutional Head of the Union is Ministers
a) The President

2. Who is the real executive in a 9. The Chief Justice and other Judges of the
parliamentary type of government? Supreme court are appointed by:
a) Army a) The President
b) The Prime Minister b) TheAttorney General
c) The President c) The Governor
d) Judiciary d) The Prime Minister
3. Who among the following decides 10. Dispute between States of India comes
whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not? to the Supreme Court under:
a) The President a) Appellate Jurisdiction
b) Attorney General b) Original Jurisdiction
c) Parliamentary Affairs Minister c) Advisory Jurisdiction
d) Speaker of Lok Sabha d) None of these
4. The Council of Ministers is collectively 1. If you are elected as the President of India,
1
responsible to the: which of the following decision can you
take on your own?
a) The President
a) Nominate the leaders of your choice to
b) Lok Sabha
the council of minister
c) The Prime Minister
b) Ask for reconsideration of a bill passed
d) Rajya Sabha by both the Houses
5. The Joint sittings of Indian Parliament c) Select the person you like as Prime
for transacting legislative business are Minister
presided over by?
d) Dismiss a Prime Minister who has a
a) Senior most member of Parliament majority in the Lok Sabha
b) Speaker of the Lok Sabha
c) The President of India
1. _________ Bill cannot be introduced
d) The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha in the Parliament without President’s
6. What is minimum age laid down for a approval.
candidate to seek election to the Lok 2. __________ is the leader of the nation
Sabha? and chief spokesperson of the country.
a) 18 years b) 21 years 3. __________ is the Ex-officio
c) 25 years d) 30 years Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
7. The authority to alter the boundaries of 4. The President generally nominates two
state in India rest with? members belonging to the ________
a) The President community to the Lok Sabha.
b) The Prime Minister 5. ________ has the right to speak and
c) State Government to take part in the proceedings of both
d) Parliament Houses of the Parliament.
8. Under which Article the President 6. The Chief Justice and other judges of the
is vested with the power to proclaim Supreme Court hold the office up to the
Financial Emergency age of ________years.
a) Article 352 b) Article 360 7. ____________ is the Guardian of the
Constitution.
c) Article 356 d) Article 365

8. At present, the Supreme Court consists b) (A) is false but (R) is true
of _______ judges including the chief
c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
justice.
the correct reason for(A)
III. Choose the correct d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
statement not the correct reason for(A)
1. i) Total members of the Rajya Sabha is 250. IV. Match the following
ii) The 12 nominated members shall be
chosen by the President from amongst 1. Article 53 - State Emergency
persons experience in the field of 2. Article 63 - Internal Emergency
literature, science, art, or social service - Executive power of
3. Article 356
iii) The Members of the Rajya Sabha should President
not be less than 30 years of age. - Office of the Vice
4. Article 76
iv) The members of the Rajya Sabha are President
directly elected by the peoples. - Office of the Attorney
5. Article 352
a) ii & iv are correct General
b) iii & iv are correct V. Answer the brief questions
c) i & iv are correct 1. How is President of India elected?
d) i, ii & iii are correct 2. What are the different categories of
Ministers at the Union level?
2. i) Th
e Chief Justice and other judges of the
Supreme Court hold the office up to the 3. What is the qualification of Judges of the
age of 62 years. Supreme Court?
ii) Judiciary is the third organ of the 4. Write a short note on Speaker of the Lok
government. Sabha?
iii) The cases involving fundamental 5. What is Money Bill?
rights come under the Appellate 6. List out any two special powers of the
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Attorney General of India?
iv) The law declared by Supreme Court VI. Answer in detail
is binding on all courts within the
1. Describe the powers and functions of
territory of India.
the President of India.
a) ii & iv are correct 2. Explain the Jurisdiction and powers of
b) iii & iv are correct the Supreme Court of India?
c) i & iv are correct 3. What are the Duties and functions of
Prime Minister of India?
d) i & ii are correct
4. Critically examine the Powers and
3. Assertion (A): The Rajya Sabha is
Functions of the Parliament.
a permanent house and it cannot be
dissolved 5. List out the functions of the Lok Sabha
and the Rajya Sabha.
Reason (R): One third of the members
of Rajya Sabha retire every two years, VII. Project and activity
and new members are elected to fill the I. Organise a mock parliament in your
seats thus vacated. class. Discuss the role of President,
a) (A) is false but R is true Prime Minister and Ministers.

II. Bring out the differences and similarities 3 Subhash Kashyap - Our Constitution,
between the US and Indian President’s National Book Trust, India, 2011.
REFERENCE BOOKS INTERNET RESOURCES
1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the https://www.india.org/

Constitution of India, S.C. Sarkar & https://presidentofindia.nic.in/
Sons (Private) Ltd, 1982.
http://vicepresidentofindia.nic.in/
2. PM Bakshi - The Constitution of India,
http://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/
Universal Law Publishing - an imprint
of LexisNexis, 2018. https://www.sci.gov.in/
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you

will know about the current
Governing bodies and also
about the Lok Sabha & the Rajya
Sabha.
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below.
• Click on the items under the who’s who menu to view the current Governing
bodies and also know about the Lok Sabha & the Rajya Sabha.
• For example, click on the president from the leftside menu to view the details of
the President.
• Likewise you can view all the details of the current Governing bodies.
Website URL:
https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/whos-who

Unit - 3
State Government
Learning Objectives
Students acquire knowledge about the structure of the State Government
To understand the powers and functions of the Governor, Chief Minister,
Ministers and Speaker
To know about the State Legislature
Student understand the functioning of the judicial system in the State
Introduction Government, in part VI of the constitution

from Article 152 to 237, which is applicable
The Constitution of India envisages for a to all the states, save only the state of Jammu
federal government, having separate systems and Kashmir which has a separate constitution
of administration for the union and the states. for its government under Article 370. The
There are 29 states, 6 union territories and one structure of the State Government, as formed
national capital territory known as Delhi in in the Centre, consists of three branches. These
India. The constitution contains provisions for are the Executive, the Legislature and the
the governance of both the union and the states. Judiciary.
It lays down a uniform structure for the State
State Government
Executive Legislature Judiciary
Governor High Court

Legislative Legislative
Council Assembly
Chief Minister (Upper House) (Lower House) District Courts
Council of Other Courts

Ministers
195 State Government
3 State Government(06.03.2019).indd 195 10-04-2019 10:01:19

the matter of appointing a person as Governor
The Constitution of Jammu and
of a State. He should not be a resident of the
Kashmir was adopted on the
State concerned and, the State Government
17 November, 1957 and came
concerned is consulted and its views are sought
into force on 26 January, 1957.
regarding the proposed choice.
The Constitution of India grants
special status to Jammu and Kashmir among According to Article 158 (3A), where the same
Indian states, and it is the only state in India person is appointed as Governor of two or more
to have a separate constitution. The Directive States, the emoluments and allowances payable
Principles of the State Policy and fundamen- to the Governor shall be allocated among the
tal duties of the constitution are not applica- States in such proportion as the President may
ble to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Right by order determine.
to Property, which is denied as a fundamental
Sarkaria Commission on
right to rest of the India, is still guaranteed in
Centre , State relations
Jammu and Kashmir. suggested that the appointment
of the Governor should be
3.1 The Executive made:
i) From a panel to be prepared by the State
3.1.1 The Governor Legislature or
The Governor is the constitutional head of ii) From a panel to be prepared by the State
the state executive. The administration of a Government (in effect the Chief Minister) or
State is carried on in the name of the Governor. invariably with the concurrence of the State
Generally, there is a separate Governor in each Chief Minister ; or
State but if the situation warrants so, the same iii) Invariably in consultation with the State
person may be appointed as the Governor of Chief Minister.
two or more States.
Article 154 vests the executive power of the 3.1.3 Qualification
State in the Governor. Article 154(1) holds that Article 157 and Article
the executive power of the State shall be vested 158 of the Constitution
in the Governor and shall be exercised by him of India specify eligibility
either directly or through officers subordinates requirements for the post of
to him in accordance with this Constitution. governor. They are as follows:
He should be a citizen of India.
3.1.2 Appointment
He must have completed 35 years of age.
The Governor of a State shall be appointed He should not be a member of Parliament
by the President. His usual term of office is five or of any State Legislature. If he is a member
years but he holds office during the pleasure of of any of Legislature, he automatically
the President. Generally, the Governor does not vacates his seat on assuming the office.
belong to the State where he is appointed. He He should not hold any other profitable
can also be transferred from one state to another occupation.
by the President. He can also resign any time by
addressing his resignation to the President. 3.1.4 P owers and Functions of
the Governor
The Legislature of a State or a High Court has
no role in the removal of a Governor. A person The Governor is the head of the state executive
may be appointed as a Governor for any number and he has enormous powers. In the exercise
of terms. Two conventions have been set up in of functions and powers, the Governor, except
State Government 196

in certain cases, is to be guided by the aid and Legislative Powers
advice of the Council of Ministers headed by
the Chief Minister (under Article 163). As the The Governor is an integral part of the
state legislature. But, he is not a member in
executive head in the state level, the Governor
the either house of the legislature. In this
has following functions and powers.
capacity, he enjoys the following legislative
Executive Powers powers and functions:

T he Constitution vests all executive He has the right to summon, prorogue
powers of the State Government in the state legislature and dissolve the State
the Governor. He may exercise this Legislative Assembly.
power either directly or through He can address the state legislature at the
officers subordinate to him. He is the commencement of the first session after
constitutional head of the State. All the each general election and the first session
administration is carried on in his name. of each year.
The executive powers and functions of He can send messages to the houses of the
the Governor are: state legislature relating to a bill pending
He appoints the leader of the majority in the legislature.
party in the State Legislative Assembly as
He can appoint any member of the
the Chief Minister of the State. Legislative Assembly to preside over its
proceedings when the offices of both
He appoints other members of the Council
the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker fall
of Ministers on the recommendation of vacant.
the Chief Minister.
He can nominate one member to the state
He appoints the Advocate - General of the legislature assembly from the Anglo-
state and determines his remuneration. Indian Community.
The Advocate General holds office during
He nominates 1/6 of the members of the
the pleasure of the Governor. State Legislative Council from amongst
He appoints the Chairman and Members the persons having special knowledge or
of the State Public Service Commission. practical experience in literature, science,
However, they can be removed only by art, cooperative movement and social
the president and not by a governor. service.

He appoints the state election
He decides on the question of
commissioner and determines his disqualification of members of the state
conditions of service and tenure of office. legislature in consultation with the
Election Commission.
However, the state election commissioner
can be removed only in like manner and Every bill passed by the state legislature
on the like grounds as a judge of a high will become law only after his signature.
court. But, when a bill is sent to the Governor
after it is passed by the legislature, he
He acts as the chancellor of universities has the options to give his assent to the
in the state. He also appoints the Vice bill or withhold his assent to the bill or
Chancellors of universities in the state. return the bill for the reconsideration of
He directly rules a State when there is the the legislature.
imposition of the President’s rule in the He has to reserve any bill passed by the
State. state legislature which endangers the

position of the state High Court, for the
He makes appointment, postings and
consideration of the President. promotions of the District Judges in
He can promulgate ordinances when the consultation with the State High Court.
state legislature is not in session under The Chief Justice of the High Court in
Article 213. But, these ordinances must the State is appointed by the President in
be approved by the legislature within consultation with him.
six months. He can also withdraw an

He can pardon, commute or reprieve
ordinance at anytime.
punishment on receipt of appeals for
He has to lay the annual reports of the mercy.
State Finance Commission, the State
Public Service Commission and the Discretionary Powers
Comptroller and Auditor General relating The Governor can reserve a bill for the
to the accounts of the state, before the
consideration of the president.
state legislature.
He recommends for the imposition of the
Financial Powers
President’s rule in the state.
The Constitution confers on the Governor,

He seeks information from the Chief
the duty to get prepared and introduced
Minister relating to the administrative
to the State Legislature, the annual budget
and legislative matters of the state.
and also the supplementary budgets, if
necessary. He can call the leader of any party to
form ministry in the state when there is
He causes the Annual Financial Statement
(Budget) of the State to be presented in no clear-cut majority to any party in the
the Legislative Assembly. Legislative Assembly after the general
elections.

He presents through the Minister of
Finance of the State the Supplementary He can dismiss the Council of Ministers
Budget of the State to the Legislative when it is unable to prove the confidence
Assembly if there be such a need. of the Legislative Assembly; and
Money Bills can be introduced in the He can dissolve the Legislative Assembly
State Legislature only with his the prior if the Council of Ministers has lost its
recommendation. majority.
No demand for any grant can be made Emergency Powers
except on his recommendation.
If the Governor is satisfied that the

He can make advances out of the
government of the state is not carried on
state Contingency Fund to meet any
in accordance with the provisions of the
unforeseen expenditure.
Constitution, he may, under Article 356,

He constitutes a Finance Commission recommend to the President to impose
after every five years to review the
President Rule in that State. As soon as the
financial position of the panchayats and
President Rule is imposed, the administration
the municipalities.
of the State is carried on by the Governor as
Judicial Powers the representative of the President.
He appoints the Attorney-General of the
State. 3.1.5 Privileges of the Governor
He appoints Judges to the Subordinate Article 361(1) provides for the following
Courts in the State. privileges for the Governor;

(a) The Governor of a State, is not be answerable
Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu from 1947
to any court for the exercise and performance
of the powers and duties of his office or Thiru.O. P. Ramaswamy 1947-1949
for any act done or purporting to be done Thiru.P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja 1949 – 1952
by him in the exercise and performance of Thiru.C. Rajagopalachari 1952 – 1954
those powers and duties. Thiru.K. Kamaraj 1954 - 1963
(b) No criminal proceedings whatsoever shall Thiru.M. Bakthavatsalam 1963 – 1967
be instituted or continued against the Thiru.C. N. Annadurai 1967 – 1969
Governor of a State, in any court during his Thiru.M. Karunanidhi 1969 – 1976
term of office. Thiru.M. G. Ramachandran 1977 – 1987
(c) No process for the arrest or imprisonment of Tmt. JanakiRamachandran January 1988
the Governor of a State, shall issue from any Thiru.M. Karunanidhi 1989 – 1991
court during his term of office. Selvi.J. Jayalalithaa 1991 – 1996
Thiru.M. Karunanidhi 1996 – 2001
(d)
No civil proceedings in which relief is
Selvi.J. Jayalalithaa 2001
claimed against the Governor of a State.
Thiru.O.Panneerselvam 2001 – 2002
3.2 Chief Minister Selvi.J. Jayalalithaa 2002 – 2006
In the scheme of Parliamentary system of Thiru.M. Karunanidhi 2006 – 2011
government provided by the constitution, the Selvi. J. Jayalalithaa 2011 – 2014
governor is the nominal executive authority Thiru.O.Panneerselvam 2014 – 2015
and the Chief Minister is the real executive Selvi.J. Jayalalithaa 2015 – 2016
authority. In other words, the governor is the Thiru.O.Panneerselvam 2016 – 2017
head of the State while the Chief Minister is the Thiru.Edappadi K. Palaniswami 2017 – till now
head of the government.
3.2.1 T
he appointment of the
3.2.2 Powers and functions of
Chief Minister
the Chief Minister
The Chief Minister is appointed by the
Governor of the State. The leader of the majority The Chief Minister is the real executive head of
party or majority group in the State Legislative the State administration. He has the following
Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister. In powers and functions.
case no party commands absolute majority, in
Relating to the council of ministers
�
the Legislative Assembly or the majority fails
to elect its leader, the Governor can use his Relating to the Governor
�
power and invite the leader of the other largest
party to form the ministry. He has to prove the Relating to the State Legislature
�
confidence (majority support) in the Legislative Other functions and powers.
�
Assembly within the period stipulated by the
Governor. elating to the Council of
R
The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed. Ministers
He may remain as the Chief Minister as long As the head of the Council of Ministers, the
as he enjoys the support of the majority of the
Chief Minister enjoys the following functions
members of the Legislative Assembly. He has to
resign when he losses confidence of the majority and powers.
in the assembly. It is ‘understood that normally
T he Chief Minister recommends the
he completes 5 years term like other members persons who can be appointed as
in the Legislative Assembly.
ministers by Governor.

He allocates the portfolios among the Other function and powers
ministers.
As the leader of the ruling party, the
He shuffles and reshuffles his ministry. Chief Minister has to control the party
He can ask a minister to resign or to and develop the disciplines.
advise the Governor to dismiss him in As the leader of the state, he has to keenly
case of difference of opinion. consider the demands of the different

He presides over the meetings of the sections of the people.
Council of Ministers and influences its
As the political head of the various
decisions. services, he has to supervise, control and
co-ordinate the secretaries of various
He can bring about the collapse of the
departments in the state level.
council of ministers by resigning from
office.
For smooth functioning of the state
and for good centre-state relations, he

He guides, directs, controls and
has to develop a rapport with the union
coordinates the activities of all the government.
ministers.
3.2.3 Council of Ministers
Relating to the Governor
The Council of Ministers are collectively
The Chief Minister is the principal channel responsible to the State Legislature. All the
of communication between the Governor and members of the Council of Ministers must be the
the Council of Ministers, and he advises the members of the State Legislature. Those who are
Governor in relation to the appointment of the not the members at the time of their appointment,
following officials: must secure their seats in the Legislature within
a period of 6 months. All the ministers work
Advocate General of the State.
as a team under the Chief Minster. As long as
State Election Commissioner. the Chief Minister is in office, the Council of

C hairman and Members of the State Ministers will also be in power. If a no-confidence
Public Service Commission. motion is passed by the Legislative Assembly, the
State Ministry shall resign.

C hairman and Members of the State
Planning Commission. Article l63 provides for a Council of Ministers
to aid and advice the Governor. According

C hairman and Members of the State to Article 163(1) there shall be a Council of
Finance Commission. Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head
to aid and advice the Governor in the exercise
Relating to State Legislature
of his functions, except in so far as he is by or
The Chief Minister advises the Governor with
� under this Constitution required to exercise his
regard to the summoning and proroguing functions or any of them in his discretion.
the sessions of the state legislature.
ther Provisions relating to
O
He announces the government policies on
� Ministers
the floor of the house.
Article 164(1) holds that the Chief Minister
He can introduce the bills in the Legislative
� shall be appointed by the Governor and the
Assembly. other Ministers shall be appointed by the
He can recommend for the dissolution of
� Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister,
the Legislative Assembly to the Governor and the Ministers shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Governor:
anytime.

Article 164(1A) states that the total number Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Jammu-
of Ministers, including the Chief Minister, in the Kashmir). The lower house, legislative assembly
Council of Ministers in a State shall not exceed represents the people of the state the upper
fifteen percent of the total number of members house; Legislative Council represents special
of the Legislative Assembly. interests like teachers, graduates and local
governments.
he functions and powers of the
T
Council of Ministers
It formulates and decides the policies of
the state and implements them effectively.
It decides the legislative programmes of
the Legislative Assembly and sponsors all
important bills.
It controls the financial policy and
decides the tax structure for the public
welfare of the state.
Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly
It chalks out programmes and schemes
for the socio-economic changes so that In Tamil Nadu, according to the
the state makes headway in various inter- strength of Legislative Assem-
related fields. bly (234 members), the number
It makes the important appointments of of ministers may be up to 36,
i.e. 15 percent of 234.
the Heads of Departments.

It discusses and takes efforts on the 3.3.1 T he Legislative Assembly
dispute with other states
(Lower House)

It advises the Governor on the
The Legislative Assembly is a popular house. It
appointment of Judges of the subordinate
is the real centre of power in the State. It consists
courts.
of members directly elected by the people on

It frames the proposal for incurring the basis of adult franchise. The strength of the
expenditure out of state reserves. Assembly varies from State to State depending on
It decides all the bills whether ordinary the population. However the maximum strength
bills or money bills to be introduced in of the Assembly must not exceed 500 or its
the Legislative Assembly. minimum strength not be below 60. The term of
E ach minister of the Council of Ministers office of the legislative assembly is 5 years. It can
supervises, controls and coordinates the be dissolved even before the expiry of its term.
department concerned. The size of the Legislative Council cannot

Annual Financial Statement called as be more than one-third the membership of the
the Budget is finalised by the Council of Legislative Assembly (lower house) of that state.
Ministers. But its size cannot be less than 40, except in
Jammu and Kashmir where there are 36 by an
3.3
The State Legislature act of Parliament. The members draw the salary
and allowances passed by the State legislature
The Constitution provides a legislature from time to time.
for every state. Most of the States have only
Composition
unicameral legislature i.e., Legislative assembly.
The Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu
Some State has bicameral legislatures (example
consists of 235 members out of which 234
Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,

members are directly elected by the people The Vidhan Parishads (Legislative Council)
from the constituencies on the basis of adult forms a part of the state legislatures of India.
franchise and one member is nominated by the In Seven of India’s 29 states (Bihar, Karnataka,
Governor from the Anglo-Indian community. Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
However, seats shall be reserved in the house for Telangana and Jammu - Kashmir) the
the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Legislative Council serves as the indirectly-
elected upper house of a bicameral legislature.
Cabinet and Cabinet Committees It is also a permanent house because it cannot
be dissolved. Every Member of Legislative
A smaller body called Cabinet is the nucleus
Council (MLC) serves for a six-year term, with
of the council of minister. It consists of only
terms staggered so that the terms of one-third
the cabinet ministers. It is the real centre of
of members expire every two years. MLCs
authority in the state government. must be citizens of India not under 30 years of
The cabinet works through various age, mentally sound and not bankrupt, and his
committees called cabinet committees. They are name should be in the voter’s list of the state
of two types - standing and ad hoc. The former from which he or she is contesting the election.
are of a permanent nature while the latter are of
a temporary nature. The Tamil Nadu Legislative
Council was abolished by
The Speaker Tamil Nadu Legislative
The Legislative Assembly elects two of its Council (Abolition) Bill, 1986.
members as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker. The Act came into force on the
1 November 1986.
st
The Speaker vacates his office, if he cannot
continue to be a member of the Assembly.
He may also resign his office at any time. The Election to Legislative Council
speaker may be removed from office by a 1/3 of the members are elected by local
resolution of the Assembly after giving a 14 bodies.
days’ notice. Such a resolution must be passed

1 /12 of the members are elected by
by a majority of the members present at the
Graduates of the universities in the State.
time of voting. The speaker does not vacate
his office, when the Assembly is dissolved. He
1 /12 of the members are elected by
continues to be the Speaker until the first sitting Graduate teachers.
of the new Assembly. While the office of the 1/3 of the members are elected by the
speaker is vacant, the Deputy Speaker performs members of the Legislative Assembly.
his functions. 1/6 is nominated by the Governor who is
eminent in the field of literary excellence,
3.3.2 T
he Legislative Council
art, social services or Co-operation.
(Upper House)
The legislative Council is the upper House The Chairman

of the State Legislature. It is constituted as a The Chairman (chair person he / she) is
permanent House. Article 171(1) provides that the Presiding Officer of the Upper house.
the total number of members in the Legislative The Members elect a Chairman and a deputy
Council of a State shall not exceed one-third of chairman from among themselves. In the
absence of the chairman, the deputy chairman
the total number of members in the Legislative
officiate the functions of the Legislative
Assembly of that State, but not less than 40
Council.
members in any case.

Abolition or Creation of questions asked by the members of the
Legislative Councils Legislature. They can be removed from office
if the Assembly passes a vote of “no confidence
Article 169 deals with the creation or
motion” against the Ministry.
abolition of Legislative Council in a State.
Article 169 holds that if the state Legislative 3.4.4 Wide powers
Assembly passes a resolution by a majority of In State having two Houses, the Legislative
not less than 2/3rd of the members present and Assembly enjoys more powers than the
voting and by the majority of total strength Legislative Council. The Assembly has
of the House, requesting the Parliament to complete control over the state finance. The
create or abolish the state Legislative council Council cannot vote for grants. The Council of
then the Parliament may by law provide for Ministers is responsible only to the Assembly.
the abolition and creation of the Legislative
Council.
3.5 Judiciary of State
3.4 Functions of the State 3.5.1 High Courts
Legislature The institution of high court originated in
The powers and functions of the State India in 1862 when the high courts were set up
Legislature are almost the same as that of at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. In the course
Parliament. of time, each province in British India came to
have its own high court. After 1950, a high court
3.4.1 Legislative powers existing in a province became the high court for
The State Legislature can pass laws on all the corresponding state. The High Courts are
subjects mentioned in the State List as per the highest courts at State level, but being part
the constitution. It can also pass laws on of integrated Indian judiciary they work under
concurrent subjects. The State made law in the superintendence, direction and control of
a concurrent subject will become inoperative the Supreme Court.
when the centre also passes a law on the
same subject. The passing of Bill into law
follows the same procedure, as in the union
parliament. Every bill passes through three
readings. Then it becomes an Act with the
Governor’s assent.
3.4.2 Financial Powers
The Legislature controls the finances of the
State. The Lower House enjoys greater power High Court of Madras
than the Upper House in money matters.
The Constitution of India provides for a
Money bills can be introduced only in the
high court for each state, but the Seventh
Lower House or the Assembly. No new tax can
Amendment Act of 1956 authorised the
be levied without the sanction and permission
Parliament to establish a common high court
of the Assembly.
for two or more states or for two or more states
3.4.3 Controls over the Executive and a union territory.
The Legislature controls the Executive. For example, the States of Punjab and Haryana
The Council of Ministers is responsible to and the Union Territory of Chandigarh have a
the Assembly. The Ministers have to answer common High Court situated at Chandigarh.

Similarly, the High Court of Guwahati is criminal cases which are committed to them by
common for seven northeastern States of Assam, the Presidency Magistrates.
Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Appellate Jurisdiction
Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. Delhi, though
As Courts of appeal, all High Courts entertain
not a State, has its own separate High Court.
appeals in civil and criminal cases from their
Every High Court has a Chief Justice and a
subordinate Courts as well as on their own.
number of judges. The number of judges varies
from State to State. The number of judges of They have, however, no jurisdiction over
each High Court is determined by the President. tribunals established under the laws relating to
At present there are 25 High Courts for 29 States the Armed Forces of the Country.
(including new Andhra Pradesh High Court
Writ Jurisdiction
established in 1st January 2019 at principal seat
in Amravati) and seven Union Territories. Under Article 226 of the constitution, the
High Courts are given powers of issuing writs
The High Court of Madras not only for the enforcement of the Fundamental
is the one of the three High Rights, but also for other purposes. In exercise
Courts in India established in of this power, a Court may issue the same
the three Presidency Towns of type of writs, orders or directions which the
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras Supreme Court is empowered to issue under
by letters patent granted by Queen Victoria, Article 32.
bearing date 26 June 1862. The High Court
The jurisdiction to issue writs under this
building is the second largest judicial
Article is larger in the case of High Courts, for
complex in the world after London.
which the Supreme Court can issue them only
where a Fundamental Right has been infringed,
3.5.2 Appointment of the Judges a High Court can issue them not only in such
cases, but also where an ordinary legal right has
Every High Court consists of a Chief Justice been infringed.
and such other Judges as appointed by the
President from time to time (Article 216). Habeas Corpus The writ of habeas corpus
is issued to a detaining authority, ordering the
3.5.3 J
urisdiction and Powers of detainer to produce the detained person in
High Court the issuing court, along with the cause of his
At present, a high court enjoys the following or her detention, if the detention is found to
jurisdiction and powers: be illegal, the court issues an order to set the
person free.
Original Jurisdiction
Mandamus The writ of mandamus is issued to
In their judicial capacity, the High Courts
a subordinate court, an officer of government, or
of the Presidency towns (Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras) have both original and appellate a corporation or other institution commanding
jurisdictions, while other High Courts have the performance of certain acts or duties.
mostly appellate jurisdiction. Prohibition The writ of prohibition is issued
Only in matters of admiralty, probate, by a higher court to a lower court prohibiting it
matrimonial and contempt of Court, they have from taking up a case because it falls outside the
original jurisdiction. The Presidency High jurisdiction of the lower court. Thus, the higher
Courts have original jurisdiction in which the court transfers the case to it.
amount involved is more than `2000 and in

Quo Warranto The writ of quo Warranto is law and return the case to the subordinate
issued against a person who claims or usurps court with its judgment.
a public office. Through this writ the court (d) Its law is binding on all subordinate courts
inquires ‘by what authority’ the person supports functioning within its territorial jurisdiction
his or her claim. in the same sense as the law declared by the
Certiorari The writ of certiorari is issued to a Supreme Court is binding on all courts in
lower court directing that the record of a case be India.
sent up for review, together with all supporting Court of Record
files, evidence and documents, usually with the All the decisions and decrees issued by the High
intention of overruling the judgment of the lower Court are printed and are kept as a record for
court. It is one of the mechanisms by which the future references by the Court as well as by the
fundamental rights of the citizens are upheld. lawyers, is such a need arises. Thus, it also acts
as a Court of Record.
Supervisory Jurisdiction
Power of Judicial Review
High court has the power of superintendence
over all courts and tribunals functioning in its Judicial review is the power of a high court
territorial jurisdiction (except military courts to examine the constitutionality of legislative
or tribunals) Thus, it may enactments and executive orders of both the
Central and state governments. Though the
(a) Call for returns from them; phrase judicial review has no where been used
(b) Make an issue, general rules and prescribe in the Constitution, the provisions of Articles
forms for regulating the practice and 226 and 227 explicitly confer the power of
proceedings of them. judicial review on a high court
(c) Prescribe forms in which books, entries and
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 curtailed
accounts are to be kept by them; and
the judicial review power of high court. It
(d) Settle the fees payable to the sheriff, clerks,
debarred the high court’s from considering
officers and legal practitioners of them.
the constitutional validity of any central law.
ontrol over Subordinate Courts
C However, the 43rd Amendment Act of 1977
A high court has an administrative control and restored the original position.
other powers over them
(a) It is consulted by the governor in the matters
of appointment, posting and promotion of
district judges and in the appointments of
persons to the judicial service of the state
(other than district judges).
(b) It deals with the matters of posting, promotion,
grant of leave, transfers and discipline of the
members of the judicial service of the state
(other than district judges).
(c) It can withdraw a case pending in a subordinate
court if it involves a substantial question of
law that requires the interpretation of the
Constitution. It can then either dispose of
the case itself or determines the question of Statue of Sama Neethi Kanda Cholan at Madras High Court

Recap
The Governor is the constitutional head of the state executive.
�
The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor of the State.
�
The Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the State Legislature.
�
The Legislative Assembly is the real centre of power in the State.
�
At present there are 25 High Courts for 29 States and seven Union Territories.
�
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 curtailed the judicial review power of high court.
�
The 43rd Amendment Act of 1977 restored the original position.
�
GLOSSARY
Constitution It has been defined as the fundamental law of a State. அரசியலமைப்பு

Cabinet It is an inner body within the Council of Ministers which is அமைச்சரவை
responsible for formulating the policy of the Government.
Legislature the group of people in a country or part of a country who சட்டமன்றம்
have the power to make and change laws
Tribunal a special court chosen, especially by the government, to தீர்ப்பாயம்
examine particular problem
Resolution an official decision that is made after a group or organisation தீர்மானம்
has voted
Remuneration payment for work or service ஊதியம்
Interpretation an explanation or opinion of what something means விளக்கம்
3 Which among the following is not one of

EVALUATION
the powers of the Governor?
(a) Legislative (b) Executive
I Choose the (c) Judicial (d) Diplomatic
Correct Answer
4 Who can nominate one representative
1
The Governor of the of the Anglo-Indian Community to the
State is appointed by the State Legislative Assembly?
(a) Prime Minister (a) The President
(b) Chief Minister (b) The Governor
(c) President (c) The Chief Minister
(d) Chief Justice (d) The Speaker of State legislature
2 The Speaker of a State is a 5 The Governor does not appoint
(a) Head of State (a) Chief Minister
(b) Head of government (b) Chairman of the State Public Service
(c) President’s agent Commission
(d) None of these (c) Advocate General of the State
(d) Judges of the High Court

6 The Chief Minister of a State is appointed by (c) Punjab and Haryana
(a) The State Legislature (d) Maharashtra and Gujarat
(b) The Governor
(c) The President II. Fill in the blanks
(d) The Speaker of State 1 Governor of the state government
Legislative Assembly surrenders his resignation to _______.
7 The State Council of Ministers is headed by 2 Members of the Legislative assembly
(a) The Chief Minster (MLAs) elected by the _______.
(b) The Governor 3 _______ is the first women Governor of
(c) The Speaker Tamil Nadu.
(d) The Prime Minister
4 _______ acts as the chancellor of
8 The Legislative Council universities in the state.
(a) Has a term of five years
5 The Seventh Amendment Act of _______
(b) Has a term of six years authorised the Parliament to establish
(c) Is a permanent house a common high court for two or more
(d) Has a term of four years states.
9 The minimum age for the membership 6 The Chairman and Members of the
of the Legislative Council is State Public Service Commission can be
(a) 25 years (b) 21 years removed only by the _______.
(c) 30 years (d) 35 years
III. Match the following
10 The members of Legislative Council are
(a) Elected by the Legislative Assembly 1. Governor - Head of the
Government
(b) Mostly nominated
(c) Elected by local bodies, graduates, 2. Chief Minister - Head of the State
teachers, Legislative Assembly etc. 3. Council of Ministers- Tribunals
(d) Directly elected by the people 4. MLC - Responsible for
11 Which one of the following States does the Assembly
not possess a bicameral legislature? 5. Armed forces - cannot vote for
(a) Andhra Pradesh grants
(b) Telangana
(c) Tamil Nadu IV. C hoose the correct
(d) Uttar Pradesh statement
1. i) Only some States in India have Legislative
12
The High Courts in India were first Councils.
started at ii) Some members of Legislative Councils are
(a) Calcutta, Bombay, Madras nominated.
(b) Delhi and Calcutta iii) Some members of Legislative Councils
are directly elected by the people.
(c) Delhi, Calcutta, Madras
a) ii & iv are correct
(d) Calcutta, Madras, Delhi
b) iii & iv are correct
13 Which of the following States have a c) i & iv are correct
common High Court? d) i, ii & iii are correct
(a) Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
(b) Kerala and Telangana

2. Assertion (A): There are limitations on the 3 Briefly discuss the Functions of the State
Legislative authority of the State Legislature. Legislature.
Reason (R): Certain bills on the State List 4 Critically examine the functions and
can be introduced in the State Legislature powers of the Council of Ministers
only with the President’s approval. 5 Describe the powers and functions of
a) (A) is false but R is true the High Court.
b) (A) is true but (R) is false VII. Project and Activity
c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the 1 Prepare a flow chart showing the State
correct reason for (A) Government’s Administrative setup.
d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not 2 Students to list out the names of the Tamil
the correct reason for (A) Nadu Governor, Chief Minister, Ministers
V. Answer the brief questions and the Governors and Chief Ministers of
1 How the state of Jammu and Kashmir the neighbouring States.
differ from the other states of India?
2 What is the importance of the Governor REFERENCE BOOKS
of a state?
3 What are the qualifications for the 1. D.D. Basu - Introduction of the
appointment of Governor? Constitution of India, S.C. Sarkar &
4 What is the original jurisdiction of the Sons (Private) Ltd, 1982.
High Court? 2 Subhash Kashyap - Our Constitution,
5 What do you understand by the “Appellate National Book Trust, India, 2011.
Jurisdiction” of the High Court?
INTERNET RES OURC ES
VI. Answer in detail
1 What are the powers and functions of
the Chief Minister? 1 www.tnrajbhavan.gov.in
2 Describe the various powers and 2 www.tn.gov.in
functions of the Governor. 3 www.hcmadras.tn.nic.in
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you will
know about the official details
and functions of various states
of our country.
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below.
• Click on any state of the Indian map to view the official website of the state and its function.
• For example, click on the Tamilnadu state. An additional tab will open in the browser
where you can see the official website of Tamilnadu.
• Likewise you can view the details of the other states.
Website URL:
https://www.mea.gov.in/india-at-glance.htm

STANDARD TEN
ECONOMICS
1 GDP AND ITS GROWTH.indd 209 10-04-2019 10:06:31

Unit - 1
Gross Domestic
Product and
its Growth: an
Introduction
Learning Objectives
To know about the meaning of Gross Domestic Product
To Understand the basic various measures of National Income
To Understand the composition of GDP
To know the contribution of different sectors in GDP
To know the economic growth and development and its differences
To know about Development path based on GDP And Employment
To understand the growth of GDP and Economic Policies
Introduction Imagine what happens in a hotel. You

place an order for two Idlis and a cup of tea.
After a long time you got in touch through Someone makes the idlis and tea and someone
email with a good friend of yours who lives else serves you.
abroad. When she asks “how are you?” you
An economist will say that in the hotel two
may answer “ my health is in good shape and
kinds of items are being produced . Obviously,
I am progressing in my studies, so I am doing
Idlis and tea are produced . These are tangible,
well, thank you”. Or your reply may be “ Not
physical things you can touch and feel.
very well. You see, I had to receive treatment
for some health problems and that adversely
affected my performance in my studies”.
Server
Your friend than asks you : “how is India Consumer
doing?” The answer to this query is a bit more
challenging because she is asking about the
condition of the entire nation ! Fortunately
economists have provided different measures
of answering your friend’s question , the most
widely used one being the Gross Domestic Goods
Product, or GDP. The GDP then is one way to
know if “ India is doing well” or “ India is not
doing as well as we would wish”.
DEFINITION OF GDP
To understand how the GDP tells us how
India is doing, you should understand what
GDP is.
Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction 210

Economists call such tangible items “goods”. The GDP solves this problem by
These goods are not free but have to paid for. measuring the goods and services in the
Though you don’t realise it in addition to currency of the country, which is the rupee
these tangible things called goods, something else in the case of India. The rupee values are
is being produced : the work done by the cooks derived from the prices at which the goods
and the people who serve the food. The activity and services are sold in the market. Only
of cooking and serving is not something you can those goods and services with a market value
feel and touch. Such activities are not tangible are included in the GDP.
but are nevertheless crucial for you to enjoy the This implies that unless a good or service is
food. Economists call such activity “services”. As sold in the market, it is not included in the GDP.
in the case of goods, these and other services are For example if you pay ` 50 to get a manuscript
not free but have to be paid for. typed in a computer centre, the service is included
What happens everyday in a hotel happens in the GDP since it is sold in the market. If you
nation wide: goods and services are produced type the manuscript yourself , the service typing
and paid for and this what the GDP measures. a manuscript is not included in the GDP since
The GDP is defined follows: you did not purchase it for a price in the market.
The GDP is the market value of all the Final goods and services: Economists
final goods and services produced in the Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok say that “final
country during a time period. goods and services” are the goods and services
which will be used or consumed and will not
Every part of the definition is important.
form a part of other goods and services. The
Goods and services: as you know by goods and services which will be used for
now, goods are tangible items while services are producing other goods and services and will
activities which are intangible . form a part of the goods and services produced
Market value: This is the price at which are called “intermediate goods”.
goods and services are sold in the market. Only the final goods are included in the
The GDP measures all the goods and services GDP. Intermediate goods are not counted
produced in the country. For this, we have to add in calculating the GDP because their value
all the goods and services produced. However a is included in the final goods. So if the
nation produces a wide range of goods like rice, intermediate goods are included in the GDP it
shoes , trains, milk, clocks, books and bicycles. will result in what is called “double counting”.
If only the quantities are taken into account, For example, a cup of tea bought in a hotel
there is no meaningful way to add these up. For is a final good because it is consumed and does
example, how do you add 1000 litres of milk with not form a part of producing something else. So
500 clocks?! Likewise there is no meaningful the market value of the cup of tea, being a final
way to add the quantities of services since a wide good, is included in the GDP. Sugar which is
range of services are produced , such as the work mixed in the tea is an intermediate good because
done by doctors, police, fire brigade, teachers, it is used in making tea and forms a part of the
bus drivers and district collectors. tea served. Suppose the tea is priced ` 10 a cup,
When we cannot add the quantity of one of which the value of sugar used is ` 2. So the
type of good with another type of good or one price of the cup of tea includes the ` 2 price
type of service with another type of service, of the spoon of sugar. If this value of sugar is
certainly there is no sensible way to add the included in the GDP , it will be counted twice:
quantities of goods produced with those of as a spoon of sugar and again as a part of the cup
services produced ! How would we add the of tea. This is “double counting” and to avoid it
quantity of milk produced in the country with the intermediate goods like sugar are excluded
the service produced by teachers?! from GDP.
211 Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction

Should the market value of utensils used to Product is obtained from the Gross Domestic
brew the tea be included in the GDP? You may Product by deducting the Quantum of tear and
argue that since the utensils are bought not as final wear expenses (depreciation)
goods but to produce tea, they are intermediate NDP = GDP − Depreciation
goods and so they should not be included in the
GDP. However the utensils, unlike sugar, do not 5. Per Capita Income (PCI)
form a part of the final good , the cup of tea. For
Per capita Income or output per person is an
this reason they should be included in the GDP.
indicator to show the living standard of people in
1.1 National Income a country. It is obtained by dividing the National
‘National Income is a measure of the total Income by the population of a country.
value of goods and services produced by an Per capita Income = National Income / Population
economy over a period of time, normally a year’.
Commonly National Income is called as Gross In 1867-68 for
National Product(GNP) or National Dividend. the first time
Dadabhai Navroji
1.1.1 Various terms associated with
had ascertained
measuring of National Income the Per Capital
1. Gross National Product (GNP) Income in his book “Poverty and Un-
Gross National Product is the total value British Rule of India”.
of (goods and services) produced and income
received in a year by domestic residents of a 6. Personal Income (PI)
country. It includes profits earned from capital Personal income is the total money income
invested abroad. received by individuals and households of
GNP = C + I + G + (X–M) + NFIA) a country from all possible sources before
C = Consumption direct taxes, therefore, personal income can be
I = Investment expressed as follows (PI = NI corporate Income
G = Government Expenditure Taxes − Undistributed corporate profits − social
X-M = Export – Import security contribution + Transfer payment).
NFIA = Net Factor Income from Abroad) 7. Disposable Income (DI)
2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Disposable income means actual
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the income which can be spent on consumption
total value of output of goods and services by individuals and families, thus, it can be
produced by the factors of production within expressed as DPI = PI − Direct Taxes
the geographical boundaries of the country. (From consumption approach DI =
Consumption Expenditures + Savings )
3. Net National Product (NNP)
Net National Product(NNP) is arrived
by making some adjustment with regard to 1.2 Gross Domestic
depreciation that is we arrive the Net National Product (GDP)
Product (NNP) by deducting the value of Produced in the country: GDP of India
depreciation from Gross National Product. includes only the market value of goods and
(NNP = GNP − Depreciation) services produced in India. For example the market
4. Net Domestic Product (NDP) value of apples produced in Kashmir are included
Net Domestic Product (NDP) is a part in our GDP since Kashmir is in India. The market
of Gross Domestic Product, Net Domestic value of apples produced in California, even if

they are sold in Indian markets, are not included
in our GDP because California is in the U.S. The modern concept of GDP
Produced during a time period: The was first developed by Simon
GDP of a country measures the market value Kuznets for a US Congress
of goods and services produced only during the report in 1934.
specified time period. The goods and services
produced in earlier periods are not included.
1.2.1 Methods of GDP Calculating
If an year is the specified time period, the GDP
of 2018 will include the market value of goods 1. Expenditure Approach: In this method, the
and services produced only during 2018. So a GDP is measured by adding the expenditure
bicycle produced in 2017 will not be included in on all the final goods and services produced
the GDP measure for 2018. in the country during a specified period. The
different types of expenditure are shown in
In India the GDP is measured both annually
this equation: Y = C + I + G + (X − M)
and quarterly. The annual GDP is for a financial
2. The Income Approach: This method looks
year which is from April1 of say 2017 to March
at GDP from the perspective of the earnings
31, 2018. This is written as 2017-18. The quarterly
of the men and women who are involved
GDP estimates are for each of the four quarters
in producing the goods and services. The
into which India’s financial year is divided:
income approach to measuring GDP (Y) is
First quarter, denoted Q1: April, May and June Y = wages + rent + interest + profit
Second quarter, or Q2: July, August, September 3. Value-Added Approach: A cup of tea
served to you in a hotel is a “final good”. The
Third Quarter or Q3: October, November,
goods used to produce it , tea powder, milk,
December
and sugar, are “intermediate goods” since
Fourth Quarter, or Q4: January, February, March. they form
The annual GDP for financial year 2017 - 18 a part of
will include only the goods and services produced the final
during this financial year and will exclude the good, the
goods and services produced in the previous cup of tea.
years. Likewise GDP for Q2 will include only the One way
goods and services produced in Q2 and will not to measure
include the goods and services produced in Q1. the market
value of
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the cup of tea is to add the value produced
definition by each intermediate good used to produce
it. Each intermediate good, the tea powder ,
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) represents
milk and sugar, adds value to the final
the economic health of a country. It represents
output, the cup of tea. In the value-added
a sum of a country’s production which consists
approach the value added by each
of all purchases of goods and services used by
intermediate good is summed to estimate
individuals, firms, foreigners and the governing
the value of the final good. The sum of the
bodies. The monetary value of all the finished
value added by all the intermediate goods
goods and services produced within a country’s
used in production gives us the total value
border in a specific time period.
of the final goods produced in the economy.
GDP = C + I + G + (X − M )
1.2.2 Importance of GDP
C = Consumption I = Investment
G = Government Expenditure 1. Study of Economic Growth.
( X − M) = X = Exports − M = Imports 2. Unequal distribution of wealth.

3. Problems of inflation and deflation. 4 The GDP does not tell us about the kind
4. Comparison with developed countries of of life people are living: A high level of
the world. per capita real GDP can go hand-in-hand
5. Estimate the purchasing power. with very low health condition of people,
an undemocratic political system, high
6. Public Sector.
pollution and high suicide rate.
7. Guide to economic planning.
1.2.3 Limitations of GDP Estimation of GDP
The GDP is the most widely used measure The Central Statistical
of the state of the economy. While appreciating Organisation (CSO), under
its usefulness, we should be aware of some of its the Ministry of Statistical
limitations. department keeps the records.
1 Several important goods and services It’s processes involves conducting an annual
are left out of the GDP: The GDP includes survey of industries and compilation of various
only the goods indexes like the Index of Industrial Production
and services sold (IIP) Consumer Price Index (CPI) etc.
in the market. The
services provided
1.3 Composition of Gross
by parents to their
children is very
Domestic Product (GDP)
important but it is Indian economy is broadly divided into
not included in three sectors which contribute to the GDP
the GDP because namely Agriculture and allied activity, Industry
it is not sold in the market. Likewise clean and Services.
air, which is vital for a healthy life, has no
1) Primary Sector:
market value and is left out of the GDP.
(Agricultural Sector)
2 GDP measures only quantity but not
quality: In the 1970s schools and banks Agricultural
did not permit the use of ballpoint pens. sector is known as
This is because the ones available in India primary sector, in
were of very poor quality. Since then, not which agricultural
only has there been a substantial increase in operations are
the quantity of ballpoint pens produced in u n d e r t a k e .
Forestry
India but their quality has also improved a Agriculture based
lot. The improvement in quality of goods is allied activities, production of raw materials
very important but it is not captured by the such as cattle farm, fishing, mining, forestry,
GDP. corn, coal etc. are also undertaken.
3 GDP does not tell us about the way income 2) Secondary Sector:
is distributed in the
(Industrial Sector)
country: The GDP
of a country may Industrial sector
be growing rapidly is secondary sectors
but income may in which the goods
be distributed so and commodities
unequally that only are produced by
transforming the Industry
a small percentage
of people may be benefitting from it. raw materials. Important industries are Iron

and Steel industry, cotton textile, Jute, Sugar,
Cement, Paper, Petrochemical, automobile and
other small scale industries.
3) Tertiary: (Service Sector)
Tertiary sector
is known as service
sector it includes
Government,
scientific research, India is 2nd larger producer of agriculture
t r a n s p o r t product. India accounts for 7.39 percent of total
c om mu n i c at i on , Postal and Telegraph global agricultural output. In Industrial sector,
trade, postal and telegraph, Banking, Education, India world rank is 6 and in Service sector, India
Entertainment, Healthcare and Information world rank is 8. Contribution of Agriculture sector
Technology etc.. In the 20th century,economists in Indian economy is much higher than world's
began to suggest that, traditional tertiary average (6.4%). Contribution of Industry and
services could be further distinguished from Services sector is lower than world's average 30%
“quaternary” and “quinary” service sectors. for Industry sector and 63% for Services sector.
1.4 Contribution of different Gross value added (GVA) is the measure of

sectors in GDP of India the value of goods and services produced in an
area, industry or sector of an economy. In national
Services sector is the largest sector of India. accounts GVA is output minus intermediate
Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices consumption; it is a balancing item of the national
for Services sector is estimated at 92.26 lakh accounts' production account.
crore in 2018-19. Services sector accounts for GVA is linked as a measurement to Gross
54.40% of total India's GVA of 169.61 lakh crore Domestic Product (GDP), as both are measures of
Indian rupees. With GVA of ` 50.43 lakh crore, output. The relationship is defined as GVA + taxes
Industry sector contributes 29.73%. While, on products - subsidies on products = GDP
GVA = GDP + subsidies - (direct, sales) taxes.
Agriculture and allied sector shares 15.87%.
Sector-wise Contribution in GDP of India

Year Agriculture(%) Industry(%) Service(%)
1950-51 51.81 14.16 33.25
1960-61 42.56 19.30 38.25
1970-71 41.95 20.48 37.22
1980-81 35.39 24.29 39.92
1990-91 29.02 26.49 44.18
2000-01 23.02 26.00 50.98
2010-11 18.21 27.16 54.64
2011-12 17.86 27.22 54.91
2012-13 17.52 26.21 56.27
2013-14 18.20 24.77 57.03
2015-16 17.07 29.08 52.05
2016-17 17.09 29.03 52.08
2017-18 17.01 29.01 53.09
Source: Central Statistics Office

Sector-wise contribuon of GDP (2018-19)
Percentage share (%) Agriculture Sector
Agriculture Forestry & Fishing
14.82 15.87 Industry sector
15.87 Mining & quarrying

20.96
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, water
supply& other utility services
18.62 29.73
Construction
Services Sector
Trade, hotels, transport,
2.7 communication and services
16.83 related to broad casting
54.4 Financial, real estate & Prof
Services
2.67
7.54 Public administrative,
defense and other services
Source: Statistics times.com.
Note: The Table shows that Sector-wise contribution in GDP of India for the year 2018 - 2019.
Sectorwise GDP Growth of India (1950-2018)

■ Agriculture ■ Industry ■ Services
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2018
Source: Statistics times.com.

Note: The chart shows that Sector-wise contribution in GDP of India for the year 1950-2018

1.5 Economic Growth and GDP of the United States of America is 19.3 trillion
Development USD and ranked one.It shows how much the
production of goods and services has increased
As per the economist compared from last year in a quantitative manner.
Amartya Sen, economic It has many parameters to measure and few of
growth is one aspect of them are human Resources. They are Natural
economic development. Resource, Advancement in technology, Capital
Also, united nation see it like formation, Political and social economic factors.
this “Economic development
focuses not only on man’s Economic Development
materialistic need but it Economic development projects a
focuses on overall development or rise in its living broader picture of an economy which takes
standards. into account an increase in production level
or output of an economy along with an
Economic Growth improvement in the living standard of its
It is the quantitative measure which citizens. It focuses more on socioeconomic
considers the rise in the output produced in factors rather than the just quantitative
an economy or nation in a particular period increase in production. Economic
in its monetary value. The key parameters of development is a qualitative measure which
economic growth in any economy are its Gross measures improvement in technology, labour
Domestic Product (GDP) and gross national reforms, rising living standards, broader
product which helps in measuring the actual institutional changes in an economy.
size of an economy. Human development Index (HDI) is apt
For example, we say GDP of India is 2.8 tool to measure the real development in an
trillion USD and ranked 6th in globe whereas economy.
Differences between Economic Growth and Economic Development

Comparison
between Economic
Growth and Economic Growth Economic Development
Economic
Development
It considers the rise in the output in an
It is the positive quantitative
economy along with the advancement of
Definition / change in the output of an
HDI index which considers a rise in living
Meaning economy in a particular time
standards, advancement in technology
period
and overall happiness index of a nation.
Economic growth is the Economic development is the “Broader”
Concept
“Narrower” concept concept
Nature of Approach Quantitative in nature Qualitative in nature
Rise in life expectancy rate, infant,
Rise in parameters like GDP,
Scope improvement in literacy rate, infant
GNP, FDI,FII etc.
mortality rate and poverty rate etc.
Term / Tenure Short term in nature Long-term in nature
Applicability Developed nation Developing economies

Measurement Increase in real national income i.e. per
Increase in national income
Techniques capita income
Frequency of
In a certain period of time Continuous process
Occurrence
Highly dependent on government
It is an automatic process so
intervention as it includes widespread
Government Aid may not require government
policies changes so without government
support/aid or intervention
intervention it is not possible
Economic growth does not It focuses on a balanced and equitable
emphasize on the fair and equal distribution of wealth among all
Wealth Distribution
distribution of wealth/income individual and tries to uplift the
among all its people. downgrade societies.
Human Development Index

1.6 Developmental Path based
on GDP andEmployment
In 1990 Mahbub ul Haq,
a Pakistani Economist at the In the development path
United Nations, introduced the of India, it first undertook
Human Development Index the policy of closed trade.
(HDI). The HDI is a composite This was to give a thrust
index of life expectancy at birth, adult literacy to domestic industries
rate and standard of living measured as a and reduce dependence
logarithmic function of GDP, adjusted to on foreign products and
purchasing power parity. companies.Trade and interaction with the
outside world remained limited. This outlook
India climbed one spot to 130 out of 189
continued till 1991 when India finally decided
countries in the latest human development
to open its borders to free trade and liberalized
rankings released today by the United Nations
its economy by allowing foreign companies to
Development Programme (UNDP). India’s
enter the Indian economy.
HDI value for 2017 is 0.640, which put the
country in the medium human development
A thrust was given to employment
category. Between 1990 and 2017, India’s HDI
generation under the Five Year plans. This was
value incased from 0.427 to 0.640, an increase
to make up for a rising population and lacking
of nearly 50 percent – and an indicator of the
jobs to absorb the increased workforce size.
country’s remarkable achievement in lifting
Rural development was also given importance
millions of people out of poverty.
in India, for the important constituent it was of
the Indian landscape.
Between 1990 and 2017, India’s life
Poverty alleviation came as a corollary of
expectancy at birth too increased by nearly
rural development and a part of the development
11 years, with even more significant gains in
path of India. India inherited a poverty-stricken
expected years of schooling. Today’s Indian
economy from the British rule, which had
school-age children can expect to stay in school
destroyed its resource base completely.
for 4.7 years longer than in 1990. Whereas,
The public sector was given significant
India’s GNI per capita increased by a staggering
importance, Private companies and industries
266.6 % between 1990 and 2017.
were subject to strict regulations and standards.
It was believed that the government was the sole

protector of the people and would work towards Factors supporting Indian
social welfare. development
India has sustained rapid growth of GDP A fast-growing population of working
for most of the last two decades leading to age. There are 700 million Indians under the
rising per capita incomes and a reduction age of 35 and the demographics look good for
in absolute poverty. Per capita incomes have Indian growth in the next twenty years at least.
doubled in 12 years. In Per capita income, India is experiencing demographic transition
placing India just inside the Middle Income that has increased the share of the working-age
Country category. population from 58 percent to 64 percent over
Life expectancy at birth is 65 years and the last two decades.
44% of children under 5 are malnourished. The India has a strong legal system and many
literacy rate for the population aged 15 years and English-language speakers. This has been a key to
above is only 63% compared to a 71% figure for attracting inward investment from companies such
lower middle income countries. as those specialising in Information Technology.
India has followed a different path of
development from many other countries. Wage costs are low in India and India has
India went more quickly from agriculture made strides in recent years in closing some
to services that tend to be less tightly of the productivity gap between her and other
regulated than heavy industry. There are countries at later stages of development.
some emerging manufacturing giants in the India's economy has successfully developed
Indian economy. highly advanced and attractive clusters of
Gross National Happiness (GNH)

Gross National Happiness ( GNH) is a philosophy that guides the government of Bhutan.
It includes an index which is used to measure the collective happiness and well-being of a
population. Gross National Happiness is instituted as the goal of the government of Bhutan in
the Constitution of Bhutan, enacted on 18 July 2008.
The term Gross National Happiness was coined in 1972 during an interview by a British
journalist for the Financial Times at Bombay airport when the then king of Bhutan, Jigme Singye
Wangchuck, said "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product.
In 2011, The UN General Assembly passed Resolution "Happiness: towards a holistic
approach to development" urging member nations to follow the example of Bhutan and measure
happiness and well-being and calling happiness a "fundamental human goal."
GNH is distinguishable from Gross Domestic Product by valuing collective happiness as
the goal of governance, by emphasizing harmony with nature and traditional values as expressed
in the 9 domains of happiness and 4 pillars of GNH. The four pillars of GNH's are 1) sustainable
and equitable socio-economic development; 2) environmental conservation; 3) preservation
and promotion of culture; and 4) good governance.
The nine domains of GNH are psychological well-being, health, time use, education,
cultural diversity and resilience, good governance, community vitality, ecological diversity and
resilience, and living standards. Each domain is composed of subjective (survey-based) and
objective indicators. The domains weigh equally but the indicators within each domain differ
by weight.

promotes research and development, leads
to modernization and ultimately makes the
economy self-sufficient. In fact, industrial
development even boosts other sectors of the
economy like the agricultural sector (new
farming technology) and the service sector. It is
also closely related to the development of trade.
Several industrial policies since 1948,
Industrial policy on large scale industries
Eg. Textile Industry policy, Sugar Industry
policy, Price policy of industrial growth,
businesses in the technology space. For example Small scale industrial policy and Industrial
witness the rapid emergence of Bangalore Labour policy.
as a hub for global software businesses.
External economies of scale have deepened 3. New Economic Policy
their competitive advantages in many related The economy of India had undergone
industries. significant policy shifts in the beginning of the
1990s. This new model of economic reforms is
1.7 Growth of GDP and commonly known as the LPG or Liberalisation,
Economic Policies Privatisation and Globalisation model. The
Many Economic Policies have been framed primary objective of this model was to make
by the Government of India since independence the economy of India the fastest developing
for increasing rate of economic growth and economy in the globe with capabilities that help
economic development. The important it match up with the biggest economies of the
world. These economic reforms had influenced
economic policies are
the overall economic growth of the country in a
1. Agriculture policy significant manner.
Agricultural policy is the set of government
decisions and actions relating to domestic Some other policies in India
agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural • Trade Policy
products. Governments usually implement Import and Export policy (International

agricultural policies with the goal of achieving Trade Policy), Domestic Trade Policy.
a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural
product markets. Some over arching themes • Employment policy
include risk management and adjustment, • Currency and Banking Policy
economic stability , natural resources
• Fiscal and Monetary Policy
and environmental sustainability research and
development, and market access for domestic • Wage Policy
commodities. • Population Policy
Some Agricultural policies are Price policy,
land reform policy, Green Revolution, Irrigation 1.7.1 GDP Growth of India
policy, Food policy, Agricultural Labour Policy India's economic growth story since the 1990s
and Co-operative policy. has been steady, stable, diversified, resilent and
reflect strong macro economics fundamentals.
2. Industrial Policy Despite fluctuations in recent quarters due to
Industrial development is a very important disruptions caused by two major structural
aspect of any economy. It creates employment, reforms - demonetisation and the Goods and

Services Tax (GST). The world Bank projected a According to IMF World Economic
growth rate of 7.3% in the year 2018-19 and 7.5% Outlook (October-2018), GDP growth rate of
2019-2020. India's average economic growth India in 2018 is projected at 7.3% and India is 5th
between 1970 and 1980 has been 4.4% which rise fastest growing nation of the world just behind
by 1% point to 5.4% between the 1990 and 2000. Bangladesh.
RECAP
• GDP is the value of all goods and services produced within an economy in a financial year.
• Indian economy is classified in three sectors Agriculture and allied Industry and Service
• Depreciation: The Monetary value of an asset decreases over time due to use, wear and tear or
obsolescence
• Income: The amount of monetary or other returns, either earned or unearned, accruing over a
period of time.
• Gross Value Added (GVA): The measure of the value of goods and services produced in an
area, industry or sector of an economy.
• GNP Deflator: The change in GNP with the change in price levels.
• Economic indicator - An economic indicator is a statistical data used to determine the health of the economy.
GLOSSARY
Depreciation The process of lossing value தேய்மானம்

Intermediate Being between two other related things இடைநிலை
Market Price A price that is likely to be paid for something சந்தை விலை
A consumer good or final good is any commodity
Final Goods that is produced or consumed by the consumer to இறுதி ப�ொருட்கள்
satisfy current wants or needs
the nature of something's ingredients or constituents;
Composition கலவை
the way in which a whole or mixture is made up
Contribution a gift or payment to a common fund or collection. பங்களிப்பு
Socio- relating to or concerned with the interaction of social சமூக-
Economic and economic factors. பொருளாதார
confidence in one's own worth or abilities; self-
Self-Esteem சுயமரியாதை
respect
Broader covering a large number and wide scope of subjects பரந்த
continue in existence or operation uncertainly or
Staggering தடுமாற்றத்தினை
precariously.

9. Which one is a trade policy?.
EVALUATION a) irrigation policy
b) import and export policy
I C hoose the correct c) land-reform policy
d) wage policy
answer
10. Indian economy is
1. GNP equals a) Developing Economy
a) NNP adjusted for
b) Emerging Economy
inflation
c) Dual Economy
b) GDP adjusted for
inflation d) All the above
c) GDP plus net property income from II Fill in the blanks
abroad 1. _____ sector is largest sector in India.
d) NNP plus net property income or 2. GDP is the indicator of _____ economy.
abroad 3. Secondary sector otherwise called as _____.
2. National Income is a measure of 4. _____ sector is the growth engine of Indian
a) Total value of money economy.
b) Total value of producer goods 5. India is _____ largest economy of the
c) Total value of consumption goods world.
d) Total value of goods and services 6. India is _____ fastest growing nation of the
3. Primary sector consist of world.
a) Agriculture b) Automobiles 7. _____ policy envisages rapid
c) Trade d) Banking industrialization with modernization for
attaining rapid economic growth of GDP.
4. ______ approach is the value added by each
intermediate good is summed to estimate III C hoose the correct statement
the value of the final good. 1. The rate of saving is low in India for the
a) Expenditure approach following reason
b) Value added approach I. Low per capita income.
c) income approach II. Poor performance and less contribution
d) National Income of public sector.
III. Poor contribution of household sector.
5. Which one sector is highest employment in
IV. Savings potential of the rural sector not
the GDP.
tapped fully.
a) Agricultural sector a) I, II, IV are correct
b) Industrial sector b) I, II and III are correct
c) Service sector
c) I, II, III and IV are correct
d) None of the above.
d) I, III and IV are correct
6. Gross value added at current prices for
IV Match the following
services sector is estimated at ______ lakh
crore in 2018-19. 1. Electricity/ – National Income /
a) 91.06 b) 92.26 c) 80.07 d) 98.29 Gas and Water Population
7. India is ______ larger producer in 2. Price policy – Gross National
agricultural product. Product
a) 1 st b) 3 rd c) 4 th d) 2nd 3. GST – Industry Sector
8. India’s life expectancy at birth is ______ 4. Per capita income – Agriculture
years. 5. C + I + G + (X-M) – Tax on goods and
a) 65 b) 60 c) 70 d) 55 service

V Give short answer 5. Explain the Developmental path based on
GDP and employment.
1. Define National income.
6. Explain the following the economic policies
2. What is meant by Gross domestic product?
1.Agricultural Policy
3. Write the importance of Gross domestic
2.Industrial policy
product.
3.New ecnomic policy
4. What is per capita income?.
5. Define the value added approach with VII Activity and Project
example. 1. Students are collect the Gross Domestic
6. Name the sectors contribute to the GDP Product datas of Tamilnadu and compare
with examples. the other state of Karnataka and Kerala’s
GDP.
7. Write the sectorwise Indian GDP
2. Students are collect the details of
composition in 2017.
Employment growth of Tamilnadu.
8. what are the factors supporting to develop
the indian economy
REFERENCE BOOKS
9. Write the name of ecnomic policies in India.
10. Write a short note 1) Gross National 1. Sankaran Indian Economy(problems,
Happiness(GNH) 2) Human Development policies,and development).
Index(HDI) 2 Ramesh singh Indian economy (10th Edition).
VI Write in detail answer 3 Ministry of statistics and implementation
planning commission. Government of india.
1. Briefly explain various terms associated
with measuring of national income.
2. What are the methods of calculating Gross INTERNET RESOURCES
Domestic Product? and explain its.
3. Write about the composition of GDP in https://en.wikipedia.org
India. http://www.statisticstimes.com
4. Write the differences between the growth
and development.
ICT CORNER
Steps
• Click on ‘Real GDP Growth’ and select ‘India’ in Right side menu
• Drag the timeline button to see the GDP Growth of India
Website URL:
https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/WEO/1

Unit - 2
Unit - 2
Globalization
and Trade
Learning Objectives
� To know the meaning and history of globalization

� To know the trade and traders in South India historical perspective
� To know the evolution of growth of MNC
� To know the fair trade practices and WTO
� To understand the impact and challenges of globalization
Introduction
Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization (LPG) have become a much
talked of subjects among politicians, economists
and businessmen in modern days. These three
expressions are the supporting pillars of which
the edifice of new economic policy of our
Government has been erected and implemented
since 1991. Globalization
2.1 Globalization 2.2 History of Globalization

Globalization is the process of integrating The term of ‘Globalization’ was introduced
various economies of the world without by Pro. Theodore Levitt. The historical
creating any barriers in the free flow of goods backround of globalization can be discussed on
and services, technology, capital and even three stages.
labour or human capital. Under globalization,
the international markets for goods and services Stage - 1
are integrated. Archaic Globalization
Globalization is the integration of a country History of Stage - 2

with the world economy. Basically, globalization Globalization Proto Globalization
signifies a process of internationalization plus Stage - 3

Modern Globalization
liberalization.
224 Globalization and Trade
2 Globalisation.indd 224 10-04-2019 10:08:50

SILK AND SPICE ROUTE W
N
E
S
A S I A
EUROPE
DITER
ME AN
R
EAN SEA
PERSIA CHINA
EGYPT
ARABIA INDIA
AFRICA
SOMALIA
INDIAN OCEAN
JAVA
LEGEND
LAND ROUTE AUSTRALIA
Not to Scale
SEA ROUTE
Silk Route and Spice Route
2.2.1. Archaic Globalization 2.2.2. Proto Globalization
Andre Gunder Frank argued that a form The next phase is known as proto -
of globalization has been in existence since the globalization. It was charterized by the rise of
rise of trade links between Sumer and Indus maritime European empires, in the 16th and
valley civilization in the third millennium 17th centuries, first the Portugues and Spanish
BC (BCE). An early form of globalized Empires, and Dutch and British empires. In
economics and culture, known as Archaic the 17th century, globalization became private
globalization existed during the Hellenistic business phenomenon like British East India
Age. When commercialized urban centers Company[founded in 1600] described as the
were focused around the axis of Greek culture first multinational company, and the first Dutch
over a wide range that stretched from India to East India Company [found in 1602] were
Spain with such cities as Alexandria, Athens, established. In 16th century, Portuguese
and Anthioch, as its center. An early form of started establishing trading posts [factories]
globalization in the trade link between the from Africa to Asia and Brazil.
Roman Empire, Parthian Empire and the Han
2.2.3. Modern Globalization
Dynasty made the commercial links between
these powers inspired the development of the The 19th century witnessed the advent of
Silk Road. globalization approaching its modern form.
Between the globalization in the 19th and in he
The Islamic Golden Age was also an
20th century there are significant differences.
important early stage of globalization.
There are two main points one is the global
The advent of the Mongol Empire, though
trade in his centuries as well as the capital,
destabilizing to the commercial centers of
investment and the economy and another one
the Middle East and China, greatly facilitated
is the global trade in the 20th century shows a
travel along the Silk Road. These Pre-modern
higher share of trade in merchant production,
phase of global exchange are sometimes
a growth of the trade in services and the rise of
known as archaic globalization.
production and trade by multinational firms.
Globalization and Trade 225

Multinational trade contracts and 2.3.1. Early Traders
agreements have been signed, like the General
In the year 1053 AD (CE) the Kalinga
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade [GATT] and
traders (Modern Orissa) brought red colored
World Trade Organization [WTO]. From 1890
stone decorative objects for trade and also
and up to World War 1 instability trade was
cotton textile to Southeast Asia at an early
a problem, but in the post war period there
date. Several trade guilds operated in medieval
has mostly been economic expansion which
Southern India such as the Gatrigas, Nakaras,
leads to stability. Technological changes
Mummuridandas, Ayyavole -500 Settis,
have caused lower transporting costs, it take
Birudas, Gavaras, etc.. Some trade guilds, such
just a few hours to transport goods between
as the Nakaras and Gavares, met only in the
continents today.
temple premises.
2.3 Trade and Traders in South
India historical perspective 2.3.2. European Traders in South India
Southern Indian trade guilds were formed This was due to the trading activities of the
by merchants in order to organize and expand various European companies which came to
their trading activities. Trade guilds become India during this period. The discovery of a new
channels through which Indian culture was all-sea route from Europe to India Via cape of
exported to other lands. South India trade was Good Hope by Vasco do Gama had for reaching
dominated by the Cholas, and it replaced the repercussions on the civilized world. India’s
Pallavas. coastal and maritime trade was monopolized
by the Europeans.
KALINGA TRADE ROUTE W E

S
China
Kalinga
Burma Champa
Siam
Kmer
Malaya
Ceylon
Sumatra
Not to Scale
Java Bali
Kalinga Trade route map


2.3.3. The Portuguese 2.3.5. The British Company (UK)
Vasco Da Gama Queen Elizabeth

The Portuguese under the leadership of On 31st December, 1600, Queen Elizabeth
Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on the 17th granted charter to The East India Company.
May, 1498. Profits of goods brought by Vasco do On the south-eastern coast, the English
Gama to Portugal were to 60 times cost of the established at Masulipatnam in 1611 and
entire expedition to India. The arrival of Pedro near Pulical in 1626. The Sultan of Golconda
Alvarez cabral in India in 1500AD (CE) and the granted the English the “Golden Fireman”
second trip of Vasco da Gama in 1502 led to in 1632 by which they were allowed to trade
the establishment of trading station at Calicut freely in their “Kingdom Ports”. In 1639, built a
Cochin and Cannanore. Cochin was the early fortified factory in Madras which known as Fort
capital of the Portuguese in India. St.George, which soon displaced Masulipatnam
as headquarters of the English settlement on the
2.3.4. The Dutch in South India coromandel coast.
2.3.6. The Danes
The Danes formed an East India company
and arrive in India in 1616. The Danish
settlements were established at Tranguebar
( in Tamil nadu) in 1620 which was the
headquarters of Danes in India. They failed to
strengthen themselves, in India and in 1845
were forced to sell all their India settlements to
the British.
Dutch East India company
2.3.7. The French
Dutch undertook several voyages from
1596 and formed the Dutch East India company The first French factory in India was
(VOC) I 1602. In 1605, Admiral van der Hagen established in 1668 by obtaining permission
established Dutch Factory at Masulipatnam and from the Sultan of Golconda. In 1693, the
Pettapoli (Nizamapatanam), Devanampatinam. Dutch captured Pondicherry but was handed
In 1610, upon negotiating with the king of back to the French. In 1701, Pondicherry was
Chandragiri, found another facatory at Pulicut. the headquarters of the French. Settlements
Other commodities exported by the Dutch were in the East after 1742 Political motives began
indigo, saltpeter and Bengal raw silk. Pulicut to overshadow the desire for commercial
was the headquarters of the Dutch in India. gain.
Nagapatnam on the Tanjore coast acquired Recently, the Government of India has set
from the Portuguese in 1659. up Special Economic Zones in Southern States

especially in Tamilnadu, Andhra, Karnataka 2.5 Multi National Corporation
and Kerala with a view to boost exports
(MNC)
Nanguneri Sez, Ennore Sez, Coimbatore Sez
are some in Tamilnadu.
Multi National
Corporation is a Corporate
2.4 Globalization in India organization which owns or
In India the period after 1980-81 was controls production of goods or
marked by severe balance of payment difficulties services in at least one country
mainly due to hike in oil price and Gulf war in other than its home country.
1990-91 and hostilities in West Asia. Otherwise called Multinational Corporations
When the new government took over in (MNCs) or Transnational Corporation (TNC) or
June 1991. India had unprecedented balance of Multinational Enterprise (MNE).
payment crisis. The finances of the central, and
state Government had reached a situation of 2.5.1.Evolution of MNC
near bankruptcy. Like, the East India Company, which came
With the downgrading of India’s credit to India as a trading company and then its net
rating by some international agencies, there was throughout the country to become politically
heavy flight of capital out of India. dominant, these multinationals first start their
Since India lost its credit worthiness in the activities in extractive industries or control raw
international market, the government mortgaged materials in the host countries during 1920s and
40 tons of gold to the Bank of England. Under then slowly entered. The manufacturing and
these circumstances, the government for 1991-92 service sectors after 1950s. Most of the MNC’s
presented its budget in July 1991 with a series of at present belong to the four major exporting
policy changes which underlined globalization, countries viz., USA, UK, France, Germany.
liberalization and privatization. This has come However, the largest is American.
to be called as India’s new economic policy. This 11 of the 15 largest multinationals are
policies were strengthened when India signed American, In 1971, the American Corporations
the Dunkel Draft in 1994. held 52 percent of the total world stock of
foreign direct Investment. Great Britain held
Reforms made to adopt Globalization:- 14.5 percent followed by France 5 percent
(New Economic policy in India) and Federal Republic of Germany 4.4 percent
and Japan 2.7 percent. In 1969 the American
1. Abolition of Industrial licensing, except for a
Multinationals alone produced approximately
few industries.
140 billion dollars worth of goods.
2. Reduction in the number of industries
The American multinationals realize quite
reserved for public sector.
substantial returns to the extent of 34 percent
3. Fixation of a realistic exchange rate of rupee in Asiatic countries and 22 percent in African
to exchange exports of Indian goods. countries. They then acquire enormous powers
4. Foreign private sector by making rupee in hose countries, which smoothens the free
convertible on trade, on current account and flow of fund across international boundaries.
by reducing import duties. They purchase the best brains in these countries
5. Foreign exchanges regulations were suitably and resort to unfair practices. With their
amended huge resources, the MNCs are able to invest
6. The Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) was in research and development and exploit
reduced to increase lending by RBI. technological developments to manufacture
new products, and discover new process.

2.5.2.Growth of MNCs in India 4. Technological superiorities:
A common form of MNC Participation The main reason why MNCs have been
in Indian industry is through entering into encouraged by the underdeveloped countries to
cooperation with Indian industrialist. Trends participate in their industrial development is on
of liberalization in the 1980s gave a substantial account of the technological superiorities which these
spurt to foreign collaborations. This would firms posses as compared to national companies.
be clear from the fact that of the total 12,760 5. Product innovations:
foreign collaboration agreements in 40 years MNCs have research and development
between 1948-1988. As a result of liberalized engaged in the task of developing new products
foreign investment policy (FIP) announced and superior designs of existing products.
in July-Aug 1991 there has a further spurt of 2.5.4.Advantages of MNC
foreign collaborations and increase flow of
1. Producing the same quality of goods at
foreign direct investment.
lower cost and without transaction cost
2. MNC reduce prices and increase the
Purchasing power of consumers world wide
3. A MNCs is able to take advantage of tax
variation.
4. Spurring job growth in the local economies
2.5.5. Disadvantages of MNC
1. They are a way for the corporations to
develop a monopoly (for certain products)
2. They are also a detrimental effect on the
MNC Company environment.
2.5.3. Reasons for the growth MNC 3. The introduction of MNC in to a host
country’s economy may also lead to the
1. Expansion of Market territory. downfall of smaller, local business.
As the operations of large sized firm 4. MNC breach ethical standards, accusing
expand, it seeks more and more extension of its them of evading ethical laws and leveraging
activates beyond the physical boundaries of the their business agenda with capital.
country in which it is in corporate.
2. Marketing superiorities: Top 10 Largest Multinational
Companies in India 2018
A multinational firm enjoys a number
of marketing superiorities over the national 1. Sony Corporation
firms. It enjoys market reputation and faces 2. Hew left Packard (HP)
less difficulty in selling its products it adopt
3. Tata Group
more effective advertising and sales promotion
techniques. 4. Microsoft Corporation
5. IBM
3. Financial Superiorities
6. Nettle
It has financial resources and a h high
7. Procter & Gamble
level of funds utilization. It has easier access
of external capital markets. Because of its 8. City Group
international reputation it is able to raise more 9. Pepsi Company
international resources. 10. The Coca-Cola Company

Indian Multi National Companies
Company Headquarter Type of Industry Countries of operating
Columbia, Bangladesh,
Hero Motocorp New Delhi Automobile
Africa
United Arab Emirates(UAE),
Bajaj Pune Automobile
Bangladesh
Brazil,Chile,Colombia,
TVS Chennai Automobile
Mexico,Peru
Australia,Bangaladesh,
State Bank of India Mumbai Banking
Belgium
Bharti Airtel New Delhi Communication South Asia, Africa
Micromax Informatics Gurgaon Electronics Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh
US, Thailand, Malaysia,
Amul Anand (Gujarat) Food product
Hong Kong, Japan,
ONGC Delhi Fuel Brazil, Colombia, Iran
Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories Hyderabad Medical Laboratory Brazil, Mexico, Jamalica
Infosys Bengaluru Software America, Europa, Africa
FERA (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act 1974) 2.6 Fair Trade Practices and
This Act referred directly to the World Trade Organization
operations of MNCs in India Fair Trade is a way of doing business that
FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act 1999) ultimately aims to keep small farmers an active part
Under FEMA the emphasis is on of the world Market place, and aims to empower
‘Management’ rather than ‘regulation’ consumer to make purchases that support their
Foreign Contribution (regulation) Act, 2010 values. Fair Trade is a set of business practices
FCRA, 2010 has been enacted by the Parlia- voluntarily adopted by the producers and buyers
ment to consolidate the law to regulate the of agricultural commodities and hand-made crafts
acceptance and utilization of foreign contri- that are designed to advance many economic,
bution or foreign hospitality by certain in- social and environmental goals, including,
dividuals or associations or companies and • Raising and stabilizing the incomes of small-
to prohibit acceptance and utilization of for- Scale farmers, farm workers and artisans.
eign contribution or foreign hospitality for • More equitably distributing the economic
any activities detrimental to national inter- gains, opportunities and risks associated
est and for matters connected therewith or with the production and sale of these goods.
incidental thereto. • Increasing the organizational and
The flow of foreign contribution to India is commercial capacities of producer groups.
regulated under • Promoting labor rights and the right
• Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 workers to organize.
• Promoting safe and sustainable farming
• Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Rules, 2011
Methods and working conditions.

Fair trade is about better prices, decent
working conditions and fair terms of trade for Fair trade food product such as coffee, tea,
farmers and workers. It’s about supporting the cocoa, honey and bananas. Non-food com-
development of thriving farming and worker modities include crafts, textile and flowers.
communities that have more central over their
2.6.3. GATT: (General Agreement of Trade
futures and protecting the environment in
which they live and work. and Tariffs)
2.6.1 Beneficiaries of Fair trade practices: GATT was signed by 23 countries in 1947.
India was one of the founder members of GATT.
1. Consumer: In the seventh Round 99 countries participated.
Consumer support enables Fair Trade In the Eighth Round of 1986, (Uruguay Round),
Organisation to be advocates and comparing 117 countries participated. The Director
for wider reform of International trading rules. General of GATT Arthur Dunkel came up with
They can choose from an even growing range a Drafft Final Act, known as Dunked Draft and
of great products. By buying Fair trade labeled on April 15, 1994 the Final Act was ultimately
products consumers support producers who are approved and signed. GATT’s primary purpose
struggling to improve their lives. was to increase International Trade by reducing
2. Trader/companies: various tariffs, quotas and subsidies while
Since, it launch in 2002 the Fair trade mark maintaining meaningful regulations.
has become the most widely, recognized social
and development label in the world. Fair trade
offers companies a credible way to ensure that
their trade has a positive impact.
3. Producers:
Stable prices that cover the costs of
sustainable production. Market access that
enable buyers to trade with producers who would
otherwise be excluded from market. Partnership
(Producers are involved in decisions their future).
The Empowerment of farmers and workers.
GATT Uruguay Round
2.6.2 Principles of Fair trade Organization
• Creating Opportunities for Economically Rounds of GATT
Disadvantaged producers. • First in Geneva (Switzerland)
• Transparency and Accountability . (1947)
• Fair Trading Practices and Payment of a Fair • Second in Annecy (France) in 1949
Price. • Third in Torquay (UK) in 1950 – 51
• Ensuring no child Labour and Forced • Fourth, fifth, and Sixth in Geneva
Labour. (Switzerland) in 1956, 1960-61, 1964 -67.
• Commitment to Non Discrimination, • Seventh in Tokyo (Japan) in 1973 – 79
Gender Equity and freedom of association.
• Eighth and final round at Punta del Este
• Providing Capacity Building and Promoting (Uruguay) in 1986 – 1994, known as
Fair Building. ‘Uruguay Round’.
• Respect for the Environment.

2.6.4. World Trade Organization (WTO)
G7 Countries: (Group of Seven)
2.6.5. Objectives of W.T.O

World Trade Organization(WTO)
• To set and enforce rules for international trade.
The signing of the Final Act of the Uruguay
Round by member nations of GATT in April • To provide a forum for negotiating and
1994 paved the way for setting up of the WTO. monitoring further trade liberalization.
An agreement to this effect was signed by 104 • To resolve trade disputes.
members. The WTO Agreement came into force • Introduction the sustainable development
from January 1, 1995 ( the present membership and environment can go together.
of WTO is 164 countries) • To ensure that developing countries, secure
a better share of growth in world Trade.
World Trade Organization(WTO): • To resolve trade disputes.
Head Quarter: Geneva, Switzerland • To increase the transparency of decision
Purpose: Regulation, International trade making processes.
Members of WTO: Director General, Four • Introduction sustainable development the
Deputy Director General, and other 600 Official development and environment can go together.
Staff from around 80 member countries. • To ensure full employment and broad
increase in effective demand.
2.6.6. Trade Related aspects of Intellectual
The WTO mentions five types of
Property Rights (TRIPs)
subsidies:
• Cash subsidies, such as the grants Intellectual Property Right may be defined
as “Information with a commercial Value” Under
mentioned above.
TRIPs Patent shall be available for any invention
• Tax concessions, such as exemptions, whether product or process in all fields of
credits, or deferrals. industrial technologies. Trips agreement covers
• Assumption of risk, such as loan seven areas of intellectual’s property rights i.e.
guarantees. Copy rights, Trade Market, Trade Secrets,
• Government procurement policies that Industrial Design, Geographical appellations
pay more than the free-market price. Integrated circuits and Patents.
• Stock purchases that keep a company's 2.6.7. Trade Related Investment Measures

stock price higher than market levels. (TRIMs)
These are all considered subsidies The Uruguay Round Agreement on TRIMs
because they reduce the cost of doing refers to certain conditions (or) restrictions
imposed by a government in respect of foreign
business.
investment in the country in order to give adequate
provisions for the home industries to develop.

2.7 Impact and Challenges extraction. This increase negative ecological
of Globalization and Social costs.
• Rapid increases in exploitation of natural
2.7.1. Positive Impact resources to earn foreign exchange.
• Environmental standards and regulations
• A better economy introduces rapid have been relaxed.
development of the capital market.
• Standard of living has increased. 2.7.3. Challenges of Globalization
• Globalization rapidly increase better trade • The benefits of globalization extend to all
so that more people are employed. countries that will not happen automatically.
• Introduced new technologies and new • The fear that globalization leads to instability
scientific research patterns. in the developing world.
• The industrial world that increased global
• Globalization increasing the GDP of a
competition will lead in race to the bottom
country.
in wages, labour right, and employment
• It helps to increase in free flow of goods and practice.
also to increase Foreign Direct Investment. • It leads to global inbalance.
• Globalization has resulted with the
2.7.2. Negative Impact
embarrassment.
• Too much flow of capital amongst countries, • Globalization has led to an increase in
Introduces unfair and immoral distributors activities such as child labor and slavery.
of Income. • People started consuming more junk food.
• Another fear is losing national integrity. This caused, the degradation of health and
Because of too much exchange of trade, spread of diseases.
independent domestic policies are lost. • Globalization has led to environmental
• Rapid growth of the economy has required degradation.
a major infrastructure and resource
RECAP
• Globalization is the integration of country with the world economy.
• The three stages of Globalization : • Archiac Globalization • Proto Globalization
• Modern Globalization.
• LPG – Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization
• Multi National Company is a corporate organization which owns or control production of
goods and services in at least one country to other than its home country.
• MNC otherwise called Transnational Company(TNC) and Multinational
Enterprises(MNE).
• GATT was signed by 23 countries in 1947. India was one of the founder members of GATT.

GLOSSARY
the process by which businesses or other

globalization organizations develop international influence or start உலகமயமாக்கல்
operating on an international scale.
expected or expecting to be the specified thing in the
prospective வருங்கால
future.
of an early period of art or culture, especially the
archaic தொன்மையான
7th–6th centuries BC in Greece.
evolution the gradual development of something பரிணாம வளர்ச்சி
expose to future risk or constraint for the sake of அடமானம்
mortgaged
immediate advantage. வைக்கப்பட்ட
the action of abolishing a system, practice, or
abolition ஒழித்தல்
institution.
spurt cause to gush out suddenly. திடீர்
detrimental tending to cause harm சீரழிவான
thriving prosperous and growing; flourishing. வெற்றிகரமான
recognition and understanding of the difference
discrimination பாகுபாடு
between one thing and another.
a) Roman Empire b) Portuguese

EVALUATION
c) Dutch d) Danish
5. When did Portuguese colonize India?
I. C
hoose the a) 1600 BC b) 1602 BC
correct answer c) 1498 BC d) 1616 BC
1. Who is the head of the 6. GATT’s first round held in
World Trade Organisation a) Tokyo b) Uruguay
(WTO) c) Torquay d) Geneva
a) Ministerial conference 7. India signed the Dunket proposal in
b) Director General a) 1984 b) 1976
c) Deputy Director General c) 1950 d) 1994
d) None of these
8. who granted the English “golden Fireman”
2. How many countries were membership in
in 1632
WTO at present?
a) Jahangir b) Sultan of Golconda
a) 159 b) 164 c) 148 d)128
c) Akbar d) Aurangzeb
3. Colonial advent in India
a) Portuguese, Dutch, English, Danish, 9. Foreign Investment policy (FIP) announced
French in
b) Dutch, English, Danish , French a) June 1991 b) July 1991
c) Portuguese , Danish, Dutch, French, c) July- Aug-1991 d) Aug 1991
English 10. Indian government was introduced
d) Danish, Portuguese, French, English, Dutch ___________ in 1991
4. Who first came to India for trading purpose? a) Globalization
b) World Trade Organisation

c) New Economic Policy corporation.
d) none 4. Short note: The Dutch in South India.
5. What are the reforms made to adopt
II. Fill in the Blanks
globalization?
1. The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 6. What is Fair trade ?
___________. 7. Write any five principles of Fair Trade
2. A better economy introduce rapid Practices.
development of the ___________.
8. What is the main objective of WTO?
3. The East India Company built fortified
9. Write short note on TRIPs and TRIMs.
factory in Madras which known as
___________. 10. Write the positive impact of Globalization.
4. WTO agreement came into force from VI. Brief Answer
___________. 1. Write briefly the history of globalization.
5. The term globalization invented by 2. Briefly explain the evolution of MNC and its
___________. advantages and disadvantages.
6. French East India company established 3. Explain the trade and traders in south india.
second factory at _________. 4. Write about the World Trade Organisation.
III. Choose the correct statement 5. Write the challenges of Globalization.
1. I)
The East Indian Company specially to VII. Activity and Projects
participate in the East Indian Spice Trade 1. Teacher and students are discuss about the
and later added cotton, silk, Indigo. globalization.
II) Merchants of the Dutch East India 2. Students are collect the images regarded
Company first established at Calicut
to the globalization and make the album.
III) Nanadesis were a guild of traders at the (south Indian trade and traders images, and
time of Hoysala Empire silk route map, spice route map, and kalinga
a) I is correct trade map, etc)
b) II and III are correct 3. Students are collect the picture of various
Multinational corporation companies in
c) I and III are correct
india and its products pictures.
d) I, II and III are correct
IV. Match the following:- REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Multination
corporation in India - 1947 1. Dr. S. Shankaran [2007], “Indian Economy”
2. MNC - enforce [Problem, Policies and Development]
international 2. Dutt “Indian Economy”
trade 3. History of Tamilnadu [Social and Cultuer]
3. GATT - Minimize cost of 4. S.K. Misra and V.K. Puri “Indian Economy”
production
4. 8th Uruguay Round - Infosis
5. WTO - 1986 INTERNET RESOURCES
V. Give Short Answers
www.gateway for india.com
1. What is globalization?
2. Write the types of globalization. http://en.wikipedia.org
3. Write short note on Multinational http://www.investopedia.com

Social Science – Class X
List of Authors and Reviewers
History Geography Civics Economics
Chairperson Domain Expert Domain Expert Domain Expert
Dr. K.A.Manikumar, V. Tamilarasan R. Subramanian
Dr. M. Kaliyaperumal Professor (Retd)
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History Associate Professor & Head Professor & Head (Retd),
M S University, Thirunelveli Govt. Arts College Karur Soudeshwari Arts and Science
Presidency College, Chennai College, Salem
Co-chairperson Reviewer Reviewer
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Dr. P. Arul A. Karunanandam
Reviewer
Professor, Dept. of History, Associate Professor HOD (Retd), Dept. of History, Dr. J. Jeyarajan
Madras Institute of Development Govt. Arts College Salem Vivekananda College, Chennai Director, Institute of development
Studies, Chennai alternatives, Chennai.
Authors Authors
Reviewers Dr. K. Rutharvel Murthy Authors
P. Balamurugan
Dr. A. Thennarasu Guest Lecturer, PG Assistant, GBHSS, L. Gowsalyadevi
Associate Professor & Head Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, Thammampatti, Salem P.G. Assistant, GHSS, Thoppur,
Govt. Arts College, Salem Namakkal Dharmapuri
D. Suganthi
Dr. K. Jayakumar Dr. S. Senthil Kumar B.T. Assistant, K. Suresh
Periyar E.V.R. College, Tiruchi Guest Lecturer, Govt. Kallar HS Annanji, Theni P.G. Assistant, GBHSS,
Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, Pennagaram, Dharmapuri
Dr. J. Murugan K. Velu
Namakkal
Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College B.T. Assistant, Dr. M. Kumar
Attur, Salem T. Shrijanani GGHSS, Thalaivasal, Salem P.G. Assistant, GHSS
P.G. Assistant, GBHS School, Madhanackainpatti, Salem
Authors Pappireddipatti, Dharmapuri S. Gomathimanickam
Prof. Kanakalatha Mukund GHSS, Old Perungalathur M. Rajeswari
Former Professor, C. Selvam Kanchipuram P.G. Assistant, GHSS,
Centre for Economic and Social B.T. Assistant, Kumbinipettai, Vellore
Studies, Hyderabad Subramaniya Sastriyar HSS,
Arani, Thiruvannamalai D.Vani,
Dr. S. Ananathakrishnan PG.Assistant, Malco.Vidyalaya.
Associate Professor, K.G. Jothi MHSS, Mettur Dam, Salem
A.M. Jain College, Chennai B.T. Assistant, GHSS,
Vrinchipuram, Vellore S. Srinivasan
Dr. Maavendar Singh P.G. Assistant, GHSS
Assistant Professor, D. Jaisan B.Thurinjipatti, Dharmapuri
S.R.M. University, Amaravathi TGT, MVMHSS
Andhrapradesh Metturdam, Salem
Dr. Venkat Ramanujam V. Jayachandran ICT

Dept. of History, B.T. Assistant, GBHS School Dr. Asir Julius,
Madras Christian College, Thammampatti, Salem Asst. Professor, SCERT, Chennai.
Tambaram S. Shankar QR Code Team
Dr. Jeevanantham B.T.Assistant, GHSS,
Kattukottai, Salem R. Jaganathan, S.G.T.,
Asst. Professor, J.F. Paul Edwin Roy, B.T. Asst.,
Central University, Sikkim S. Sudaroli M. Saravanan, B.T. Asst.
B.T. Assistant, Chinmaya
M. Amudha
vidyalaya PAC Ramasamy Raja
Art and Design Team
Lecturer, DIET, Kothagiri,
The Nilgiris MHS School, Rajapalayam, Illustration
Virudhunagar
K. Velu, B.T. Assistant, R. Muthukumar
GGHSS, Thalaivasal, Salem V. Vinoth Kumar
Layout
A. Jafar Ali, P.G. Assistant,
GHSS, Keeripatty, Salem S. Ashok Kumar
Academic Adviser & Expert R. Balasubramani
S. Gomathimanickam S. Porsellvan
GHSS, Old Perungalathurl, Dr. P. Kumar
Kanchipuram Joint Director (Syllabus) Wrapper Design
V. Ramakumari, BT. Assistant, SCERT, Chennai Kathir Arumugam
HolyAngles Matric. HSS
Academic Co-ordinators In-House QC
Alagapuram, Salem
Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
B. Latha, BT. Assistant, T. Srinivasan
Holy Angles Matric. HSS Principal, DIET, Krishnagiri Rajesh Thangappan
Alagapuram, Salem P. Suresh Jerald Wilson
P. G. Assistant, GGHSS, Yogesh
K. Selvakumar, B.T. Assistant,
GHS, Kunnathur,
Attur, Salem Co-ordinator
Thiruvannamalai Ramesh Munisamy
V. Velmurugan, BT. Assistant,
GHSS, Vellalakundam, Salem
P. Vedapureesan, P.G. Assistant,
GHSS, Azhiyur, Nagapattinam
Dr. K. Suresh, B.T.Assistant,
Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS
Chennai

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 1 10-04-2019 10:21:56

First Edition - 2019

(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and

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Unit 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01

Unit 2 The World between two World Wars 19

Unit 3 World war II 34

Unit 4 The World after World War II 49

Unit 5 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 67

Unit 2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98

Unit 3 Components of Agriculture 112

Unit 4 Resources and Industries 132

Unit 5 India - Population, Transport, Communication and Trade 150

Unit 2 Central Government 180

Unit 3 State Government 195

Unit 2 Globalization and Trade 224

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Fun with History

Let's use the QR code in the text books!

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Introduction 1.1 Scramble for Colonies

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Imperialism and its Essential The imperialist urge of the period is

Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2

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THE WORLD WAR I W

TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA

OTHERS Not to Scale

3 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 4

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The Balkan Wars

5 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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7 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Provisions of the Treaty

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9 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 10

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13 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 14

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monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை

devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு

Rise of Fascism and