Ethical theories in Education Management

Introduction
The issues of the ethical domain are persistently insisted on as a centrepiece in any kind of
educational philosophy. However, the paradigm of the issues of that scope is still vague in precision
because of a number of factors (Այնուամենայնիվ, այս չափի հարցերի պարադիգմը ճշգրտության
առումով դեռ անորոշ են ՝ պայմանավորված մի շարք գործոններով):
- Ideological factor – the prevailing ideas are particularly crucial for building up a relatively
complete paradigm of ethical principles. The beliefs and traditions might get beyond the
logical, reasonable framework instating behavioural patterns which are likely to contradict
the several ethical issues.
- Cultural factor – This scope of factors – involving the ideological factors as an underlying
basis – derive from the behavioural patterns and result in traditions, habits, customs and
rituals of social significance which are adopted and passed on to be exercised almost
instinctively among the members of the community given.
- Community factor – The communities – the variety of which can be observed in many
societies – tend to insist on their uniqueness through the markers of identity which – not
necessarily shared by every member – are confined to the local traditions, habits, customs,
and rites. These factors are of narrower scope but still strong enough to particularise specific
behaviour patterns,
- Socio-economic factor – The human wellbeing remains in the foreground of social picture
predetermining and influencing the set of ethical issues. The basic human needs gradually
enhance in influence and coverage, somehow shifting the course of realisation of ethical
principles and final shape.

Indeed, the aforementioned factors differ from culture to culture and from society to society.
In the modern world, the guidelines of the ethical domain seem to be formed under some global
philosophical premises which are adopted, sometimes, unfortunately, merely declared, by
countries and societies. These premises might be developed, shaped, completed or even
imported due to their efficiency, popularity, and extravagance, etc. It goes without saying that
though such premises should be conceptualised and appropriately assimilated, in many cases,
they might infiltrate as a supplementary inkling that is likely to be picked up without the
required level of understanding. The risk that societies run in this case is the possible further
interpretation of an ethical outline which results in the vagueness or even degeneration of even
the most progressive ideas (Այս դեպքում հասարակության առջև ծառացած ռիսկը էթիկական
սխեմայի հնարավոր հետագա մեկնաբանումն է, որը հանգեցնում է նույնիսկ առաջադեմ
գաղափարների անորոշության կամ նույնիսկ այլասերման).

Scope of managerial duties (Կառավարչական պարտականությունների շրջանակը)

In education management, the ethical issues are handled from the very beginning and
covered at every single step taken. The education manager is responsible for every separate move in
the intrinsic sphere of ethical character. As in the case of other managerial duties, in ethics within
education, the manager’s duties comprise the same or similar steps of planning, carrying out,
assessing and changing (Ինչպես կառավարման այլ պարտականությունների դեպքում, կրթության մեջ
էլ, ղեկավարի պարտականությունները ներառում են պլանավորման, իրականացման, գնահատման և
փոփոխման նույն կամ նմանատիպ քայլերը). These phases, correspondingly, assume specific
functions that are to be exercised by the manager (Այս փուլերը, համապատասխանաբար, ստանձնում
են հատուկ գործառույթներ, որոնք պետք է իրականացնի կառավարիչը)

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 Table 1
Planning Informing scheduling delegating duties scoring improving
Պլանավորում

Carrying out Informing scheduling delegating duties scoring improving

Իրականացում

Assessing Informing scheduling delegating duties scoring improving

Գնահատում

Changing Informing scheduling delegating duties Scoring improving

Փոփոխություն տեղեկատվություն պլանավորում պարտականությունն սքորինգ բարելավում
երի պատվիրակումը

As introduced above, the functions outlined keep incrementing and, once the circle is closed,
all the functions appear mutually completing at every single step. The table contains the line of
changes as the most advanced and loaded one and the line of planning, on the contrary, as the least
loaded and quite initial. Of course, one shouldn’t infer that the correlation of significance and the
functional load of every layer are directly correlated: all the phases of equally important and they
have their exclusive contribution in the proper completion of the circle. Besides, the functions that
we can see here are not complete and can be competed upon the needs and requirements that occur.
Nevertheless, there are functions which are recurrent and concurrent in almost all the possible
contexts. Let us consider, for instance, the factor of information which is the necessary prerequisite
for transparency and individual level of awareness, or delegation of duties which is indispensable
for pluralism, etc.

Ethical theories and their application in education management (Էթիկայի տեսությունները

և դրանց կիրառումը կրթության կառավարման ոլորտում)

It is quite natural that in the course of the history of Mankind, there has been a wide range of
perspectives, principles and doctrines meant to serve as ethical guidelines. All of them have
contributed to the paradigm of Ethics – as a discipline. Nevertheless, only some of them have
survived and have been instated as scholarly based and socially acceptable schemes.(Միանգամայն
բնական է, որ մարդկության պատմության ընթացքում գոյություն է ունեցել հեռանկարների, սկզբունքների
և վարդապետությունների լայն շրջանակ, որոնք կոչված են ծառայել որպես էթիկական ուղեցույցներ:
Բոլորն իրենց ներդրումն են ունեցել էթիկայի պարադիգմում ՝ որպես կարգապահություն:
Այնուամենայնիվ, նրանցից միայն ոմանք են գոյատևել և հաստատվել որպես գիտականորեն
հիմնավորված և հասարակության կողմից ընդունելի սխեմաներ)
Some scholars classify them according to (↣) the actions taken, on the one hand, and (↣)
partaking, on the other hand (see Mark Barry 2012 (adapted from Michael Hill’s The How and
Why of Love (Matthias Media, 2002) & Andrew Cameron’s Ethics lectures at Moore Theological
College)). The action-taking approach observes the particular ethical issues within the realm of
human activities, their behaviour and interaction, while the partaking is observed from the
perspectives of the active participant (Agent’s role) in a situation or context( Գործողության վրա
հիմնված մոտեցումը դիտում է մարդկային գործունեության, նրանց վարքագծի և փոխազդեցությունների
ոլորտում հատուկ էթիկական խնդիրներ, մինչդեռ մասնակցությունը դիտվում է իրավիճակի ակտիվ
մասնակցի (գործակալի դերի) տեսանկյունից).

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 From the perspectives of social impact 1, all the theories are usually classified in line with:
(Սոցիալական ազդեցության տեսանկյունից բոլոր տեսությունները սովորաբար դասակարգվում են
հետևյալ ձևով)
i. Benefits obtained
տացված օգուտներ
ii. Harm caused
պատճառվածվնա
ս
iii. Autonomy provided within the given society / community
iv. Justice (Right versus Wrong, Virtues versus Vices). 0+32+
Theoretically observed and for the sake of coordinated perspectives applied 2, the analysis of
ethical theories is carried out, taking into consideration:
a. definitions of concepts (The key/underlying concepts)
b. application domain (what is the theory for?)
c. advantages and disadvantages (pros and cons).
At the same time, there are a lot of other perspectives of observing the ethical theories. Some
of them tend to be more generic. For instance, the diagram offered by Maria MacMeekin assumes 3
that ethical theories must be observed based on the following factors:
⫸ The individual domain (Ego)
⫸ The domain of benefits (What is good, suitable for the most significant amount of people)
⫸ The domain of duty
⫸ The domain of norms (Virtue, Good versus Evil, Right and Justice).
The perspective that is relevant to Education Management is in between the normative and
functional approaches and theoretical and applied ethics.
Why normative? Since one of the major domains in education management is leadership, the
respective expert must be aware of the principles of outlining the ethical guidelines (for instance,
ethical codes). As for the functional approach, it is also connected with education management, as
the latter comprises a wide range of actual implementation methodology, efficiency mechanisms,
assessment and coordination. Moreover, ethical issues are to be observed within domain education
management from the perspectives of meta-ethics as well, i.e. the branch of Ethics that deals with
the major concepts, theoretical insights and terminological bases of Ethics in general.
In terms of individual development within the educational realm, Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development is of particular importance and might contribute to the subjectmatter
scope of issues – not only for understanding but also for developing the respective methodology of
handling the issues within an educational context. This theory is pretty much related to another
global theory – on human needs by Maslow. The moral development, according to Kohlberg, stems
from the cognitive development phases defined by Piaget and is based on social involvement stages
which open up the different interactional horizon to human beings.

• A. Premoral or preconventional stages

1 See https://www.dsef.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/EthicalTheories.pdf
2 See https://pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/introduction-to-public-relations-
ethics/lesson1/ethical-theories/
3 See https://anethicalisland.wordpress.com/2013/02/17/ethical -theories-how-do-we-teach-it/

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 1. The stage of crime and punishment (The power is decisive: I do so because I was told to
do so and if I don’t, I will be punished) The guiding principles are built up around the
dichotomy of obedience and punishment.
2. The stage of instrumental exchange (The egocentrism is the essence of existence: I must
do everything to avoid pain and to gain pleasure.) The guiding principles are shaped up
around the egocentric perception of one’s interests, pleasure, and benefits.

• B. Conventional stages
3. Tribal conformity (The society know best and the norms defined are the norms to follow:
I want to be praised, appreciated, and I must be seen as useful in public eyes.) The
guiding principles are constructed alongside the axis of interpersonal relations.
4. Societal conformity (There are fixed, defined and endorsed rules – laws, codes, orders –
as well as designated authorities that may not be questioned: I am a lawful and obedient
citizen.) The guiding principles are aimed at maintaining the social order.

• C. Postconventional stages
5. Sceptical revision (The society may know better, but it consists of individuals who must
insist on their freedom and rights, so everything in the social order is right and beneficial
unless the social norm does not contradict the free human will. ) The Guiding principles
here are materialised through exercising individual rights within the domain of social
norms, requirements, standards, etc.
6. Universal principles (We are aware of individual rights and ready and open to initiate and
be involved in public disputes and discussions). At the same time, we are exercising our
own rights and freedoms within the constraints of impartiality which keeps balancing our
position and standpoints and makes us feel and reason as any party involved in the given
dispute.) The guiding principle here is the absolute degree of impartiality that makes the
individual objective and “universally righteous”. The concept of justice seems to be
totally assimilated and internalised.

On Some Ethical Theories

Some of the most popular ethical theories are outlined below so that we could dwell on their
actual, functional value in education management.

ACTION ETHICS – Objectivist approach

Deontological theories
The umbrella statement here could read: there are norms, principles, standards given to us,
which might not be questioned as they are right all by themselves. Deontology means “science of
moral duty. The sense of duty derives from the right and wrong that can be defined by some
system, matrix, power standing above – for instance, the Divine Command Theory or the sense of
duty itself. The latter is more deeply explored and elucidated by Immanuel Kant, who derived his
Categorical Imperative (CI) theory from the idea of the supremacy of moral duties. Moreover,
Kant even tries to define the moral worth or value of an individual. A good way to understand the
concept of “imperatives” is to contrast the two main types of imperatives – the categorical
imperatives versus the hypothetical imperatives. The categorical imperative sounds like an order,
command that is always true and must be complied with (Don’t break the laws!). Unlike,

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the categorical imperatives, the hypothetical ones depend on the person’s wish, desire, intentions or,
more frequently, on their needs (If you are cold, close the window.). This type of imperative
statements might comprise the modal “may” (as a marker of permissibility), “should” (as a marker
of a piece of advice), “need” (as a recommendation based on personal experience or observation),
etc. It is evident that the categorical imperatives are unconditional, even more – unarguable.
Moreover, there is no “gradable” evil. For instance, Don’t read other people’s letters! So, do not
read them – no matter whether you harm anybody or do it for the sake of saving somebody, just do
not read them.

Think of this theory applied to the unwritten rules and norms in the society, in general, and
educational community, in particular.
Teleological theories
The theories of this perspective as well are based on acts, deeds, actual partaking, where the
active doer’s aims are of crucial priority.
The first theory is of meta-ethical nature, and it stems from the statement according to which moral
is stated in the natural world – with all good and evil that objectively exist there. However, it claims
also that the observations of the natural world are not always objective – the facts can be stated
accurately or falsified. Though this theory claims that there could be a possibility of false
perception, interpretation or statement, the moral principles are always there – irrespective of our
perceptions, ideas, understandings or comments. The natural world contains the roots of good and
evil. That is why this theory is termed as Naturalism.
In his famous Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defines the foundations of the next objectivistic theory
according to which every single living being, unlike other living creatures in the world, the humans
– in their own way, appears to have their own purpose. So, the ethical aspect is observed as
something in line with the appropriate interpretation of the role attributed to humans. Eudaemonia
or “human prosperity, flourishing” is related to the way human beings live – not subjectively but
objectively happy complying with the requirements that the role ascribed to them assumes.

Think of students and teachers cognitive activities that occur within any kind of educational
context.
Consequentialism theories
The scope of the theories here is confined to the consequences that are likely to happen
as a result of our deeds, acts, ideas, etc.
Utilitarianism
This theory claims ever action that brings about the highest good for the largest possible
group of people as ethically motivated and grounded. The original intention and the minority are
totally ignored in this theory.

How would this theory be observed as for discipline measures in education?

AGENT ETHICS – Subjectivist approach

Emotivistic theories
The emotivism, which sometimes is introduced as Positivist Emotivism (Charles
Stevenson’s approach), is a theory that highlights the role of expressing emotions which must win

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over a rational approach. The emotional world of a human being is considered to be decisive in
ethical issues and stands at the core of their intentions, deeds, feedback, reaction, etc. Unlike all the
previously introduced theories, this one claims that moral, ethical norms do not exist objectively.
Ethics, in fact, lies in between an individual’s approval and disapproval which are correspondingly
expressed with the help of joy, delight and sadness, pain, etc. – emotions, in short.

Think about this theory and its connection with emotional intelligence paradigm.
Intuitionistic theory
The premises of ethics – living a righteous life – according to this theory lie deep inside
human beings, they are inborn, inbuilt. So, morality is a universal feature which can be attained
individually by human beings but is universally accessible. Thus, the right and the wrong are not
subject to speculations, definitions, exemplifications: they are just there.

Think about this theory and self-assessment instances in educational contexts.

Virtue theory
As stated above, the priority of virtues was stated by Aristotle. His virtue-based ethics was
later on developed by Stoics and much later by G.E.M. Anscombe, Alasdair Macintyre and Stanley
Hauerwas who claimed that ethics is deeply rooted in individuals, in every single individual. Thus,
the character of the person is prioritised. Moreover, the ethical image of the person given should be
shaped with the question of what kind of person I should become. This theory is in constant search
of a role model, of an ideal character and person.

Think about this theory and the issue of role models (teachers, parents, pop stars, movie stars,
successful people) in education.