Introduction To The Anglo-Norman Period: North of France. King Charles

CHAPTER 1
The Anglo-Norman refers to the period from the Norman conquest to the
middle of the 14 century. The Norman conquest inaugurated a distinctly
new epoch where the clergy insisted on the use of Latin and the nobility on
the use of French. Chronicles, religious and didactic writing, poetry and
drama were the popular forms of writing.
Introduction to the Anglo-Norman Period

The term Anglo-Norman is generally used to describe the period of English history from
the Norman conquest to the middle of the 14th century. It was called so because the
non-Latin literature of that time was written in Anglo-Norman, the French dialect spoken
by the Norman invaders. The Normans were pagan barbarian pirates from Denmark,
Norway and Iceland, who began to make destructive plundering raids on European
coastal settlements in the 8th century.
They were originally descendants of Vikings, who settled in the North-West France in the
early 10th century. At the beginning of 10th century, the French King, Charles the
Simple, made the Treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte with a Viking Chief Rollo. Charles gave him
some land around the mouth of the Seine in what is now known as the city of Rouenhad,
North of France. King Charles had hoped that by giving the Vikings their own land in
France, they would stop attacking France. Within two generations, Rollo and his followers
adopted the Franks’ language, religion, laws, customs, political organisation and methods
of warfare. They inter-married and mixed with the native French population.
They had become Franks in all, but name. They were now known as Normans, men of
Normandy and their land became known as the land of the Nordmanni or Northmen.
By the middle of the 11th century, Normandy became one of the most powerful states in
Christendom.Though, the Normans had converted to Christianity, adopted the French
language, and abandoned sea roving for Frankish cavalry warfare in the decades following
their settlement in Normandy, they still retained many of the traits of their Viking
ancestors. They displayed an extreme fearlessness and courage, craftiness and cunning, a
love of fighting and spread terror wherever they went. In the early 11th century, a group
of Norman Mercenaries led by Robert Guiscard, the 6th son of Tancred of Hauteville,
helped various factions in Italy in order to gain territories for themselves. By 1060, there
were three separate Norman holdings:
1
4 UGC NET Tutor English
The Norman Conquest of England as King of England. He was crowned King of England
on Christmas day 1066.
One of the most important expansionary campaigns of the
Normans in Europe occurred in 1066, when they invaded After Hastings, William advanced to London by a
England. William, Duke of Normandy, launched his bloody circular route that started via Kent, burning a ring of
England in 1066. In that year, Edward the Confessor, King of fire around the country’s main city. The advance was
England, died without an heir, appointing by his will Harold resisted and met much armed resistance. The English
Godwinson, son of England’s most powerful nobleman, the Earl had proclaimed the young Edgar Atheling, last scion of
of Wessex, as his successor. Across the Channel, William of the old Wessex royal line, as the king. But William
Normandy considered himself rightfully the next King of moved fast towards London to enforce his will before
England, basing his claim on a promise by Edward the Confessor the remaining English nobility were able to re-group
in the early 1050s and an oath of fealty sworn by Harold during around Edgar and start an organised resistance to him.
an enforced visit to William’s capital at Rouen following his
With the coronation of William as King of England, the
capture by the Count of Ponthieu. It is believed that William of
Anglo-Saxon phase of English history came to an end.
Normandy had held Harold captive until he had sworn on Holy
William I proved an effective King of England and the
Relics to enforce William’s claim to the throne of England.
‘Domesday Book,’ a great census of the lands and people
Although, he had promised to support William, Duke of of England, was among his notable achievements. Upon
Normandy’s claim to the English throne, Harold allowed himself the death of William I in 1087, his son, William Rufus,
to be elected King as soon as Edward had died. The move was became William II, the second Norman King of
taken because it was feared that the Norwegian King, Magnus England.
and his son, Harald Hardrada, would invade England to claim
the English throne through their descent from Harthacnut. In Impact of the Norman Conquest
January 1066, King Harold II was crowned King of England at
St Paul’s Cathedral. As news of the accession and coronation of ¢ Norman Conquest radically changed English culture, law,
Harold Godwinson spread, both William of Normandy and language and character.
Harald Hardrada of Norway, Harold’s rivals for the English
¢ The Norman Conquest brought to power a French speaking
ruling class. French became the language of law and old
throne, raised forces and planned to invade England.
English became confined to the lower classes.
¢ The Norman Conquest fundamentally altered social, legal and
political relations by introducing a new feudal system.
King Harold Godwinson marched 200 miles in 6 days and Society became hierarchised. King became the supreme ruler
caught the Viking army off guard and killed Hardrada and and all land came into his possession.
most of his men. King Harold received the news of the ¢ This new feudal system created a network of territorial
relationships between members of a warrior aristocracy. The
Norman landing in York soon after his triumph over the King granted a fief (land) to his tenants in chief or vassals, who
Norse invaders. William, Duke of Normandy landed at granted sub-fiefs to their vassals. Each level in the feudal
Pevensey in the South of England and began a march system had to pay for the land and protection that the higher
towards Hastings, where a wooden fort was built. Harold classes offered. Fealty, thus, became central to this system of
feudalism.
Godwinson’s weakened army was forced to march ¢ It also led to changes in legal practice; Justice came under royal
rapidly South. control, primogeniture became the norm, compensations to
victims decreased and fines increased. For a short while,
The Battle of Hastings began in the morning and went well for William’s armies spread widespread devastation and had a
the English well into the afternoon, given their advantageous negative effect on the economy of England.
position on the hill. Then the French feigned a retreat, thus,
¢ But the economy bounced back soon as Normans founded
many towns and also introduced new groups of towns
luring the English out of their vantage point. They advanced and
people.
succeeded in getting the upper hand. Towards the end of the day ¢ They introduced new building practices into England, which
the leader of the English, Harold fell, when a Norman arrow provided the kingdom with grandiose ecclesiastical and
struck him in the eye. As a result, the English were routed and the military monuments. They created important castles such as.
French were victorious by nightfall. William in true medieval The Tower of London’.
warfare fashion continued to pillage and plunder the South-East ¢ Normans seized wealth and lands from the English church.
of England until London capitulated and decided to accept him ¢ They introduced the idea of church courts in England.
2
The Anglo-Norman Period (1066-1340) 5
Influence of the Norman Conquest general. Since, Englishmen became desirous of learning
the language of the ruling class, a large number of them
on English Language learned French or Latin.
The Norman conquest changed the whole course of English
However, the Norman conquerors on the other hand, had
language. French became the language of social prestige and
to learn English and translate it into Latin, since there was
status. French words entered the English lexicon. More than
the need to understand English law. As a result, this period
10000 French words found their way into English words
saw an upsurge in the number of translations of English
associated with government, law, art, literature, food and
material into Latin.
many other aspects of life.
According to A.W. Ward and A.R. Waller, ‘‘The ambition
English gradually disappeared as a written language, which
of Englishmen to acquire the language of the ruling class
resulted in the removal of restraints on development of
and the influx of foreign monks into the religious houses
language. Grammar became simplified as people started
that were the sources of literary instruction, soon brought
finding the simplest way to communicate with people, who
about the cessation of all systematic training in the use of
did not speak English as their first language.
English. The upper and middle classes became bilingual
The pronunciation of English changed to some extent under and though English might still be the language, which they
the influence of French, as did the spelling. e.g., the old preferred to speak, they learned at school to read and write
English spellings ‘cw’, ‘sc’ and ‘c’ became ‘qu’, ‘sh’ and ‘ch’. nothing, but French or French and Latin. When those,
The spellings of ‘cwen’ changed to ‘queen’, ‘scip’ to ‘ship’ and who had been educated under the new conditions tried to
‘scolde’ to ‘should’. English grammar took on a few French write English, the literary conventions of the past
structures, such as putting in adjectives after nouns in some generation had no hold upon them; they could write no
expressions - attorney general, secretary general, surgeon otherwise than as they spoke.’’
Literature of the Anglo-Norman Period

During the Anglo-Norman period, old English poetry totally disappeared. English began to be
discarded in favour of French and Latin. Writings in the English vernacular began to be disregarded
and French became established as the natural speech of the cultivated and the high-born.
In contrast with the strength and somberness of Anglo-Saxon The Mythical Doings of Charlemagne and of Alexander
poetry, the Normans brought to England, bright, romantic the Great’.
tales of love and adventure. English literature inevitably felt
Apart from romances, other principal genres were the
the influence of the Norman French. In poetry, e.g., the
chronicle, the saint’s life and other moral literature.
Anglo-Saxon versification gave way to regular meter and
Historical writing was popular both in Normandy and in
rhyme. In subject matter, too, the change was very great.
the rest of the Continent and although, after the Norman
The French had developed the chivalric system to a point of Conquest, Latin replaced English for use in documents and
brilliance and elaborateness unknown in England. Romance chronicles, examples of both are found in Anglo-Norman.
became a popular literary form, indicating the age to be a Religious houses caused lives of native saints to be written
chivalric rather than heroic one. Breton lays were developed and The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 led to the
by writers like Marie de France and Chrétien de Troyes into compilation of moral and instructive works.
the form known as ‘romance.’ Romance was the most popular
Thus, social and political differences between the two
narrative genre for late medieval readers. These romances
countries prevented Anglo -Norman literature from being
were mostly borrowed from Latin and French sources. They
a mere provincial imitation of French.
deal with the stories of King Arthur, ‘The War of Troy’ and
3
Lanfranc also defended the doctrine of transubstantiation

Lanfranc (1005-1089) against the attacks of Berengar of Tours. He took up the
Lanfranc was Archbishop of task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been
Canterbury in the 11th century. his personal friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy
He received a liberal education at the Councils of Vercelli (1050), Tours (1054) and Rome
according to the standard of the (1059). Lanfranc’s Polemics is chiefly derived from the
age, notwithstanding the death of tract De corpore et sanguine Domini, which he wrote many
his parents during his tender years. years later (after 1079), when Berengar had been finally
He studied law in Pavia and condemned.
became a respected scholar,
Lanfranc also acted as counselor to William, Duke of
principally because of his studies in
Normandy. Under William’s reign, he laid the foundation
Roman law, which was a subject of
for what succeeding theorists would build into England’s
growing interest in Italy at the
secular common law court system.
time. Although destined to be a lawyer, he later left Pavia for
the purpose of devoting himself to the pursuit of learning. Lanfranc’s efforts laid the foundation for important
writings on English Law in the 12th and 13th centuries.
He made his way to France and attached himself to a school at
He also assisted William in maintaining the fullest
Avranches, in Normandy, where he became noted as a
possible independence for the English Church.
teacher. After being attacked and almost killed by a highway
robber, he went into seclusion at Saint Stephens Abbey at Bec,
a newly established monastery. After 3 years of total seclusion, Anselm (1033-1109)
he returned to teaching, this time at the monastery. He taught
Anselm was an influential theologian and philosopher. He
there for 18 years, earning high respect throughout Europe as
was born at Aosta in Alpine Italy and educated in
an instructor of theology. The school became one of the most
Normandy. His parents held an honorable rank in
famous in Europe under his leadership. The future Pope
society. In 1060, he entered the monastery of Bec in
Alexander II was among his students.
Normandy to study under Stephen Lanfranc, whom he
succeeded in office, first as prior of Bec and later as
Archbishop of Canterbury.
¢ The Battle of Hastings in 1066 established Norman domination and In 1063, after Lanfranc left Bec for Caen, Anselm was
heralded the end of Anglo-Saxon phase of English history. chosen to be Prior. Among the various tasks Anselm took
¢ The pronunciation of English changed to and grammar became simple on as Prior was that of instructing the monks, but he also
with some extent incorporation of a few French structure. had time left for carrying on rigorous spiritual exercises,
¢ The first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote which would play a great role in his philosophical and
his Estorie des Angles for Dame Constance. theological development.
¢ Adam is generally considered to be an Anglo-Norman mystery of the
12th century and was probably written in France at the beginning of the He was appointed as the
13th century. second Norman Archbishop
Works
¢ The Norman Conquest effectively eliminated upper-class patronage of of Canterbury in 1093 and
old English secular poetry and prose and gradually supplanted it with a ¢ Monologion
secured the Westminister Proslogion
new literary culture. ¢
Agreement of 1107, ¢ De Veritate (On Truth)

Anselm was the author of a celebrated Latin treatise on the Atonement
guaranteeing the (partial) De Liate Arbitrii
¢
¢
and offered a defence of the Christian faith.
independence of the church (On Freedombert of
¢ The word ‘medieval’ comes from the Latin ‘medium’ (middle) and ‘alvum’ Choice)
(age). from the civil state. Anselm’s
De Casu Diaboli
two most important works are
¢
¢ Four main languages circulated in England-old French or Anglo-Norman, (On the Fall of the
Latin, old English and different branches of the Celtic language group. the Monologion (1077) and
Proslogion (1078).
4
In Monologion, Anselm argues that ‘‘There is a certain nature or substance Chronicles in the
or essence, who through himself is good and great and through himself is
what he is? Through, whom exists whatever truly is good or great or
Anglo-Norman Period
anything at all and who is the supreme good, the supreme great thing, the A tradition of writing chronicles became well
supreme being or subsistent, i.e., supreme among all existing things’’. The established in the Anglo-Norman period.
Proslogion, on the other hand is known for its ontological argument for the These chronicles recorded the history of
existence of God. In this work, Anselm proposed that God is understood as kings and were written in Anglo-Norman.
‘a liquid quod maius non-cogitari potest’ (‘‘That than, which nothing Chronicles were major source of historical
greater can be conceived’’). knowledge for medieval people. They
contained an extended account in prose or
verse of historical events, sometimes
A Song of Anselm including legendary material, presented in
Jesus, as a mother you gather your people to you: chronological order and without authorial
You are gentle with us as a mother with her children; interpretation or comment.
Often you weep over our sins and our pride:
In the medieval age, the term ‘chronicle’
tenderly you draw us from hatred and judgement. included every kind of history. These histories
You comfort us in sorrow and bind up our wounds: or chronicles were known in the vernacular as
in sickness you nurse us, Bruts, after Brutus, the eponymous founder of
and with pure milk you feed us. Britain. They traced the history and legend of
Jesus, by your dying we are born to new life: the country from the time of the mythical
by your anguish and labour we come forth in joy. Brutus, descendant of Aeneas and founder of
Despair turns to hope through your sweet goodness: Britain. In the beginning, Anglo-Norman
through your gentleness we find comfort in fear. historians restricted themselves to translating
Your warmth gives life to the dead: earlier historical works such as Anglo-Saxon
your touch makes sinners righteous. Chronicle. However, by the end of 12th
century, patrons began demanding accounts of
Lord Jesus, in your mercy heal us:
their own historical rule to be preserved for
in your love and tenderness remake us.
posterity. For instance, the biography of
In your compassion bring grace and forgiveness:
William the Marshall, Earl of Pembroke,
for the beauty of heaven may your love prepare us. written around 1226, was commissioned by
one of his own sons.
Anglo-Norman Latin Chroniclers and Historians

Simeon of Durham (1090-1129)
Simeon of Durham was an English chronicler and historian. In his youth, he This work was formerly attributed to
entered the Benedictine monastery at Jarrow, which was later moved to Simeon. But it is now believed that, he was
Durham in 1074 and he was professed in 1085 or 1086, subsequently the author only of the second history: a
attaining the office of precentor of the church. Simeon’s chief work is the chronicle for the years 848-1118 (based on
Historia Ecclesiae Dunelmensis, written between 1104 and 1108. It is a history the Life of King Alfred by Asser and the
of the bishopric of Durham from its establishment in 635 at Lindisfarne Chronicon of Florence of Worcester) and a
(Holy Island) to 1096. His Historia regum Anglorum et Dacorum (‘History of narrative of the years 1119-1129 (part
the Kings’), consists of two overlapping English histories covering the years original, part based on Edmer’s history of
731-957 and 848-1129. the church in Canterbury).
5
Florence of Worcester (1118) Ordericus Vitalis (1075-1142)

Florence was an English chronicler and monk of Historian Ordericus Vitalis was born at Atcham, near Shrewsbury,
Worcester. His Chronicon ex Chronicis (Chronicle of in 1075. He was born to an English mother and a French priest, who
Chronicles) is the first attempt made in England to came over to England with the Normans and received a church at
write a universal chronicle from the creation Shrewsbury. At the age of 10, Ordericus was sent over by his father
onwards. The Chronicon is a valuable source of to St Evroult in Southern Normandy and remained for the rest of his
information for late Anglo-Saxon and early life a monk of that abbey. Despite spending the majority of his life in
post-Conquest history. The work itself is based on Normandy, Ordericus Vitalis always considered himself an
the universal history compiled by Marianus Scotus, Englishman and often added ‘Angligena’ to his name. Between 1123
an Irish monk, who died at Mainz about 1082. and 1141, he wrote Historia Ecclesiastica (The Ecclesiastical History),
which mainly dealt with the rule of William the Conqueror. His
The Chronicon was written in Latin in early
history was intended at first to be a chronicle of his abbey, but it
12th century. Florence seems to have derived much
developed into a general Historia Ecclesiastica in 13 books. Ordericus
of his information from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
began by transcribing the Gesta Normannorum ducum of William of
as it existed in his time and he also used Bede and
Jumièges with lengthy interpolations of his own, chiefly relating to
Asser’s Life of Alfred. It is believed that after
the history of Norman families connected with Saint-Évroult. Not
Florence’s death in 1118, the work was continued
later than 1115, at the command of his abbot, he began a history of
by John of Worcester. The ‘Continuation’ takes the
his own monastery and its patrons, which gradually expanded into a
form of a near-contemporaneous narrative and is
general history of the church and incorporated a chronological
valuable as a source of history for the period, which
outline of events from the birth of Christ, originally intended as a
it covers.
separate work.
Books I and II of Ordericus’ Historia are an abridged chronicle from
Eadmer (1060-1126) the Christian era to 1143; books III-V describe the Norman
Eadmer was a chronicler, historian and Precentor of Conquests of South Italy and England; book VI gives the history of
Canterbury. He was the follower and intimate his abbey. Books VII-XIII consist of his universal history from 751 to
friend of Anselm, a Benedectine monk. He was in 1141, book IX being devoted to the I Crusade. The book is a
the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, when valuable study of the Normans in England, France and Italy and the
Anselm became Archbishop of Canterbury. history of his own times.
After St Anselm’s death, Eadmer’s chief occupation

became writing. He had made notes of the saint’s William of Malmesbury (1095-1143)
doings and discourses and of the affairs, in which he
William of Malmesbury was born in Wiltshire in about 1095. His
had been engaged and from these he compiled his mother was English while his father Norman. At a young age, he was
chief works, the Historia Novorum and the Vita S admitted to Malmesbury (Benedictine) Abbey, where he became a
Anselmi. monk and later, librarian of the monastery. Gesta regum Anglorum
Eadmer’s Historia Novorum is an account of the is a compendium of Englist history in 5 books first published in 1125
events of his time in Latin. His chronicle finishes and later revised. Gesta pontificum is a compilation of the lives and
AD 1122, about 2 years before his death. In his deeds of English bishops. Malmesbury’s most important work
account of the defeat of Harold Godwinsson at Historia novella, is a sequel to the Gesta Regum. This history concerns
Senlac Hill, Eadmer attributes the eventual victory the period between the death of Henry I (1135) and 1142, about the
of William the Bastard in spite of massive Norman time of William’s death. The
casualties to the intervention of God. Historia Novella is also an
important work, which Works
Eadmer’s History of England from 1066 to 1122 is (Deeds of
records the major political Gesta Regum Anglorum
to 1127
¢
gland ), 449
written from the ecclesiastical point of view. turmoil that was unflolding the Kings of En
ntificum (De ed s of the
Eadmer was also elected archbishop of St Andrews, Gesta Po
during William of
¢
Bishops), 1126
but was never consecrated because the Scots Malmesbury’s own lifetime ¢ Historia Novella (New
refused to accept the spiritual authority of the Civil War between King History),1128 to 1142
Canterbury. Stephen and the Empress
Matilda.
6
Henry of Huntingdon (1088-1154) William of Newburgh

English chronicler and archdeacon of Huntingdon, Henry of (1136-1198)
Huntingdon was probably born near Ramsey, Huntingdonshire.
English chronicler William of Newburgh was born at
His father was a priest and Henry also followed a career in the
Bridlington, Yorkshire, around 1136. In his youth,
church and was attached to the household of Robert Bloet, the
William joined the Augustinian priory at Newburgh.
Archbishop of Lincoln.
His most well-known work is Historia Rerum
Henry’s interest in history was due to a visit paid to the Abbey of Anglicarum (History of English Affairs), a history of
Bec, which he made while accompanying Archbishop Theobald to England from 1066 to 1198. The book was written at
Rome in 1139, for at Bec, he met the Norman historian, Robert the request of Ernald, abbot of Rievaux. The book was
de Torigny, who brought to his notice the Historia Britonum of written at the close of the 12th century and has been
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Shortly after, he was himself requested described as being ‘‘Both in substance and in form ...
by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, to undertake the composition of the finest historical work left to us by an Englishman
a history, using the writings of Venerable Bede as groundwork. of the 12th century’’.
This he did, carrying the work down to the death of Stephen in
1154.
Benedict of Peterborough
Henry’s Historia Anglorum (The History of the English People)
covers one of the most exciting and bloody periods in English (1135-1193)
history, the Norman Conquest and its aftermath. He tells of the Abbot of Peterborough, writer and royal councilor
decline of the old English kingdom, the victory of the Normans at Benedict of Peterborough was educated at Oxford. He
the Battle of Hastings and the establishment of Norman rule. was appointed in 1174 chancellor to Richard,
His accounts of the kings, who reigned during his lifetime Archbishop of Canterbury and in 1175 became Prior
William II, Henry I and Stephen contain unique descriptions of of Christ Church, Canterbury. He is believed to have
people and events. written a history of Thomas Becket’s Passion, preserved
in part in the work on Becket known as Quadrilogus
Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-1155) and also, a first-hand account of Becket’s Miracles.
Geoffrey of Monmouth was born sometime around 1100,

perhaps in Monmouth in South-East Wales. His father was Richard Fitzneale (1130-1198)
named Arthur. Geoffrey was appointed archdeacon of Llandsaff Bishop of London and Treasurer of Henry II and
in 1140 and was consecrated bishop of St Asaph in 1152. Richard I of England, Fitzneale belonged to a great
Geoffrey served for over 20 years as a administrative family, whose fortunes were closely
Master at the College of St George in linked with those of Henry I, Henry II and Richard I.
Oxford. It was during his time in Fitzneale was the son of Nigel, bishop of Ely (1133)
Oxford - probably around 1136 that
and the great nephew of Roger, bishop of Salisbury,
Geoffrey produced his great work
who had organised the exchequer under Henry I. It
Historia Regum Britaniae (The History
was his father, who bought him the Treasureship in
of the Kings of Britain). Geoffrey’s
1158. Fitzneale became Dean of Lincoln in 1186 and
book gives a detailed account of the
Bishop of London in 1189.
old Kings and history dating from the
Roman era and climaxing with the Fitzneale is best remembered for his work, De
reign of King Arthur. necessaries observanties Scaccarii dialogus, commonly
called the Dialogus de Scaccario (Dialogue of the
Written in the 12th century, Historia Regum Britaniae was one of
Exchequer). It is an account in two books of the
the most popular Latin texts of the middle ages. The book begins
procedure followed by the exchequer in the author’s
with the settlement of Britain by Brutus the Trojan,
time, a procedure, which was largely the creation of his
great-grandson of Aeneas and the Trojan Corineus, the
own family. The dialogus furnishes a most faithful and
eponymous founder of Cornwall, who exterminate the giants
detailed picture of English fiscal arrangements under
inhabiting Britain. Though, Geoffrey’s accounts can be seen to be
Henry II.
wildly inaccurate, but his history is a valuable piece of medieval
literature.
7
Roger of Hoveden (1174-1201) Girladus Cambrensis (1146-1223)

English chronicler and historian of the reigns of Henry II and Writer and historian Giraldus Cambrensis was born
Richard I, Roger of Hoveden was born at Howden, a village in around 1146 at Manorbier Castle in Pembrokeshire. His
Yorkshire and probably attended a monastic school at father, William de Barry, was one of the most powerful of
Durham, Yorkshire. He was a king’s clerk (clericus regis) in the Welsh nobility at the time. He was of mixed Norman
the time of Henry II and appears to have been attached to the and Welsh blood, his name being Gerald de Barri. He
court as early as 1173. In 1189, Roger served as an itinerant had a church education at Gloucester, followed by a period
justice in the North, but he probably retired from public life of study in Paris.
after the death of Henry II.
Giraldus was employed
Later in his life, he probably became the parish priest of his by the Archbishop of Works
native village, Howden, devoting the rest of his life to the Canterbury on various (1188)
Topographia Hibernica
¢
compilation of his chronicle. Roger’s Chronica is divided in ecclesiastical missions in Expugnatio Hibern
¢
ica
(1191)
two parts : the first is based on Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Its Wales. He was Itinerarium Cambriae
¢
io Camb riae (11 94)

Continuation by Simeon and Henry of Huntingdon appointed archdeacon of Descript
¢
(732-1154) and the second treats the period from 1155 to Brecon at the age of only
1201. His work is careful, precise and well organised and its 28 (and frustrated in his
broad approach makes it one of the more sophisticated annals desire to become Bishop of St David’s), he then spent 2
of its time. years on a royal commission to Ireland, which gave him
material for 2 books about the land and its people. His
account of his findings was published as Topographia
Richard of Devizes (1150-1200) Hibernica (1188). This was followed by an account of
Richard of Devizes was a Benedictine monk and chronicler. Henry’s conquest of Ireland, the Expugnatio Hibernica.
He was probably born in Devizes in Wiltshire. Richard is best
In 1188, a year after his return, he accompanied Baldwin,
known for his historical work Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi
Archbishop of Canterbury, through Wales to preach the
primi (Chronicle of the deeds of Richard I). It is an account of
Third Crusade, a journey, which provided him with
events in England and the Holy Land during the Third
material for a much more affectionate book about the land
Crusade. This chronicle gives a vivid picture of London of
of his birth and those he considered his countrymen. This
Richard’s time.
journey led to the production of Itinerarium Cambriae in
1191. This was followed by Descriptio Cambriae in 1194.
Jocelin of Brakelond (D 1211)
Benedictine monk and chronicler, Jocelin of Brakelond was Walter Map (1140-1210)
born in the middle of the 12th century in Bury St Edmunds,
English churchman and writer Walter Map probably
Suffolk. His name connects him with the quarter of the town
belonged to the Welsh Marshes. At the age of 14, Walter
called Brakelond. Jocelin joined the monastic community in
went to the University of Paris, where he studied until
1173, was made chaplain to the abbot, Samson, in 1182 and
1160 under Girard la Pucelle. In 1162, he was at the Court
thereafter served as guest-master.
of England. He took holy orders and became a clerk in the
Jocelin began writing his work, ‘Chronicle of the Abbey of St
household of Henry II. He was the King’s representative at
Edmund’s,’ an account of his life in Bury Abbey during the
the ‘Third Lateran Council’ (1179), where he was
years 1198-1202 in the age of Richard the Lionheart. Jocelin’s
appointed to dispute with the Waldensians.
story covers the years from his days as a novice in 1173 to his
appointment as a cellarer. It is a direct and personal account, Although Map wrote several books, only one, ‘De, Nugis
containing not only closely observed portraits of his curialium (on the Trivialities of Courtiers), has survived.
contemporaries and unusually vivid recollections of their The book is extremely witty and contains some
deeds and conversations, but also some of Jocelin’s most entertaining stories on life in Henry II’s court.
intimate thoughts, which give the work a special value.
8
part of his most important work, the Chronica majora. It

Matthew Paris (1200-1259) extends from creation until 1259, the year of his death.
Matthew Paris was an English monk and chronicler, born in Paris’ work is one of the most valuable sources of knowledge
about 1200. As a young man, he entered the monastery at St of 13th century life remarkable for its detail, scope and
Albans. Matthew was interested in history, so he was given accounts of events in Europe as well as England.
the job of helping Roger of Wendover, the chronicler of the
abbey of St Albans.
ch
In 1248, he was sent to Norway as the bearer of a message Earliest History in Fren ry of the
from Louis IX of France to Haakon VI; he made himself, so 0) Estorie des Engles (Histo
Geoffrey Gaimar’s (fl 114 histor y in French
agreeable to the Norwegian sovereign that he was invited, a extant
¢
the earliest
English) is considered to be
little later, to superintend the reformation of the language.
Benedictine monastery of St Benet Holme at Trondhjem. the late 1130s.
It was written in England in ronicle.
ation of the Anglo-Saxon Ch
¢
Apart from these missions, his activities were devoted to the It is believed to be a transl vide a vast
it was intended ‘‘To pro
¢
composition of history, a pursuit for which the monks of St According to Ian Short, An glo -Norman
ish, Anglo-Saxon and
¢
Albans had long been famous. panorama of the Celto-Brit es unt il the death of
s from Trojan tim
dynasties in the British Isle
Matthew edited the works of Abbot John de Cella and Roger William Rufus.’’
of Wendover, which in their altered form constitute the first
Anglo-Norman Brut
Bruts relate to the legendary history of Britain, which tells the story of Brutus, descendant of Aeneas. Espousing
chivalric ideals and celebrating the deeds of knightly heroes, the Brut resembles aristocratic chronicles in
content. The story of Brut was first made popular by Geoffrey Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britaniae.
Anglo-Norman poets Wace and Layamon used material from Monmouth’s history and reworked it into French
versions.
Wace’s Roman de Brut (1155) The Roman de Brut became the basis for Layamon’s Brut,
Wace was a Norman poet, who was born in Jersey in 1115 an alliterative Middle English poem and Piers Langtoft’s
and brought up in mainland Normandy. Wace’s Roman de chronicle. According to Eugene Mason, Wace makes a few
Brut is an 1155 French verse rendering of Geoffrey of additions to Geoffrey’s Arthurian history, but ‘‘His real
Monmouth’s earlier Latin ‘history’ of Britain, from the time contribution to the legend is the new spirit that he put into
of Brutus, the eponymous founder, to the 7th century. it. In the first place, his vehicle is the swift-moving French
Wace begins his chronicle with an account of the flight of octo-syllabic couplet, which alone gives an entirely different
Aeneas and moves quickly to the discovery of the island by tone to the narrative from that of Geoffrey’s high-sounding
Brutus and the division of the land into three kingdoms on Latin prose.’’ Mason further adds that apart from matters of
his death. style, Wace made other changes to Geoffrey’s narrative that
are more important for Arthurian romance.
He devotes much of his chronicle, nearly a third of the
verses, to Arthur’s reign, developing at length his foreign ‘‘He wrote the Brut under the patronage of Henry II and if
conquests and mentioning, for the first time, the Round we may trust Layamon’s statement, he dedicated it to
Table. Wace uses Geoffrey’s stories, such as those of King Queen Eleanor, who was the ardent propagator in England
Lear and King Arthur, with a lively inventiveness and of the courtly ideals of Southern France. Accordingly Wace,
originality, drawing on oral sources and his own knowledge perhaps partly because of his own milieu, partly because of
of parts of Britain. his royal patroness, wove into Geoffrey’s narrative more
pronouncedly chivalric material.’’
9
Layamon’s Brut (1200) Saints’ Lives

Layamon was an English poet and a priest, who lived in ¢ In the Anglo-Norman period, the genre of saints’
Worcestershire. Layamon’s Brut is a poetical paraphrase of the Brut lives or hagiography was a popular genre.
of Wace. It begins with the fall of Troy and proceeds with the story ¢ Among the earliest lives in Anglo-Norman French is
of Brutus, a descendant of Aeneas, who journeys with other Trojans one of Saint Alexis, who abandoned his bride on
their wedding night to embrace a life of exile and
through the Mediterranean Sea until they finally reach the Isle of asceticism, which is widely considered the finest
Avalon, inhabited by giants. The Arthurian passage is the major part vernacular rendition of the popular Alexis legend. It
of the poem, with some 8000 lines, it makes up to half of the Brut. is preserved in the ‘St Albans Psalter,’ a manuscript
probably created for the 20th century recluse
However, Layamon extends Wace’s poem from 15300 to 32241 Christina of Markyate.
verses. Layamon freely adapted the Brut of Wace and added ¢ Clemence of Barking, a nun writing in a Benedictine
convent in Norman England reworked the Latin
material from other sources. His Anglo-Saxon narrative meter
legend of the saint for a contemporary medieval
foreshadows the Middle English metrical system. Layamon’s audience in her 12th century old French version of
additions to Wace are notable, such as his story ‘‘Regarding the fairy the ‘Life of Saint Catherine of Alexandria.’
elves at Arthur’s birth and his transportation by them after death in ¢ The Vie de seint Clement is an anonymous early
a boat to Avalon, the abode of Argante, their queen’’. 13th century Anglo-Norman text, which combines
into a single narrative version of three Latin
Layamon’s work also shows a marked familiarity with current sources: the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitiones,
Passio sanctorum apostolorum and Epistula
Welsh tradition. According to Eugene Mason, his ‘‘Work has a high Clementis ad Iacobum.
value in the vexed question of the origin and growth of Arthurian ¢ Other noteworthy examples include Denis Piramus’
romance; for it proves the existence of genuine Welsh tradition late 20th century life of Edmund, a king of East
about Arthur’’. Anglia slain by the Danes and the famous 13th
century chronicler Matthew Paris’s lives of Alban,
The Harley Brut Edward the Confessor, Thomas Becket and Edmund
of Abingdon.
The anonymous Harley Brut consists of 3359 verses Composed in ¢ Women also played a significant role in this Anglo-
alexandrine monorhymed laisses, it is an extant in five fragments. Norman hagiographic tradition. At least three
The 5 portions of the text cover just over a quarter of Geoffrey’s Anglo-Norman lives of the 12th and 13th centuries
were written by women: a life of Katherine of
Historia Regum Britaniae, translating with some gaps from the death Alexandria by Clemence, a nun of Barking Abbey; a
of King Lucius upto Arthur’s campaign against (coincidentally) the life of Edward the Confessor, also by a nun of
emperor Lucius. Barking (possibly Clemence) and a life of
Etheldreda by a woman identified only as ‘Marie.’
The authorship of this text has been attributed to Claraton, an The importance of women as readers, patrons and
English writer known to have translated Geoffrey into French verse, authors may account for the rich representation of
female holiness in Anglo-Norman saints’ lives,
but there is no compelling evidence for this. According to Peter encompassing virgin martyrs, penitents, nuns and
Damian-Grint, The Harley author ‘‘Shows slightly more interest in holy laywomen, both legendary and historical.
the figure of Arthur than in those of Ambrosius, Aurelius and Uther ¢ A group of five prose devotional works during this
,to the extent of allowing himself a certain degree of amplifi-cation period dating from 1180 to 1200 has been
identified as the Katherine Group. This group
in descriptions of court life. He elaborates on Arthur’s consisted of accounts of lives of Saints Katherine,
crown-wearing in Caerleon after his Northern campaign and Margaret and Juliana and two religious treatises,
provides, when Arthur arrives in France, a long description of his Hali Meidenhal and Sawles Warde.
pavilion at Barfleur’’.
10
Religious and Didactic Writing in the Anglo-Norman Period

According to AR Waller and AW Ward, ‘‘The religious studying Middle English phonology and tracing the
writings of the time may be divided into 4 sections, development of English through the Norman conquests.
according to the aims, which they severally have in view.
The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) made acquisition of
The purport of the first is to teach Biblical history; the
theological knowledge necessary for the laymen and clergy.
second to exhort to holier living; the third is connected with
The Fourth Lateran Council was summoned on 19th April,
the religious life of women; the last with the Virgin cult and
1213 to meet in November 1215. It was attended by
mysticism.’’
numerous bishops and abbots of the church as well as priors
The earliest translation of a book of Bible was by and even chapters of churches and of religious
Sanson de Nanteuil, who translated into orders namely Cistercians,
verse the proverbs of Solomon, with Premonstratensians, Hospitallers and
Le Jeu d’Adam (The Play of
commentary. Nanteuil devoted 11000 Templars and the kings and civil
Adam) is the earliest
lines of verse to the Proverbs of authorities throughout Europe. At
Anglo-Norman play in French. The play
Solomon for Lady Adelaide de this council, it was decided that
is a dramatic representation of Biblical
Condé, wife of a Lincolnshire annual confessions should be made
stories, including the temptation and fall of
baron. obligatory and bishops should be
Adam and Eve, the story of Cain and Abel and
more attentive towards their
An anonymous author wrote ‘The the prophets Isaiah and Daniel. Ancren Riwle
teaching.
Poema Morale,’ a sermon in the (Guide for Anchoresses) is an early 20th
South-Eastern dialect around the century manual for anchoresses. The work To fulfill these conditions, a large
year 1170. Concerned with the contains many interesting details of the life number of religious works that
sins of the people, the sermon was led by the solitary ladies for whom it was discussed the basic elements of
very popular for a long time. written. It is divided into 8 books, Christianity were published.
which lays down a set of rules
Composed in the form of a poem, it St Edmund of Abingdon wrote Speculum
and advice for religious
stands in the homiletic tradition of the Ecclesiae (‘Mirror of Holy Church’), widely
observance.
period, but it reveals at the same time a read in England and elsewhere in the 13th and
sincere personal element in that the persona, a 14th centuries. The work provides a comprehensive
wise old man, wishes others to profit from his experience. plan for achieving spiritual perfection.
The ‘Ormulum or Orrmulum’ was a popular outlay of the
Love Rune by Thomas of Hales is one of the earliest
Holy Book, written by an English monk named Orm (or
successful religious poems of the period. The work was
Ormin).
probably composed for a girl, who devoted himself to God.
It was a collection of homilies on the Gospels consisting of In this poem, a Maid of christ chooses her lover the
almost 19000 lines of Middle English verse. Though of little Heavenly Bridegroom. The work elevates love of christ
literary interest, the work is invaluable to philologists above earthly love.
11
Anglo-Norman Poets
Philippe de Thaun Hilarius (FL 1125)

(Year of birth and death unknown) Hilarius was an Englishman, who wrote in Latin. He was a
disciple of the famous Pierre Abélard. A large portion of his
Philippe de Thaun was an Anglo-Norman poet, possibly
poems are addressed to English persons.His oeuvre includes
from the area around Caen in Normandy, who was
three scriptural dramas, two of which belong to Christmas and
active in the early 13th
Easter cycles, while the third is about St Nicholas and a
century. He is considered to
number of shorter poems. One of his poems was written in
be the earliest Works praise of the Virgin.
Anglo-Norman poet of the Livre des Creatures
¢
period. From one of his Bestiaire

¢
works, we get the Benoit de Sainte Maur (D 1173)

information that he was
Benoit de Sainte-Maure was a 12th century French poet. He
patronised by Adelaide of Louvaine, Queen of Henry I.
was patronised by Henry II. His ‘Roman de Troie’ (The
He is known for two poems. ‘The first is Livre des Romance of Troy), was a source for later works set during the
Creatures,’ which is a treatise on astronomy. It was Trojan War, such as Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde.
probably written around 1119. It is a treatise on Consisting of around 30000 lines, this work is mainly a
‘creatures’ in the sense of being about created things. The paraphrase of the history of the Phyrgian Dares.
text is also called the ‘Comput’ from its focus on
Another major work, by Benoit, is a long verse ‘Chronique des
numbers; it deals with numbers in the calendar and in
ducs de Normandie.’ A large portion of it is a paraphrase of the
astronomy, as well as numbers of religious or mystical
Latin histories of Dudo St Quentin and Guillaume de
significance. His second work, which is more popular is
Jumieges. Composed of around 44000 lines, it begins with the
the allegorical ‘Bestiaire.’ It is believed to have been
creation of the world and ends with the death of Henry I.
written after 1121. Composed of some 1570 lines, the
poem is written in the Anglo-Norman dialect. It is a book
of natural history containing descriptions of various
animals alongwith brief moralisations. 85)
Jordan Fantosme (D 11
glo-Norman poet and
Jordan Fantosme was an An
ly an Italian (named
Reginald of Canterbury (FL 1112) chronicler. He was probab
came to England in the
Giordano Fantasma), who
Reginald of Canterbury was an Anglo-Norman poet and is believed to have been
train of Henry of Blois. He
of the diocese of
monk. He was born and educated at Fagia, South of the spiritual chancellor
France. He lent his poems to the famous scholar Winchester.
ical poem ‘La Chronique
Hildebert, bishop of Le Mans, consecrated in 1097 and He is known for the histor
ronicle of the War
translated to the Sea Tours in 1126, who in return sent de Jordan Fantosme’ (Ch
the Scots in 1173 and
him a highly complimentary letter. between the English and
poem describes the
1174). Written in Latin, the
g He nry II and William the
His principal poem, The Legend of St Malchus was perhaps barons’ revolt against Kin
o Northern England in
written around 1112. It is in 6 books, containing about Lion’s Scottish incursions int
ickland refers to this
3390 lines and is a life of St Malchus, a Syrian hermit. 1173-1174. Matthew Str
ance for the study of
Reginald’s other works include a poem about his native poem as of ‘‘Primary import
knighthood, in the
war, diplomacy and
town, a group of poems extolling Canterbury and its
Anglo-Norman world.’’
saints and one or two on Anselm of St Saba.
12
Anglo-Norman Poets
The Owl and the Nightingale Cursor Mundi
‘The Owl and the Nightingale’ is a popular medieval ‘Cursor Mundi’ (Runner of the world) is an anonymous Middle
English poem written probably in the 13th century. It English poem written in North of England around 13-14th
takes the form of a spirited dispute between two birds century. containing 30000 lines, this poem relates the history of
on the subject of the relative beauty and merit of their the world as recorded in the Old and New Testaments. It is
songs. It is composed of approximately 2000 lines of written in form of eight-syllabled couplets.
verse in rhymed, octosyllabic couplets, this allegorical
The poem begins with a Prologue, in which the poet provides the
and didactic poem is usually ascribed to Master
rationale behind his undertaking. Men desire to read old
Nicholas of Guildford, about whom little is known.
romances of Alexander, Julius Caesar, Greece, Troy, Brut,
‘The Owl and the Nightingale’ is the earliest example in Arthur, of Tristram, Sweet Ysoude and others. But better than
Middle English of a literary form known as tales of love is the story of the Virgin. He states that all men take
debate poetry. The Nightingale opens the debate, delight in their ‘paramours’; but the best lady of all is the Virgin
chiding the Owl as a creature of the night, a bird that Mary. Whoever devotes himself to her, finds true and lasting
loves the dark and hence is evil. After the Owl’s love. Therefore, the poet will compose a work in her honour.
successful retort, she accuses the latter of singing only
The poet purports to tell about the Old and the New Law, the
of woe.
Trinity, the fall of the Angels, of Adam, Abraham and the
The Owl initially responds by suggesting that the patriarchs, then of Christ’s coming, of his birth and of the three
dispute be settled according to the traditional show of kings etc, of his public life and of his Passion and Crucifixion and
force, a solution that the delicate Nightingale quickly of the ‘Harrowing of Hell’. Hence, he will go on to ‘The Resurrection
dismisses. Instead, the Nightingale continues her and Ascension’, ‘The Assumption of Our Lady’, ‘The Finding of the
attack, claiming the obvious superiority of her voice, Cross’ and then to Antichrist and to the Day of Doom.’
when matched against that of the defendant. The Owl,
The chief sources of the poem have been identified by Dr
a bird fabled to possess extraordinary wisdom, realises
Haenisch. For the Old Testament history, the author draws
that she must now protect herself verbally. This she
largely from the Historia Scholastics of Peter Comestor; for the
does by asserting the virtues of her own song, which she
history of the Virgin, he translates literally from Wace’s
claims can move human beings to repentance and
‘Etablissement de la fete de la conception Notre Dame’, the
atonement for theirsins, in contrast to the Nightingale’s
parables of the king and four daughters, and of the castle of Love
voice, a mere source of superficial pleasure.
and Grace, are taken from Sent Robert book (1.9516), i.e., from
Since, the debate leads to no solution, it is finally the Chasteau d Amour of Robert Grosseteste, bishop of
proposed that the birds petition the astute Master Lincoln; other sources are the apocryphal gospels of Matthew
Nicholas, who lives in nearby Portesham, to become and Nicodemus, a Southern English poem on the Assumption of
their mediator. The poem thus, ends with the prospect Our Lady, attributed by the writer of Cursor Mundi to Edmund
of reconciliation. It combines the characteristics of Rich of Pontigny, the Vulgate, the ‘Legenda, aurea of Jacobus de
burlesque comedy, parody, traditional beast fables and Voragine’ and the ‘De vita et Morte Sanctorum’ of Isidore of
popular verse satire. Seville.
13
Romances in
Anglo-Norman Period was a popular genre in
that flou rish ed from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Romance
ature Anglo-
Romance denotes a type of liter of the most thriving modes in the
per iod. It replace d Ang lo-S axo n heroic poetry to become one in the aris tocratic
the Anglo-Norman e that was popular
l rom anc es sign ified a styl e of heroic prose and verse narrativ ed as hav ing
Norman period. Medieva res, often of a knight errant por
tray
rom anc es usu ally invo lved stories about mar vel-filled adventu
circles. The
quest.
heroic qualities, who goes on a d medieval romances into three
main
or of the Cha nso n des Sais nes (Song of the Saxons) classifie
Jean Bodel, auth ter of Rome.
The Matter of Britain and The Mat
categories: The Matter of France,
The Matter of France

Stories from the matter of France deal with the legendary adventures of Charlemagne, the 9th century. ng
Christian emperor of the West. French chansons de geste (Song of deeds) are a group of epic poems Matter Pertaini
to France
composed by trouvères and produced in Northern France. These are concerned with war and heroism.
Otuel
One of the most famous stories from the matter of France is the Chanson de Roland, which tells the elayne
The Sege of M
story of Roland’s courageous fight against hopeless odds, ending with the hero’s death. d Ve rn agu
Roland an
Jane Anderson Jones divides the matter of France romances into two broad groups. The first group, Sir Ferum bras
of Babylone
concerning the story of Otuel, contains such romances as Otuel, The Sege of Melayne and Roland and The Sowdone
Vernagu, while the second group, concerned with the story of Ferumbras, contains such romances as
The Sowdone of Babylone and Sir Ferumbras.
The Matter of Britain The Matter of Rome

The Matter of Britain romances are the most famous category of The matter of Rome deals with classical stories, the
romance. Stories from the matter of Britain are mainly based on the life Mighty Exploits of Alexander, the Great, the Trojan War,
of King Arthur and his Knights of the the siege of Thebes, the Siege of Troy, the Adventures of
Round Table. They derive from French Aeneas etc. It represents the ancient classical culture, as
d
Arthurian legends. The characters of Matter Concerne seen through medieval eyes
the Matter of Britain are heroic with Br ita in and was primarily aimed
Knights, whose superiority is reflected Sir Degare at instruction. These
not only in their physical strength and Sir Orfeo romances were derived Matter Related
ouse
in the defence of values, but The Earl of Toul from conventions of to Rome
especially in the fidelity to their own Emar e Roman de Troie
ons courtly love, which began
Geste des Bret Roman de Eneias
individual destiny: Famous Arthurian e Cart in the love lyrics of
The Knight of th Roman de Thebes
romances include Robert Wace’s Geste Provence. Examples of Roman d’Alexander
des Bretons (Deeds of the Britons) and matter of Rome include
Chretien de Troyes’s, The Knight of the Benoit de Sainte-Maure’s
Cart. Roman de Troie.
The Matter of England Miscellaneous Romances

A fourth matter, the Matter of England has been added by modern There are many
scholars to Bodel’s classification to more accurately describe the romances, which
medieval English romance. These fall outside the mances with
romances are often much less courtly Miscellaneous Ro
purview of the Ro mances
Varied Themes
and less sophisticated than the other ng Themes above mentioned cheflour
Matter Containi Floris and Blan
romances and they advance and Related to Engl
and categories. This re As signe
Chevale
support humble and simple virtues King Horn category of Sir Cleg es
ane
rather than the aristocratic virtues of Havelok the D miscellaneous Roberd of Cisyle
d the
chivalry and the courtly life. These Athe lsta n romances is based King Edward an
k
include King Horn, Havelok the Dane, Guy of Warwic on various themes Sh ep herd
Athelstan, Guy of Warwick, Bevis of and of varying
Hampton, Richard. quality.
14
Anglo-Norman Drama
Le Jeu d’Adam (The Play of Adam) The King, then, wishes to test the power of the claim
and keeps the statue in his treasure. Three Kings,
It is an Anglo-Norman play composed around 11th-12th century.
however, steal the King’s treasure. Enraged at
This semiliturgical play is written in old French. Like the English
Preudom, the King sentences him to death.
Mystery Plays (or Cycle Plays), it is a dramatic representation of
Preudom, then prays to the saint, who, in turn, visits
stories from the Bible (both old and new Testaments). The play is
the thieves and persuades them to return the
based on the Latin responses of the Septuagesima mass, which
treasure.
recount the Creation, Temptation and Fall of Adam and Eve and
the story of Cain and Abel. It dramatises the fall of Adam and Eve in On finding his lost treasure, the pagan King releases
the garden of Eden and the story of their sons, Cain and Abel. The Preudom from captivity and himself converts to
play has also been seen as a precursor to old French farce. Christianity. The idol of Tervagan is smashed and
the entire court gets converted to Christianity. Le
Jeu de Saint Nicolas is also of importance for its
Seinte Resurrection introduction of comic scenes based on
(Resurrection of the Saviour) contemporary life and is one of the first Latin school
dramas to be translated into the vernacular.
It is a 12th century incomplete play written in the Anglo-Norman
dialect. The play deals with the burial and Resurrection of Christ.
The play’s style is related to the historical realism of late medieval
passion plays. Only 522 lines of the play remain with us as a
fragment. ¢ Cursor Mundi written in form of Eight syllabled couplets
relates the history of the world as recorded in the Old and
Le Jeu de Saint Nicholas New Testaments.
(The Play of St Nicholas) ¢ The Brut survives in more that 30 manuscripts and
fragments and is a verse literary history written in Norman
It is a miracle play by Jean Bodel. It was performed in 1201. It is an language.
important transitional work, which combines elements of ¢ The English priest Layamon compiled and recast the Middle
traditional miracle play with secular elements. English poem Brut.
¢ The Ormulum is a 12th work of biblical exegesis and because
The play concerns a pagan Saracen King, who hears that Christians of the unique phonetic orthography adopted by its author,
have invaded his land. The King then consults his idol, Tervagan the work preserves many details of English pronunciation.
about his future. In response, Tervagan both laughs and cries. The ¢ The hagiographic works of the Middle Age incorporate a
king then wages war with the Christians and massacres them. The valuable record of institutional and local history and
lone survivor, Preudom is imprisoned. He prays before the statue of evidence of popular cults, custom and traditions.
St Nicholas. The King questions Preudom about the powers of his
¢ The Owl and the Nightingale is a verse context written in
rhymed octosyllabic couplets and precociously anticipates
idol. In reply, Preudom claims that the saint’s powers can help in
the style of Chaucer.
recovering one’s lost possessions.
15
Major Anglo-Norman Romances

Otuel The Sowdone of Babylon
Otuel was composed around 1330 in East Midlands. .The The Sowdone of Babylon is a middle English romance. It
main theme of this romance is the battles fought between deals with the exploits of Charlemagne and his band of
Christians and Saracens. It is a Saracen knight, who arrives at retainers known as the Twelve Peers. The Sowdone or the
Charlemagne’s court in Paris with a message from the Sultan captures Rome before the arrival of Charlemagne’s
powerful Saracen Emperor Garcy. The Emperor demands that army.
Charlemagne surrender France and abandon Christianity.
Sowdone’s son, Fermubras is forced to submit to baptism.
The French however refuse, as a result of which Otuel and But Roland, Oliver and other knights are captured.
Roland agree to fight a duel. Both of them fight fiercely. Sowdone’s daughter, Floripas aids the captured knights
Roland realises his opponent could be a valuableally and offers out of her affection for Guy of Burgundy and helps them
him to adopt Christianity and marry Charlemagne’s daughter in escaping. She allows them to hold out against the
Belisant. Suddenly, a miracle happens and a white dove Sultan until assistance from Charlemagne arrives. As a
appears on Otuel’s helmet. Interpreting it as a good omen, result of Floripas’ treachery and Fermubras’ conversion,
Otuel accepts the offer. Sowdone is finally defeated and executed.
It joins Charlemagne’s army and they travel to Lombardy to Sir Degare
attack Garcy. Garcy laments Otuel’s treachery and tries to
Sir Degare is a 14th century verse romance. It carries
capture him. However, with God’s help, the French knights’
features of a Briton Lay. According to some scholars, the
achieve victory and many Saracens overcome and flee. At the
poem is supposed to be based upon a lost Breton lay, Lai
end, Garcy is captured and later surrenders before
d’Esgaré.
Charlemagne.
The story concerns Degare, who becomes a proficient
The Sege of Melayne knight after being abandoned at birth. Degare goes in
It is considered part of the Otuel group of Charlemagne search of his parents and unwittingly marries his mother.
romances. It was written in 12-line rhyming stanzas. Central Degare fights with his father until he reveals the truth
figure of this romance is Bishop Turpin. about himself. At the end, Degare’s parents marry and he
marries the daughter of widowed King of Litel Bretaygn.
According to Alan Lupack, ‘‘Turpin is pictured as an
unswerving defender of the faith. He demands high standards
and correct action from those around him and even more from Sir Orfeo
himself. Nor is he afraid to use the spiritual or political power Sir Orfeo is a 13th century romance composed by an
unknown Celtic author. It is a reworking of the classical myth
of his religious position.’’ The main story concerns how
of the great musician Orpheus and his wife Eurydice.
Lombardy was conquered by the Saracens. The romance narrates the tale of King Orfeo, a harp player
without equal. His wife, Heurodis, is abducted by the fairy
Sir Fermubras King, but Orfeo, through his harp playing, manages to bring
It was written in the 13th-14th century, it is a verse romance. her back to the land of mortals.
The story describes the capture of Rome by the Saracen hosts The poem was probably translated from a French romance of
the kind called a Breton lay. ‘‘ Few features of the story
and its relief by Charlemagne. A Combat takes place between suggest that the source story had been Anglicised. e.g.,
Olivier and Ferumbras, son of the sultan of Babylon. Orpheus becomes Orfeo, an English king although he’s a
harpist. The Gods Pluto and Juno become humanised to
The Saracen is overcome in the end and accepts Christianity. serve as parents. Traciens becomes Winchester and Orfeo
His sister Floripas, who is in love with the French Sir Guy favours the election of a successor by Parliament’’. The
assists the Christians and both brother and sister are poem contains authentic fairy lore, including the strong
subsequently rewarded with territory in Spain. traditional association of fairies with the dead.
16
Geste Des Bretons Emare

It is written by Wace, Geste des Bretons is an adaptation of Emare is a 14th century romance composed in North-East
Geoffrey Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae. Wace Midlands. The story preserves a version of what is known
called this work Geste des Bretons (‘Deeds of the Britons’), as the ‘Constance-saga,’ a narrative, which was quite
but scribes, who copied it renamed it as the Roman de Brut. It popular in late medieval literature. It is written in 12-line
is composed of 14866 lines, the poem is written in tail-rhyme stanzas. the story concerns Emaré, daughter of
octosyllabic couplets in vernacular French. the Emperor Artyus.
The poem was completed in 1155 and dedicated to Eleanor of When Emari grows into a beautiful young woman, Artyus
Aquitaine. It is This work contains the first mention of falls in love with his own daughter and obtains a papal
Arthur’s Round Table. According to Eugene Mason, Wace dispensation to marry his own daughter. Emare refuses
makes ‘‘Few additions to Geoffrey’s Arthurian history, but his his proposal. As a result of this, Artyus sets her a drift in a
real contribution to the legend is the new spirit that he put boat with no provisions. But later repents and sends a
into it’’. search for her.
The Earl of Tolouse Emare arrives in the land of Galys, weak and frail. When
the King of Galys sees her in her robe, he resolves to marry
‘The Earl of Toulouse is a Middle English romance composed in
her, despite his mother’s conviction that the beautiful
the 14th century. The poem is written in the dialect of the
woman is a devil. They eventually marry. When the King
North-East Midlands in tail-rhyme stanzas. It is a Breton lay.
is away, Emare bears him a son, Segramour. However, in
The story concerns Diocletian, the Emperor of Germany, who
the King’s absence, the Queen Mother arranges that
unjustly takes lands from Sir Barnard, the Earl of Toulouse.
Emaré and her child be set a drift in a boat.
His wife, Beulybon, begs him to return them, but Diocletian
refuses. A battle wages between the two and finally the Earl When the King of Galys returns, he realises the Queen
emerges victorious. Mother's treason and sends her into exile. At Rome, the
King is finally united with his wife and son. Emare
The Earl takes help of a knight, Sir Tryalbas. Together, they
re-inscribes the tradition of domestic romance with its
travel to Diocletian’s city, where the Earl disguises himself as
focus on the family and on the heroine’s personal
a hermit’’.
relationships.
Tryalbas informs Beulybon that he has the Earl and offers to
kill him. She replies that he must not break his promise and
tells him to bring the Earl to her chapel the next morning. The Knight of the Cart Cart
Here Beulybon, richly clothed, allows the Earl, who is still celot, The Knight of the
Chretien de Troyes’s Lan tio nsh ip bet we en
adulterous rela
¢
dressed as a hermit, to gaze on her. As she leaves, he asks her narrates the story of the to
ver e. Ch retien cla ims
for alms and she gives him a ring as a token. een Guine
Lancelot and Arthur’s Qu t of the
t of the Cart at the reques
have composed The Knigh r of
Meanwhile, Emperor Diocletian goes away and entrusts his am pag ne, the daughter of Eleano
Countess Marie of Ch
wife to two knights. The knights try unsuccessfully to woo
Aquitaine. ds of
her. Fearing that she will tell the Emperor, they hide a naked the poem undergoes all kin
¢ The love sick Lancelot of on to Qu een Gu ine vere,
youth in her chamber, pretend to discover and then devoti
humiliations to prove his as we ll at
nt, where he fights
eventually kill him. Beulybon is accused of adultery. culminating at a tourname ally abd uct ed
e Queen is eventu
Guinevere’s command. Th .
Diocletian returns home, where he is met by the traitors and Lancelot goes on a que
st to rescue her
son,
demanding that she be burned. Hearing of Beulybon’s ot beats Me leagant, King Bagdemagu’s
In the end, Lancel e. The
and strengthening their lov
¢
situation, the Earl comes disguised as a hermit to defend her. thereby saving Guinevere . Th rough
ek tales of underworld
Satisfied of her innocence, he defeats the two traitors, makes story is reminiscent of Gre cel ot, de Tro yes
love struck Lan
them admit their guilt, and has them burned. The Emperor the foolish actions of the of per pet ual lov e on
the effects
accepts the Earl’s friendship. After his death, the Earl is satirises love and mocks
elected emperor and married to Beulybon. those who pursue it.
17
Roman de Eneias Havelok the Dane

• It is a French romance written by an anonymous Havelok the Dane is a Middle English metrical romance
Norman poet probably between 1155 and 1160. written between 1280 and 1290. It consists of some 3000
• According to Kathryn Talarico, it is ‘‘One of the lines of rhymed octosyllabic couplets. Havelok the Dane
earliest ‘romances’ in the 12th century meaning of the tells the story of the English princess Goldeboru and the
term and is one of the most curious admixtures of orphaned Danish prince Havelok, who defeats a usurper to
influences of both Virgil and Ovid’’. become the King of Denmark and part of England.
• The story taken from Virgil’s Aeneid concerns Eneas, The first mention of Havelok’s story occurred around
shipwrecked and stranded, who lands in Carthage-an 1135-1140 in Geoffrey Gaimar’s L ‘Estoire des Engles’. The
extraordinary city ruled by Dido, an extraordinary story begins in England, where the beloved Christian King,
woman. Athelwood, has died, leaving his daughter, Goldeboru, sole
heir to the throne.
Roman de Thebes She is left in the care of Earl Godrich of Cornwall, who sets
It is believed to be an adaptation of the epic Thebais by the Late
up an oppressive rule and imprisons Goldboro in a tower,
Latin poet Statius. It is composed in the 12th century, the poem
consists of around 10000 lines. It is the main theme is a denying her the kingdom. Meanwhile, the story shifts to
fratricidal combat. Denmark, where the king of Denmark also dies, entrusting
The story describes how the curse of Oedipus was passed on his three children and his kingdom to Earl Godard. Godard
to his two sons, Etiocles and Polynices, who go to war with kills the two young girls and threatens the life of the king’s
each other over, who shall rule Thebes.
son, Havelok.
Godard hands the boy, Havelok over to a fisherman, Grim,
King Horn with instructions to kill him. Before Grim can carry out his
It is an English romance written around 1250. It is order, a blazing light leaps from Havelok’s mouth,
considered to be the earliest extant ‘Matter of England’ indicating his kingly origin and divine mission. Further,
romance. The romance narrates the story of a king’s son, ‘Grim sees a king-mark’ on Havelok, a birthmark in the
Horn, whose father was murdered by Saracen pirates. shape of a cross. As a result of this, Grim spares the boy,
adopts him and takes him with his family to England.
Horn and his companions are then sent to exile and find
themselves in Westernesse. At Westernesse, the king’s Havelok eventually grows into a strong young man. He
daughter, Rymenhild, declares her passion for Horn and becomes employed as a cook’s helper in Godrich’s
declares her desire to marry Horn. household. Godrich, believing that Havelok is of common
origin, marries him to Goldeboru. On their wedding night,
However, Horn refuses to marry until he has proved his again a beam of light appears from Havelok’s mouth.
worth by killing the Saracens. He does indeed manage to kill Because of this, Goldeboru recognises that her husband is a
some invading Saracens. prince. The two then travel to Denmark alongwith their
As his fame spreads, one of Horn’s companions, Fikenhild family. Havelok raises an army, defeats both Godard and
grows jealous and reports to the King of Westernesse that Godrich and unites the two kingdoms. Havelok the Dane is
Horn plans to kill him. As a result of this, he is banished by also an important historical source for the understanding of
the King. In exile for the second time, Horn now finds political and legal procedures of the time.
himself in Ireland, where he again impresses the king with
Athelstan
his military exploits. The king offers the hand of his
daughter, Reynild in marriage as a reward, but Horn Athelstan is Middle English romance written in 14th
remains loyal to Rymenhild. century. It is composed of 812 lines, the tale concerns four
main characters- Athelstan, Egelond, Alryke and
He returns to Westernesse and disguises himself to rescue Wymound. All four of these become sworn brothers. When
Rymenhild from a proposed marriage. Finally, Horn avenges Athelstan inherits the English throne, he makes Egelond-
his father’s death by killing the Saracens, who murdered his Earl of Stane, Wymound- Earl of Dover and Alryke-
father and regaining his kingdom. Both he and Rymenhild Archbishop of Canterbury. He also marries Egelond to his
finally marry and become the king and queen of Horn’s sister, Edith.
paternal kingdom.
18
However, as years proceed, Wymound becomes jealous of Bevis of Hampton

Athelstan’s favouring of the family of Egelond. He tells
Bevis of Hampton is an English metrical romance of the
Athelston that the Earl is plotting to poison him. The enraged
early 14th century. Orally composed and transmitted,
King vows to kill Egelond’s, whole family and invites them to
Bevis comprises 4620 lines, of which the first 474 are in
the capital on the pretext of knighting their sons. When they
tail-rhymed, six-line stanzas and the remainder in short
arrive, Athelstan condemns them to death. When Athelstan’s
rhyming couplets. The tale concerns Bevis, who is sold
own wife, who is pregnant at that time, intercedes on their
into slavery at the young age of 7 by his wicked mother.
behalf, Athelstan kicks her in the stomach causing her
Bevis’ mother had earlier arranged for her husband’s death
miscarriage.
through hands of her lover, the Emperor of Germany.
Alryke challenges the king to have the trial of treason heard in Bevis eventually finds favour at the court of pagan King
the parliament, but Athelstan refuses and instead removes Hermine, whose daughter Josiane falls in love with him.
him from the position of Archbishop. In response, Alryke
Bevis agrees to accept her love, if she converts to
threatens to excommunicate the kingdom, forbidding priests
Christianity. Meanwhile, Bevis is accused of having
to say mass or baptize children and denying the king
seduced Josiane and imprisoned. Josiane is forced to marry
absolution. Athelstan finally relents and hands over the
someone else. After 7 years, Bevis finally escapes from
family to Alryke.
dungeon. Over the following years, he engages in a series
Alryke arranges for an ordeal by fire to prove the innocence of of perilous adventures, including conflicts with Saracens,
Egelond and his family. All of them emerge from the fire giants, lions and a dragon; returns to England to kill his
unscathed, but the pregnant Edith falls into labour and gives father’s murderer and witness his mother’s death and
birth to St Edmund. Edmund is announced as the heir by repeatedly endures the treachery of trusted aides and
Athelstan. The name of the traitor is finally revealed by allies.
Athelstan and Wymound hanged.
Finally, after Josiane has been forced into two hateful
marriages, she and Bevis are wed and she gives birth to
Guy of Warwick twin boys. According to critics, Bevis is more fully
Guy of Warwick is a Middle English romance composed around
developed in terms of literary form than some other
1300. The story concerns Guy, the son of a steward, who falls in
love with Felice, daughter of the Earl of Warwick. Felice romances of the period e.g., King Horn and Havelok the
rejects Guy because he is not a knight. The Earl awards Guy with Dane.
knighthood, but Felice still demands that he prove his worth.
He establishes his worth through a series of battles and Floris and Blancheflour
adventures across Europe. When he returns to Warwick, Felice Floris and Blancheflour is a verse romance composed around
still refuses to marry him until he proves that he is the greatest
knight in the world. Guy then departs again to Europe. Guy and 1250. It was probably adapted from a 12th century French
his companion, Herhaud travel to Constantinople, where they original. This romance tells the story of a Christian lady,
help the Eastern Emperor defeat a Saracen army. who has been captured by the Saracens. The Saracens
On his way, Guy also encounters Tirri of Gormoise. Tirri explains recognising her nobility make her a lady-in-waiting to
how the Emperor’s steward Berard falsely accused him of the
their queen. Both the lady and the queen bear children on
death of his uncle, Duke Otoun, imprisoned him, but later
released him on agreement that he would find and bring Guy to the same day, during a festival of flowers: A daughter
defend him against Berard’s accusation. Blancheflour is born to the lady, while the queen bears a
son, floris. Both the children are brought up together and
eventually fall in love.
Guy eventually defends Tirri, without revealing his identity.
Still disguised, he then returns to England, which is being Fearing that they will marry, the king decides to execute
attacked by the Danes and their champion, a ferocious Blancheflour. His queen persuades him to send Floris
African giant called Colbrond. Guy beheads the giant and away instead, hoping that the separation will dull their
attains victory. After a brief anonymous visit to Felice’s castle, love. The king gets a false tomb erected to convince Floris
Guy retires to a hermit’s cell, where Archangel Michael tells that Blancheflour has died.
him to prepare for his death. He sends his ring to Felice, who When Floris tries to kill himself, the queen finally reveals
arrives just as her husband’s soul ascends to heaven. When the truth. Floris goes in search to seek Blancheflour, while
Guy’s body becomes heavy, he is buried in the hermitage, his parents give him a cup and a magic ring for protection.
where Felice dies at his graveside. An abbey is constructed in Both are united at Babylon and eventually married.
honour of Guy and Felice at Lorraine.
19
Sir Cleges through a combat. Amis sets off to ask Amiloun for help.
Meanwhile, Amiloun has already dreamt that his friend is
It was written in the 14th century, Sir Cleges is a chivalric
in danger.
verse romance. It is composed in 12-line tail-rhyme stanzas.
The plot concerns Sir Cleges, one of Uther Pendragon’s Amiloun agrees to undertake the trial for Amis. He
knights and his wife, Clarys. Both of them give alms proceeds to the court, while Amis assumes his friend’s
generously and hold annual feasts. place in his household, avoiding sex with his wife by
placing a sword in the bed.
However, after some years, their wealth depletes and they sell
of their property. On Christmas Eve, Cleges discovers that As Amiloun prepares to face the steward, a heavenly voice
one of his cherry trees is miraculously covered in fruit. He warns him against continuing the combat. The voice warns
worries that it is a bad omen, but Clarys urges him to take the him that he would turn into a leper, if he does not desist
fruit to Uther’s court in Cardiff. At the court, none of the However, remembering the oath made to his friend, he
ushers or stewards let him enter. However, on seeing the fights and defeats his opponent.
cherries, they agree, in return for a third of whatever reward is Convinced that he is Amis, the Duke offers him Belisaunt
offered by the king. in marriage. The two knights exchange clothes again and
As his reward, Cleges asks the king to administer twelve blows each returns home. Amis marries Belisaunt and has two
with his staff. The king reluctantly agrees, and Cleges divides children, inheriting the Duke’s estate, when he dies.
his ‘reward’ between the porter, the usher and the steward. Meanwhile, Amiloun reveals the truth to his wife, who
When the reason for his strange request is eventually becomes disgusted with him. After he turns into a leper (as
revealed, the king and his court are delighted. King Uther the heavenly voice had warned), his wife drives him out,
gives Cardiff Castle and other goods to Cleges, makes him his leaving him with only his golden cup and his young
steward and his son a squire. nephew, Amoraunt.
Both Amiloun and his nephew are forced to beg for food in
nearby areas. One day, they eventually reach Amis’ palace,
Ipomedon where a knight admires Amoraunt’s beauty and offers him
composed
y Anglo-Norman romance a place in the court.
¢ Ipomedon is a 12th centur
by Hugh de Rotelande. cowardice Amoraunt refuses and the knight informs Amis, who
e, in which a knight feigns
It is a highly comic romanc men. praises the youth’s loyalty and sends him his golden cup
usly deceives two wo
¢
and repeatedly and conscio ctural

Gra vdal, Ipomedon has stru full of wine. When Amiloun produces his identical cup,
According to Kathryn liau .
13th century fab Amis assumes that the leper has killed his ‘brother’ and
¢
similarities with Trubert, a

beats him until Amoraunt reveals his identity. Delighted
and remorseful, Amis welcomes Amiloun into his court.
Amis and Amiloun After a year, both friends are visited by an angel, who
Amis and Amiloun is a 13th century romance composed in East informs them that Amis can cure his friend by anointing
Midlands. It consists of 12-line tail-rhymed stanzas. him with his children’s blood. Amis does as the angel says
and gets his children killed. Even Belisaunt supports him in
According to Anne Wilson, Amis and Amiloun is ‘‘A tale of
this. To their surprise, they finally discover that their
ideal friendship, a didactic tale in, which the friendship is
children are also alive. Amiloun’s disloyal wife is
tested increasingly severely up to the point of supreme
imprisoned and her lands given to Amoraunt. The
sacrifice’’. The story revolves around Amis and Amiloun, who
story ends with both the friends dying on the same day.
are the sons of neighbouring barons in Lombardy, born on
the same day and identical in appearance. Sir Isumbras
Both attain high positions in the Duke’s court and swear an Sir Isumbras is a popular Middle English romance, which
oath of brotherly loyalty towards each other. Because of the circulated in England before 1320. The poem is composed
death of Amiloun’s father, the two have to part ways. In in 12-line tail-rhyming stanzas. Dieter Mehl describes it as
Amiloun’s absence, Amis becomes a prey to the machinations a ‘homiletic romance,’ which carries similarities to both
of the Duke’s steward. He is accused of having an affair with saints’ lives and romance.
the Duke’s daughter, but offers to prove his innocence
20
The story concerns Isumbras, a chivalric and where he regains his strength and beats her best knights in a
courteous knight. Isumbras lives happily with his tournament.
beautiful wife and 3 sons, but forgets that his
One day, Isumbras finds a nest containing his cloth of gold, which he
happiness is due to the mercy of God.
conceals under his bed. When the jealous Saracens discover it, they
One day, Christ sends down a bird to remind show it to the queen, who realises that it belonged to her husband.
Isumbras of his son and offers him a choice Isumbras narrates his story and shows her his ring. She produces her
between suffering in youth or old age. Isumbras half and the couple is re-united.
repents and promises to serve Christ while he is
Isumbras is crowned the king. But soon after, his kingdom is attacked
young and strong. He and his family leave the
by the Saracens. He is helped by three knights, who turn out to be his
county and wander, where Christ leads them,
children. The entire family is thus, united.
begging for food.
While they are crossing a river, Isumbras’ sons are William of Palerne
carried away by a lion and a leopard. Accepting Dated between 1335 and 1350, William of Palerne is a courtly romance,
the will of God, they move ahead and encounter rich in fantastic adventure. It is an adaptation of the French Guillaume de
the war ships of a Saracen king. The king forcibly Palerne, composed around 1200. It was commissioned by Humphrey de
takes Isumbras’ wife from him, gives him a cloth Bohun, Earl of Hereford.
The romance has been translated by William, the poet, about whom, little is
full of gold and badly beats him. Before the ships
known. It is written in the Picard dialect. The poem traces the adventures of
sail, Ismubras is granted a final meeting with his two princes. One is Prince Alphouns, heir to the Spanish crown, who as a
wife, where she gives him half of her ring and tells youth was transformed by his step mother into a werewolf; the other is
him to search for her. William, Prince of Apulia and Sicily
William’s evil uncle, in an effort to become heir to the crown, attempts to
Left alone, Isumbras joins a community of have the young William murdered. However, the little boy is rescued by the
ironsmiths and spends years learning to make werewolf (Alphouns). Throughout William’s life, he is followed and guided
armour. When he hears that the Saracens are by the werewolf. William is eventually taken under the wing of the Roman
emperor and falls in love with the emperor’s daughter, Melior. The two run
waging war against a Christian ruler, he rides a off together.
work horse into battle and defeats them, killing The werewolf guides them back to Sicily. There, finding his family under
their king. Isumbras continues his travels further attack by the Spaniards, William goes to war and conquers his enemies.
and reaches the court of a generous queen. Meanwhile, Alphouns is restored by his stepmother to his human form.
The story ends with the marriage of Alphouns to William’s sister, Florence
However, instead of eating the feast that is laid
and William to Melior.
before him, he starts weeping. Filled with pity,
the queen then gives him a room in her castle,
Other Writers of the Period

Chretien de Troyes Roman de Brut (1155), a translation of Geoffrey of
Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae, which
(FL 1160-1191) introduced Britain and the Arthurian legend to
Works
¢ Erec
Chretien de Troyes was a French poet, who is continental Europe. Chretien’s romances were ¢ Cliges
known for the five Arthurian romances he wrote probably composed between 1160 and 1180. They ¢ Lancelot
in the 12th century. Information about Chretien were imitated by other French poets and were ¢ Yvain
comes almost solely from indirect evidence in his translated and adapted frequently during the next ¢ Perceval
works and scholarly speculation has led to much few centuries as the romance continued to develop as
controversy on this subject. Chretien was a court a narrative form.
poet, probably attached to the court of the count
His five romances are Erec; Cliges; Lancelot (ou Le Chevalier a la
and countess of Champagne.
Charrette); Yvain (ou Le Chevalier au lion); and Perceval (ou Le Conte
Chretien’s tales, written in the vernacular, du Graal). Erec is about an Arthurian knight, who is put to various
followed the appearance in France of Wace’s trials to claim the love of Enide. Cliges is about the knight Cliges and
21
his love for his uncle’s wife, Fenice. Lancelot deals for the first Lais of Marie de France
time with the love affair of Guinevere and Lancelot. Yvain
‘The Lais of Marie de France’ is a collection of 12 narrative
centers on a knight, who is exiled from the favours of his lady
poems that were written sometime in the 12th century.
and required to perform a number of heroic deeds before
The subject of the Lais is love and courtliness. De
regaining her. His last unfinished romance Perceval is dedicated
France’s Lais have been considered by many to be the
to his patron Philip, Count of Flanders. It narrates the
first significant collection of medieval courtly romance.
adventures and growing pains of the young knight Perceval.
The Lais begins with a ‘Prologue’, in which Marie states
Chretien de Troyes might also have written a non-Arthurian
her reason for composing the lays and confesses her hope
tale Guillaume d’Angleterre, based on the legend of St Eustace.
that her audience will enjoy the work.
Marie de France (Fl 1160-1190) A summary of major ‘Lais’ has been provided below
Marie de France was the earliest French poet of the Guigemar

12th century. Her actual birth date is not known. She was born This particular ‘Lai’ is about Guigemar, son of Oridial,
in Normandy, France. The exact city of her birth is not known, vassal of King Hoel of Britanny. Guigemar is a proficient
but the area of Normandy is about 50 miles outside of Paris. knight. But he does not have any interest in love. Once,
Marie de France later moved to England. She was perhaps a Guigemar tries to kill a white hind during a hunt, but the
half-sister of Henry II (r 1154-1189). She is considered by arrow rebounds and wounds him. The hind curses him
many to be Marie, daughter of Geoffrey IV of Anjou, who was to remain wounded until cured by a woman’s love.
the father of Henry II.
Binding his wound with the hem of his shirt, Guigemar
De France wrote in Anglo-Norman, the dialect boards an empty ship that he comes across in the harbor.
spoken among the aristocracy of England He falls asleep and awakens in another land, where he
and large parts of Northern France. She finds a young woman married to an oppressive lord.
was part of a generation of writers Guigemar falls in love with her.
(notable among them Chretien de
Troyes), who were in the process of Both Guigemar and the woman exchange of tokens of
inventing the French verse romance. fidelity (the woman makes a knot with his shirt and he
She was perhaps a habitual guest at the gives her a kind of chastity belt). When the Lord
brilliant court of troubadours and discovers their relationship, he banishes Guigemar.
Gascon knights, who gathered in the Heartbroken, the lady goes in search of Guigemar, but
castles of Anjou and Guyenne around becomes captive of Lord Meriaduc. Guigemar defeats
Henry II and Queen Eleanor. Lord Meriaduc, rescues her and the two are then united.
She is best known for her ‘Lais’, which are Equitan

short narrative or lyrical poems, usually in This lay centers on Equitan, king of Nauns. Equitan had
octosyllabic couplets, intended to be sung. This a right brave and loyal knight as his seneschal. Equitan’s
poetic and musical form was popular among the poets seneschal was married to a beautiful woman, whose
(trouveres) of Northern France. Marie’s lays, which number 15, beauty was incomparable.
belong to the Breton Cycle. They are written in eight-syllable
rhyming couplets. The lais range from 118-1184 lines in One day, the king went to his seneschal’s lodging and
length. The Lais, which may be definitely attributed to Marie caught a sight of the seneschal’s wife. Awestruck by her
are: Guigemar, Equitan, Le Frêne, Le Bisclavret (the werewolf), beauty, the king fell in love with her. Whole day, the
Les Deux amants, Laustic, Chaitivel, Lanval, Le Chèvrefeuille, king experienced pangs of love. The seneschal, surmising
Milon, Yonec and Eliduc. that the king was ill sent his wife to the king’s care. Left
alone with her, the king opened to her his heart. He told
Another type of literature Marie is known for is fables. She has her that he was dying for her love and that, if she had no
written 103 short fables with a prologue and epilogue. Half of more than friendship to offer, he preferred death
the fables written by Marie are derived from Aesop’s fables. 63 before life.
of the fables came originally from Marie herself. Most of
Marie’s fables are about beasts. Only one-third of her fables At first, the woman was undecided and did not give any
include human characters. Marie de France’s fables tell a moral answer. But, when the king kept offering his
lesson. Her fables are meant to set examples. protestations of love, the seneschal’s wife agreed and
22
gave him the gift of her heart. The two granted rings Bisclaveret (The Werewolf)
one to another and pledged affiance between them.
This lay is about a nobleman, who gets married to a lovely lady. For
Since, the king refused to marry anyone else, the
three whole days in every week, the nobleman would disappear
people of his kingdom started blaming him. The
from her side. She knew not, where he went, nor on what errand.
seneschal’s wife fearing that the king would be forced
The nobleman’s wife insisted that he reveal, where he went and on
to marry daughter of some king, extracted a promise
what errand, but he refused. One day, the nobleman finally
out of him that he would not marry anyone else.
revealed to his wife that he turns into a werewolf, Bisclavaret,
The king promised not to marry anyone until her enters the forest naked and lives on prey and roots.
husband died. The woman then plotted to kill her
To return to his human shape, he needs to don his clothes again.
husband in a tub of boiling hot water, with Equitan’s
The nobleman’s wife extracts from him the secret of where he hides
help. They kept two heated baths together and
the clothes; she then plans to get rid of him and takes a lover to
waited for the seneschal to come. Meanwhile, both
help her in the task. She asks her lover to steal the nobleman’s
the king and the seneschal’s wife laid together in each
clothes so that he remains in the form of a werewolf forever. After
other’s embrace and kept a waiting woman outside to
this, she marries her lover.
warn them, if the seneschal arrives. When the
seneschal arrived, he saw the door of the bath One day, the king goes hunting and has mercy on a wolf (who is the
chamber closed. Without heeding the waiting nobleman). The wolf follows the king all the way to the court.
woman’s warning, he went inside and saw his wife There, he sees his wife’s lover and attacks him. On another
and the king together. occasion, the wolf’s former wife comes to the king and the wolf sees
and attacks her also, tearing off her nose. Surprised at the wolf's
When the king saw the seneschal, he had no thought
behaviour towards the two, the king’s counselor advised him to
but to hide his dishonour. He started up,
question the woman and her lover.
accidentially jumped in the bath that was filled with
boiling water and died. Enraged, the seneschal then On being questioned again and again, the two reveal the truth
threw his wife in the same boiling tub. Thus, both of about the wolf. The wolf’s clothes are returned and he assumes
them died together. human shape again. The woman and her lover are exiled to a
faraway land.
Le Fresne (The Ash Tree) Lanval
This lay is about a knight in Britanny, who had twin sons
born to his wife. The wife of the knight’s neighbour and At the time of Pentecost, King Arthur gave a great feast. There, he
friend (who was also a knight) grew jealous and spread awarded many rich gifts to his counts and barons and to the Knights
rumors that the 2 sons were born to the woman of the Round Table. King Arthur awarded gifts to all, except the loyal
because she had slept with two lovers. Soon, the
Lanval. Lanval was in dire financial situation. Depressed, he went
jealous woman also got pregnant and gave birth to two
daughters. However, she wanted to get rid of one to off to the countryside.
avoid disgrace. The woman’s attendant took away one
of the daughters, wrapped her in a cloth of silk and left There, he met two beautiful maiden, who led him to their mistress.
her in the branches of an ash tree near an abbey. The mistress was beautiful and rich. She professed her love and
An abbess took the child under her care and named her offered him untold riches. The mistress’ only condition is that
‘Fresne’. Fresne grew up into a beautiful young woman Lanval keep their relationship secret. If he discloses the truth of
and went to live with Lord Gurun, who was in love with
their relationship to anyone, he would lose her friendship and
her. However, Gurun is persuaded to get a wife and he
gets engaged to Codre (‘Hazel’), who without anyone never again be able to see her face.
knowing, happens to be Fresne’s twins sister.
Lanval agrees to do as the mistress wishes and comes and departs as
Gurun and Codre get married, while Fresne becomes a
servant of Codre. Fresne arranges the bridal bed per her wishes. Once, Queen Guinevere makes a pass at Lanval,
spreading over it the silk cloth, in which she had been who rejects her. Enraged, she accuses him of homosexuality.
wrapped as an infant. Eventually, the mother Defending himself against this charge, Lanval starts boasting that
recognises the cloth and Fresne as her daughter. The his love was already set on a lady, so proud and noble, that her
marriage to the sister is dissolved and Gurun marries
Fresne. meanest wench went more richly and smiled more sweetly, than
the Queen.
23
Angrily, the Queen falsely informs the king that Lanval tried to Yonec
seduce her. The king demands that Lanval be put on a trial.
The Lay of Yonec is about an old and rich man in
Persuaded to defend himself in the king’s court, Lanval finds
Britain, who was lord of the town and realm of
himself at a loss since, he has no proof of his love for the mistress.
Chepstow. This old man marriage a young and
He is then asked to give pledge and surety to the King that he
beautiful woman to give him a heir. He keeps him
would come before the court on the day of judgement in his own
locked so that she may not go astray and remain
body.
devoted to him. He set in charge of the woman, his
On the day of Judgement, as the court is about to pronounce elder sister, a widow, to hold her more surely in ward.
sentence on Lanval, two maidens, who are attendants of Lanval’s These two ladies dwelt alone in the tower, together
lover appear and request preparations to be made for arrival of with their women, in a chamber by themselves.
their mistress. Lanval’s lover proclaims her love before the court
After 7 years in confinement, the woman grows
and proves the truth of Lanval’s innocence. Lanval is set free and
increasingly pale and depressed. She longs to die. One
leaves with the lady for the island of Avalon.
day, a hawk flies into her chamber and is transformed
Les Deus Amanz (The Two Lovers) into a handsome and courteous young knight. The
knight advises her to pretend to feel ill and call for a
The Lay of Les Deus Amanz (The Two Lovers) concerns the King of
priest. Both of them lie together in bed and then the
Pistrians, who had a beautiful daughter. The king laid down a
knight takes on the lady’s shape and receives
condition that none can marry his daughter unless he can carry
communion from the priest.
her in his arms, without rest, all the way up a high mountain.
Nobody is able to fulfill this condition. A Squire, son of a count The knight leaves and promises to return whenever the
falls in love with the king’s daughter and asks her to run away woman desires. As a result of the frequent visits of the
with him. The daughter refuses because she doesn’t want to knight, the woman regains her vigor. The king turns
upset her father. suspicious and tries to discover the cause behind his
wife’s happiness.
She, however, gets a magic potion made, which energises a
person and refreshes him. She herself loses weight, so that her He arranges to have his old sister hide herself and find
lover would be able to carry her. On the day of the climb, the out what the lady is doing when alone. The old woman
lover carries the king’s daughter halfway up the mountain and witnesses the encounter of the lovers and the young
starts to grow weak. When she offers her the magic potion, he man’s transformations from man into bird. She reveals
refuses to drink it out of pride He climbs upon the summit of the the truth to her brother. The old man then hatches a
mountain and tries grievously to bring his journey to an end. On plan and fashions four blades of steel with point and
reaching the top, he dies out of fatigue. edge sharper than the keenest razor. These he fastens
firmly together and sets them securely within the
The princess kisses his eyes and mouth, falls upon his body, takes
window, by which the hawk would come to his wife.
him in her arms and dies by his side. When the king arrives, he is
filled with grief. On the third day after their death, he gets them Next day, the hawk is fatally wounded while trying to
sealed in a goodly coffin of marble and by the counsel of all men, fly into the woman’s chamber. The knight comforts the
lays them softly to rest on that mountain, where they died. woman telling her she will soon give birth to his son,
whom she is to name Yonec and who will avenge the
lovers. The woman pursues the bird with many shrill
cries, tries to follow him and springs forth from the
The ‘Lais’ or Lyrical poem of Marie de France deals with love and courtliness.
window. Travelling forth, she reaches a city made of
¢
Anglo-Norman aristocrats loved the old celtic oral tales sung by Breton
silver; where she sees a palace. Here, she finds two
¢
story tellers also called Breton ‘lays’.

knights sleeping on beds and then finds her lover, who
¢ Romance was the main narrative genre for late medieval readers.
embraces her and the two lament their misfortune. The
¢ A chivalric romance focusses on knightly adventures, knightly love and
display of martial prowess against supernatural foes. knight tells her that he will die soon and advises her to
¢ Romances reflected the social aspirations of members of the lower nobility. go away.
24
The knight then bestows her a ring, teaching Milun

her that as long as she wear the gift, her
The Lay of Milun is about a proficient knight from South Wales, whom
husband will think of none of these things, nor
nobody is able to defeat. A Lord’s daughter falls in love with Milun and
care for her person, nor seek to revenge him
sends him a message saying that, if her love was to his mind, sweetly would
for his wrongs. He also gives her his sword to
it be to her heart. Milun rejoices greatly on reading this, thanks the lady
pass on to their son.
for her words and gives her love again in return for her own. Both become
On reaching back, the woman gives birth to a lovers and meet each other often. The lady becomes pregnant and gets
son, whom she names Yonec. When he comes distressed about her situation.
of age, she narrates the entire story of his
When the child is born, both of them secretly arrange to send him to
father, gives him the sword and dies soon
Northumbria to be raised by an older sister of the lady; the child bears
after. Yonec cuts of his stepfather’s head and
with him Milun’s ring and a letter, which are to inform him of his identity
avenges his real father’s death. The people of
when he grows up. While Milun goes away to serve beyond the seven seas,
the kingdom proclaim him as their Lord.
the lady is married off to a rich baron. Milun gets depressed, but devises a
The Nightingale way to keep communicating with her. He writes a letter and makes a swan
his messenger. Both of them keep exchanging letters through the swan for
The Lay of the Nightingale is about two knights,
more than 20 years.
who live next door to each other at Saint
Malo. One of them is married, while the other Meanwhile, Milun’s and the lady’s son grows up and finds the truth about
is a bachelor. The bachelor sets his love upon his origins. Their son becomes a matchless knight, whose fame spreads far
his neighbor’s wife. By means of constant wide. One day, Milun gets to hear about this matchless knight and desires
persuasion, he wins the lady’s love. Both of to fight with him, not knowing that the knight is his own son.
them kept their relationship a secret. The lady The two meet at a tournament held at Mont St Michel. Milon strikes his
kept guard, when her husband was present. opponent so fiercely, that the lance splinters in his gauntlet; but the young
However, when the season grew warm and knight keeps his seat without even losing a stirrup. In return, he aims his
sweet, the lady frequently rose from her bed at spear with such cunning that he bears his antagonist to the ground.
night to catch a sight of her lover and talk to Therefore, Milun is unhorsed by his own son.
him through the window.
The knight still treats him with courtesy, holds the bridle and asks Milun
When the lady started rising too often from to get upon his horse. Milun recognises the ring on the fingers that hold
the bed, her husband grew suspicious and the bridle and the father-son duo are united. In the meantime, the lady’s
inquired the reason. In reply, she answered husband also dies and she thereafter marriage the knight.
that she rises to hear the song of the
nightingale. Hearing this, the husband
resolves to catch the nightingale. His servants te One)
successfully capture the nightingale, kill it and Chaitivel (The Unfortuna cerns a beautiful young
ate On e’ or ‘The Four Sorrows’) con
fling the body of the bird in front of his wife. Chaitivel (‘Th e Un fortun s not want to discourage
by four suitors. Since, she doe
¢
ng wo oed
wo ma n, wh o is bei ps them in dark about it.
The lady then wraps the body of the little bird them love tokens and kee
any of them, she gives all of . Three of the lovers are kill
ed
in a silken cloth and sends it to her lover ich these lovers are tested
A tournament is held, in wh of the three dead lovers, the
y one survives. In honour
¢
through a trusty servant of her house. She in this tournament and onl rows. The surviving lover
a son g, wh ich she calls the Four Sor ses
charges him with a message, and bids him to woma n com poses ortunate one, since she refu
name the song as the unf
bear it to her friend. The servant then narrates suggests that the woman
the whole incident to the lady’s lover, who to give him her love.
then puts the bird in a gold vessel, seals it and
carries it with him from then on wherever he
goes.
25
Chevrefoil (Honeysuckle) He set an ambush and defeated the peer. From that day
onwards, the king cherished Eliduc very dearly. He held the
The Lay of Chevrefoil (‘Honeysuckle’) concerns King Mark,
knight and his company, for a full year in his service and at
who was angry with Tristan, his sister’s son because Tristan
the end of the year, such faith had he in the knight’s loyalty,
loved his wife, Queen Iseult. Therefore, the King exiles his
that he appointed him Seneschal and Constable of his
nephew and he goes to live for a full year in South Wales,
realm. When the King’s daughter, Guilliadun heard Eliduc’s
where he was born. After a year, Tristan becomes depressed,
deeds, she fell in love with him. She also sent him love token
leaves his kingdom and returns straight to Cornwall, the
which he accepted without telling his wife.
realm of his banishment, because there dwelt the Queen
Iseult. Meanwhile, Eliduc’s former Lord sent for him, asking for his
help. He gets confused and finally decides to leave the land.
He hides in the forest and lives there. He gathers
But he also promises Guilliadun that he would return. Back
information that King Mark purposed to hold high Court at
in his homeland, Eliduc could not stop thinking about
Tintagel and keep the feast with pomp and revelry at
Guilliadun. After helping the king of Brittany solve his
Pentecost. Here, the Queen would also be present.
problems, he thus sails back to England and sends a secret
After the King has gone his way, Tristan enters within the message to Guilliadun. Guilliadun slips away from her
wood and seeks the path by which the Queen would come. father’s home and joins Eliduc, who is hiding in the woods;
He cuts a hazel tree and carves his name on it with a knife; they go back to his ship and sail away; when they are nearing
he intends for Iseult to see the sign and know of his suffering Brittany a storm breaks out; one of the sailors says the cause
for her love. of the storm is Eliduc’s betrayal of his wife and asks him to
throw Guilliadun into the ocean.Guilliadun, who has been
Both Tristan and Iseult are compared to the honeysuckle
in the dark about Eliduc’s marriage faints.
that entwines itself around the hazel tree. The two thrive
together, but die if separated. When Iseult comes, she spies
the hazel wand set upon her road and recognises it as Eliduc believes that she has died and prepares for her
Tristan’s sign. She then goes into the forest to meet Tristan. burial. He then decides to delay the burial and seek
Iseult promised him that she will strive with all her might to
advice from others. He lays down Guilliadun’s body on a
remove differences between Tristan and the king. After this,
bed and goes to his castle, but his wife notices he is
they separated and Tristan composed a ‘lai’ to remember
their meeting. visibly unhappy. She then has him followed and finds
the truth about Guilliadun. Whilst she is weeping, a
Eliduc weasel comes from under the altar and is killed by a
The Lay of Eliduc is about a brave and courteous knight, servant. The companion of this weasel comes forth to
who lived in Brittany. Eliduc had married a noble lady of seek him and places a red flower within his mouth.
proud race and name in his youth. She was called
Guildeluec. Eliduc was greatly loved by the King of Brittany As a result of this, the weasel comes back to life. Guildeluec
because of his long and loyal service. However, certain men has the flower retrieved and uses it to bring Guilliadun back
envious of him labeled charges against him that he had to life. She then tells Guilliadun that she will allow her and
meddled with the royal treasure. The king then banished Eliduc to be together. While Eliduc and Guilliadun marry,
him from the land without giving any reason. Eliduc Guildeluec joins a convent. When Eliduc gets old, he finds a
traveled to England, where he helped a king, who was having monastery and joins it while Guilliadun joins the same
trouble with a peer who wanted to marry his daughter. convent, where Guildeluec lives. All three spend their last
years in the love and service of God.
26
Chronological History (Norman Conquest)
Year Event
1033 Alliance between France and England against the Vikings, the Normans claim to the English throne.
1042 Accession of Edward, the Confessor.
1043 Edward crowned King of England.
1045 Edward marries Edith, the daughter of Godwine, Earl of Wessex, the wealthiest and most powerful English subject.
1053 Harold Godwinson succeeds to the Earldom of Wessex.
1058 Harold Godwinson created Earl of Hereford.
1064-65 Meeting between Harold Godwinson and Duke William. Godwinson probably swears to Duke William that, William, would be king of
y
England after the death of Edward.
or
4th Jan, 1066 Death of Edward the Confessor.
t
6th Jan, 1066 Harold Earl of Wessex crowned King of England.
is
Jul 1066 Harold gathers the English army at the South Coast of England in preparation for the Norman invasion.
H
Jul 1066 William prepares his fleet for the English invasion at the River Dives in Normandy.
l
20th Sept, 1066 Battle of Fulford Harald Hardrada and Earl Tostig sailed up the River Ouse on 20th September, 1066 in pursuit of their claim to the
a
English throne. The combined forces of Mercia and Northumberland led by earls Edwin and Morcar heavily defeated outside York.
ic
Harold forced to march his army North to fight off the Norwegian invasion.
g
25th Sept, 1066 Battle of Stamford Bridge Harold offers Tostig his earldom back before the battle begins, if he would change sides, but Tostig throws
o
the offer back in the king’s face. Harold eventually defeats King Harald Hadrada and the Vikings at York.
ol
27th Sept, 1066 Duke William Sets Sail for England The Norman Invasion begins.
n
28th Sept, 1066 Duke William lands at Pevensey, on the South coast of England.
o
29th Sept, 1066 Duke William occupies Hastings, on the South coast of England.
r
1st Oct, 1066 Harold receives news of the Norman invasion.
h
Oct 1066 King Harold arrives in London.
C
13rd Oct, 1066 William demands that King Harold resigns his royalty in favour of William, refers it to the arbitration of the Pope or let it be determined by
the issue of a single combat. King Harold declines.
14th Oct, 1066 Battle of Hastings.
14th Oct, 1066 An arrow strikes Harold above his right eye.
14th Oct, 1066 The Normans adopt a strategy to deceive the Saxons. The English led into believing that the Normans are in retreat. The English
pursue the Normans and foolishly break their ranks.
14th Oct, 1066 The English unable to compete against the knights on horseback. The Saxon barricades break.
14th Oct, 1066 The wounded King Harold killed and his body mutilated by the Normans.
14th Oct, 1066 William wins the Battle of Hastings.
25th Dec, 1066 Duke William crowned King of England in Westminister Abbey in London.
Jan 1067 William the Conqueror starts constructing castles in England Norwich Castle, Wallingford Castle and Chepstow Castle
Mar 1067 William returns to Normandy until December 1067.
Dec 1067 William returns to England.
May 1068 King William’s wife, Matilda crowned Queen of England.
May 1070 Hereward the Wake leads the English with Harold’s brother the Earl Morcar against the Normans at Peterborough, but is defeated.
May 1070 Norman conquest complete.
27
Historical Chronology (The Anglo-Norman Period)
Year Event
1066 Death of Edward the Confessor in January, Harold II accedes to the English throne. Norman invasion and conquest of England,
Harold II is killed and William the Conqueror becomes King of England.
1070 Lanfranc appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.
1087 Death of William the Conqueror
1100 Death of William II, Henry I accedes to the throne of England.
1135 Death of Henry I, accession of King Stephen to English throne
1137 Beginning of a Civil War between King Stephen and the Empress Matilda over the succession to the English throne
1152 Marriage of future Henry II to Eleanor of Aquitaine.
y
1154 Death of King Stephen, accession of Henry II to English throne.
g
1164 Constitutions of Clarendon, a set of laws, which governs the trial of members of the Church in England
lo
1169 Norman barons invade Ireland.
no
1170 Assassination of Thomas a Becket
o
1189 Death of Henry II, Richard I accedes to the English throne.
r
1192 Richard is captured by Duke Leopold of Austria whilst returning
h
from the Crusades.
C
1194 Richard is ransomed and returns to England.
l
1199 Death of Richard I, King John accedes to the English throne.
ca
1204 Loss of Normandy.
r i
1209 King John excommunicated by Pope Innocent III.
o
1215 Signing of the Magna Carta.
si t
1216 Death of King John, Henry III accedes to the throne of England.
1221-24 Arrival of Dominician and Franciscan friars in England.
H
1264 Henry III defeated at the Battle of Lewes.
1272 Death of Henry III, Edward I accedes to the English throne
1277 England annexes Wales, a state of affairs, which lasted until 1283.
1279 Statute of Mortmain (introduced by King Edward I of England and aimed at preserving the kingdom’s revenues by preventing land
from passing into the possession of the Church).
1283 English Conquest of Wales.
1297 English defeated at the Battle of stirling Bridge.
1307 Death of Edward I, Edward II accedes to the English throne.
1314 Scotland defeats England at the Battle of Bannockburn.
1322 Edward II defeats a rebellious baronial faction at Battle of Boroughbridge.
1327 Edward III usurps the English throne in January; Edward II is killed in September.
1328 England recognises Scotland’s independence in the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton.
1338 Edward III claims the throne of France, initiating the Hundred Years’ War.
28

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction to the Anglo-Norman Period

Literature of the Anglo-Norman Period

Lanfranc also defended the doctrine of transubstantiation

Agreement of 1107, ¢ De Veritate (On Truth)

Anglo-Norman Latin Chroniclers and Historians

Florence of Worcester (1118) Ordericus Vitalis (1075-1142)

After St Anselm’s death, Eadmer’s chief occupation

Henry of Huntingdon (1088-1154) William of Newburgh

Geoffrey of Monmouth was born sometime around 1100,

Roger of Hoveden (1174-1201) Girladus Cambrensis (1146-1223)

io Camb riae (11 94)

part of his most important work, the Chronica majora. It

Layamon’s Brut (1200) Saints’ Lives

Religious and Didactic Writing in the Anglo-Norman Period

Philippe de Thaun Hilarius (FL 1125)

period. From one of his Bestiaire

works, we get the Benoit de Sainte Maur (D 1173)

The Matter of France

The Matter of Britain The Matter of Rome

The Matter of England Miscellaneous Romances

Major Anglo-Norman Romances

Geste Des Bretons Emare

Roman de Eneias Havelok the Dane

However, as years proceed, Wymound becomes jealous of Bevis of Hampton

and repeatedly and conscio ctural

similarities with Trubert, a

Other Writers of the Period

Marie de France was the earliest French poet of the Guigemar

She is best known for her ‘Lais’, which are Equitan

story tellers also called Breton ‘lays’.

The knight then bestows her a ring, teaching Milun

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