Digestion and absorption.

Through digestion, macromolecular nutrients are split into their low-molecular building blocks
while absorbing water (hydrolytically). These can then be absorbed by intestinal cells and
transported to the blood and lymph (absorption). The body can only utilize the ingested food
when the substances can reach the cells through the cell membrane. Most of the substances
contained in food consist of relatively large molecules and therefore cannot be absorbed
immediately. Enzymatic cleavage during digestion breaks down the proteins into amino acids,
the fats into glycerol and fatty acids, the carbohydrates into monosaccharides and the nucleic
acids into nucleotides. Water, vitamins and most inorganic ions are absorbed unchanged (Fig.
148.1). The reactions to break the macromolecules require activation energy. For this reason,
they only run at significant speed when digestive enzymes are present (p. 86). In humans, these
digestive enzymes are formed in the digestive glands (e.g. salivary glands, pancreas). Precursors
of certain enzymes are secreted from the gastric mucosa. Eventually, the smaller molecules are
transported to the blood and lymph.

Digestion and absorption in the animal kingdom.

The digestive organs are designed differently in the different animal groups despite having the
same function. Hollow animals and lower worms, i.e. worms without a body cavity, such as liver
fluke or tapeworm, have a blindly closed intestine. In it, the food is broken down by enzymes to
such an extent that it can be taken up by cells of the intestinal wall and finally digested there.
Therefore, phagocytes and gland cells are found in the intestinal wall. In the more advanced
invertebrates and in all vertebrates, the digestive process is completely in the cavity of a special
digestive tract. It is digested outside the cells (extracellular). The cells now only have to produce
the digestive juices and reabsorb the digested food components. A continuous intestinal tube
makes it possible to ingest food before the previously ingested one is completely digested. The
enzymes act on the food flow one after the other. This "assembly line work" considerably
increases the performance of the digestive system. The intestinal tract, which in ringworms still
runs through the body as a simple tube, is more structured in the more advanced animals.
Glandular cells are assembled together. The digestive glands can further specialize and only
supply certain enzymes. A division of labor can also be observed in the area of the intestinal
tract. Digestion breaks down nutrients into smaller molecules (Fig. 148.1) and then from
intestinal cells added.

Digestion and absorption in humans.

The mechanical comminution of food takes place in humans in the mouth. The front section of
the intestinal tract (mouth, stomach) stores and pre-digests. The middle part (small intestine)
is the place of main digestion and absorption. The end section (large intestine, rectum) stops
absorption and forms the feces. Because of its length, the intestine is in loops. Its resorbing
surface is considerably enlarged by folds and protrusions (villi). This applies not only to humans,
but to all vertebrates. In the mouth, the food is prepared for digestion by chewing and
salivating. The daily amount of oral saliva is about 1.5 liters. The mouth saliva is formed in
numerous small glands on the walls of the oral cavity and tongue as well as in three large paired
glands, the parotid, lower jaw and tongue glands. The saliva reacts neutrally. It contains mucus,
the enzyme amylase and salts. The main task of saliva is to moisten the food. Amylase breaks
down part of the starch into maltose; it works optimally in the neutral area. The processed food
slides into the esophagus in portions when swallowed. It is transported to the stomach
entrance by peristaltic waves and finally pushed into the stomach. A peristaltic wave occurs
when the ring muscles contract at one point. This severely constricts the inside of the
esophagus. The contraction wave travels over the esophagus towards the stomach and pushes
the chyme in front of it. Therefore, you can swallow even in the headstand. The stomach is the
widest part of the intestinal tract. It accumulates the food and gradually releases it to the
intestine in small quantities. The gastric mucosa contains innumerable small glands (Fig. 149.1).
These produce mucus, hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, a precursor of pepsin, in various cells.
The enzyme pepsin in gastric juice is used to break down proteins into peptides. In the
pepsinogen, the active center of the pepsin is covered by a piece of the peptide chain (peptide
sequence). This piece is slowly split off under the influence of hydrochloric acid (Fig. 149.2).
Pepsin that has already been formed is then able to cleave pepsinogens itself. The release of
inactive pepsin prevents it from already working in the cell and destroying it. Two liters of
gastric juice are formed each day. Due to its free hydrochloric acid content (0.2 to 0.5%) it
reacts strongly acidic. Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria in the porridge, it denatures the proteins
it contains and sets the optimal pH environment for pepsin (Fig. 87.1). The self-digestion of the
stomach and intestinal walls by the enzymes is prevented by a mucus layer on the cells. The
mucous membrane on the inside of the intestine is constantly renewed. The rejected cells form
part of the feces. Cross folds enlarge the entire intestinal surface. In the area of the small
intestine, the intestinal surface is also covered with villi (Fig. 150.1b). These are 1 mm long,
cone-shaped protuberances of the mucous membrane. 1 mm² can carry up to 30 small intestine
villi. Each villus contains a lymphatic vessel, blood vessels and nerve and muscle fibers. The villi
enlarge the surface of the small intestine to 4 to 5 m². However, the greatest expansion of the
intestinal surface is caused by millions of microscopic, finger-like protuberances of the mucous
membrane cells. These protuberances are also called microvilli. They form a kind of brush
border that absorbs the nutrients and transports them into the bloodstream (Fig. 150.1). It
gives the entire surface of the small intestine a size of up to 200 m². As soon as acidic chyme
reaches the first section of the small intestine, the duodenum, from the stomach, its mucous
membrane separates the intestinal juice. It has an alkaline reaction and contains various
enzymes:
- Exopeptidases, which break down large protein molecules (polypeptides) by splitting off
amino acids,
- Enterokinase, which activates the protein-splitting pancreatic trypsin, and
- several enzymes that split carbohydrates. The pancreas behind the stomach releases
pancreatic juice and the liver bile into the duodenum.
The pancreas (juice) contains numerous enzymes for fat, protein and carbohydrate digestion
and is secreted by glandular cells (Fig. 150.2). What is striking in these cells is the strong
development of the endoplasmic reticulum covered with ribosomes. Ribosomes are the sites
for the construction of proteins and thus also of enzymes. Cell clusters are scattered into the
glandular tissue of the pancreas, the Langerhans islets. They secrete insulin and glucagon into
the blood, two important hormones for the regulation of blood sugar levels. A permanently
elevated blood sugar level can lead to nerve damage in the arms, legs and organs, to brain
damage, to the development of arteriosclerosis and the resulting diseases, such as a heart
attack. The nutrients and vitamins are absorbed into the blood and lymphatic system through
the cells of the small intestinal mucosa. A large vein, the portal vein, collects the blood that is
loaded with nutrients and directs it to the liver (Fig. 150.1). The liver is the largest gland in the
human body. It is traversed by the finest vascular branches (capillaries) starting from the portal
vein. A second network of the finest capillaries, which originates from the hepatic artery,
supplies the liver cells with oxygen. Bile is constantly formed in the liver. This is collected in the
gallbladder duct and sent to the gallbladder. There it is thickened, stored and pressed into the
intestine as required. The bile acids it contains can break down fat into fine droplets. The
greenish-yellow color of the bile is caused by the bile pigments. They are formed in the liver
cells from the dyed red blood cells and are therefore excretion products. The bile pigments
cause the feces to turn brown and the urine to turn yellow. The liver is involved in a large
number of metabolic processes and therefore produces a lot of heat. It builds the starch-like
reserve carbohydrate glycogen from glucose and stores it. It also builds up fat. With the
intensive protein metabolism of the liver, breakdown products are created which are converted
into urea and uric acid. The liver draws toxins from the blood and breaks them down. The same
applies to aged red blood cells. The liver can therefore be called the “chemical center” of the
body. The small intestine opens out laterally into the 5 to 8 cm wide colon. At the transition
from the small intestine to the large intestine, the appendix joins the appendix. The appendix is
part of the body's defense system. It is at particular risk of infection (“appendicitis”). The glands
of the large intestinal mucosa only deliver mucus, but no enzymes. The large intestine is
populated by numerous bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli, p. 197), which among other things
produce vitamins. These vitamins are absorbed into the blood vessel system via the intestinal
wall. Unilateral diet and medicines, such as antibiotics, can interfere with the composition of
this intestinal flora. Water is extracted from the thin intestinal contents in the large intestine so
that the body recovers a large part of the fluid. If too little water is withdrawn, diarrhea occurs.
The contents of the intestine finally end up in the rectum as feces. The droppings consist of
indigestible and undigested residues of the food. It also contains rejected intestinal cells and
intestinal bacteria, which together can make up to a third of the amount of feces. The rectum is
closed off by the strong sphincter muscles of the anus and is usually empty. The rectum has two
sphincters. Due to the increased filling in the rectum, receptors are stimulated. These cause a
reflex relaxation of the inner sphincter. At the same time, a reflex tension of the outer sphincter
is triggered. The increased pressure in the rectum triggers an urge to stool.