High Vacuum Measurement

Process Control
and
Instrumentation
Instrumentat
Pressure Measurement
High--Vacuum Measurement
High
1. McLeod Gage
2 Ionization gage
2.
3. Thermocouple gage
Thermal conductivity gage
4. Pirani gage
5. Knudsen gage
High
McLeod Gage:
To vacuum
Reference
capillary
Sealed capillary
Zero line
McLeod Gage
High
McLeod Gage:
High
McLeod Gage:
High
McLeod Gage:
High
McLeod
c eod Gage:
Gage
Example:
To vacuum, p
A McLeod
M L d gage h has VB = 100 cm3
and a capillary diameter of 1 mm.
Calculate the pressure indicated
by the
e reading
ead g o of 4 ccm.
Reading: 4 cm
What error would result if we use :
ay 2
p
VB = 100 cm3 Instead of VB
Mercury ay 2 yVc
p 
reservoir
i VB  ay VB  ay
High
McLeod Gage:
Advantages of the McLeod Gage:
 It is independent of the gas composition
 Used as standard to calibrate other low pressure gages
 No need to apply
pp y any
y corrections to the McLeod Gage
g readings
g
Limitations of McLeod Gage/Precautions to be Taken:

 The g
gas must obey
y the Boyle's
y law
 Presence of condensable vapor causes pressure readings to be low, so moisture
traps should be provided
 The measuring tube should have small diameter, but capillary effect can produce
significant uncertainty
 It cannot give continuous readings
readings, thus steady-state condition must prevail for
useful measurement
High
Ionization Gage:
An electron p passing
g through
g a
potential difference will
acquire a kinetic energy that is
proportional to the potential
difference
=>
If an electron strikes a gas
molecule, the electron may
knock out an electron from the
gas molecule leaving it
positively charged
Number of positive ions

formed is dependent on
Gas molecule number of gas molecules per
Ion unit volume  pressure
- Electron +
High
Ionization Gage:
Working Principle:
Ionization gage measure vacuum by measuring the current produced by

ionized gas molecules. The gas molecules are ionized as a stream of electrons
collide with them.
An electron passing through a potential difference will acquire a kinetic energy

that is proportional to the potential difference.
difference If this energy is large and the
electron collides with a gas molecule, the electron may knock out a secondary
electron from the gas molecule. Thus the gas molecule will be a positively
charged ion.
Number of positive ions (ion current) depends on electron current (no. of

electrons emitted by the cathode) and number of gas molecules. For a given
gas and a constant electron current,, ion current become a direct measure of
g
number of gas molecules per unit volume that is pressure.
High
Ionization Gage:
High
Ionization Gage:
High
Ionization Gage:
High
High
Ionization Gage:
Three types of Ionization gages:
Hot cathode ionization gage: consists of a heated filament (cathode), a grid

(upto 10-10 torr) with negative potential (ion collector), and an
anode (electron collector).
Cold cathode ionization gage: No heated filament to produce electrons.

(upto 10-5 torr) Uses a high electric field (~4kV)
( 4kV) between
cathode and anode to draw electrons out. High
(Also known as magnetic field (~1500 gauss) causes the
Penning gage) electrons to move towards the anode.
E
Expensive
i gage.
Alphatron vacuum gage: Relatively less expensive.

Uses suitable alpha-emitter
p
High
Cold Cathode Ionization Gage (Penning gage):
High
Ionization Gage:
High
High
Th
Thermal
lCConductivity
d ti it G Gage: Thermocouple Gage & Pirani gage
Working Principle:
Thermal conductivity of a gas is independent of pressure at normal pressure. But
at low pressure, thermal conductivity of a gas depends on pressure (decreases
with pressure)
Heat loss from a heated conducting wire (or hot thin metal surface) is dependent
on thermal conductivity of the surrounding gas. Thus, equilibrium temperature of a
heated conducting wire (or hot thin metal surface) is a function of pressure
pressure.
Range: 10-4 to 1 Torr

Filament
C lib ti d
Calibration depends
d on gas b
being
i used
d
To
vacuum
Cold surface
(glass tube)
High
Th
Thermocouple
l Gage:
G
For a given gas and heating current, the temperature assumed by the hot surface
depends on pressure. Temperature of the surface is measured by a thermocouple.
Range: 10-4
Cold surface to 1 Torr
(glass tube) Hot surface
(thin metal strip)
Adjust heating Measureme
current nt may be
High (to heat affected by
i
impedence
d the hot ambient
microvolt surface)
temperature
meter
mV Surface of
low
emissivity is
Thermocouple
used to
reduce
Pressure
effect of
radiation
High
Th
Thermocouple
l Gage:
G
For a given gas and heating current, the temperature assumed by the hot surface
depends on pressure. Temperature of the surface is measured by a thermocouple.
High
Pirani Gage:
Uses same principle as Thermocouple gage
Function of heating and measuring temperature

are combined
bi d iin a single
i l element
l t
Generally more accurate and expensive than Thermocouple gage
Range: 10-4 to 1 Torr
Gage has to be calibrated for individual gas
Temperature compensation is provided

High
Pi
Pirani
i Gage:
G
Pirani gage also uses the same principle as Thermocouple gage. But unlike
thermocouple
p g gages,
g , they y don’t measure the wire temperature
p directly.
y Instead
they use the fact that the resistance of a conducting wire changes with the wire’s
temperature.
The heated wire (measuring element: Pirani gage) is connected as one leg of a
Wheatstone bridge. An exactly identical element is connected as another leg which
is exposed to ambient temperature and works as a compensator.
If the circuit is initially balanced, then application of

pressure to the measuring element will cause
unbalance in the circuit.
This is because the sensor wire changes its

resistance with change in pressure that changes
the wire’s temperature.
High
Pirani Gage:
Two modes of operation:
1. Output current is
Compensating element function of pressure
Sealed
2. Keep the
and
evacuated temperature of
resistance constant
by adjusting the
current passing
through the element.
To Then, change in
vacuum current is function of
the pressure.
Measuring element
High
Pirani Gage:
High
Pirani Gage:
High
Pirani Gage: • The Pirani is a dedicated
low vacuum gauge device
• The resistance of the hot

wire changes with the rate
of heat loss (conduction)
to the gas
• The Wheatstone bridge

then measures the change
in resistance of the hot
wire
• Pirani’s are rugged and

generally reliable and
rarely need attention

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Process Control

Limitations of McLeod Gage/Precautions to be Taken:

Number of positive ions

Ionization gage measure vacuum by measuring the current produced by

An electron passing through a potential difference will acquire a kinetic energy

Number of positive ions (ion current) depends on electron current (no. of

Three types of Ionization gages:

Hot cathode ionization gage: consists of a heated filament (cathode), a grid

Cold cathode ionization gage: No heated filament to produce electrons.

Alphatron vacuum gage: Relatively less expensive.

Range: 10-4 to 1 Torr

Uses same principle as Thermocouple gage

Function of heating and measuring temperature

Generally more accurate and expensive than Thermocouple gage

Range: 10-4 to 1 Torr

Gage has to be calibrated for individual gas

Temperature compensation is provided

If the circuit is initially balanced, then application of

This is because the sensor wire changes its

Two modes of operation:

• The resistance of the hot

• The Wheatstone bridge

• Pirani’s are rugged and

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