RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Origin of Research:

Research is originated by such a word which means “to go around” and “to search” or “to explore”.
Research is combination of two words i.e. re + search which ask about the repetition of
investigation and inquiry.

Research and Curiosity:

At the initial stage of development, it was always curiosity in the human mind that how all the
resources have originated. They always tried to find the inter-relationship with their inter-related
factors.

Developmental stage of research:

Tenacity
Authority
Intuition
Science

The developmental stages of research is defined in another aspect according to this the research
stages are:

Magic
Divine will & beliefs
Philosophical explanation
Rationalization
Empiricism
Develop the intellectual consciousness and awaking

Research and scientific approach:

• Use of quantitative approach in the research

• Use of attitude scale
• Use of mathematical laws
• Field theoretical laws
• Phenomenological approach

The scientific method “is serial process by which all the sciences obtain answers to their
question.

Scientific method consists of systematic observation classification and interpretation of

data.

The scientific method is marked by the following feature: (a) carefully and accurate
classification of facts, (b) Observation of their Co-relation and sequence (c) Discovery of
scientific law by the aid of creative imagination, (d) Self Criticism, (e) Final touchstone of
equal validity for all normally constituted minds.

Problems in the Research:

 Problem from the qualitative nature of research of events

 Problems from the developing the artificial character in the events
 Differentiation in social events
 Problem from the effect of culture
 Problem from the complex nature of events
 Problem from vast change in the human attitude
 Problem from the developmental stage of the technology

Definition of Research:

Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about he presumed relations and natural phenomenon. (F.N.Karlinger)

Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meaning or
implications with reference to a given problems (P.M.Cook)

Research is considered to be more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying on the

scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation usually
resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusions.
(J.W.Best)

Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solutions of problems.
(C.C.Crowford)

Research may be defined as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old
facts and natural laws which govern them (P.V.Young)
Characteristics of Research:

Research is scientific method to know about the facts and findings: On this basis research is:

Systematic
Controlled
Transparent
Objectivity
Involve thinking and opinion
Empirical

The aim of research is to search new facts and general principle by the perfect and limited
problems

Research involves the hypothesis and hypothetical proposition, which help in the empirical and
quantitative study.

In the research the relevant data are analyzed by the perfect scientific method & statistical
method

It involves the replication of results and relationship because we want (a) Assurance (b)
Consistent result

Research based information about the particular subject give knowledge:

Systematic
Continuity
Unity
Precise
Valid
Reliable

Results are presented in the form of report to help out the beneficiary.
Characteristics of Good Research

 The scope and limitation of the work to be clearly defined.

 Clearly defined research process.
 Research process verified by other researcher.
 Thoroughly planned designed that is objective as possible.
 All limitation are documented.
 Data be adequately analysed and explained.
 Conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.
 Highly ethical standard.
 Experience of researcher should be reflected.

Importance of Research:

 Research advances the frontiers of human knowledge.

 Research is powerful key of the advancement of different sciences
 It is patent tool for the solution of practical problem
 It is guide of administrator
 Research plays role in the diagnosis and elimination of different prejudices.
 Research develop the intellectual personality in the human being

Types of Research based on Approach:

1. Historical Research: Under this type of research researcher study, analyse enquiry
about the past happened events organization, groups, traditions etc. For this study
investigator take help of primary evidence & written.
2. Descriptive Research: In this research researcher give importance to the study of the
current events, facts and relations and find its current features. This can be done through
the field study, observations, interview, questionnaire and schedule.
3. Experimental Research: In this research, researcher tries find out to the inter-
relationship of variables by definite scientific measurement. Research as possible search
the causal relationship of variables.

Types of Research based on Approach:

1. Theoretical or fundamental research: By this method investigator, investigate about

the scientific facts and principles. Usually in this type of research give importance to the
knowledge and shake of knowledge. And tell about the future implication of principle.
2. Applied Research: This are related to the immediate solution of behavioral problems.
This research aim is give perfect solution to the current problem with the application of
principle develop under the basic research. Following type of research come under the
applied research:
Action research
Motivational research
Sociological research
Business research
Psychological research
 According to Adward & Cornback (1952) Research is divided into four categories

1. Survey Research: It is exploratory in nature. It is more useful in the initial stage of

research. In this type of research researcher study about the variable of general events.
Example: Study of ratio of gender and age in the road accidents
2. Applied research:
3. Critical Research: The aim of this research is to check out the validity of the pre-
established principle. To check the validity of principle is very difficult. For the same
critical study is required. For the same it known as critical research.
4. Technique Research:

According to Karlinger Research is divided into

1. Laboratory Research: This type of research is done in the

laboratory. By this method chosen problems variable are tested in
scientific method with controlled circumstances. For the deep study
it may be manipulated in independent variable.
2. Field Experiment Research: This type of research is not done in
laboratory. It is related to realistic situation and researcher controlled
over the one or two variable as there are less manipulation over the
variable.
3. Field Study Research: This is also known as Ex-post Facto
research. This research is different from the laboratory research
because in the laboratory research the researcher focus on effect of
independent variable over the dependent variable and the
researcher has direct control, but in this research, researcher
searches the dependent, which already happened. For example,
researcher searches the cause of cancer patient or finds the cause
of cancer.
4. Survey Research: This research is done for the collection and
classification of two variables the aim is to know the interrelationship
of variables. This research nature is exploratory by this researcher
easily study the extensive population size.

Social Science research

Characteristics of social science research:

 It is need to use the scientific and applied research for dynamic social establishment,
planning and changes.
 Social research is mostly qualitative in nature so its study in experimental is difficult that
is the reason researcher use the ex-post facto research.
 It is problem oriented
 Its nature is emotional complex, complex and changeable.
 For this research researcher use the observation, survey, interview, schedule
questionnaire.
 It is less purity and validity than the physical science.
Business Research:

Business research is systematic way to collect information and get knowledge out
of it with a methodology so that the derived knowledge can be used to make
decision.
Business research is the process and tool needed to reduce the risk of managerial
decision.
It is process of planning, acquiring, analyzing and disseminating relevant data,
information and insights to decision maker in way that mobilize the organization to
take appropriate action that, in turn maximize business performance.

Reasons of Business Research:

Business competition:
Customers
Products
Industrial competition

Business Environment: The factors which affects the business are:

Economic system
Capitalism
Socialism
Manufacturing trading and agriculture society
Govt. legislation
Govt. Policies
Movement of policies
Fiscal and monetary policies
Social values system
Social structure
Maturing of management as a group of discipline
Development and influence of technology
Stakeholders demanding greater influence

More global competition

More govt. intervention
More complex decision
Lower cost in data collection
Powerful computation
Advanced analytical tools for enhanced insights
 Research Problem and Formulation of Research Objective:

A problem is a question proposed for the solution. (J.C.Townsend Introduction to

experimental method)

A problem is an interrogative sentence of statement that asks: what relation exists

between two or more variable (F.N.Karlinger Foundation of behavioural Research)

A solvable problem is one that posses a question that can be answered with the use of
mans normal capacities. (F.J.Mcguigan Experimental psychological)

According to Mcguigan, Research is explained in three ways:

Gap in knowledge
Contradictory result
Explaining a fact

Suggestion for selection of problems:

 Selection of specific area of study (On the basis of education, intellectual and
interest background)
 Study of relevant literature
 Help of experienced person of relevant subject
 Identification &study of statistical related analysis defects pre-established facts
 Select the problem which is subject of argument in the conference seminars
 Deep study of previous research
 Criticize and reasonable thinking towards the previous research
 Study of technological effects on society
 Use of new technique and nature can be useful in the selection of problems

Characteristics of problems:

 Problem should be solvable

 It should testable
 The data of scientific problems should be quantitative
 The variable related to the problem should be clear and definite
 Problem should be systematic
 Problem should be importance & useful in term of practical scientific
 There should be interest and aptitude of researcher in problem
 Availability of perfect direction and competent guidance on subject problem
 There should be low cost, less time and low risk
 It should be based on pre-research and principle
 Problem should not give any harassment to any community
Kinds of Problems:

a) Theoretical Problem: aim is to study intellectual and reasoning side

b) Practical Problem: aim is to practical problem of human like: social, educational and
psychological question argument subject difficulties fights stress.
c) Problem related to survey: aim is to collection of statistical data, establishment, analysis and
finding about general events.
d) Co-relational problem: aim is to study the interrelationship of two or more variable.
e) Experimental problem: experiment in the controlled system

Methods & Methodology

Methods:
a) Techniques for gathering information.
b) The various way of proceeding in gathering information.

Methodology:
a) the underlying theory and analysis how research does or should proceed often
influenced by discipline.
b) It is theory that decides what can be observed.

Research Design

Research design is the plan structure and strategy of the investigation conceived so as to
obtain answer to research question and control variance (F.N.Karlinger Foundation of
behavioral research)

An experimental design is a basic plan for research including the assignment of subjects
to the level of the independent variable and the manipulation of the independent variable
(Mathson et al introduction of experimental psychology)

Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection measurement and analysis of
data.

Research design aids the research in the allocation limited resources by posing crucial
choice in the methodology.Research design express both the structure of research
problem the framework, organization, configuration of the relationships among variable of
the study and plan of investigation used to obtain analytical evidence on those
relationships.
 Essentials of Research Design

An activity & time-based plan.

A plan always based on research question.
A guide for selecting source and types of information.
A framework for specifying the relationships among the study variables
A procedural out line for every research activity.

For every research activity design happens in the respect of:

Purpose of research design.

Audience for the information (Fonder, banker, employee, customer)
Kinds of information are needed to make decision.
Sources of data collection.
How can the information be collected?
When the information needed.
What sources are available to collect information?
Will the methods get all the needed information?
Additional method if additional information is required.
Will the information appear as credible to decision maker?
How can the information be analyzed?

Objective of the Research Design

 Design plan for data collection.

 Design plan for measurement.
 Design plan for the analysis of data.

The design decision happens in respect of:

a.1.a) What is the study?

a.1.b) Why is the study being made?
a.1.c) Where will the study carried out?
a.1.d) What type of data is required?
a.1.e) What type of data is required?
a.1.f) Where can the required data found?
a.1.g) What periods of time will the study include?
a.1.h) What will be the sample design?
a.1.i) What techniques of data collection will be used?
a.1.j) How will the data be analysed?
a.1.k) In what style will the report be analysed?
 Classification of Research Design

a) Sampling design: This deals with the method of selecting items it be observed for
the given study.
b) Observational design: This relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made.
c) Statistical design: This concern with the questions of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
d) Operational design: which deals with the techniques by which the producers
specified in the sampling statistical and observational design can be carried out.
 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is also known by different names such as research outline, plan, blue print.

In the words of Fred N. Kerlinger, it is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and control variance.

The plan includes everything the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their
operational implications to the final analysis of data. The structure is the outline, the scheme,
the paradigms of the operation of the variables. The strategy includes the methods to be used
to collect and analyze the data. At the beginning this plan (design) is generally vague and
tentative. It undergoes many modifications and changes as the study progresses and insights
into it deepen. The working out of the plan consists of making a series of decisions with
respect to what, why, where, when, who and how of the research.

According to Pauline V.Young ―a research design is the logical and systematic planning
and directing of a piece of research‖.

According to Reger E.Kirk ―research designs are plans that specify how data should be
collected and analyzed‖.

The research has to be geared to the available time, energy, money and to the availability of
data. There is no such thing as a single or correct design.

Research design represents a compromise dictated by many practical considerations that go

into research.

Functions of Research Design

Regardless of the type of research design selected by the investigator, all plans perform
one or more functions outlined below:

 It provides the researcher with a blue print for studying research questions.
 It dictates boundaries of research activity and enables the investigator to channel his
energies in a specific direction.
 It enables the investigator to anticipate potential problems in the implementation of the
study.
 The common function of designs is to assist the investigator in providing answers to
various kinds of research questions.
 Research and Data Collection: A study design includes a number of component parts
which are interdependent and which demand a series of decisions regarding the definitions,
methods, techniques, procedures, time, cost and administration aspects.
Components of a Research Design

A research design basically is a plan of action. Once the research problem is

selected, then it must be executed to get the results. Then how to go about it? What
is its scope? What are the sources of data? What is the method of enquiry? What is
the time frame? How to record the data? How to analyze the data? What are the
tools and techniques of analysis? What is the manpower and organization required?
What are the resources required? These and many such are the subject matter of
attacking the research problem demanding decisions in the beginning itself to have
greater clarity about the research study. It is similar to having a building plan before
the building is constructed. Thus, according to P.V. Young the various
―considerations which enter into making decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means constitute a plan of study or a study design‖. Usually the
contents or components of a Research design are as follows:Need for the Study:
Explain the need for and importance of this study and its relevance.Review of
Previous Studies: Review the previous works done on this topic, understand what
they did, identify gaps and make a case for this study and justify it.Statement of
Problem: State the research problem in clear terms and give a title to the
study.Objectives of Study: What is the purpose of this study? What are the
objectives you want to achieve by this study? The statement of objectives should not
be vague. They must be specific and focussed.Formulation of Hypothesis:
Conceive possible outcome or answers to there search questions and formulate into
hypothesis tests so that they can be tested.Operational Definitions: If the study is
using uncommon concepts or unfamiliar tools or using even the familiar tools and
concepts in a specific sense, they must be specified and defined.Scope of the
Study: It is important to define the scope of the study, because the scope decides
what is within its purview and what is outside. Geographical area to be covered.
Scope includes Subject content to be covered. Time period to be covered. Scope
includes Geographical scope, content scope, chronological scope of the study. The
territorial area to be covered by the study should be decided. E.g. only Delhi or
northern states or All India. As far as content scope is concerned according to the
problem say for example, industrial relations in so and so organization, what are
aspects to be studied, what are the aspects not coming under this and hence not
studied. Chronological scope i.e., time period selection and its justification is
important. Whether the study is at a point of time or longitudinal say 1991-
2003.Sources of Data: This is an important stage in the research design. At this
stage, keeping in view the nature of research, the researcher has to decide the
sources of data from which the data are to be collected. Basically the sources.
Research Plan are divided into primary source (field sources) and secondary source
(documentary sources). The data from primary source are called as primary data,
and data from secondary source are called secondary data. Hence, the researcher
has to decided whether to collect from primary source or secondary source or both
sources.Method of Collection: After deciding the sources for data collection, the
researcher has to determine the methods to be employed for data collection,
primarily, either census method or sampling method. This decision may depend on
the nature, purpose, scope of the research and also time factor and financial
resources.Tools & Techniques: The tools and techniques to be used for collecting
data such as observation, interview, survey, schedule, questionnaire, etc., have to be
decided and prepared.
Sampling Design: If it is a sample study, the sampling techniques, the size of sample,
the way samples are to be drawn etc., are to be decided.Data Analysis: How are
you going to process and analyze the data and information collected? What simple or
advanced statistical techniques are going to be used for analysis and testing of
hypothesis, so that necessary care can be taken at the collection stage.Presentation
of the Results of Study: How are you going to present the results of the study? How
many chapters? What is the chapter scheme? The chapters, their purpose, their titles
have to be outlined. It is known as chapterisation.Time Estimates: What is the time
available for this study? Is it limited or unlimited time? Generally, it is a time bound
study. The available or permitted time must be apportioned between different
activities and the activities to be carried out within the specified time. For example,
preparation of research design one month, preparation of questionnaire one month,
data collection two months, analysis of data two months, drafting of the report two
months etc.,Financial Budget: The design should also take into consideration the
various costs involved and the sources available to meet them. The expenditures like
salaries (if any), printing and stationery, postage and telephone, computer and
secretarial assistance etc. Administration of the Enquiry: How is the whole thing to be
executed? Who does what and when? All these activities have to be organized
systematically, research personnel have to be identified and trained. They must be
entrusted with the tasks, the various activities are to be coordinated and the whole
project must be completed as per schedule.Research designs provide guidelines for
investigative activity and not necessarily hard and fast rules that must remain
unbroken. As the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new
connecting links come to light and it is necessary to change the plan / design as
circumstances demand. A universal characteristic of any research plan is its flexibility.
Depending upon the method of research, the designs are also known as survey
design, case study design, observation design and experimental design.
Operational Definitions-is a definition stated in trace of specific testing criteria or

operations. Variable- this is used as a synonym for construct or the propertybeing.

Independent-A variable antecedents to dependent variable is called independent variable

Dependent-If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of other variable, it is a dependent

variable.

Proposition-is a statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to
observable phenomenon. When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing it is called a
hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relatives an independent
variable to deepens variable.

Continuous Variable- A variable which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
Value ever in decimal points e.g. age.

Discrete Variable – A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only no of
childrenExtraneous Variable- Some independent variables are not related to purpose of study,
but may affect dependent variables are turned as extraneous variable. l.e. the researcher wants
to test the hypothesis that there is a

relationship between children‘s gains in social studies achievement and self their self concepts.
Independent Variable-Self concept dependent variable – social studies echo intelligence may
also effect social studies achievement since it is not related to purpose of studies, intravenous
variable.
Control -Minimize effect of extraneous independent variable. In experiment at researches,
‗control‘ is used to refer to restrain
experimental conditions.

Confounded Relationship-When the dependent variable is not free from influence of

extraneous variables(s), the relation b/w independent variable and dependent variable is said to
be confounded by an extraneous variable.
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing
research: Research in which the independent variable is manipulated its turned ‗experimental
hypothesis-testing‘ research and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called-non–experimental hypotenuse-testing research.
Experimental & Control Group: When a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is traced as
‗control gap‘ but when the gap is exposed to some moral or special condition, it is termed as
‗experimental gap‘.
Treatment: the different conditions under which experimental and control gaps are put are
usually refereed to as ‗treatments‘.

Research and Data Collection

PILOT STUDY AND PRE-TESTING

A Pilot study is a small scale replica of the main study. When a problem is selected for research,
a plan of action is to be designed to proceed further. But if we do not have adequate knowledge
about the subject matter, the nature of the population (The word ‗population‘ as used in
statistics denotes the aggregate from which the sample is to be taken), the various issues
involved, the tools and techniques to be used for operationalizing the research problem, we
have to familiarize ourselves first with it and acquire a good deal of knowledge about the subject
matter of the study and its dimensions. For this purpose, a small study is conducted before the
main study, which is called a Pilot Study. A pilot study provides a better knowledge of the
problem and its dimensions. It facilitates us to understand the nature of the population to be
surveyed and the field problems to be encountered. It also helps in developing better
approaches and better instruments. It covers the entire process of research, but on a small
scale. This is also useful for preparing the research design clearly and specifically. Pre-Testing
is the hallmark of scientific research. Pre-testing means trial administration of the instrument to
sample respondents before finalizing it. It is a common practice in our day-to-day life that before
finally okaying it we try it on a trial basis. For example, when some recipe is prepared a sample
is tasted, based on that corrections are made. If you give a suit for stitching to the tailor, you
want a trail wear (or pre- test), if you are purchasing a vehicle, you want to have a trial drive.
Similarly, for data collection some instruments such as interview schedule, or questionnaire or
measurement scale are constructed. We want to administer it on a trial basis to identify its
weaknesses, if any. Such a trial administration of the instrument is called pre-testing. While
designing the instrument or method, we take all precautions keeping in view the requirements of
the study. We will not be able to identify its defects, limitations and weaknesses easily. But when
others use it, they will be able to identify them objectively. Therefore, it has to be tested
empirically, hence pretesting of a draft instrument is a must. Based on the opinions, comments,
criticism, suggestions received and difficulties experienced in the pre-testing the instrument or
method is revised or modified and then finalized for using it in the main study. The difference
between pilot study and pre-test is that, the former is a full fledged miniature study of a research
problem, where as the latter is a trial test of a specific aspect of the study, such as a
questionnaire.
 1: Research design in case of exploratory research studies: As you know from previous lessons
that,exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in
such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. The research design appropriate for such
studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a
problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research
problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in
exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering
relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are talked about:

a. the survey of concerning literature;

b. the experience survey and

c. the analysis of ‗insight-stimulating‘.

We let us discuss each of these

methods -

a. Survey of concerning literature-This method happens to be the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses
stated by earlier works may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further
research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by
others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the
available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey
of studies, already made in one‘s area of interest may as well be made by the researcher for
precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories
developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the
works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis-formulation and as such may
be looked into by the researcher.

b. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people who
are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure
a representation of different types of experience. The investigator may then interview the
respondents so selected. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants. But the Interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the
respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions that the investigator has not
previously considered. Generally, the experience-collecting interview is likely to be long and may
last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to
 be discussed to the respondents well in advance. Thus, an experience survey may enable the
research to define problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research
hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for
doing different types of research.

c. Analysis of ‗insight-stimulating‘-It is also a fruitful method for suggest hypothesis for

research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide.
This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one
is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator,
the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into
a unified interpretation are the main features, which make this method an appropriate procedure
for evoking insights.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Now another
type of research studies are - Descriptive research studies, those studies which are concerned
with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group whereas diagnostic
research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples,
diagnostic research studies, As against this, studies concerned with specific predication, with
narration of facts and characteristics concerning individuals or group or situation are all examples
of descriptive research studies. Most of The Group or Search Comes Under this Category From
the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share
common requirement, and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In
descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he
wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut
definition of population he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research
design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability, with
due concern for the economical completion of research study. The design in such studies must be
rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:

I. Formulating the objective of the study

II. Designing the methods of data collection
III. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
IV. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
V. Processing and analysing the data.
VI. Reporting the findings.

c. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing

research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher
tests the
 hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will
not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.
Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such
studies, we often mean the design of experiments. Professor R.A. Fisher‘s name is associated
with experimental designs. The study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural
research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks
and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected
and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop
certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations.

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs

There are three principles of experimental designs:

1. Principle of Replication;

2. Principle of Randomization

3. Principle of Local Control

Now let us discuss each one of these experimental design

Principle of Replication In this design, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine
the effect of two varieties of rice.

Principle of Randomization This principle indicates that we should design or plan the
experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factor can all be combined
under the general heading of ―chance.‖ For example - if grow one variety of rice, say, in the first
half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible
that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so
our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be
grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some variety ‗sampling technique, i.e., we
may apply randomization principle and random ourselves against the effects of the extraneous
factors (soil fertility processes in the given case.

The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it
the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide
a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can
be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan
the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the
total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments (varieties of
rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error.
 Important Experimental Designs

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and such there are
several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories.
viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental
designs are designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on
differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively more control
and use precise statistical procedures for analysis. Important experimental designs are as
follows:

a. Informal experimental designs:

3.a.I. Before-and-after without control design.

3.a.II. After-only with control design.

3.a.III. Before-and-after with control design.

b. Formal experimental designs:

i. Completely randomized design (C. R. design)

ii. Randomized block design (R. B. design)

iii. Latin square design (L.S. design).

iv. Factorial designs.

We may briefly discuss with each of the above stated informal as well as formal
experimental designs.

I.Before-and-after without Control Design: In such a design a single test group or area is
selected and the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment The
treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the treatment
has been introduced. The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level - of the
phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment. The
design can be represented thus: The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of
time considerable extraneous variations may be there in its treatment effect.
II. After-only with Control Design: In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area)
are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is
then measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting
the value of the dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area. This can
be exhibited in the following form: The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas
are identical with respect to their behaviour towards the phenomenon considered. If this
assumption is not true, there is the possibility of
 extraneous variation entering into the treatment effect. However, data can be collected in
such a design without the introduction of problems with the passage of time. In this
respect this design is superior to before-and-after without control design.
III. Before-and-after with control design:In this design two areas are selected and the dependent-
variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the treatment. The
treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in
both for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment The treatment effect is
determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control area from the
change in the dependent variable in test area. This design can be shown in this way: This
design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it avoids extraneous
variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-comparability of the test and
control areas. But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a comparable control area, we
should prefer to select one of the first two informal designs stated above.
IV. Completely randomized design (C.R. design) – It involves only two principles viz., the principle
of replication and the principle of randomization of experimental designs. It is the simplest
possible design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential characteristic of this
design is that subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments (or vice-versa). For
Example - If we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under
treatment B, the randomization process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a
set of 10 an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B. One-way
analysis of variance (or one-way ANOVA) is used to analyse such a design. Such a design is
generally used when experimental areas happen to be homogeneous.
V. Random replication design: The limitation of the two-group randomized design is usually
eliminated within the random replication design. In the example we just discuss, the teacher
differences on the dependent variable were ignored, i.e., the extraneous variable was not
controlled. But in a random replications design, the effect of such differences are minimized (or
reduced) by providing a number of repetitions for each treatment. Each repetition is technically
called a ‗replication‘. Random replication design serves two purposes viz., it provides controls
for the differential effects of the extraneous independent variables and secondly, it randomizes
any individual differences among those conducting the treatments. Diagrammatically we can
illustrate the random replications design thus (Diagram given Below) From the diagram it is clear
that there are two populations in the replication design. The sample is taken randomly from the
population available for study - and is randomly assigned to, say, four experimental and four
control groups. Similarly, sample is taken randomly from the population available to conduct
experiments (because of the eight groups eight such individuals be selected) and the eight
individuals so selected should be randomly assigned to the eight groups. Generally, equal
number of items is put in each group so that the size of the group is not
 likely to affect the results of the study. Variables relating to both population
characteristics are assumed to be randomly distributed among the two groups. Thus, this
random replication design is, in fact, an extension of the two-group simple randomized
design.
VI. Randomized block design (R.B. design)-It is an improvement over the C.R design. In the RB,
design the principle of local control can be applied along with the other two principles of
experimental designs. In the R.B. design, subjects are first divided into groups, known as
blocks, such that within each group the subjects are relatively homogeneous in respect to some
selected variable. The variable selected for grouping the subjects is one that is believed to be
related to the measures to be obtained in - respect of the dependent variable. The number of
subjects in a given block would be equal the number of treatments and one subject in each
block would be randomly assigned to each treatment. The RB. design is analysed by the two-
way analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA) technique.
VII. Latin squares design (L. S. design) - It is an experimental design very frequently used in
agricultural research. The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out are
different from those in other studies for nature plays an important role in agriculture. For
example, an experiment has to be made through which the effects of five different varieties of
fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop, say wheat, is to be judged. In such a case the varying
fertility of the soil in different blocks in which the experiment has to be performed must be taken
into consideration; otherwise the results obtained may not be very dependable because the
output happens to be the effect not only of fertilizers, but it may also be the effect of fertility of
soil. Similarly, there may be the impact of varying seeds on the yield. To overcome such
difficulties, the L.S design is used when there are two major extraneous factors such as the
varying soil fertility and varying seeds. The Latin-square design is one wherein each fertilizer, in
our example, appears five times but is used only once in each row and in each column of the
design. In other words, the treatments in a L. S. design are so allocated among the plots that no
treatment occurs more than once in anyone row or anyone column. The two blocking factors
may be represented through rows and columns (one through rows and the other through
columns).
VIII. Factorial designs: Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more
than one factor are to be determined. They are specially important in several economic and
social phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem. Factorial
designs can be of two types;

iv.VIII.i. Simple factorial designs, and

iv.VIII.ii. Complex factorial designs.

We take them separately.

Simple Factorial Designs In case of simple factorial designs, we consider the effects of varying
two factors on the dependent variable, but when an experiment is done with more than two
factors, we use complex factorial designs. Simple factorial design is also termed as ‗twofactor-
factorial design‘, whereas complex factorial design is known as ‗multi-factor-factorial design‘.
Simple factorial design may either be a 2 x 2 simple factorial design, or it may be, say, 3 x 4 or 5
X 3 or the like type of simple factorial design. We can design some simple factorial designs with
this example. Example (2 x 2 simple factorial design). A 2 x 2 simple factorial design can
graphically be design as follows: In this design the extraneous variable to be controlled by
homogeneity is called the control variable and the independent variable, which is manipulated,
is called the experimental variable. Then there are two treatments of the experimental variable
and two levels of the control variable. As such there are four cells into which the sample is
divided. Each of the four combinations would provide one treatment or experimental condition.
Subjects are assigned at random to each treatment in the same manner as in a randomized
group design. The means for different cells may be obtained along with the means for different
rows and columns. Means of different cells represent the mean scores for the dependent
variable and the column means in the given design are termed the main effect for treatments
without taking into account any differential effect that is due to the level of the control variable.
Similarly, the row means in the said design are termed the main effects for levels without regard
to treatment Thus, through this design we can study the main effects of treatments as well ‗as
the main effects of levels.

ii. Complex factorial designs: Experiments with more than two factors at a time involve the use
of complex factorial designs. A design, which considers three or more independent variables
simultaneously, is called a complex factorial design. In case of three factors with one
experimental variable having two treatments and two control variables, each one of which
having two levels, the design used will be termed 2 x 2 x 2 complex factorial design which will
contain a total of eight cells as shown below. 2 x 2 x 2 Complex Factorial Design

COLLECTION OF DATA

A research design is a blue print which directs the plan of action to complete the research work.
As we have mentioned earlier, the collection of data is an important part in the process of
research work. The quality and credibility of the results derived from the application of research
methodology depends upon the relevant, accurate and adequate data. In this unit, we shall
study about the various sources of data and methods of collecting primary and secondary data
with their merits and limitations and also the choice of suitable method for data collection.

MEANING AND NEED FOR DATA

Data is required to make a decision in any business situation. The researcher is faced with one
of the most difficult problems of obtaining suitable, accurate and adequate data. Utmost care
must be exercised while collecting data because the quality of the research results depends
upon the
reliability of the data. Suppose, you are the Director of your company. Your Board of Directors
has asked you to find out why the profit of the company has decreased since the last two years.
Your Board wants you to present facts and figures. What are you going to do?

The first and foremost task is to collect the relevant information to make an analysis for the
above mentioned problem. It is, therefore, the information collected from various sources, which
can be expressed in quantitative form, for a specific purpose, which is called data. The rational
decision maker seeks to evaluate information in order to select the course of action that
maximizes objectives. For decision making, the input data must be appropriate. This depends
on the appropriateness of the method chosen for data collection. The application of a statistical
technique is possible when the questions are answerable in quantitative nature, for instance; the
cost of production, and profit of the company measured in rupees, age of the workers in the
company measured in years. Therefore, the first step in statistical activities is to gather data.
The data may be classified as primary and secondary data. Let us now discuss these two kinds
of data in detail.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

The Primary data are original data which are collected for the first time for a specific purpose.
Such data are published by authorities who themselves are responsible for their collection. The
Secondary data on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by some other
agency and which have already been processed. Secondary data may be available in the form
of published or unpublished sources. For instance, population census data collected by the
Government in a country is primary data for that Government. But the same data becomes
secondary for those researchers who use it later. In case you have decided to collect primary
data for your investigation, you have to identify the sources from where you can collect that
data. For example, if you wish to study the problems of the workers of X Company Ltd., then the
workers who are working in that company are the source. On the other hand, if you have
decided to use secondary data, you have to identify the secondary source who have already
collected the related data for their study purpose. With the above discussion, we can
understand that the difference between primary and secondary data is only in terms of degree.
That is that the data which is primary in the hands of one becomes secondary in the hands of
another.
SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

We have discussed above the meaning of primary and secondary data. Sometimes, it is not
possible to collect primary data due to time, cost and human resource constraints. Therefore,
researchers have to take the help of secondary data. Now let us discuss, (a) various sources
from where, one can get secondary data, (b) precautions while using secondary data, its merits
and demerits and some documentary and electronic sources of data in India.

Documentary Sources of Data

This category of secondary data source may also be termed as Paper Source. The main
sources of documentary data can be broadly classified into two categories:
 a) Published sources, and

b) Unpublished sources.

Let us discuss these two categories in detail.

a) Published Sources

There are various national and international institutions, semi-official reports of various
committees and commissions and private publications which collect and publish statistical data
relating to industry, trade, commerce, health etc. These publications of various organisations are
useful sources of secondary data. These are as follows:

1) Government Publications: Central and State Governments publish current information

alongwith statistical data on various subjects, quarterly and annually. For example, Monthly
Statistical Abstract, National Income Statistics, Economic Survey, Reports of National Council of
Applied Economic Research (NCEAR),Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
(FICCI), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Central Statistical Organisation (CSO),
etc.

2) International Publications: The United Nations Organisation (UNO), International Labour

Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, Asian Development Bank
(ADB) etc., also publish relevant data and reports.

3) Semi-official Publications: Semi-official organisations like Corporations, District Boards,

Panchayat etc. publish reports.

4) Committees and Commissions: Several committees and commissions appointed by State

and Central Governments provide useful secondary data. For example, the report of the 10th
Financial Commission or Fifth Pay Commissions etc.

5) Private Publications: Newspapers and journals publish the data on different fields of
Economics, Commerce and Trade. For example, Economic Times, Financial Express etc. and
Journals like Economist, Economic and Political Weekly, Indian Journal of Commerce, Journal of
Industry and Trade, Business Today etc. Some of the research and financial institutions also
publish their reports annually like Indian Institute of Finance. In addition to this, reports prepared
by research scholars, universities etc. also provide secondary source of information.

a) Unpublished Sources

It is not necessary that all the information/data maintained by the institutions or individuals are
available in published form. Certain research institutions, trade associations, universities,
research scholars, private firms, business institutions etc., do collect data but they normally do
not publish it. We can get this information from their registers, files etc.
Electronic Sources

The secondary data is also available through electronic media (through Internet). You can
download data from such sources by entering web sites like google.com; yahoo.com; msn.com;
etc., and typing your subject for which the information is needed. You can also find secondary
data on electronic sources like CDs, and the following online journals:

Electronic Journal

Electronic Journal
Electronic Journal
Electronic Journal
Census of India
Union Budget and Economic Survey
Directory of Government of India
Institutions
Indian Council of Agricultural Ministry
of Commerce and Industry Indian
Institute of Foreign Trade Department
of Industrial Policy Promotion, Ministry
of Commerce and Industry
Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food
Public Distribution
Khadi and Village Industries
Board for Industrial & Financial
Reconstruction
Building Material & Technology
Promotion Council
Central Food Technological Research
Institute
National Council for Traders Information
National Handloom Development
Corporation Ltd.
The Associated Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
Precaution in Using Secondary Data

With the above discussion, we can understand that there is a lot of published and unpublished
sources where researcher can gets secondary data. However, the researcher must be cautious
in using this type of data. The reason is that such type of data may be full of errors because of
bias, inadequate size of the sample, errors of definitions etc. Bowley expressed that it is never
safe to take published or unpublished statistics at their face value without knowing their
meaning and limitations. Hence, before using secondary data, you must examine the following
points.

Suitability of Secondary Data

 Before using secondary data, you must ensure that the data are suitable for the purpose of your
enquiry. For this, you should compare the objectives, nature and scope of the given enquiry with
the original investigation. For example, if the objective of our enquiry is to study the salary
pattern of a firm including perks and allowances of employees. But, secondary data is available
only on basic pay. Such type of data is not suitable for the purpose of the study.

Reliability of Secondary Data

For the reliability of secondary data, these can be tested: i) unbiasedness of the collecting person,
ii) proper check on the accuracy of field work, iii) the editing, tabulating and analysis done
carefully, iv) the reliability of the source of information, v) the methods used for the collection and
analysis of the data. If

the data collecting organisations are government, semi-government and international, the
secondary data are more reliable corresponding to data collected by individual and private
organisations.

Adequacy of Secondary Data

Adequacy of secondary data is to be judged in the light of the objectives of the research. For
example, our objective is to study the growth of industrial production in India. But the published
report provide information on only few states, then the data would not serve the purpose.
Adequacy of the data may also be considered in the light of duration of time for which the data
is available. For example, for studying the trends of per capita income of a country, we need
data for the last 10 years, but the information available for the last 5 years only, which would not
serve our objective. Hence, we should use secondary data if it is reliable, suitable and
adequate.

Merits and Limitations of Secondary Data

Merits

1) Secondary data is much more economical and quicker to collect than primary data, as we
need not spend time and money on designing and printing data collection forms
(questionnaire/schedule), appointing enumerators, editing and tabulating data etc.

2) It is impossible to an individual or small institutions to collect primary data with regard to

some subjects such as population census, imports and exports of different countries, national
income data etc. but can obtain from secondary data.

Limitations

1) Secondary data is very risky because it may not be suitable, reliable, adequate and also
difficult to find which exactly fit the need of the present investigation.
2) It is difficult to judge whether the secondary data is sufficiently accurate or not for our
investigation.

3) Secondary data may not be available for some investigations. For example, bargaining
strategies in live products marketing, impact of T.V. advertisements on viewers, opinion polls on a
specific subject, etc. In such situations we have to collect primary data.

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

If the available secondary data does not meet the requirements of the present study, the
researcher has to collect primary data. As mentioned earlier, the data which is collected for the
first time by the researcher for his own purpose is called primary data. There are several
methods of collecting primary data, such as observation, interview through reporters,
questionnaires and schedules. Let us study about them in detail

Observation Method

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines observation as, ‗accurate watching and noting of
phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or mutual relations‘. Thus
observation is not only a systematic watching but it also involves listening and reading, coupled
with consideration of the seen phenomena. It involves three processes. They are: sensation,
attention or concentration and perception. Under this method, the researcher collects
information directly through observation rather than through the reports of others. It is a process
of recording relevant information without asking anyone specific questions and in some cases,
even without the knowledge of the respondents. This method of collection is highly effective in
behavioural surveys. For instance, a study on behaviour of visitors in trade fairs, observing the
attitude of workers on the job, bargaining strategies of customers etc. Observation can be
participant observation or non-participant observation. In Participant Observation Method, the
researcher joins in the daily life of informants or organisations, and observes how they behave.
In the Non- participant Observation Method, the researcher will not join the informants or
organisations but will watch from outside.

Merits

1) This is the most suitable method when the informants are unable or reluctant to provide
information.

2) This method provides deeper insights into the problem and generally the data is accurate and
quicker to process. Therefore, this is useful for intensive study rather than extensive study.

Limitations

Despite of the above merits, this method suffers from the following limitations:
1) In many situations, the researcher cannot predict when the events will occur. So when an
event occurs there may not be a ready observer to observe the event.

2) Participants may be aware of the observer and as a result may alter their behaviour.

3) Observer, because of personal biases and lack of training, may not record specifically what
he/she observes.

4) This method cannot be used extensively if the inquiry is large and spread over a wide area.

3.5.2 Interview Method

Interview is one of the most powerful tools and most widely used method for primary data
collection in business research. In our daily routine we see interviews on T.V. channels on
various topics related to social, business, sports, budget etc. In the words of C. William Emory,
‗personal interviewing is a twoway purposeful conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain
information that is relevant to some research purpose‘. Thus an interview is basically, a meeting
between two persons to obtain the information related to the proposed study. The person who is
interviewing is named as interviewer and the person who is being interviewed is named as
informant. It is to be noted that, the research data/information collect through this method is not
a simple conversation between the investigator and the informant, but also the glances,
gestures, facial expressions, level of speech etc., are all part of the process. Through this
method, the researcher can collect varied types of data intensively and extensively. Interviewes
can be classified as direct personal interviews and indirect personal interviews. Under the
techniques of direct personal interview, the investigator meets the informants (who come under
the study) personally, asks them questions pertaining to enquiry and collects the desired
information. Thus if a researcher intends to collect the data on spending habits of Delhi
University (DU) students, he/ she would go to the DU, contact the students, interview them and
collect the required information. Indirect personal interview is another technique of interview
method where it is not possible to collect data directly from the informants who come under the
study. Under this method, the investigator contacts third parties or witnesses, who are closely
associated with the persons/situations under study and are capable of providing necessary
information. For example, an investigation regarding a bribery pattern in an office. In such a
case it is inevitable to get the desired information indirectly from other people who may be
knowing them. Similarly, clues about the crimes are gathered by the CBI. Utmost care must be
exercised that these persons who are being questioned are fully aware of the facts of the
problem under study, and are not motivated to give a twist to the facts.

Questionnaire and Schedule Methods

Questionnaire and schedule methods are the popular and common methods for collecting
primary data in business research. Both the methods comprise a list of questions arranged in a
sequence pertaining to the investigation. Let us study these methods in detail one after another.
i) Questionnaire Method Under this method, questionnaires are sent personally or by post to
various informants with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. If the
questionnaire is posted to informants, it is called a Mail Questionnaire. Sometimes questionnaires
may also sent through E-mail depending upon the nature of study and availability of time and
resources. After receiving the questionnaires the informants read the questions and record their
responses in the space meant for the purpose on the questionnaire. It is desirable to send the
quetionnaire with self-addressed envelopes for quick and high rate of response.

Merits

1) You can use this method in cases where informants are spread over a vast geographical area.

2) Respondents can take their own time to answer the questions. So the researcher can
obtain original data by this method.

3) This is a cheap method because its mailing cost is less than the cost of personal visits.

4) This method is free from bias of the investigator as the information is given by the
respondents themselves.

5) Large samples can be covered and thus the results can be more reliable and dependable.

Limitations

1) Respondents may not return filled in questionnaires, or they can delay in replying to the
questionnaires.

2) This method is useful only when the respondents are educated and co-operative.

3) Once the questionnaire has been despatched, the investigator cannot modify the questionnaire.

4) It cannot be ensured whether the respondents are truly representative.

Types of Questions

Before investigating the art of question writing, it will be useful to examine the various types of
questions.Cantelou (1964; p 57) identifies four types of questions used in surveying.

According to him the background question is used to obtain demographic characteristics

of the group being studied, such as age, sex, grade, level of assignment, and so
forth.This information is used when you are categorizing your results by various
subdivisions such as age or grade. Therefore, these questions should be consistent with
your data analysis plan.
The second and most common type of question is the multiple choice or closed-end

question. It is used to determine feelings or opinions on certain issues by allowing the

respondent to choose an answer from a list you have provided ·
 The intensity question, a special form of the multiple-choice question, is used to

measure the intensity of the respondent‘s feelings on a subject. These questions

provide answers that cover a range of feelings.·
The final type of question is the free response or open-end question. This type requires

respondents to answer the question in their own words .It can be used to gather
opinions or to measure the intensity of feelings. Multiple-choice questions are the most
frequently used types ofquestions in surveying today. It is prudent, therefore, we need to
concentrate primarily on factors relating to their application. ― If someone can
misunderstand something, they will”.

Questionnaire Construction

The complex art of question writing has been investigated by many researchers From their
experiences, they offer valuable advice. Below are some helpful hints typical of those that
appear most often in texts on question construction.

Keep the language simple. Analyze your audience and write on their level. Avoid the use

of technical terms. An appropriate corollary to Murphy‘s Law in this case would be:
Keep the questions short. Long questions tend to become ambiguous and confusing. A

respondent, in trying to comprehend a long question, may leave out a clause and thus
change the meaning of the question.
Keep the number of questions to a minimum. There is no commonly agreed on

maximum number of questions that should be asked, but research suggests higher
return rates correlate highly with shorter surveys. Ask only questions that will contribute
to your survey. Apply the ―So what?‖ and ―Who cares?‖ tests to each question. ―Nice-
to-know‖ questions only add to the size of the questionnaire. Having said this, keep in
mind that you should not leave out questions that would yield necessary data simply
because it will shorten your survey. If the information is necessary, ask the question.
Limit each question to one idea or concept. A question consisting of more than one

idea may confuse the respondent and lead to a meaningless answer. Consider this
question: ―Are you in favour of raising pay and lowering benefits?‖ What would a yes (or
no) answer mean?
Do not ask leading questions. These questions are worded in a manner that suggests

an answer.Some respondents may give the answer you are looking for whether or not
they think it is right. Such questions can alienate the respondent and may open your
questionnaire to criticism.A properly worded question gives no clue as to which answer
you may believe to be the correct one.
Use subjective terms such as good, fair, and bad sparingly, if at all. These terms

mean different things to different people. One person‘s ―fair‖ may be another person‘s
―bad.‖ How much is ―often‖ and how little is ―seldom?‖
 Allow for all possible answers. Respondents who cannot find their answer among your

list will be forced to give an invalid reply or, possibly, become frustrated and refuse to
complete the survey. Wording the question to reduce the number of possible answers is
the first step. Avoid dichotomous (two-answer) questions (except for obvious
demographic questions such as gender). If you cannot avoid them, add a third option,
such as no opinion, don‘t know, or other. These may not get the answers you need but
they will minimize the number of invalid responses. A great number of ―don‘t
know‖ answers to a question in a fact finding survey can be a useful piece of information.
But a majority of other answers may mean you have a poor question, and perhaps
should be cautious when analyzing the results.
Avoid emotional or morally charged questions. The respondent may feel your survey

is getting a bit too personal! · Understand the should-would question. Respondents

answer ―should‖ questions from a social or moral point of view while answering ―would‖
questions in terms of personal preference. Formulate your questions and answers to
obtain exact information and to minimize confusion. For example, does ―How old
are you?‖ mean on your last or your nearest birthday? By including instructions like
―Answer all questions as of (a certain date)‖, you can alleviate many such conflicts.
Include a few questions that can serve as checks on the accuracy and consistency

of the answers as a whole. Have some questions that are worded differently, but are
soliciting the same information, in different parts of the questionnaire. These questions
should be designed to identify the respondents who are just marking answers randomly
or who are trying to game the survey (giving answers they think you want to hear). If you
find a respondent who answers these questions differently, you have reason to doubt the
validity of their entire set of responses. For this reason, you may decide to exclude their
response sheet(s) from the analysis.
Organize the pattern of the questions: Place demographic questions at the end of the

questionnaire. Have your opening questions arouse interest.

a) Ask easier questions first.
b) To minimize conditioning, have general questions precede specific ones.
c) Group similar questions together.

 If you must use personal or emotional questions, place them at the end of the questionnaire.

Questionnaire Construction

The complex art of question writing has been investigated by many researchers From their
experiences, they offer valuable advice. Below are some helpful hints typical of those that
appear most often in texts on question construction.·
Keep the language simple. Analyze your audience and write on their level. Avoid the

use of technical terms. An appropriate corollary to Murphy‘s Law in this case would be:
― If someone can misunderstand something, they will‖.
Keep the questions short. Long questions tend to become ambiguous and confusing.

A respondent, in trying to comprehend a long question, may leave out a clause and thus
change the meaning of the question.
Keep the number of questions to a minimum. There is no commonly agreed on

maximum number of questions that should be asked, but research suggests higher
return rates correlate highly with shorter surveys. Ask only questions that will contribute
to your survey. Apply the ―So what?‖ and ―Who cares?‖ tests to each question. ―Nice-
to- know‖ questions only add to the size of the questionnaire. Having said this, keep in
mind that you should not leave out questions that would yield necessary data simply
because it will shorten your survey. If the information is necessary, ask the question.
Limit each question to one idea or concept. A question consisting of more than one

idea may confuse the respondent and lead to a meaningless answer. Consider this
question: ―Are you in favour of raising pay and lowering benefits?‖ What would a yes
(or no) answer mean?
Do not ask leading questions. These questions are worded in a manner that suggests

an answer. Some respondents may give the answer you are looking for whether or not
they think it is right. Such questions can alienate the respondent and may open your
questionnaire to criticism. A properly worded question gives no clue as to which answer
you may believe to be the correct one. Use subjective terms such as good, fair, and bad
sparingly, if at all. These terms mean different things to different people. One person‘s
―fair‖ may be another person‘s ―bad.‖ How much is ―often‖ and how little is ―seldom?‖
Allow for all possible answers. Respondents who cannot find their answer among

your list will be forced to give an invalid reply or, possibly, become frustrated and refuse
to complete the survey. Wording the question to reduce the number of possible answers
is the first step. Avoid dichotomous (two-answer) questions (except for obvious
demographic questions such as gender). If you cannot avoid them, add a third option,
such as no opinion, don‘t know, or other. These may not get the answers you need but
they will minimize the number of invalid responses. A great number of ―don‘t
know‖ answers to a question in a factfinding survey can be a useful piece of information.
But a majority of other answers may mean you have a poor question, and perhaps
should be cautious when analyzing the results.
Avoid emotional or morally charged questions. The respondent may feel your survey

is getting a bit too personal!

Understand the should-would question. Respondents answer ―should‖ questions

from a social or moral point of view while answering ―would‖ questions in terms of
personal preference.
 Formulate your questions and answers to obtain exact information and to

minimize confusion. For example, does ―How old are you?‖ mean on your last
or your nearest birthday? By including instructions like ―Answer all questions as
of (a certain date)‖, you can alleviate many such onflicts.
Include a few questions that can serve as checks on the accuracy and

consistency of the answers as a whole. Have some questions that are worded
differently, but are soliciting the same information, in different parts of the questionnaire.
These questions should be designed to identify the respondents who are just marking
answers randomly or who are trying to game the survey (giving answers they think you
want to hear). If you find a respondent who answers these questions differently, you
have reason to doubt the validity of their entire set of responses. For this reason, you
may decide to exclude their response sheet(s) from the analysis.

i) Schedule Method

As discussed above, a Schedule is also a list of questions, which is used to collect the data from
the field. This is generally filled in by the researcher or the enumerators. If the scope of the
study is wide, then the researcher appoints people who are called enumerators for the purpose
of collecting the data. The enumerators go to the informants, ask them the questions from the
schedule in the order they are listed and record the responses in the space meant for the
answers in the schedule itself. For example, the population census all over the world is
conducted through this method. The difference between questionnaire and schedule is that the
former is filled in by the informants, the latter is filled in by the researcher or enumerator.

Merits

1) It is a useful method in case the informants are illiterates.

2) The researcher can overcome the problem of non-response as the enumerators go

personally to obtain the information.

3) It is very useful in extensive studies and can obtain more reliable data.

Limitations

1) It is a very expensive and time-consuming method as enumerators are paid persons and also
have to be trained.

2) Since the enumerator is present, the respondents may not respond to some personal
questions.

3) Reliability depends upon the sincerity and commitment in data collection. The success of
data collection through the questionnaire method or schedule method depends on how the
questionnaire has been designed.
 Designing the Questionnaire

The success of collecting data either through the questionnaire method or through the schedule
method depends largely on the proper design of the questionnaire. This is a specialised job and
a requires high degree of skill, experience, thorough knowledge of the research topic, ability to
frame questions and a great deal of patience. There are no hard and fast rules in designing the
questionnaire. However, the following general guidelines may be helpful in this connection. The
number of questions should be minimised as far as possible because informants may not like to
spend much time to answer a lengthy questionnaires. The questions should be precise, clear
and unambiguous. Lengthy questions tend to confuse the informant.

Choose the appropriate type of questions. Generally there are five kinds of questions used in
questionnaires. They are as follows :

i) Simple choice questions which offer the respondents a choice between two answers, such as,
‗Yes‘ or ‗No‘, ‗Right‘ or ‗Wrong‘. ‗Do you own a computer?‘ Can easily be answered with
‗Yes‘ or ‗No‘.

ii) Multiple choice questions are often used as a follow-up to simple choice questions. This
type of questions provide a choice between a number of factors that might influence informant
preferences. For example, where do you sell your agricultural products?

a) In village market, b) In a regulated market,

c) To commission agent, d) Any other…

iii) Open-ended questions allow the informants to give any related answer in their own words.
For example, what should be done to enhance the practical utility of commerce programmes?

iv) Specific questions which require specific information. For example, ―From where did
you take the loan for your business.‖

v) Scaled questions are used to record how strongly the opinions are expressed. For
example, How do you rate the facilities provided by the market committee?

a) Very good, b) Good,

c) Normal, d) Bad, or e) Very bad.

The questions should be arranged in a logical sequence to avoid embarrassment. For example,
asking a question how many children do you have? Then the next question : Are you married?

Questions which require calculations should be avoided. For example, question regarding yearly
income of the respondents who are getting daily wage or piece wages, should not be asked.
Pilot testing or Pre-testing the Questionnaire Before finalising the questionnaire, it is desirable to
carry
 out a preliminary experiment on a sample basis. The investigator should examine each question
to ensure that the question is not confusing, leading to biased responses etc. The real test of a
questionnaire is how it performs under actual conditions of data collection. This test can be
carried out among small groups of subjects in order to provide an estimate of the time needed
for responding to the survey. The questionnaire pre-test serves the same role in questionnaire
design as testing a new product in the market. As test marketing provides the real test of
customer reactions to the product and the accompanying marketing programmes, in the same
way, the pre- test provides the real test of the questionnaire. Therefore this work must be done
with utmost care and caution to yield good results.

Specimen Questionnaire. The following specimen questionnaire incorporates most of the

qualities which we have discussed above. It relates to ‗Computer User Survey‘.

Computer User Survey

1. What brand of Computer do you primarily use?

(i) IBM (ii) Compaq

(iii) HCL (iv) Dell

(v) Siemens (vi) Any other (please specify)

2. Where was the computer purchased?

(i) Computer store (ii) Mail

order

(iii) Manufacturer (iv) Company Dealer

(v) Any other

3. How long have you been using computers? years months.

4. In a week about how many hours do you spend on the computer

hours?

5. Which database management package do you use most often?

(i) Dbase-II (ii) Dbase-III

(iii) Lotus 1,2,3 (iv) MS-Excel

(v) Oracle (vi) Any other (please specify)

6. Does the computer, that you primarily use, have a hard disk Yes No
7. Where did you obtain the software that you use?

(i) Computer user group (ii) Regular dealer

(iii) Mail order (iv) Directly from Software

(v) Any other dealer

8. On the following 9-point scale, rate the degree of difficulty that you have encountered in
using the computer. Extremely difficult 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Not difficult

9. If you have to purchase a personal computer today, which one would you be most likely to
purchase?

(i) IBM (ii) Compaq

(iii) HCL (iv) Dell

(v) Siemens (vi) Any other (please specify)

10. What is your sex Male Female

11. Please state your date of birh.....................................................Month Day Year

12. Your Qualifications

(i) Secondary (ii) Sr. Secondary

(iii) Graduate (iv) Post-graduate

(v) Doctorate (vi) Any other (please specify)

13. Which of the following best describe you primary field of employment.

(i) Medical (ii) Education

(iii) Business (iv) Government

(v) Technical (vi) Any other (please specify)

14. What is your current Salary?

Measurement in Research

We know that the level of measurement is a scale by which a variable is measured. For 50
years, with few detractors, science has used the Stevens (1951) typology of measurement
levels (scales). There are three things, which you need to remember about this typology:
Anything that can be measured falls into one of the four types The higher the level of
measurement, the more
 precision in measurement and every level up contains all the properties of the previous level. The
four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are as follows:

· Nominal

· Ordinal

· Interval

· Ratio

Types of Measurement Scales

Ordinal and nominal data are always discrete. Continuous data has to be at either ratio or interval
level of measure Now let us discuss these in detail: Nominal Level of Measurement Nominal
variables include demographic characteristics like sex, race, and religion. The nominal level of
measurement describes variables that are categorical in nature. The characteristics of the data
you‘re collecting fall into distinct categories:

· If there are a limited number of distinct categories (usually only two), then you‘re dealing with
a dichotomous variable.

· If there are an unlimited or infinite number of distinct categories, then you‘re dealing with a
continuous variable.

Ordinal Level of Measurement

· The ordinal level of measurement describes variables that can be ordered or ranked in some
order of importance.
· It describes most judgments about things, such as big or little, strong or weak.

· o Most opinion and attitude scales or indexes in the social sciences are ordinal in nature
Interval Level of Measurement

The interval level of measurement describes variables that have more or less equal intervals,
or meaningful distances between their ranks. For example, if you were to ask somebody if they
were first, second, or third generation immigrant, the assumption is that the distance, or number
of years, between each generation is the same.

Ratio Level of Measurement: The ratio level of measurement describes variables that have
equal intervals and a fixed zero (or reference) point. It is possible to have zero income, zero
education, and no involvement in crime, but rarely do we see ratio level variables in social
science since it‘s almost impossible to have zero attitudes on things, although ―not at
all‖,
―often‖, and ―twice as often‖ might qualify as ratio level measurement. Advanced statistics
require

· At least interval level measurement, so the researcher always strives for this level,

· Accepting ordinal level (which is the most common) only when they have to.

· Variables should be conceptually and operationally defined with levels of measurement in mind
since it‘s going to affect the analysis of data later.

Reliability and Validity in Research

For a research study to be accurate, its findings must be both reliable and valid.

Reliability

Research means that the findings would be consistently the same if the study were done
over again

Validity

A valid measure is one that provides the information that it was intended to provide. The
purpose of a thermometer, for example, is to provide information on the temperature, and if it
works correctly, it is a valid thermometer. A study can be reliable but not valid, and it cannot be
valid without first being reliable. There are many different threats to validity as well as reliability
but an important early consideration is to ensure you have internal validity. This means that you
are using the most appropriate research design for what you‘re studying (experimental, quasi-
experimental, survey, qualitative, or historical), and it also means that you have screened out
spurious variables as well as thought out the possible contamination of other variables creeping
into your study. Anything you do to standardize or clarify your measurement instrument to
reduce user error will add to your reliability. It‘s also important consider the time frame that is
 appropriate for what you‘re studying as soon as possible. Some social and psychological
phenomena (most notably those involving behaviour or action) lend themselves to a snapshot in
time. If so, your research need only be carried out for a short period of time, perhaps a few
weeks or a couple of months. In such a case, your time frame is referred to as cross-sectional.
Sometimes, crosssectional research is criticized as being unable to determine cause and effect
A longer time frame is called when cross-sectional data fails to depict the cause- effect
relationship, one that is called longitudinal, which may add years onto carrying out your
research. There are many different types of longitudinal research, such as those that involve
time-series (such as tracking a third world nation‘s economic development over four years or
so). The general rule is to use longitudinal research the greater the number of variables you‘ve
got operating in your study and the more confident you want to be about cause and effect.

Methods of Measuring Reliability

Now, the question arises that how will you measure the reliability of a particular measure?
There are four good methods of measuring reliability:

 Test-retest
 Multiple forms
 Inter-rater
 Split-half
 Test-retest

Test-retest: The Test Retest in the same group technique is to administer your test, instrument,
survey, or measure to the same group of people at different points in time. Most researchers
administer what is called a pretest for this, and to troubleshoot bugs at the same time. All
reliability estimates are usually in the form of a correlation coefficient, so here, all you do is
calculate the correlation coefficient between the two scores of each group and report it as your
reliability coefficient.

Multiple Forms: The multiple forms technique has other names, such as parallel forms and
disguised test-retest, but it‘s simply the scrambling or mixing up of questions on your survey, for
example, giving it to the same group twice. It‘s a more rigorous test of reliability.

Inter-rater: Inter-rater reliability is most appropriate when you use assistants to do interviewing
or content analysis for you. To calculate this kind of reliability, all you do is report the percentage
of agreement on the same subject between your raters, or assistants.

Split-half: Taking half of your test, instrument, or survey, and analyzing that half as if it were the
whole thing estimate split-half reliability. Then, you compare the results of this analysis with your
overall analysis.

Methods of Measuring Validity

 Once you find that your measurement of variable under study is reliable, you will want to
measure its validity. There are four good methods of estimating validity:

 Face
 Content
 Criterion
 Construct

Face Validity: Face validity is the least statistical estimate (validity overall is not as easily
quantified as reliability) as it‘s simply an assertion on the researcher‘s part claiming that they‘ve
reasonably measured what they intended to measure. It‘s essentially a ―take my word for it‖ kind
of validity. Usually, a researcher asks a colleague or expert in the field to vouch for the items
measuring what they were intended to measure.

Content Validity: Content validity goes back to the ideas of conceptualization and
operationalization. If the researcher has focused in too closely on only one type or narrow
dimension of a construct or concept, then it‘s conceivable that other indicators were overlooked.
In such a case, the study lacks content validity Content validity is making sure you‘ve covered
all the conceptual space. There are different ways to estimate it, but one of the most common is
a reliability approach where you correlate scores on one domain or dimension of a concept on
your pretest with scores on that domain or dimension with the actual test. Another way is to
simply look over your inter-item correlations.

Criterion Validity: Criterion validity is using some standard or benchmark that is known to be a
good indicator. There are different forms of criterion validity:

· Concurrent validity is how well something estimates actual day-by-day behavior;

· Predictive validity is how well something estimates some future event or manifestation
that hasn‘t happened yet. It is commonly found in criminology.

Construct Validity: Construct validity is the extent to which your items are tapping into the
underlying theory or model of behavior. It‘s how well the items hang together (convergent
validity) or distinguish different people on certain traits or behaviors (discriminant validity). It‘s
the most difficult validity to achieve. You have to either do years and years of research or find a
group of people to test that have the exact opposite traits or behaviors you‘re interested in
measuring.

Attitude Measurement

 Many of the questions in a questionnaire are designed to measure attitudes. Attitudes

are a person‘s general evaluation of something. Customer attitude is an important
factor for the following reasons:
o Attitude helps to explain how ready one is to do something.
o Attitudes do not change much over time
o Attitudes produce consistency in behavior.
o Attitudes can be related to preferences.
 Attitudes can be measured using the following procedures:
o Self-reporting - subjects are asked directly about their attitudes. Self-reporting is the most
common technique used to measure attitude.
o Observation of behaviour - assuming that one‘s behavior is a result of one‘s attitudes, attitudes
can be inferred by observing behaviour. For example, one‘s attitude about an issue can be
inferred by whether he/she signs a petition related to it.
o Indirect techniques - use unstructured stimuli such as word association tests.
o Performance of objective tasks - assumes that one‘s performance depends on attitude. For
example, the subject can be asked to memorize the arguments of both sides of an issue.
He/she is more likely to do a better job on the arguments that favor his/her stance.
o Physiological reactions - subject‘s response to a stimulus is measured using electronic or
mechanical means. While the intensity can be measured, it is difficult to know if the
attitude is positive or negative.
o Multiple measures - a mixture of techniques can be used to validate the findings; especially
worthwhile when selfreporting is used.There are several types of attitude rating

scales: Attitude Measurement

Many of the questions in a marketing research survey are designed to measure attitudes.
Attitudes are a person‘s general evaluation of something. Customer attitude is an
important factor for the following reasons:

 Attitude helps to explain how ready one is to do something.

 Attitudes do not change much over time.
 Attitudes produce consistency in behavior.
 Attitudes can be related to preferences.

Scaling Defined

Scaling is a ―procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of
objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.‖1
Thus, one assigns a number scale to the various levels of heat and cold and call it a
thermometer.

Response Methods

Questioning is a widely used stimulus for measuring concepts. A manager may be asked his
or her views concerning an employee. The response is,‖ a good machinist,‖ ―a troublemaker,‖
―a
union activist,‖ ―reliable,‖ or ―a fast worker with a poor record of attendance.‖ These answers
represent different frames of reference for evaluating the worker and are often of limited value
to the researcher. Two approaches improve the usefulness of such replies. First, various
properties may be separated arid the respondent asked to judge each specific facet. Here,
several questions are substituted for a single one. Second, we can replace the free-response
reply with structuring devices. To quantify dimensions that are essentially qualitative, rating
scales or ranking scales are used.

Rating Scales

One uses rating scales to judge properties of objects without reference to other similar objects.
These ratings may be in such forms as ―like-dislike,‖ ―approve-indifferent disapprove,‖ or other
classifications using even more categories. There is little conclusive support for choosing a
three- point scale over scales with five or more points. Some researchers think that more points
on a rating scale provide an opportunity for greater sensitivity of measurement and extraction of
variance. The most widely used scales range from three to seven points, but it does not seem to
make much difference which number is used-with two exceptions.4 First, a larger number of
scale points is needed to produce accuracy with single-item versus multiple-item scales.
Second, in cross-cultural measurement, the culture may condition respondents to a standard
metric-a ten- point scale in Italy.

Ranking Scales

In ranking scales, the subject directly compares two or more objects and makes choices among
them. Frequently, the respondent is asked to select one as the ―best‖ or the ―most preferred.‖
When there are only two choices, this approach is satisfactory, but it often results in ―ties‖
when more than two choices are found. For example, respondents are asked to select the most
preferred among three or more models of a product. Assume that 40 percent choose model A,
30 percent choose model B. and 30 percent choose model C. ―Which is, the preferred model?‖
The analyst would be taking a risk to suggest that A is most preferred. Perhaps that
interpretation is correct, but 60 percent of the respondents chose some model other than A.
Perhaps all B and C voters would place A last, preferring either B or C to it. This ambiguity can
be avoided by using some of the techniques described in this section. Some of the
measurement scales are discussed below:

Equal-appearing Interval Scaling

In this scale a set of statements are assembled. These statements are selected according to
their position on an interval scale of favorableness. Statements are chosen that has a small
degree of dispersion. Respondents then are asked to indicate with which statements they
agree.

Likert Method of Summated Ratings

In this scale a statement is made and the respondents indicate their degree of agreement or
disagreement on a five-point scale (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither Agree Nor
Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree). It actually extends beyond the simple ordinal choices of
―strongly agree‖, ―agree‖, ―disagree‖, and ―strongly disagree‖ In fact, Likert scaling is initially
assigned through a process that calculates the average index score for each item in an index
and subsequently ranks them in order of intensity (recall the process for constructing
Turnstone scales). Once ordinality has been assigned, the assumption is that a respondent
choosing a response weighted with say a 15 out of 20 in an increasing scale of intensity is
placed at that level for the index.

Example of a Likert Scale How would you rate the following aspects of your food store?

Extremely Extremely
Important unimportant

Service 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Check outs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Bakery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Deli 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Semantic Differential scale

A semantic differential scale is constructed using phrases describing attributes of the product to
anchor each end. For example, the left end may state, ―Hours are inconvenient‖ and the right
end may state, ―Hours are convenient‖. The respondent then marks one of the seven blanks
between the statements to indicate his/her opinion about the attribute. The process entitled
Semantic Differential employs a similar approach as the Likert scaling in that it seeks a range of
responses between extreme polarities but it seeks to place the ordinal range of responses
between two keywords expressing opposite ―ideas‖ or concepts.Bobbie‘s illustration provides the
best illustration of the concept.

Very Much Somewhat Neither

Somewhat
Very Much

Enjoyable

Simple

Discordant

Traditional
Unenjoyable

Complex

Harmonic

Modern

Semantic Differential: Feelings about Musical Selections One of the first things that strike you is
the highly interpretative nature of Bobbie‘s example. Choices such as ―enjoyable‖ and
―un enjoyable‖ simply reflect preference, but the other choices are sufficiently ambiguous as to
invite imprecise understanding. If you are seeking nothing more than attitudinal information to an
abstract social artifact such as a piece of music, the process of semantic differential may be
usable. Otherwise, its ambiguity in application remains problematic. As with the Likert, Bogardus
and Thurstone scales, Guttman scaling seeks to place indicators into an ordinal progression
from ―weak‖ indicators to ―strong‖ ones (well, that‘s the difference between a scale and an
index in the first place). Similarly, the assumption that a respondent indicating a given level of
preference, attitude or belief will also demonstrate all ―weaker‖ indicators of the same thing.
However, the premise of the Guttman scale extends even further, in that it examines all of the
responses to the survey and separates out the number of responses that do not exactly reflect
the scalar pattern; that is the number of response sets that do not reflect the assumption that a
respondent choosing one level of response would give the same type of response to all inferior
levels. The number of response sets that violate the scalar pattern is compared to the number
that do reflect the pattern and what is referred to as a coefficient of reproducibility. Again,
Bobbie‘sillustration provides a very clear understanding.

Guttman Scaling

Guttman Scaling and Coefficient of Reproducibility The entire exercise is really just a way of
indicating that the degree to which a set of responses accurately reflects the scalar assumptions
is an indication of the degree to which the entire set could be recreated from the scale itself.
What the above illustration shows is that if we were to project an imaginary ―sample‖
from the coefficient of reproducibility of 99.3%, then the projection would reflect the real sample
to that degree. Guttman scaling shows that a well constructed scale can very accurately the
profile of a response set. But then, you only know the coefficient of reproducibility after you have
run the survey and crunched the numbers so it is not a predictive tool, it is a proof of the
strength of the scale as a measure. A brief word on typologies is in order. So far, we have limited
ourselves to an examination of unidirectional variables; that is one thing in one direction
(attitudes for or against abortion, etc.). Often relationships are better explained as the function of
the intersection of several variables. This is referred to as a typology. Remember what we have
noted about making sure that your indices and scales are comprised of single dimension
indicators. Recall that while ―religion‖ can have a strong correlation with ―attitudes on
abortion‖, that does not mean that a question on religion belongs in an index or scale of
questions on ―attitudes on
abortion‖. But, if you wish to examine the intersection of the two, you can construct a typology
effectively showing, for example that ―Catholics‖ may be ―conservative‖ on ―abortion‖ but
remain ―liberal‖ on ―other human rights‖. Bobbie warns us that typologies are useful as
independent variables (―religion‖ may be a good causal factor in ―attitudes on abortion‖) but can
be problematic as dependent variables (explaining the ―why‖ isn‘t always clear). Catholics may
be more anti-abortion because the church has forbidden it but what of other groups? You can
get onto some very shaky ground using typologies as the ―effect‖ or dependent variable.

Example of Semantic Differential How would you describe Kmart, Target, and Wal-Mart on the
following scale?

Clean

dirty Bright

dark

Low quality _ high

quality Conservative _

innovative

Stapel Scale

It is similar to the semantic differential scale except that numbers identifies points on the scale,
only one statement is used and if the respondent disagrees a negative number should marked,
and there are 10 positions instead of seven. This scale does not require that bipolar adjectives be
developed and it can be administered by telephone.

Q-sort Technique

In Q- sort Technique the respondent if forced to construct a normal distribution by placing a

specified number of cards in one of 11 stacks according to how desirable he/she finds the
characteristics written on the cards. This technique is faster and less tedious for subjects than
paired comparison measures. It also forces the subject to conform to quotas at each point of the
scale so as to yield a normal or quasi – normal distribution. Thus we can say that the objective
of Q-Technique is intensive study of individuals. Selection of an appropriate attitude
measurement of scale: We have examined a number of different techniques, which are
available for the measurement of attitudes. Each method has got certain strengths and
weaknesses. Almost all the techniques can be used for the measurement of any component of
attitudes. But all the techniques are not suitable for all purposes. The selection depends upon
the stage and size of research. Generally, Q-sort and Semantic differential scale are preferred in
the preliminary stages. The Likert scale is used for item analysis. For specific attributes the
semantic differential scale is very appropriate. Overall the semantic differential is simple in
concept and results obtained are comparable with more complex, onedimensional methods.
Hence it is widely used. Limitations of Attitude Measurement Scales The main limitation of these
tools is the emphasis
on describing attitudes rather than predicting behaviour. This is primarily because of a lack of
models that describe the attitudes in behavior.

SAMPLING

Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every unit of the population they are
studying for a variety of reasons. Instead, they collect data from a subset of population – a
sample – and use these observations drawn to make inferences about the entire population.
Ideally, the characteristics of a sample should correspond to the characteristics of a population
from which the
sample was drawn. In that case, the conclusions drawn from a sample are probably applicable
to the entire population. In this Unit, we shall discuss the basics of sampling, particularly how to
get a sample that is representative of a population. It covers different methods of drawing
samples which can save a lot of time, money and manpower in a variety of situations. These
include random sampling methods, such as, simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
systematic sampling, multistage sampling, cluster sampling methods (and non-random sampling
methods viz., convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling. The advantages
and disadvantages of sampling and census are covered. How to determine the sample size of a
given population is also discussed.
CENSUS AND SAMPLE

Let us try to understand the terms ‗census‘ and ‗sample‘ with the help of an illustration.
Suppose you wish to study the ‗impact of T.V. advertisements on children in Delhi, then you
have to collect relevant information from the children residing in Delhi who view T.V.
Alternatively, we can say this is the population (statistical terminology) for your study. If you
collect the data from all of them not leaving a single child, it known as Census method of data
collection. This means studying the whole population. Otherwise, if you select only some
children from among them for gathering the desired information for the study, because it is not
feasible to gather the information from all the children, then it is known as Sample for data
collection. Therefore, a sample is a subset of a statistical population whose characteristics are
studied to know the information about the whole population. When dealing with people, it can be
defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a population for the purpose of a survey.
A population is a group of individual persons, objects, items or any other units from which
samples are taken for measurement.

The numerical characteristics of a population are called parameters. They are fixed and usually
of unknown quantity. For example, the average (m) height of all Indian male adults is a
population parameter. The numerical characteristics of the sample data such as the mean,
variance or proportion are called sample statistics. It can be used to provide estimates of the
corresponding population parameters. For example, the average (x) height of a sample of 1000
Indian male adults residing in Delhi is a sample statistic. The process of selecting a
representative sample for the purpose of inferring the characteristics of population is called
sampling. Webster defines a survey as ‗the action of ascertaining facts regarding conditions or
the condition of something to provide exact information especially to persons responsible
or
 interested‘ and as ‗a systematic collection and analysis of data on some aspect of an area or
group.‘ Unless the researcher makes a systematic collection of data followed by careful analysis
and interpretation of data, the data cannot become exact information. Surveys can be divided
into two categories on the basis of their extensiveness, namely, census and sample survey. A
complete survey of population is called a census. It involves covering all respondents, items, or
units of the population. For example, if we want to know the wage structure of the textile
industry in the country, then one approach is to collect the data on the wages of each and every
worker in the textile industry. On the other hand, a sample is a representative subset of
population. Thus in a sample survey we cover only a sample of respondents, items or units of
population we are interested in and then draw inferences about the whole population.

The following are the advantages of census:

1) In a census each and every respondent of the population is considered and various
population parameters are compiled for information.

2) The information obtained on the basis of census data is more reliable and accurate. It is an
adopted method of collecting data on exceptional matters like child labour, distribution by sex,
educational level of the people etc.

3) If we are conducting a survey for the first time we can have a census instead of sample
survey. The information based on this census method becomes a base for future studies. Similarly,
some of the studies of special importance like population data are obtained only through census.

WHY SAMPLING?

One of the decisions to be made by a researcher in conducting a survey is whether to go for a

census or a sample survey. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a
census ) of the population for many reasons. The most important considerations for this are:
cost, size of the population, accuracy of data, accessibility of population, timeliness, and
destructive observations.

1) Cost: The cost of conducting surveys through census method would be prohibitive and
sampling helps in substantial cost reduction of surveys. Since most often the financial resources
available to conduct a survey are scarce, it is imperative to go for a sample survey than census.

2) Size of the Population: If the size of the population is very large it is difficult to conduct a
census if not impossible. In such situations sample survey is the only way to analyse the
characteristics of a population.

3) Accuracy of Data: Although reliable information can be obtained through census, sometime
the accuracy of information may be lost because of a large population. Sampling involves a small
part of the population and a few trained people can be involved to collect accurate data. On the
other hand, a lot of people are required to enumerate all the observations. Often it becomes
 difficult to involve trained manpower in large numbers to collect the data thereby compromising
accuracy of data collected. In such a situation a sample may be more accurate than a census. A
sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable information than a carefully obtained
sample.

4) Accessibility of Population: There are some populations that are so difficult to get access
to that only a sample can be used, e.g., people in prison, birds migrating from one place to
another place etc. The inaccessibility may be economic or time related. In a particular study,
population may be so costly to reach, like the population of planets, that only a sample can be
used.

5) Timeliness: Since we are covering a small portion of a large population through sampling, it is
possible to collect the data in far less time than covering the entire population. Not only does it
take less time to collect the data through sampling but the data processing and analysis also takes
less time because fewer observations need to be covered. Suppose a company wants to get a
quick feedback from its consumers on assessing their perceptions about a new improved
detergent in comparison to an existing version of the detergent. Here the time factor is very
significant. In such situations it is better to go for a sample survey rather than census because it
reduces a lot of time and product launch decision can be taken quickly.

6) Destructive Observations: Sometimes the very act of observing the desired characteristics of
a unit of the population destroys it for the intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality
control. For example, to test the quality of a bulb, to determine whether it is defective, it must be
destroyed. To obtain a census of the quality of a lorry load of bulbs, you have to destroy all of
them. This is contrary to the purpose served by quality-control testing. In this case, only a sample
should be used to assess the quality of the bulbs. Another example is blood test of a patient. The
disadvantages of sampling are few but the researcher must be cautious. These are risk, lack of
representativeness and insufficient sample size each of which can cause errors. If researcher
don‘t pay attention to these flaws it may invalidate the results.

1) Risk: Using a sample from a population and drawing inferences about the entire population
involves risk. In other words the risk results from dealing with a part of a population. If the risk is
not acceptable in seeking a solution to a problem then a census must be conducted.

2) Lack of representativeness: Determining the representativeness of the sample is the

researcher‘s greatest problem. By definition, ‗sample‘ means a representative part of an entire
population. It is necessary to obtain a sample that meets the requirement of representativeness
otherwise the sample will be biased. The inferences drawn from nonreprentative samples will be
misleading and potentially dangerous.

3) Insufficient sample size: The other significant problem in sampling is to determine the
size of the sample. The size of the sample for a valid sample depends on several factors such
as extent of risk that the researcher is willing to accept and the characteristics of the population
itself.
ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

It is important that the sampling results must reflect the characteristics of the population.
Therefore, while selecting the sample from the population under investigation it should be
ensured that the sample has the following characteristics:

1) A sample must represent a true picture of the population from which it is drawn.

2) A sample must be unbiased by the sampling procedure.

3) A sample must be taken at random so that every member of the population of data has an
equal chance of selection.

4) A sample must be sufficiently large but as economical as possible.

5) A sample must be accurate and complete. It should not leave any information incomplete
and should include all the respondents, units or items included in the sample.

6) Adequate sample size must be taken considering the degree of precision required in the
results of inquiry.

METHODS OF SAMPLING

If money, time, trained manpower and other resources were not a concern, the researcher could
get most accurate data from surveying the entire population of interest. Since most often the
resources are scarce, the researcher is forced to go for sampling. But the real purpose of the
survey is to know the characteristics of the population. Then the question is with what level of
confidence will the researcher be able to say that the characteristics of a sample represent the
entire population. Using a combination of tasks of hypotheses and unbiased sampling methods,
the researcher can collect data that actually represents the characteristics of the entire
population from which the sample was taken. To ensure a high level of confidence that the
sample represents the population it is necessary that the sample is unbiased and sufficiently
large.

It was scientifically proved that if we increase the sample size we shall be that much closer to
the characteristics of the population. Ultimately, if we cover each and every unit of the
population, the characteristics of the sample will be equal to the characteristics of the
population. That is why in a census there is no sampling error. Thus, ―generally speaking, the
larger the sample size, the less sampling error we have.‖ The statistical meaning of bias is error.
The sample must be error free to make it an unbiased sample. In practice, it is impossible to
achieve an error free sample even using unbiased sampling methods. However, we can
minimize the error by employing appropriate sampling methods. The various sampling methods
can be classified into two categories. These are random sampling methods and non-random
sampling methods. Let us discuss them in detail.

Random Sampling Methods

 The random sampling method is also often called probability sampling. In random sampling all
units or items in the population have a chance of being chosen in the sample. In other words a
random sample is a sample in which each element of the population has a known and non-zero
chance of being selected. Random sampling always produces the smallest possible sampling
error. In the real sense, the size of the sampling error in a random sample is affected only by a
random chance. Because a random sample contains the least amount of sampling error, we
may say that it is an unbiased sample. Remember that we are not saying that a random sample
contains no error, but rather the minimum possible amount of error. The major advantage of
random sampling is that it is possible to quantify the magnitude of the likely error in the
minference made and this will help in building confidence in drawing inferences.

The following are the important methods of random sampling:

1) Simple Random Sampling

2) Systematic Sampling

3) Stratified Random Sampling

4) luster Sampling

5) Multistage Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling: The most commonly used random sampling method is simple
random sampling method. A simple random sample is one in which each item in the total
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In addition, the selection of one
item for inclusion in the sample should in no way influence the selection of another item. Simple
random sampling should be used with a homogeneous population, that is, a population consisting
of items that possess the same attributes that the researcher is interested in. The characteristics
of homogeneity may include such as age, sex, income, social/religious/political affiliation,
geographical region etc. The best way to choose a simple random sample is to use random
number table. A random sampling method should meet the following criteria.

a) Every member of the population must have an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

b) The selection of one member is not affected by the selection of previous members. The
random numbers are a collection of digits generated through a probabilistic mechanism. The
random numbers have the following properties:

i) The probability that each digit (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,or 9) will appear at any place is the same.
That is 1/10.

ii) The occurrence of any two digits in any two places is independent of each other. To select a
random sample using simple random sampling method we should
 follow the steps given below:

i) Determine the population size (N).

ii) Determine the sample size (n).

iii) Number each member of the population under investigation in serial order. Suppose there
are 100 members number them from 00 to 99.

iv) Determine the starting point of selecting sample by randomly picking up a page from
random number tables and dropping your finger on the page blindly.

v) Choose the direction in which you want to read the numbers (from left to right, or right to
left, or down or up).

vi) Select the first ‗n‘ numbers whose X digits are between 0 and N. If N = 100 then X would
be 2, if N is a four digit number then X would be 3 and so on.

vii) Once a number is chosen, do not use it again.

viii) If you reach the end point of the table before obtaining ‗n‘ numbers, pick another starting
point and read in a different direction and then use the first X digit instead of the last X digits and
continue until the desired sample is selected.

1. Systematic Sampling: In systematic sampling the sample units are selected from the
population at equal intervals in terms of time, space or order. The selection of a sample using
systematic sampling method is very simple. From a population of ‗N‘ units, a sample of ‗n‘ units
may be selected by following the steps given below:

i) Arrange all the units in the population in an order by giving serial numbers from 1 to N.

ii) Determine the sampling interval by dividing the population by the sample size. That
is, K=N/n.

iii) Select the first sample unit at random from the first sampling interval (1 to K).

iv) Select the subsequent sample units at equal regular intervals. For example, we want to
have a sample of 100 units from a population of 1000 units. First arrange the population units in
some serial order by giving numbers from 1 to 1000. The sample interval size is
K=1000/100=10. Select the first sample unit at random from the first 10 units ( i.e. from 1 to 10).
Suppose the first sample unit selected is 5, then the subsequent sample units are 15, 25, 35,.
995. Thus, in the
systematic sampling the first sample unit is selected at random and this sample unit in turn
determines the subsequent sample units that are to be selected.

Advantages
i) The main advantage of using systematic sample is that it is more expeditious to collect a
sample systematically since the time taken and work involved is less than in simple random
sampling. For example, it is frequently used in exit polls and store consumers.

ii) This method can be used even when no formal list of the population units is available. For
example, suppose if we are interested in knowing the opinion of consumers on improving the
services offered by a store we may simply choose

1. Stratified Random Sampling: The stratified sampling method is used when the population is
heterogeneous rather than homogeneous. A heterogeneous population is composed of unlike
elements such as male/female, rural/urban, literate/illiterate, high income/low income groups, etc.
In such cases, use of simple random sampling may not always provide a representative sample of
the population. In stratified sampling, we divide the population into relatively homogenous groups
called strata. Then we select a sample using simple random sampling from each stratum. There
are two approaches to decide the sample size from each stratum, namely, proportional stratified
sample and disproportional stratified sample. With either approach, the stratified sampling
guarantees that every unit in the population has a chance of being selected. We will now discuss
these two approaches of selecting samples.

2. Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling we divide the population into groups having
heterogenous characteristics called clusters and then select a sample of clusters using simple
random sampling. We assume that each of the clusters is representative of the population as a
whole. This sampling is widely used for geographical studies of many issues. For example if we
are interested in finding the consumers‘ (residing in Delhi) attitudes towards a new product of a
company, the whole city of Delhi can be divided into 20 blocks. We assume that each of these
blocks will represent the attitudes of consumers of Delhi as a whole, we might use cluster
sampling treating each block as a cluster. We will then select a sample of 2 or 3 clusters and
obtain the information from mconsumers covering all of them. The principles that are basic to the
cluster sampling are as follows:

i) The differences or variability within a cluster should be as large as possible. As far as possible
the variability within each cluster should be the same as that of the population.

ii) The variability between clusters should be as small as possible. Once the clusters are
selected, all the units in the selected clusters are covered for obtaining data.

1. Multistage Sampling: We have already covered two stage sampling. Multi stage sampling is a
generalisation of two stage sampling. As the name suggests, multi stage sampling is carried out in
different stages. In each stage progressively smaller (population) geographic areas will be
randomly selected. A political pollster interested in assembly elections in Uttar Pradesh may first
divide the state into different assembly units and a sample of assembly constituencies may be
selected in the first stage. In the second stage, each of the sampled assembly constituents are
divided into a number of segments and a second stage sampled assembly segments may be
 selected. In the third stage within each sampled assembly segment either all the house-holds or
a sample random of households would be interviewed. In this sampling method, it is possible to
take as many stages as are necessary to achieve a representative sample. Each stage results
in a reduction of sample size. In a multi stage sampling at each stage of sampling a suitable
method of sampling is used. More number of stages are used to arrive at a sample of desired
sampling units.

Non-Random Sampling Methods

The non-random sampling methods are also often called non-probability sampling methods. In a
non-random sampling method the probability of any particular unit of the population being
chosen is unknown. Here the method of selection of sampling units is quite arbitrary as the
researchers rely heavily on personal judgment. Non-random sampling methods usually do not
produce samples that are representative of the general population from which they are drawn.
The greatest error occurs when the researcher attempts to generalise the results on the basis of
a sample to the entire population. Such an error is insidious because it is not at all obvious from
merely looking at the data, or even from looking at the sample. The easiest way to recognise
whether a sample is representative or not is to determine whether the sample is selected
randomly or not. Nevertheless, there are occasions where non-random samples are best suited
for the researcher‘s purpose.The various non-random sampling methods commonly used are:

1) Convenience Sampling;

2) Judgement Sampling; and

3) Quota Sampling.

Let us discuss these methods in detail.

1) Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling refers to the method of obtaining a sample

that is most conveniently available to the researcher. For example, if we are interested in finding
the overtime wage paid to employees working in call centres, it may be convenient and
economical to sample employees of call centres in a nearby area. Also, on various issues of public
interest like budget, election, price rise etc., the television channels often present on-the- street
interviews with people to reflect public opinion. It may be cautioned that the generalisation of
results based on convenience sampling beyond that particular sample may not be appropriate.
Convenience samples are best used for exploratory research when additional research will be
subsequently conducted with a random sample. Convenience sampling is also useful in testing the
questionnaires designed on a pilot basis. Convenience sampling is extensively used in marketing
studies.

2) Judgement Sampling: Judgement sampling method is also known as purposive sampling.

In this method of sampling the selection of sample is based on the researcher‘s judgment
about
 some appropriate characteristic required of the sample units. For example, the calculation of
consumer price index is based on a judgment sample of a basket of consumer items, and other
related commodities and services which are expected to reflect a representative sample of
items consumed by the people. The prices of these items are collected from selected cities
which are viewed as typical cities with demographic profiles matching the national profile. In
business judgment sampling is often used to measure the performance of
salesmen/saleswomen. The salesmen/saleswomen are grouped into high, medium or low
performers based on certain specified qualities. Then the sales manager may actually classify
the salesmen/saleswomen working under him/her who in his/her opinion will fall in which group.
Judgment sampling is also often used in forecasting election results. We may often wonder how
a pollster can predict an election based on only 2% to 3% of votes covered. It is needless to say
the method is biased and does not have any scientific basis.

However, in the absence of any representative data, one may resort to this kind of non-random
sampling.

3) Quota Sampling: The quota sampling method is commonly used in marketing research
studies. The samples are selected on the basis of some parameters such as age, sex,
geographical region, education, income, occupation etc, in order to make them as representative
samples. The investigators, then, are assigned fixed quotas of the sample meeting these
population characteristics. The purpose of quota sampling is to ensure that various sub-groups of
the population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the extent that the
investigator desires. The stratified random sampling also has this objective but should not be
confused with quota sampling. In the stratified sampling method the researcher selects a random
sample from each group of the population, where as, in quota sampling, the interviewer has a
quota fixed for him/her to achieve. For example, if a city has 10 market centres, a soft drink
company may decide to interview 50 consumers from each of these 10 market centres to elicit
information on their products. It is entirely left to the investigator whom he/she will interview at
each of the market centres and the time of interview. The interview may take place in the morning,
mid day, or evening or it may be in the winter or summer. Quota sampling has the advantage that
the sample confirms the selected characteristics of the population that the researcher desires.
Also, the cost and time involved in collecting the data are also greatly reduced. However, quota
sampling has many limitations, as given below:

a) In quota sampling the respondents are selected according to the convenience of the field
investigator rather than on a random basis. This kind of selection of sample may be biased.
Suppose in our example of soft drinks, after the sample is taken it was found that most of the
respondents belong to the lower income group then the purpose of conducting the survey
becomes useless and the results may not reflect the actual situation.

b) If the number of parameters, on which basis the quotas are fixed, are larger then it
becomes difficult for the researcher to fix the quota for each sub-group.
c) The field workers have the tendency to cover the quota by going to those places where the
respondents may be willing to provide information and avoid those with unwilling respondents. For
example, the investigators may avoid places where high income group respondents stay and
cover only low income group areas.

SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS

The principal sources of sampling errors are the sampling method applied, and the sample size.
This is due to the fact that only a part of the population is covered in the sample. The magnitude
of the sampling error varies from one sampling method to the other, even for the same sample
size. For example, the sampling error associated with simple random sampling will be greater
than stratified random sampling if the population is heterogeneous in nature. Intuitively, we know
that the larger the sample the more accurate the research. In fact, the sampling error varies with
samples of different sizes. Increasing the sample size decreases the sampling error.

Non-Sampling Errors

The non-sampling errors arise from faulty research design and mistakes in executing
research. There are many sources of non-sampling errors which may be broadly classified
as: (a) respondent errors, and (b) administrative errors.

a) Respondent Errors: If the respondents co-operate and give the correct information the
objectives of the researcher can be easily accomplished. However, in practice, this may not
happen. The respondents may either refuse to provide information or even if he/she provides
information it may be biased. If the respondent fails to provide information, we call it as non-
response error. Although this problem is present in all types of surveys, the problem is more acute
in mailed surveys. Non-response also leads to some extreme situations like those respondents
who are willing to provide information are over represented while those who are indifferent are
under-represented in the sample. In order to minimise the non-response error the researcher often
seeks to re-contact with the non-respondents if they were not available earlier. If the researcher
finds that the non-response rate is more in a particular group of respondents (for example, higher
income groups) additional efforts should be made to obtain data from these under-represented
groups of the population. For example, for these people who are not responding to the mailed
questionnaires, personal interviews may be conducted to obtain data. In a mailed questionnaire
the researcher never knows whether the respondent really refused to provide data or was simply
indifferent. There are several techniques which help to encourage respondents to reply. You must
have already learned these techniques in Unit 3 of this course. Response bias occurs when the
respondent may not give the correct information and try to mislead the investigator in a certain
direction. The respondents may consciously or unconsciously misrepresent the truth. For example,
if the investigator asks a question on the income of the respondent he/ she may not give the
correct information for obvious reasons. Or the investigator may not be able to put a question that
is sensitive (thus avoiding embarrassment).
 This may arise from the problems in designing the questionaire and the content of questions.
Respondents who must understand the questions may unconsciously provide biased
information. The response bias may also occur because the interviewer‘s presence influences
respondents to give untrue or modified answers. The respondents/ interviewers tendency is to
please the other person rather than provide/elicit the correct information.

b) Administrative Errors: The errors that have arisen due to improper administration of the
research process are called administrative errors. There are four types of administrative errors.
These are as follows:

i) sample selection error,

ii) investigator error,

iii) investigator cheating, and

iv. data processing error.

i) ample Selection Error: It is difficult to execute a sampling plan. For example, we may plan to
use systematic sampling plan in a market research study of a new product and decide to interview
every 5th customer coming out of a consumer store. If the day of interview happened to be a
working day then we are excluding all those consumers who are working. This may lead to an
error because of the unrepresentative sample selection.

ii) Investigator Error: When the investigator interviews the respondent, he/ she may fail to
record the information correctly or may fail to cross check the information provided by the
respondent. Therefore, the error may arise due to the way the investigator records the information.

iii) Investigator Cheating: Some times the investigator may try to fake the data even without
meeting the concerned respondents. There should be some mechanism to crosscheck this type of
faking by the investigator.

iv) Data Processing Error: Once the data is collected the next job the researcher does is edit,
code and enter the data into a computer for further processing and analysis. The errors can be
minimised by careful editing, coding and entering the data into a computer.

PROCESSING OF DATA

we have discussed various methods of collection of data. Once the collection of data is over, the
next step is to organize data so that meaningful conclusions may be drawn. The information
content of the observations has to be reduced to a relatively few concepts and aggregates. The
data collected from the field has to be processed as laid down in the research plan. This is
possible only through systematic processing of data. Data processing involves editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of the data collected so that they are amenable to analysis. This is
an intermediary stage between the collection of data and their analysis and interpretation.
Editing of Data

Editing is the first stage in data processing. Editing may be broadly defined to be a procedure,
which uses available information and assumptions to substitute inconsistent values in a data
set. In other words, editing is the process of the data collected through various methods to
detect errors and omissions and correct them for further analysis. While editing, care has to be
to see that the data are as accurate and complete as possible, units of observations and
number of decimal places are the same for the same variable.
The following practical guidelines may be handy while editing the data:
1) The editor should have a copy of the instructions given to the interviewers.
2) The editor should not destroy or erase the original entry. Original entry should be crossed
out in such a manner that they are still legible.
3) All answers, which are modified or filled in afresh by the editor, have to be indicated.
4) All completed schedules should have the signature of the editor and the date.

For checking the quality of data collected, it is advisable to take a small sample of the
questionnaire and examine them thoroughly. This helps in understanding the following types of
problems:
(1) whether all the questions are answered,
(2) whether the answers are properly recorded,
(3) whether there is any bias,
(4) whether there is any interviewer dishonesty,
1) whether there are inconsistencies. At times, it may be worthwhile to group the same set of
questionnaires according to the investigators (whether any particular investigator has specific
problems) or according to geographical regions (whether any particular region has specific
problems) or according to the sex or background of the investigators, and corrective actions
may be taken if any problem is observed. Before tabulation of data it may be good to prepare an
operation manual to decide the process for identifying inconsistencies and errors and also the
methods to edit and correct them. The following broad rules may be helpful. Incorrect answers:
It is quite common to get incorrect answers to many of the questions. A person with a thorough
knowledge will be able to notice them. For example, against the question ―Which brand of
biscuits do you purchase?‖ the answer may be ―We purchase biscuits from ABC Stores‖.
Now, this questionnaire can be corrected if ABC Stores stocks only one type of biscuits,
otherwise not. Answer to the question ―How many days did you go for shopping in the last
week?‖ would be a number between 0 and 7. A number beyond this range indicates a mistake,
and such a mistake cannot be corrected.

The general rule is that changes may be made if one is absolutely sure, otherwise this question
should not be used. Usually a schedule has a number of questions and although answers to a
few questions are incorrect, it is advisable to use the other correct information from the schedule
rather than discarding the schedule entirely.
Inconsistent answers: When there are inconsistencies in the answers or when there are
incomplete or missing answers, the questionnaire should not be used. Suppose that in a survey,
per capita expenditure on various items are reported as follows: Food – Rs. 700, Clothing –
Rs.300, Fuel and Light – Rs. 200, other items – Rs. 550 and Total – Rs. 1600. The answers are
obviously inconsistent as the total of individual items of expenditure is exceeding the total
expenditure. Modified answers: Sometimes it may be necessary to modify or qualify the
answers. They have to be indicated for reference and checking. Numerical answers to be
converted to same units: Against the question
―What is the plinth area of your house?‖ answers could be either in square feet or in square
metres. It
will be convenient to convert all the answers to these questions in the same unit, square metre
for example.

CODING OF DATA

Coding refers to the process by which data are categorized into groups and numerals or other
symbols or both are assigned to each item depending on the class it falls in. Hence, coding
involves:
(i) deciding the categories to be used, and (ii) assigning individual codes to them. In general,
coding reduces the huge amount of information collected into a form that is amenable to
analysis. A careful study of the answers is the starting point of coding. Next, a coding frame is to
be developed by listing the answers and by assigning the codes to them. A coding manual is to
be prepared with the details of variable names, codes and instructions. Normally, the coding
manual should be prepared before collection of data, but for open-ended and partially coded
questions. These two categories are to be taken care of after the data collection. The following
are the broad general rules for coding:
1) Each respondent should be given a code number (an identification number).
2) Each qualitative question should have codes. Quantitative variables may or may not be
coded depending on the purpose. Monthly income should not be coded if one of the objectives
is to compute average monthly income. But if it is used as a classificatory variable it may be
coded to indicate poor, middle or upper income group.
3) All responses including ―don‘t know‖, ―no opinion‖ ―no response‖ etc., are to be
coded. Sometimes it is not possible to anticipate all the responses and some questions are not
coded before collection of data. Responses of all the questions are to be studied carefully and
codes are to be decided by examining the essence of the answers. In partially coded questions,
usually there is an option ―Any Other (specify)‖. Depending on the purpose, responses to
this question may be examined and additional codes may be assigned.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

Once the data is collected and edited, the next step towards further processing the data is
classification. In most research studies, voluminous data collected through various methods
needs to be reduced into homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis. This necessitates
classification of data, which in simple terms is the process of dividing data into different groups
or classes according to their similarities and dissimilarities. The groups should be homogeneous
within and heterogeneous between themselves. Classification condenses huge amount of data
and helps in understanding the important underlying features. It enables us to make
comparison, draw inferences, locate facts and also helps in bringing out relationships, so as to
draw meaningful conclusions. In fact classification of data provides a basis for tabulation and
analysis of data.
Types of Classification
Data may be classified according to one or more external characteristics or one or more
internal characteristics or both. Let us study these kinds with the help of illustrations.
Classification According to External Characteristics
In this classification, data may be classified according to area or region (Geographical) and
according to occurrences (Chronological).
Geographical: In this type of classification, data are organized in terms of geographical area or
region. State-wise production of manufactured goods is an example of this type. Data collected
from an all India market survey may be classified geographically. Usually the regions are
arranged alphabetically or according to the size to indicate the importance.
Chronological: When data is arranged according to time of occurrence, it is called
chronological classification. Profit of engineering industries over the last few years is an
example. We may note that it is possible to have chronological classification within geographical
classification and vice versa. For example, a large scale all India market survey spread over a
number of years.
Classification According to Internal Characteristics
Data may be classified according to attributes (Qualitative characteristics which are not capable
of being described numerically) and according to the magnitude of variables (Quantitative
characteristics which are numerically described).
Classification according to attributes: In this classification, data are classified by
descriptive characteristic like sex, caste, occupation, place of residence etc. This is done in
two ways – simple classification and manifold classification.
In simple classification (also called classification according to dichotomy), data is simply
grouped according to presence or absence of a single characteristics – male or female,
employee or unemployee, rural or urban etc.
In manifold classification (also known as multiple classification), data is classified according to
more than one characteristic. First, the data may be divided into two groups according to one
attribute (employee and unemployee, say). Then using the remaining attributes, data is sub-
grouped again (male and female based on sex). This may go on based on other attributes, like
married and unmarried, rural and urban so on… The following table is an example of manifold
classification.

Classification according to magnitude of the variable: This classification refers to the

classification of data according to some characteristics that can be measured. In this
classification, there are two aspects: one is variables (age, weight, income etc;) another is
frequency (number of observations which can be put into a class). Quantitative variables
may be, generally, divided into two groups - discrete and continuous.
A discrete variable is one which can take only isolated (exact) values, it does not carry any
fractional value. The examples are number of children in a household, number of departments
in an organization, number of workers in a factory etc.
The variables that take any numerical value within a specified range are called continuous
variables. The examples of continuous variables are the height of a person, profit/loss of
campanies etc. One point may be noted. In practice, even the continuous variables are
measured up to some degree of precision and they also essentially become discrete variables.
Preparation of Frequency Distribution
When raw data is arranged in conveniently organized groups, it is called a frequency
distribution. The number of data points in a particular group is called frequency. When a discrete
variable takes a small number of values (not more than 8 or 10, say), each of the observed
value is counted to form the discrete frequency distribution. In order to facilitate counting,
prepare a column of ―tallies‖. The following example illustrates it.
Construction of a Continuous Frequency Distribution: In continuous frequency distribution,
the data is grouped into a small number of intervals instead of individual values of the
variables. These groups are called classes. There are two different ways in which limits of
classes may be arranged - exclusive and inclusive method. In the exclusive method, the class
intervals are so arranged that the upper limit of one class is the lower limit of the next class,
whereas in the inclusive method, the upper limit of a class is included in the class itself. The
same frequency distribution is shown below using inclusive method. As an example, the
frequency distribution is shown below using exclusive method and inclusive method.
Steps to construct frequency distribution: The following broad guidelines may be
followed for construction of a frequency distribution.
1) The highest and the lowest values of the observations are to be identified and the lower limit
of the first class and upper limit of the last class may be decided.
2) The number of classes to be decided. There is no hard and fast rule. It should not be too little
(lower than 5, say) to avoid high information loss. It should not be too many (more than 12, say) so
that it does not become unmanageable.
3) The lower and the upper limits should be convenient numerals like 0-5, 0-10, 100-200 etc.
4) The class intervals should also be numerically convenient, like 5, 10, 20 etc., and values like
3, 9, 17 etc., should be avoided.
5) As far as possible, the class width may be made uniform for ease in subsequent calculation.
It is often quite useful to present the frequency distribution in two different ways. One way is
relative or percentage relative frequency distribution.
Relative frequencies can be computed by dividing the frequency of each class with sum of
frequency. If the relative frequencies are multiplied by 100 we will get percentages. Another way
is cumulative frequency distribution which are cumulated to give the total of all previous
frequencies including the present class, cumulating may be done either from the lowest class
(from below) or from the highest class (from above)

TABULATION OF DATA

Of collected data in the tabular form is one of the techniques of data presentation. The two other
techniques are diagrammatic and graphic presentation, which will be discussed in Unit 7 of this
course. Arranging the data in an orderly manner in rows and columns is called tabulation of
data. Sometimes data collected by survey or even from publications of official bodies are so
numerous that it is difficult to understand the important features of the data. Therefore it
becomes necessary to summarize data through tabulation to an easily intelligible form. It may
be noted that there may be loss of some minor information in certain cases, but the essential
underlying features come out more clearly. Quite frequently, data presented in tabular form is
much easier to read and understand than the data presented in the text. In classification, as
discussed in the previous section, the data is divided on the basis of similarity and resemblance,
whereas tabulation is the process of recording the classified facts in rows and columns.
Therefore, after classifying the data into various classes, they should be shown in the tabular
form.
Types of Tables
Tables may be classified, depending upon the use and objectives of the data to be
presented, into simple tables and complex tables. Let us discuss them along with
illustrations.

Simple Table: In this case data are presented only for one variable or characteristics.
Therefore, this type of table is also known as one way table. The table showing the data
relating to the sales of a company in different years will be an example of a single table.

Population of India During 1961–2001 (In thousands)

Census Population
Year
1961 439235
1971 548160
1981 683329
1991 846303
2001 1027015
Complex Table: A complex table may contain data pertaining to more than one characteristic.
The population data given below is an example.
Census Year P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
Rural Urban
1961 360298 78937
1971 439046 109114
1981 523867 159463
1991 628691 217611
2001 741660 285355

Parts of A Statistical Table

A table should have the following four essential parts - title, caption or box head (column), stub
(row heading) and main data. At times it may also contain an end note and source note below
the table. The table should have a title, which is usually placed above the statistical table. The
title should be clearly worded to give some idea of the table‘s contents. Usually a report has
many tables. Hence the tables should be numbered to facilitate reference. Caption refers to the
title of the columns. It is also termed as ―box head‖. There may be sub-captions under the main
caption. Stub refers to the titles to the rows. Caption and stub should also be unambiguous. To
the extent possible abbreviations should not be used in either caption or stub. But if they are
used, the expansion must be given in the end note below. Notes pertaining to stub entries or
box headings may be numerals. But, to avoid confusion, it is better to use some symbols (like *,
**, @ etc) or alphabets for notes referring to the entries in the main body. If the table is based on
outside information, it should be mentioned in the source note below. This note should be
complete with author, title, year of publication etc to enable the reader to go to the original
source for crosschecking or for obtaining additional information. Columns and rows may be
numbered for easy reference.

Arrangement of items in stub and box-head

There is no hard and fast rule about the arrangement of column and row headings in a table. It
depends on the nature of data and type of analysis. A number of different methods are used -
alphabetical, geographical, chronological/ historical, magnitude-based and customary or
conventional.

Alphabetical: This method is suitable for general tables as it is easy to locate an item if it is
arranged alphabetically. For example, population census data of India may be arranged in the
alphabetical order of states/union territories.
Geographical: It can be used when the reader is familiar with the usual geographical
classification.
 Chronological: A table containing data over a period of time may be presented in the
chronological order. Population data (1961 to 2001) presented earlier are in chronological order.
One may either start from the most recent year or the earliest year. However, there is a
convention to start with the month of January whenever year and month data are presented.

Based on Magnitude: At times, items in a table are arranged according to the value of the
characteristic. Usually the largest item is placed first and other items follow in decreasing order.
But this may be reversed also. Suppose that state-wise population data is arranged in order of
decreasing magnitude. This will highlight the most populous state and the least populous state.

Customary or Conventional: Traditionally some order is followed in certain cases. While

presenting population census data, usually ‗rural‘ comes before ‗urban‘ and ‗male‘ first and
‗female‘ next. At times, conventional geographical is also followed.

Requisites of a Good Statistical Table

After having an understanding of the parts of a statistical table, now let us discuss the features
of an ideal statistical table. Besides the rules relating to part of the table, certain guidelines are
very helpful in its preparation. They are as follows:

 A good table must present the data in as clear and simple a manner as possible.
 The title should be brief and self-explanatory. It should represent the description of the contents
of the table.
 Rows and Columns may be numbered to facilitate easy reference.
 Table should not be too narrow or too wide. The space of columns and rows should be carefully
planned, so as to avoid unnecessary gaps.
 Columns and rows which are directly comparable with one another should be placed side by
side.
 Units of measurement should be clearly shown.
 All the column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and plus or minus signs also
should be in perfect alignment.
 Abbreviations should be avoided in a table. If it is inevitable to use, their meanings must be
clearly explained in footnote.
 If necessary, the derived data (percentages, indices, ratios, etc.) may also be incorporated in
the tables.
 The sources of the data should be clearly stated so that the reliability of the data could be
verified, if needed.

REPORT WRITING

INTRODUCTION
 The last and final phase of the journey in research is writing of the report. After the collected
data has been analyzed and interpreted and generalizations have been drawn the report has to
be prepared. The task of research is incomplete till the report is presented. Writing of a report is
the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills some what different from those
called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the
researcher with utmost care.

PURPOSE OF A REPORT

The report may be meant for the people in general, when the investigation has not been carried
out at the instance of any third party. Research is essentially a cooperative venture and it is
essential that every investigator should know what others have found about the phenomena
under study. The purpose of a report is thus the dissipation of knowledge, broadcasting of
generalizations so as to ensure their widest use. A report of research has only one function,
―it must inform‖. It has to propagate knowledge. Thus, the purpose of a report is to convey to the
interested persons the results and findings of the study in sufficient detail, and so arranged as to
enable each reader to comprehend the data, and to determine for himself the validity of
conclusions. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. A research
report is always an addition to knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing a report. In
a broader sense, report writing is common to both academics and organizations. However, the
purpose may be different. In academics, reports are used for comprehensive and application-
oriented learning. Whereas in organizations, reports form the basis for decision making.

MEANING

Reporting simply means communicating or informing through reports. The researcher has
collected some facts and figures, analyzed the same and arrived at certain conclusions. He has
to inform or report the same to the parties interested. Therefore ―reporting is communicating
the facts, data and information through reports to the persons for whom such facts and data are
collected and compiled‖. A report is not a complete description of what has been done during
the period survey/research. It is only a statement of the most significant facts that are necessary
for understanding the conclusions drawn by the investigator. Thus, ― a report by definition, is
simply an account‖. The report thus is an account describing the procedure adopted, the
findings arrived at and the conclusions drawn by the investigator of a problem.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Broadly speaking reporting can be done in two ways :

a) Oral or Verbal Report : reporting verbally in person, for example; Presenting the findings in a
conference or seminar or reporting orally to the superiors.
b) Written Report : Written reports are more formal, authentic and popular. Written reports can
be presented in different ways as follows.

i) Sentence form reports: Communicating in sentence form

ii) Tabular reports: Communicating through figures in tables

iii) Graphic reports: Communicating through graphs and diagrams

iv) Combined reports: Communicating using all the three of the above. Generally, this is the
most popular Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the
length and the form are largely dictated by the purpose of the study and problems at hand. For
example, business organizations generally prefer reports in letter form, that too short in length.
Banks, insurance and other financial institutions generally prefer figure form in tables. The
reports prepared by government bureaus, enquiry commissions etc., are generally very
comprehensive on the issues involved. Similarly research theses/dissertations usually prepared
by students for Ph.D. degree are also elaborate and methodical. It is, thus, clear that the results
of a research enquiry can be presented in a number of ways. They may be termed as a
technical report, a popular report, an article, or a monograph.

1) Technical Report: A technical report is used whenever a full written report (ex: Ph.D. thesis) of
the study is required either for evaluation or for record keeping or for public dissemination. The
main emphasis in a technical report is on :

a) the methodology employed.

b) the objectives of the study.

c) the assumptions made / hypotheses formulated in the course of the study.

d) how and from what sources the data are collected and how have the data been analyzed.

e) the detailed presentation of the findings with evidence, and their limitations.

1) Popular Report: A popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. Its aim is to make the general public understand the findings and implications.
Generally, it is simple. Simplicity is sought to be achieved through clear language and minimization
of technical details. Attention of the readers is sought to be achieved through attractive layout,
liberal use of graphs, charts, diagrams and pictures. In a popular report emphasis is given on
practical aspects and policy implications.

2) Research Article: Some times the findings of a research study can be published in the form of
a short paper called an article. This is one form of dissemination. The research papers are
generally prepared either to present in seminars and conferences or to publish in research
 journals. Since one of the objectives of doing research is to make a positive contribution to
knowledge, in field, publication (publicity) of the work serves the purpose.

3) Monograph: A monograph is a treatise or a long essay on a single subject. For the sake of
mconvenience, reports may also be classified either on the basis of approach or on the basis of
the nature of presentation such as:

i) Journalistic Report

ii) Business Report

iii) Project Report

iv) Dissertation

v) Enquiry Report (Commission Report), and

vi) Thesis

Reports prepared by journalists for publication in the media may be journalistic reports. These
reports have news and information value. A business report may be defined as report for
business communication from one departmental head to another, one functional area to
another, or even from top to bottom in the organizational structure on any specific aspect of
business activity. These are observational reports which facilitate business decisions.

A project report is the report on a project undertaken by an individual or a group of individuals

relating to any functional area or any segment of a area or any aspect of business, industry or
society. A dissertation, on the other hand, is a detailed discourse or report on the subject of
study. Dissertations are generally used as documents to be submitted for the of higher research
degrees from a university or an academic institution. The thesis is an example in point.

An enquiry report or a commission of enquiry report is a detailed report prepared by a

commission appointed for the specific purpose of conducting a detailed study of any matter of
dispute or of a subject requiring greater insight. These reports facilitate action, since they
contain expert opinions.

STAGES IN PREPARATION OF A REPORT

Research reports are the product of slow and painstaking and accurate work. Therefore,
the preparation of the report may be viewed in the following major stages.

1) The logical understanding and analysis of the subject matter.

2) Planning/designing the final outline of the report.

3) Write up/preparation of rough draft.

 4) Polishing/finalization of the Report.

Logical Understanding of the Subject Matter: It is the first stage which is primarily concerned
with the development of a subject. There are two ways to develop a subject viz. a. logically and
b. chronologically. The logical development is done on the basis of mental connections and
associations between one aspect and another by means of logical analysis. Logical treatment
often consists of developing material from the simple to the most complex.

Finalization of the Report: This is the last stage, perhaps the most difficult stage of all formal
writing. It is easy to build the structure, but it takes more

time for polishing and giving finishing touches. Take for example the construction of a house. Up
to roofing (structure) stage the work is very quick but by the time the building is ready, it takes
up a lot of time. The rough draft (whether it is second draft or ‗n‘ th draft ) has to be rewritten,
polished in terms of requirements. The careful revision of the rough draft makes the difference
between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While polishing and finalizing one should
check the report for its weaknesses in logical development of the subject and presentation
cohesion. He/she should also check the mechanics of writing — language, usage, grammar,
spelling and punctuation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the
report. A good report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it should
have the following characteristics/qualities.

i) It must be clear in informing the what, why, who, whom, when, where and how of the research
study.

ii) It should be neither too short nor too long. One should keep in mind the fact that it should be
long enough to cover the subject matter but short enough to sustain the reader‘s interest.

iii) It should be written in an objective style and simple language, correctness, precision and
clarity should be the watchwords of the scholar. Wordiness, indirection and pompous language are
barriers to communication.

iv) A good report must combine clear thinking, logical organization and sound interpretation.

v) It should not be dull. It should be such as to sustain the reader‘s interest.

vi) It must be accurate. Accuracy is one of the requirements of a report. It should be factual with
objective presentation. Exaggerations and superlatives should be avoided.

vii) Clarity is another requirement of presentation. It is achieved by using familiar words and
unambiguous statements, explicitly defining new concepts and unusual terms.
viii) Coherence is an essential part of clarity. There should be logical flow of ideas (i.e.
continuity of thought), sequence of sentences. Each sentence must be so linked with other
sentences so as to move the thoughts smoothly.

ix) Readability is an important requirement of good communication. Even a technical report

should be easily understandable. Technicalities should be translated into language
understandable by the readers.

x) A research report should be prepared according to the best composition practices. Ensure
readability through proper paragraphing, short sentences, illustrations, examples, section
headings, use of charts, graphs and diagrams.

xi) Draw sound inferences/conclusions from the statistical tables. But don‘t repeat the tables in
text (verbal) form.

xii) Footnote references should be in proper form. The bibliography should be reasonably
complete and in proper form.

xiii) The report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean whether typed or printed.

xiv) The report should be free from mistakes of all types viz. language mistakes, factual
mistakes, spelling mistakes, calculation mistakes etc., Prefactory Items

The various preliminaries to be included in the front pages of the report are briefly narrated
hereunder:

1) Title Page: The first page of the report is the title page. The title page should carry a concise
and adequately descriptive title of the research study, the name of the author, the name of the
institution to whom it is submitted, the date of presentation.

2) Approval Sheet: If a certificate of approval is required either from the research supervisor or
from the institution which provided the research facilities, it must be given.

3) Researcher‘s Declaration: Generally the researcher has to declare/certify that it is his/her

bonafide and original work done by him/her.

4) Dedication: If the author wants to dedicate the work to whom soever he/she likes, he/she may
do so.

5) Preface or Acknowledgements: A preface includes the background and reasons for the study.
This is an appropriate place for him/her to make acknowledgements also. But if the researcher
has opted to discuss the significance, reasons of the study else where in the report he/she may
not write ‗preface‘. But he/she may use the page for only acknowledgements. In
acknowledgements the researcher acknowledges the assistance and support received from
individuals and organizations in conducting the research. It is intended to express his/her gratitude
to them.
6) Table of Contents: A table of contents gives an outline of the contents of the report. It contains
a list of the chapters and their titles with page numbers. It facilitates easy location of topics in the
report. The chapter headings may be typed with capital letters.

7) List of Tables: The researcher must have collected lot of data and analyzed the same and
presented in the form of tables. These tables may be listed chapter wise and the list be presented
with page numbers for easy location and reference.

8) List of Graphs/Charts/Figures: If there are many graphs and charts they should also be listed
with page numbers, after the list of tables separately.

9) List of Cases/Exhibits: If there are many cases/exhibits they should also be listed.

10) Abstract: An abstract is a synopsis. It should be as brief as possible and run about one or
two pages. It is placed at the prefactory part of the report so that a reader can get a quick over
view of the report. It contains a brief and precise statement of the purpose and a bare summary of
the findings or the results of the study.

The Text/Body of the Report

After the preliminary items, the body of the report is presented. It is the major and main part of
the report. It consists of the text and context chapters of the study. Normally the body may be
divided into 3 (three) parts.

i) The introduction

ii) The description and discussion of evidence and findings

iii) The summary, conclusions and recommendations

i) Introduction

Generally this is the first chapter in the body of the report. It is devoted introducing the
theoretical background of the problem and the methodology adopted for attacking the problem.
It may consist of the following aspects:

– Significance and justification of the topic.

– Theoretical background of the topic.

– Statement of the problem.

– Review of literature.

– Objectives of the study.

– Hypotheses to be tested.
 – Definition of special terms, concepts and units of study.

– Scope of the study – geographical scope i.e. area/places to be covered, content, scope i.e.,
aspects to be included/excluded.

– Period of study i.e., reference period.

– Sources of data i.e., primary or secondary or both.

– Methods of data collection i.e., sample or census.

– Sampling design.

– Data collection instruments .

– Field work.

– Data processing and analysis plan.

– Limitations of the study, if any.

– An over view of the report i.e., chapter plan.

i) Description and Discussion of Evidence

This is the major and main part of the report. It is divided into several chapters depending upon
the number of objectives of the study, each being devoted to presenting the results pertaining to
some aspect. The chapters should be well balanced, mutually related and arranged in logical
sequence. The results should be reported as accurately and completely as possible explaining
as to their bearing on the research questions and hypotheses. Each chapter should be given an
appropriate heading. Depending upon the need, a chapter may also be divided into sections.
The entire verbal presentation should run in an independent stream and must be written
according to best composition rules. Each chapter should end with a summary and lead into the
next chapter with a smooth transition sentence. While dealing with the subject matter of text the
following aspects should be taken care of. They are :

1) Headings

2) Quotations

3) Foot notes

4) Exhibits

1) Headings. The following types of headings are commonly used.

– CENTRE HEAD ( All capitals, without underlining)

 – Centre Subhead (Capital and lower case, with underlining)

– SIDE HEAD ( All capitals without underlining)

– Side Sub Head (Capital and lower case letters with underlining)

– Paragraph Head followed by a colon (Capital and lower case underline) Which combinations
of headings to use depends on the number of classifications or divisions that a chapter has. The
headings are illustrated below: Centre Head. A Centre head is typed in all capital letters. If the title
is long, the inverted pyramid style (i.e., the second line shorter than the first, the third line shorter
than the second) is used. All caps headings are not underlined. Underlining is unnecessary
because capital letters are enough to attract the reader‘s attention.

Side Heads. Words in the side head are either written in all capitals or capitalized as in the
centre sub head and underlined. Example: Import Substitution and Export Promotion

Paragraph Head. Words in a paragraph head are capitalized as in the centre sub head and
underlined. At the end, a colon appears, and then the paragraph starts.

Example: Import Substitution and Export Promotion: The Seventh Five-Year Plan of India has
attempted ……

1) Quotations

Quotation Marks: Double quotation marks (― ‖) are used. A quotation within a quotation is put in
single quotation marks (‗ ‘). Example: He said, ―To the selfish, ‗freedom‘ is synonymous with
license‖. When to Use Quotation Marks: Quotation marks are used for

1) a directly quoted passage or word.

2) a word or phrase to be emphasized, and

3) Titles of articles, chapters, sections of a book, reports, and unpublished works. How to Quote:

a) All quotations should correspond exactly to the original in wording, spelling, and punctuation.

b) Quotations up to three typewritten lines are run into the text.

c) Direct quotations over three typewritten lines are set in indented paragraphs.

d) Quotation marks are not used for indented paragraphs.

Five ways of introducing a Quotation: These are given below.

a) Introduction: He/she said, ―The primary test of success in a negotiation is the

presence of goodwill on both sides‖.
b) Interpolation: ―The primary test of success in a negotiation‖, he/she said, ―is the presence
of goodwill on both sides‖.

c) End Reference: ― The primary test of success in a negotiation is the presence of goodwill on
both sides‖, he/she said.

d) Indented Paragraph: He/she said: For the workers no real advance in their standard of living
is possible without steady increase in productivity because any increase in wages generally,
beyond certain narrow units, would otherwise be nullified by a rise in prices.

e) Running into a Sentence: He/she recommended that ―joint management councils be set up
in all establishments in the public as well as private sector in which conditions favourable to the
success of the scheme exist‖.

3) Foot Notes

Types of Footnotes: A foot note either indicates the source of the reference or provides an
explanation which is not important enough to include in the text. In the traditional system, both
kinds of footnotes are treated in the same form and are included either at the bottom of the page
or at the end of the chapter or book.

In the modern system, explanatory footnotes are put at the bottom of the page and are linked
with the text with a footnote number. But source references are incorporated within the text and
are supplemented by a bibliographical note at the end of the chapter or book. Rationale of
Footnotes: Footnotes help the readers to check the accuracy of the interpretation of the source
by going to the source if they want to. They are also an acknowledgement of the author‘s
indebtedness to the sources. They lend authority to the work and help the readers to distinguish
between the author‘s own contribution and that of others. Where to put the Footnote: Footnotes
appear at the bottom of the page or at the end of the chapter (before the appendices section).
Numbering of Footnotes:

a) For any editorial comment on the chapter or title, an asterisk is used.

b) In the text Arabic numerals are used for footnoting. Each new chapter begins with number 1.

c) The number is typed half a space above the line or within parentheses. No space is given
between the number and the word. No punctuation mark is used after the number.

d) The number is placed at the end of a sentence or, if necessary to clarify the meaning, at
the end of the relevant word or phrase. Commonly, the number appears after the last quotation
mark. In an indented paragraph, the number appears at the end of the last sentence in the
quotation.

4) Exhib

its Tables:
Reference and Interpretation: Before a table is introduced, it is referred to in the text (e.g., see
Table 1.1; refer to Table 1.1; as in Table 1.1; Table 1.1 indicates). A table is meant only to
expand, clarify, or give visual explanation rather than stand by itself. The text should highlight
the table‘s focus and conclusions. Identification: a) Each table is given a number, title, and, if
needed, a subtitle. All identifications are centred.

b) Arabic numerals, instead of Roman numerals or capital letters, are recommended for
numbering the tables. Usually technical monographs and books contain many tables. As the
number increases, Roman numerals become unfamiliar to the reader. Roman numerals also
occupy more space than Arabic numerals. If there are more than 26 tables, capital letters will
not be sufficient to identify them. Tables can be numbered consecutively throughout the chapter
as 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,… wherein the first number refers to the chapter and the second number to the
table.

b) For the title and sub title, all capital letter are used.

c) Abbreviations and symbols are not used in the title or sub title. Checklist: Relevance,
accuracy, and clarity are of utmost importance in tables. When entering the table, check the
following:

1) Have the explanation and reference to the table been given in the text?

2) Is it essential to have the table for clarity and extra information?

3) Is the representation of the data comprehensive and understandable?

4) Is the table number correct?

5) Are the title and subtitle clear and concise?

6) Are the column headings clearly classified?

7) Are the row captions clearly classified?

8) Are the data accurately entered and represented?

9) Are the totals and other computations correct?

10) Has the source been given?

11) Have all the uncommon abbreviations been spelt out?

12) Have all footnote entries been made?

13) If column rules are used, have all rules been properly drawn?

Illustrations: Illustrations cover charts, graphs, diagrams, and maps. Most of the instructions
given for tables hold good for illustrations. Identification: Illustrations are identified as FIGURE,
CHART, MAP or DIAGRAM. The identification marks (i.e. number, title, and, if any, sub title) are
put at the bottom, because an illustration, unlike a table, is studied from bottom upwards.

Terminal Items

This section follows the text. First comes the appendices section, then the bibliography and
glossary. Each section is separated by a divider page on which only the words APPENDICES,
BIBLIOGRAPHY, or GLOSSARY all in capital letters appear. All reference section pages are
numbered in Arabic numerals in continuation with the page numbers of the text.

1) Appendices What goes into an Appendix: a) Supplementary or secondary references are put
in the appendices section. But all primary reference material of immediate importance to the
reader is incorporated in the text. The appendices help theauthor to authenticate the thesis and
help the reader to check the data.

b) The material that is usually put in the appendices is indicated below:

1) Original data

2) Long tables

3) Long quotations

4) Supportive legal decisions, laws and documents

5) Illustrative material

6) Extensive computations

7) Questionnaires and letters

8) Schedules or forms used in collecting data

9) Case studies / histories

10) Transcripts of interviews

Numbering of Appendices: The appendices can be serialized with capital letters (Appendix A,
Appendix B) to differentiate from the chapter or table numbers.

References to Appendices: a) In the text, the reader‘s attention is drawn to appendices as in the
case of tables.

b) All appendices are listed in the table of contents.

2) Bibliographies
 Positioning of the Bibliography: The bibliography comes after the appendices section and is
separated from it by a division sheet written BIBLIOGRAPHY. It is listed as a major section in all
capital letters in the table of contents. A bibliography contains the source of every reference
cited in the footnote and any other relevant works that the author has consulted. It gives the
reader an idea of the literature available on the subject that has influenced or aided the author.

Bibliographical Information: The following information must be given for each bibliographical
reference. Books Magazines and Newspapers

1) Author(s) 1) Author(s)

2) Title (underlined) 2) Title of the article (Within quotation marks)

3) Place of publication 3) Title of the magazine (underlined)

4) Publisher 4) Volume number (Roman numerals)

5) Date of publication 5) Serial number (Arabic numerals)

6) Date of issue

3) Glossary

What is a Glossary: A glossary is a short dictionary giving definitions and examples of terms and
phrases which are technical, used in a special connotation by the author, unfamiliar to the
reader, or foreign to the language in which the book is written. It is listed as a major section in
capital letters in the table of contents. Positioning of a Glossary: The glossary appears after the
bibliography. It may also appear in the introductory pages of a book after the lists of tables and
illustrations. Order of Listing: Items are listed in alphabetical order. Example: Centre Heading is
listed under C and not under H.

4) Index Index may be either subject index or author index. Author index consists of important
names of persons discussed in the report, arranged in alphabetical order. Subject index
includes a detailed reference to all important matters discussed in the report such as places,
events, definitions, concepts etc., and presented in alphabetical order. Index is not generally
included in graduate / post graduate students research reports. However, if the report is
prepared for publication or intended as a work of reference, an index is desirable.

Research Applications in Functional Areas of Management

Research in HRM

• HR policies

• Job and Manpower requirements

• Job Evaluation

• Recruitment, Selection, Placement, Training and Development

• Promotion and Transfer

• Wage and Salary Administration

• Labour Relations

• Industrial Disputes

• Job Enrichment Programmes

• Health, Safety and Working Conditions etc…

Research in Marketing

• Marketing Policies – pricing, advertising, inventory, customer relations, service, channels of

distribution etc.

• New Product Development – new product ideas, improvements, packaging, brand name,
customer preferences etc.

• Market Forecasting – economic forecasts, industry forecasts, sales forecasts, technology

forecasts etc.

• Sales management

• Channels of Distribution

• Advertising and sales – media selection, copy testing, sales promotion etc.

Research in Finance

• Capital Structure Decisions

• Acquisition, Mergers, Liquidation

• Sources of funds

• Opportunities for Profit

• Management of Funds

• Management of Assets

• Financial Markets and its regulations etc.

Research in Production

Obtain resources to produce goods or provide a service

Organising the resources to produce the goods or provide the service in the most

appropriate way.

o In order for this to be achieved satisfactorily, several criteria must be considered.

….

The aims of the business (e.g.. Does it want to sell cheaply to the mass market or make

exclusive items or provide a personal service?)

The resources which are needed to produce the goods or provide the service

How the resources an be organised to achieve the aims in the most cost-effective

way How the operation can be monitored and controlled to achieve the desired

result.