ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 1:
Tensile and Torsion Tests

Objective : To investigate the properties of metals under tensile and torsional

loadings.

Apparatus : Universal Material Tester and Torsional Tester (TQ SMI MK II)

Figure 1.2: Torsional Tester

Figure 1.1: Universal Material Tester Figure 1.3: Shape of specimen

Procedures:
1. Take measurements of the specimen by using appropriate tools.
2. Set and calibrate the tester accordingly.
3. Carry out the experiment properly and take necessary results.

Results and Discussion

1. Tabulate the data measured from the tests.
2. Plot the stress-strain curves of the material tested.
3. Comment on the results from the curves w.r.t the appropriate mechanical properties.
4. Compare the experimental and theoretical mechanical properties.
5. State your observations and factors that affect the accuracy of your results

List of Formulas
P L  Lo P P 
Stress( )  ; Strain ( )  f ; max  max ; f  f ; Modulus Young , E 
Ao Lo Ao Ao 
Lf  Lo Af  Ao
% Elongation  x 100 ; % Reduction in area  x 100
Lo Ao

Τ Gθ τ 16T θd
Torsion formula   ; τ ; 
J L r d 3 2L

Page 1
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 2: Fabrication Test

Title: Fabrication (Limits, fits and tolerances)

Objectives:
1. To understand the basic principles of limits, fits and tolerances
2. To know the fundamental of the systems of fits
3. To produce and examine components for various types of fits
4. To compare and appreciate their applications
Introduction
In the early days, majority of the components were actually mated together, their dimensions
being adjusted until the required type of fit was obtained. Nowadays, engineers realize that
the variations in the sizes of the parts had always present and such variations could be
restricted but not avoided. It has also been realized that the exact-sized components are
difficult to produce. Any attempt towards very close dimensions of a product will increase
cost of the production. The functional aspects of the component may be achieved even
without going for its exact dimensions using limits, fits and tolerances. This reduces the unit
cost of production and increases the rate of production.

Machine/Equipment:
 Measuring instruments with relevant metrology equipment
 Steel Plate with predetermined holes and various machined cylindrical shafts
 1” Steel Rod, as a starting material stock
 Lathe machine, Threading TAP, Threading DIES
 Bearings
Procedures:
1. Read and understand the basic definitions and concept of limits and fits from the
verbal briefing and notes given.
2. Group is required to fabricate a shaft to fit a ball bearing, M10x1.5 nut and M8x1.25
screw.
3. Refer the ISO tolerances for holes and shaft and Metric Thread Table for the process
of fabrication.
4. Group is given a ball bearing with specific basic size of internal diameter. Determine/
calculate the limits for the shafts to satisfy selected types of fits from the Reference
Table 2-8 (refer appendix 1), as listed in the following table:
HOLE BASIC SIZE (Internal Ball Bearing Diameter): ___________

TYPE OF FIT DESCRIPTION SYMBOL dmin (mm) dmax (mm)

CLEARENCE Loose Running Fit

FIT Free Running Fit
Close Running Fit
Sliding Fit
Locational
Clearance Fit

Page 2
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

TRANSITION Locational
FIT Transition Fit
(accurate)
Locational
Transition Fit (more
accurate)
INTERFERENCE Locational
FIT Transition Fit
Medium Drive Fit
Force Fit

5. For the various designated components already machined, measure the relevant
dimensions and classify them as appropriate type of fits without trying physically.
MACHINED SHAFTS DIMENSIONS (mm) TYPE OF FIT
Bearing Fit
External Thread -
Internal Thread -

6. Test the type of fit calculated in step 4 and 5 physically

Result and discussion

i. Discuss the observations and the significance of the steps 3-4. Show the steps and
calculations to determine one type of fit.
ii. Comment of the accuracy of various dimensions.
iii. Give specific applications for each type of fit covered in this laboratory exercise.
iv. State the importance of limits and fits system.

Appendix
1. Extracted from “Mechanical Engineering Design by J E Shigley & C R Mischke”
2. http://www.wisetool.com/limit.htm

Page 3
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 3:
Hardness and Metallurgy Test
I. Hardness test

In general, the hardness of metal is measured by using a standard shape 'identor' that is
pressed into the metal surface with respect to certain load.

Figure 3.1 : Vickers hardness equipment.

[i] Vickers Hardness test

Load
AKV 
Area  Indentor Contact Area
1.845P

d2

AKV = Vicker Hardness Number (kg/mm2)

P = Load (kg)
d = Average Diagonal Length (mm)

Page 4
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

II – Material Engineering (Metallurgy)

Objectives:
1. To conduct material hardness test.
2. To study the relationship between metal microstructure and its hardness.

Specimens:

Metal: Copper, Brass, Aluminium and Mild steel.

Size of spesimen: Diameter 25 – 30 mm and 6 – 10 mm thickness.

Equipment:

i. Grind machine
ii. Microscope
iii. Hardness measurement machine (Brinell or Vickers)
iv. Micrometer

Procedures:

1. Select any 3 different specimens.

2. Measure the diameter and thickness.
3. Polish one of its surfaces.
4. Put the specimen under the microscope and sketch your observation in the table given
below.
5. Conduct hardness test by using one of the hardness measurement machine. Put the
value in the table given.
6. Make sure that you DO THE EXPERIMENT FIRST TIME RIGHT!

Result:
Table 3.1: Sample of data collection for hardness test.
Type of
Sketches and notes Hardness value
Material

Discuss:

1. Elaborate TWO important conclusions that you can find from the results.

2. Briefly explain any THREE methods to improve metal hardness.

3. State other method that can be done to achieve the same objectives of this lab.

Page 5
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 4: Bending Test

Title : Beam Bending Test

Objectives : (a) To measure the load-deflection of a simply supported beam

(b) To calculate and compare the modulus of elasticity of the different
beam materials.

Apparatus : (a) Beam apparatus SM 104 MK III (Figure 2.1)

(b) Load cells, dial gauges, loads, vernier caliper and hanger.
(c) Beams (Steel, Brass and Aluminium)

Related ISO : (a) ISO 7166:1985 Aircraft-Rail and stud configuration

for passenger equipment and cargo restraint
(b) ISO 9987:1990 Motorcycles-Measurement of variation
of dipped beam inclination as a function of load

Figure 2.1: Beam apparatus SM 104 MK III

Dial gauge

Beam specimens Load

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram SM 104 MK III

Page 6
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Introduction:

Beam is the structure and mechanical element which is important in the engineering
field, where it carries the load horizontally on the length of the structure. The beam deflection
is capable of measuring the load applied, length, force, deflection angle and the modulus of
elasticity of the various bem materials. Beam has been widely used in the engineering design
such as airplanes, bridges, buildings, automobiles etc.

In this experiment, we measure the deflection of three different beam specimens

(Steel, Brass and Aluminium), which loaded at the centre point of their length. From this
experiment, the elastic of modulus with the stiffness of the beam material can be determined
and compared with the theoretical calculation.

Theory:

A simply supported beam (fixed-fixed end) as shown in Figure 2.2 is applied with a
load W at the center point of the beam which causing the deflection given by Equation (1):
= …..(1)
Where,
= Beam deflection
W = Weight of load
l = Beam length
E = Elastic modulus
I = Area moment of inertia

For the rectangular cross-section surface, the area moment of inertia I can be
calculated using Equation (2):
I= …..(2)
Where,
b = Width of the beam
h = Height of the beam

From Equation (1) and (2), the beam deflection and the modulus of elasticity of the
beam can be determined.

Methodology:

1. Measure and record the length of the sample beam using the long ruler and mark the
centre point of the beam.
2. Measure the width b and height of the sample beam at three different sections using
the vernier caliper and record the average value.
3. Select a position in the middle of the apparatus and place the sample beam on the load
cells to the position as shown in Figure 2.2. Lock the sharp end.
4. Set and record the span length x mm between two load cells using the scale of the top
rail and balance the beam using the dial gauge.
5. Place the hanger load in the middle of the beam so that the burden is on the center line
of the beam.
6. Place the dial gauge in the middle of the range by the end of the ball touching the
beam diameter of the beam. Adjust dial so that the reading empty and bezel locks.

Page 7
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

7. Put the load of 5 N on the hanger and record the reading given by the deflection of
dial gauge.
8. Add the load and record the deflection. Create increase in load at least five times from
5 N to 25 N.
9. Reduce the load, one by one and record the deflection whenever the load is reduced.
10. Repeat the experiment for all types of given beams (Steel, Brass and Aluminium) with
different of span lengths (x, y and z mm).

Results:

(a) For each sample beam, fill in the results in the Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Deflection of the sample beam for the length x, y and z mm
Length l (mm)
Load W (N) l1 = x l2 = y l3 = z
Deflection (mm)
5
10
15
20
25

(b) Plot a graph of beam deflection versus load and calculate the stiffness k of each
sample beam using Equation (3):
k = …..(3)

(c) Calculate the area moment of inertia I and the average modulus of elasticity E of each
sample beam.

(d) Calculate the error percentage of the measured modulus of elasticity E with the
theoretical values given in Table 2.2.

Theory ET (N/m2) Measured EM (N/m2) Error (%)

Steel 2.1 x 1011
Brass 1.05 x 1011
Aluminium 7.6 x 1010

Assignments:

1. Give an example on the real beam application and describe the importance of
measuring the deflection of the beam for the application (Add in introduction section)
2. Write the derivation on how Equation (2) and (3) can be determined (add in theory
section)
3. Discuss the results (Add discussion section)
4. Give the reasons on the error between the measured and theoretical values of the
elastic modulus for each sample beam.
5. Give the methods on how to improve the error while doing the measurement.
6. Add conclusion section
7. Add the reference section

Page 8
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 5:
A. Flow measurement apparatus
B. Characteristics of fluids

A – FLOW MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

Objectives : (i) To determine flow rates using
(a) Venturi meter
(b) Orifice plate
(c) Rotameter

(ii) To determine loss coefficients in venturi meter, orifice plate,

rotameter, diffuser and elbow

Apparatus : Flow measurement apparatus, hydraulic bench, stop watch

Figure A5.1: Apparatus

Introduction : Flow of water can be measured using a lot of apparatus.

Study the apparatus and identify venturi meter, orifice plate and
rotameter.
Note also the diffuser, elbow and all the pressure tappings. Name the
apparatus that is used to measure the pressure.
This experiment‟s objectives are stated above.

Theory : The overall concept of the flow is using Bernoulli principle and
continuity of flow.
Use of prior knowledge of non-compressible fluid flow in steady state
is essential.

Page 9
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Figure A5.2: Schematic diagram of apparatus

Venturi meter: From Bernoulli, the equations for venturi meter for steady non compressible
flow are as follows, where all symbols carry the usual meanings.
U 2A U 2B
hA   hB 
2g 2g

From the continuity equation, the theoretical flow rate is

Qt  U A  A A  U B  AB
1
  2
 

Qt  U B  AB  AB 
2g
2
h A  hB 
1   AB 
 
 A 
  A  

The actual flow rate = flow rate coefficient x theoretical flow rate
1
 2
 

Q  C d  Q t  C d  AB 
2g
2
h A  hB 
1   AB 
 
 A 
  A  

At cross section A, diameter is 26 mm, cross section area A A = ________ m2

At cross section B, diameter is 16 mm, cross section area A B = ________ m2

Page 10
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Assuming Cd = 0.955 for venturi meter, show that

Q  9.18 x10 4 hA  hB  2 m 3 / s

1

Assuming  = 1000 kg/m3, show that

  0.918hA  hB  2 kg / s
1
m

Orifice plate : From Bernoulli, the equations for orifice plate for steady non compressible
flow are
U 2E U 2F
hE   hF 
2g 2g

From the continuity equation, the theoretical flow rate is

Qt  U E  AE  U F  AF
1
 2
 

Qt  U F  AF  AF 
2g
2
hE  hF 
1   AF 
 
 A 
  E  

The actual flow rate = flow rate coefficient x theoretical flow rate
1
  2
 

Q  K  Q1  K  AF 
2g
2
hE  hF 
1   AF 
 
 A 
  E  

At cross section E, diameter is 51 mm, cross section area AE = ____________m2

At cross section F, diameter is 20 mm, cross section area A F = ____________m2

Assuming for orifice plate, K = 0.601 and  = 1000 kg/m3, show that
Q  8.452 x 10  4 hE  hF  2
1

and

m  0.845hE  hF  2
1

Rotameter : Rotameter reads the flow rate directly from the scaleable readings. Due
to gravity and force from the upward flow, the difference (H) - (I) of
the floater will show certain readings under steady flow.

Page 11
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Figure A5.3: Rotameter schematic diagram

From Figure A5.3,

Given Rf = radius of floater

Rt = radius of rotameter cylinder
l = height of fuid at position Rt
 = inclination angle of rotameter diffuser

Then,

 
π R 2 t  R 2 f  2R f .δ  cross sectional area 
flow rate
velicity constatnt
where δ  .θ
 Q  2R f .θ
Q α 
m α 1

Hence, linear scale of rotameter flow can be determined.

Procedure :

1. Connect the proper pipe onto the apparatus on the hydraulic table.
2. Control the valve opening until the rotameter reaches 10 mm.
3. When the flow is steady, take the manometer readings and tabulate data in Table A1
with appropriate calculations.
4. Measure the actual flow rate from the hydraulic bench.
5. Repeat step 2, 3 and 4 at different flow rates.

Page 12
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Table A5.1: Flow measurement apparatus


Mass flow rate m   H/Inlet head

Rotameter reading

Vol. flow rate

Hydraulic flow
Volume
Set No.

Time

Rotameter

Rotameter

Peresap
Venturi

Venturi
Manometer readings (mm)

Orifice

Sesiku
Orifis
A B C D E F G H I - liter saat m3/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s - - - - -

Page 13
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

B – CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS

Objectives : To determine characteristics of fluids such as density, specific gravity,

viscosity, capillarity

Apparatus : Armfield hydrostatic bench, plus relevant apparatus

Figure B5.1: Sample of fluids and apparatus

Introduction : Fluids have a lot of properties and characteristics that are very
important to flow processes. This experiment will find out a few of
them as set out in the above objectives.

Theory : Density
mass

volume

Specific gravity

mass fluid V 
s    
mass water  wV  w

Density can be measured using

[1] Hydrometer
[21 Density bottle
[3] Eureka can
[4] Measuring beaker

Page 14
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Hydrometer
The apparatus works upon Archimedes principle.
Observe the construction of the apparatus and discuss how it works. Note that the scales have
been calibrated to pure water.

If Lw = length immersed in water, with density w

while Ll = length immersed in fluid, with density 

Gravitational force on displaced water mass = Gravitational force on displaced fluid mass
W .g. ALW  s.W .g. A.LW
L length immersed in fluid
s  l 
Lw length immersed in water

Procedure:

- Lower the hydrometer in the fluid carefully and let it settle. Read directly the specific
gravity reading. Do a few more readings to get a good average.

- Repeat for other fluids.

Table B5.1

Fluid Specific gravity Density kg/m3

Water
Engine oil
Glycerol
Palm oil

Viscosity :

Given this formula for viscosity (or more accurately dynamic viscosity), find out what each
term means.

du
 
dy

Kinematic viscosity,.

 = /

Viscosity can be measured using simple experiment such as drop-ball viscometer method as
shown in Figure B5.2.

Page 15
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Figure B5.2: Viscometer

When the spherical ball is dropped, the forces acting upon it are
[11 Gravitational force on the sphere, Fg
[21 Buoyant force, FB
[3] Viscous force against the motion, Fv

At steady or terminal speed, the forces are in equilibrium.

Fg  FB  FV  0

4
Fg  r 3 . s .g
3
where, s = density of sphere
r = radius of sphere
4 3
FB  r . l .g
3
where, l = density of liquid

FV  6  . r u from Stoke‟s law

where,  = viscosity
u = sphere‟s average velocity

Rearranging,
4 3 4
r . S .g  r 3 . l .g  6 .ru  0
3 3

2 2  S   l 
  r g
9 u

Page 16
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

 
gd 2  S  1
 l 
It folows, v 
18u

where, r – sphere‟s radius in meter

g – gravity acceleration in m/s2
S – sphere‟s density in kg/m3
l – fluid‟s density in kg/m3
u – average velocity of sphere in m/s
 - dynamic viscosity
 - kinematic viscosity

Table B5.2

Fluid Distance Time Ave. Fluid density Dynamic Kinematic

velocity viscosity viscosity

Capillarity :

The caillarity phenomenon can be shown in Figure B5.3.

Figure B5.3: Tube immersed in water

Page 17
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

The gravitational force in the fluid is balanced by the surface tension,  acting on the tube‟s
wall.

Solving vertically,

d 2 h. .g   .d . cos
4
4 cos
h 
 gd
When the fluid wetted the tube wall  = 0
4
h 
gd

Observations of this effect can be done using

(a) capillarity tube

(b) capillarity plates

Capillary tube method

(a) Ensure that the tube is really clean.

(b) Fill the trough with clean water. Immerse the tube slowly.
(c) Measure the height of the highest rise of water that wets the tube, „h‟.
(d) Compare the height with this theoretical formula,
4
hxd   const
g

Where surface tension of water,  = 0.074 N/m

Fill up the table and compare:

Plate‟s thickness h h
(Experiment) (Theory)

Capillary plate method

(a) Cleanse the surfaces of the plates and insert separator paper with known thickness, (t).
(b) Fill the trough with clean water.
(c) Hang the plates on the supports.
(d) Measure the heights of water rise between the plates.
(e) Compare the experimental results with this theory.
2
hxt   const
g

Page 18
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Fill up the table and compare:

Plate‟s thickness h h
(Experiment) (Theory)

Figure B5.4: Capillary plates

Page 19
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 6: Losses in piping system

Objectives:
1. To determine the loss through bends , elbows and valves
2. To determine the loss caused by sudden reduction
3. To determine the pressure rise caused by sudden enlargement

Apparatus:
Apparatus loss in the pipe system H16 and hydraulic table.

Figure 6.1

Theory:
Fluid flow through a pipe in compliance with the continuity equation and Bernoulli.
Q  V1A1  V2A 2  Continuity Equation
2 2
P1 V1 P V
  Z1  2  2  Z2  h1 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Q = volume flow rate (m3 / s)

V = average velocity (m / s)
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
Z = height above datum (m)
P = static pressure (N/m2)
hl1-2 = head loss between point 1 and point 2
 = density (kg/m3)

Page 20
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)

Head Loss

The head loss in the pipe is comprised of:

(A) losses caused by viscous resistance in the pipes.
(B) losses due to local effects such as valves, buckling and a sudden change in flow
area

Total head is the sum of the two types of losses mentioned above.

1. The head loss in the pipe line:

For a pipe with a length L and diameter D, the loss in pipes is given by the following
equation:
4f 2
h =
2gD
and f - friction factor, V - average velocity

2. The head loss caused by the sudden expansion:

( 2
1 2)
h =
2g
and
V1 - velocity before enlargement outer pipe section,
V2 - velocity after enlargement sectional area of the pipe.

3. The head loss due to a sharp reduction:

2
2
h =
2g
and K – loss coefficient.

Table 6.1: Loss coefficient for a sharp reduction A2/A1.

A2/A1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

K 0.50 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.30 0.18 0.06 0

4. The head loss caused by buckling (bend).

The head loss caused by the buckling is contributed by two factors. The first is the length of
the pipe. The second factor is the pipe geometry which depends on the radius of buckling
and buckling angle. Total head loss of the buckling can be expressed as:

5. The loss in the valve:

The head loss caused by the valve is given by the following equation:
and K depend on the type of valve and the opening rate.

Table 6.2: Loss coefficient for a gate valve and a globe valve

Glob valve, fully open 10.0

Gate valve, fully open 0.2
Gate valve, partially open 5.6

Page 21
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Apparatus

The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 6.1. It consists of two hydraulic circuits,
each containing several pipe components. Both of which are supplied with water from the
hydraulic table.

The dark blue circuit contains:

1. Valve Get D
2. Elbow C
3. Twists miter 90o B
4. A straight pipe

The light blue circuit contains:

1. Glob valve K
2. Sudden expansion E
3. Sudden contraction F
4. 152.4mm 90 elbow J
5. 101.6 mm 90 elbow H
6. 50.8 mm 90 elbow G

The pressure drop across the valve is measured with U tube manometer while the pressure
drop across other components is measured using a piezometer tube.

Plumbing pipes in this circuit is made of light gauge copper tube (BS 659)

Experimental procedure

1. Connect the supply hose to the inlet table hydraulic apparatus and direct outlet to the
hydraulic tank weighing table.
2. Close the globe valve, gate valve open and streaming water into the deep blue circuit by
moving the pump and open the drain valve hydraulic table.
3. Close the gate valve and so were trapped air into the air space in the tube piezometer.
Make sure all tube piezometer readings showed zero for the pressure difference.
4. Open the gate valve and by modifying bleed screw (the bleed screw) on U tube, fill
your arms with water and make sure there is no air left in the arms of the manometer.
5. Close the gate valve, globe valve is open and repeat the procedure above for the circuit
light blue.
6. By processing air pressure in piezometers, adjust the water level to an appropriate level.
7. Now fully open water control valve on the hydraulic table. With a globe valve is closed,
the gate valve is fully open for maximum flow through the circuit navy. Readings taken
account of the reading on the tube and the tube piezometer U. Collect sufficient amount
of water in the tank to ensure that the weighing scales takes at least 60 seconds.
8. Repeat the above procedure for 10 different flow intervals.
9. Using the thermometer record the temperature of the water in the reservoir tank of
hydraulic table every time a reading is taken.
10. Close the gate valve, globe valve is open and repeat the experiment in the light blue of
the circuit. Before closing the pump make sure that both globe valves and gate valves
are closed to prevent air from entering the circuit system.

Page 22
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Related Data Pipeline

Diameter pipe (internal) 13.7 mm

The diameter of the pipe
between the sharp downsizing and enlargement of 26.4 mm
Distance between hole pressure measuring 0.914 m
Pipe materials Copper tube

Bend radius
Elbow 90 ° (mitre) 0
Standard elbow 90° 12.7 mm
Smooth bend 90o 50.8 mm
Smooth bend 90° 101.6 mm
Smooth bend 90° 152.4 mm

Manometer tube and components.

Number tube manometer

1- 2 standard elbows
3- 4 straight pipe
5- 6 twists mitre
7- 8 sudden expansion
9- 10 sharp contraction
11- 12 twists 152.4 mm
13- 14 twists 101.6 mm
15- 16 bends 50.8 mm

Results

(A) Dark blue circuit (Gate Valve)

No. Time to Manometer reading (cm) U-Tube

collect 10 L (cm Hg)
of water (s)
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 h1 h2 h
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Page 23
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

(B) Light blue circuit (Globe Valve)

No. Time to Manometer reading (cm) U-Tube

collect 10 L (cm Hg)
of water (s)
1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 h1 h2 h
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(C) Losses in a straight pipe (Gate Valve)

Analysis:

For losses in straight pipe:

hL = h3 h4

olume
=
time

Use the value of inner pipe diameter: 13.7 mm

Fluid mean velocity,
=
d
Re=

h gD
fexp =
2 2

L – distance between two pressure tappings

V- fluid mean velocity

Page 24
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

No. Time to hL Log Q Log V Re ftheoretical fexp

collect 10 L hL Q
of water (s) (m3/s) (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(D) Losses in a sudden expansion (Globe Valve)

Analysis:

Losses due to a sudden expansion:

hLexp = h8 h7

Inner diameter, d1 = 13.7 mm

Sudden expansion diameter, d2 = 26.4 mm

1=  2
4 d1

2=  2
4 d2
(  )

No. Time to V1 V2 hLexp hLtheoretical Percentage error

collect 10 L (m/s) (m/s) (mm) (mm)
of water
(s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Page 25
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

(E) Loss coefficient, K for both gate and globe valves

Analysis:

partially open flow rate

Percentage of flow rate = 100
fully open flow rate
h = h1  h2
hL = h 12.6
=

No. Q Percentage h = h1h2 hL = h V K

(m3/s) of flow (mm) 12.6 (m/s)
rate (mm Hg)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Plot graphs of:

1. Log hL against log Q

2. Theoretical and experimental values of f against Re
3. Loss coefficient, K for both gate and globe valves against percentage of flow rate.

Discussion (30 marks)

1. Provide an elaborated explanation of the trend of each graph.

2. Students should be able to provide a scientific reason that relates the behaviour of
each graph to the fundamental aspects of the fluid.
3. Students are also required to list several factors that affect the accuracy of the data
collected during the experiment.
4. Students should be able to suggest ways to improve the experiment.

Conclusion

Write a conclusion that ties the findings with objectives.

Page 26
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Experiment 7:
The First Law of Thermodynamics
I – OPEN SYSTEM (KETTLE)

AIM

To determine the rate of heat transferred and performance of a kettle.

APPARATUS

1. Kettle (2 liter kettle without automatic switch)

2. One thermocouple with temperature reader
3. Weighing scale (capacity 2 kg and resolution 0.001kg)
4. Timer
5. Clamp meter (watt meter)

THEORY

A kettle is an example of an open system. The first law equation can be written as follows:
Q-W = m  (h2-h1) + ½ m (C22-C12) + m g(Z2-Z1)
That is also called the steady flow energy equation (SFEE) where:
Q= rate of heat transferred
W= rate of work done or power
m (h2-h1) = rate of enthalpy change
½m  (C22-C12) = rate of change of kinetic energy
m g(Z2-Z1) = rate of change of potential energy
The above formula can be simplified where there is no work done and changes to the kinetic
and potential energies are negligible. Hence the formula becomes;
Q= m (h2-h1)
For water the formula can also be written as
Q= m  Cp T
1. Rate of heat transferred to boil the water from ambient condition Q= mC pT/t or
mhfT/t
m=mass of water
Cp=average specific heat of water or hf the specific enthalpy
T = temperature difference between initial ambient temperature of water and
the boiling temperature
t= time taken for the water to boil
or T/t = rate of temperature rise
2. Rate of heat transferred to evaporate the water from boiling condition
Q= mehfg/te
me = mass of water evaporated
hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water
te= time taken for the water to evaporate
or me/te = rate of water evaporated.
3. Efficiency of the kettle is given as
= Total rate of heat transferred/electrical consumption

Page 27
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

METHODOLOGY

1. Pour one liter of water into the electrical kettle.

2. Determine the temperature of the water using a thermocouple.
3. Place the kettle on a weighing scale and weigh the kettle with water.
4. Switch on the electricity.
5. Record the temperature and the time until the water boil.
6. Record the time and the reducing weight of the kettle as the water evaporates.
7. Determine the voltage and current to determine the electrical consumption for the
heater.
8. Construct a table to obtain the necessary data to determine the following output:
1. Rate of temperature rise to boil the water (construct table for Temp and Time
and draw a graph Temp versus time)
2. Rate of water evaporated from the kettle (construct table for weight of water
left , water evaporated and time; draw a graph of weight of water evaporated
vs time)
3. Rate of heat transferred to water to the boil
4. Rate of heat transferred for 0.5litre of water to evaporate
5. Total power consumption
6. Determine the voltage and current from the power supply to determine the
power input
7. Efficiency of the kettle

DISCUSSION

Discuss the following:

1. Discuss all sources of errors and the precaution taken
2. Discuss the efficiency of a kettle using a gas stove instead of an electrical heater.

II - Hairdryer Experiment

AIM

To determine the energy balance for a hair dryer

INTRODUCTION

Heat, work and mass all cross the boundary. From the first law of thermodynamics, the
energy into the system has to equal the energy out for steady state. From conservation of
mass, the mass in has to equal the mass out for steady state. This experiment requires all of
the energy terms associated with the hairdryer. The energy going in includes the electric
work, the total enthalpy of the incoming air, and the kinetic energy of the incoming air.
Energy out includes the total enthalpy of the outgoing air, kinetic energy of the outgoing air,
and any heat transfer from the case to the ambient. Potential energy differences between the
inlet and outlet are also considered.
A common hairdryer makes an excellent example of an open thermodynamics system.
Figure 1 shows the energy terms that are involved in a first law analysis. For a steady state
condition the total energy in must equal the total energy out.

Page 28
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Figure 7.1

The energy into the hairdryer includes the electric work, the total enthalpy of the incoming
air, and the kinetic energy of the incoming air. Energy out of the hairdryer includes the total
enthalpy of the outgoing air, kinetic energy of the outgoing air, and any heat transfer from the
case to the ambient. Potential energy differences between the inlet and outlet are also
considered. Some of the terms involved are very significant to the overall energy balance and
some are almost negligible.

EQUIPMENT
The equipments used to conduct this lab are:
 Hair dryer
 Stand for mounting hair dryer
 One thermocouple and temperature reader
 Hot wire anemometer
 Infrared thermometer

THEORY
The basic first law of thermodynamics for the hairdryer can be written as:
Vin 2 Vout 2
Welec  Q loss  m (hin  hout)  m (  )  m g zin  zout  0
2 2
 in = m
for m  out = m

Vin 2 Vout 2
Welec  Q loss  m
 in(hin   gzin)  m out(hout   gzout)  0
2 2
(Equation 1)
 Vin 2  Vout 2
Welec  m  in(hin   gzin)  Qloss  m out(hout   gzout)
2 2

Consider each term in the equation:

Electric Work In:
W elec  Voltage * Current (Equation 2)

A hairdryer is designed to produce heat, so a high power factor is desired. Most hairdryers
have a power factor very close to one. A power factor of one is assumed for this experiment.
The electrical power input is used to supply the power to the electrical heater for the hair
dryer and the power to drive the fan.

Page 29
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

Heat Loss:
Q  hA(Ts  Ta ) (Equation 3)
 h is the convective heat transfer coefficient. This number is given to the students as 5
w/m2 . The area is estimated based on the students‟ judgment about how much of
the nozzle is actually warm. The surface temperature Ts is measured using an
infrared thermometer. The temperature varies across the surface, so the students must
make a judgment about what to use as an average temperature. Ta is the ambient
temperature.

Specific Enthalpy In:

hin  CpT (Equation 4)
Cp is the specific heat of the incoming air, given to the students as 1.005 kJ/kgK. The
temperature T is the absolute temperature of the incoming air (room temperature) in K.

Specific Enthalpy Out: hout is calculated using equation 4, but the temperature used is the
average temperature at the outlet.
For constant Cp the change in enthalpy can be written as
H  m (hout  hin)  m Cp(Tout  Tin )
Velocity Out:
Velocity of the exit air is determined directly using the hot wire anemometer

Air Density:
The air density is determined for the exit temperature measured using the thermodynamic
property table.

Mass Flow Rate Out:

m out  VA (Equation 5)
V is the average exit velocity and A is the area of the region of interest.
Velocity In: The students are told to use a velocity in of zero because the inlet area is much
larger than the exit, so the velocity will be very low. More advanced students use the
continuity equation which says that the mass flow rate in equals the mass flow rate out.

Potential Energy: The vertical distance between the center of the inlet and the center of the
outlet is measured. This elevation change is used to calculate the potential energy change.

METHODOLOGY

The apparatus have been set up. Switch on the electrical power supply and measure the
following parameters.

Page 30
 ESA 211/2 Engineering Lab 1 |2018/19|

DATA Experimental conditions:

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Constants for the experiment= pressure
Fixture Inside Diameter = and temperature of ambient condition
Air Inlet Area of Dryer = Manipulative variable= speed of the
Elevation Difference Inlet/Outlet = hair dryer fan.
Air exit temperature= Output= Total thermal power in, total
Exit velocity= thermal power out and the percentage
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS error
Input Voltage = Plot graphs for the output against the
Input Current = speed of the fan.
HEAT LOSS DATA
Average Temp. of Nozzle = DISCUSSION
Length of Heated Surface = Discuss the following:
Outside Diameter of Nozzle = 1. Discuss all possible sources of
MISC. DATA errors and precautions taken.
Room Temperature = 2. Discuss ways of improving the
Barometric Pressure = experiment.
CALCULATE
Density of exit air=
Mass flow rate =
Change of enthalpy=
Change of potential energy=
Change of kinetic energy=
Heat loss=

DETERMINE
Electrical power output=
Total thermal power in=
Total thermal power out=
%error=

Page 31