Water Resource Synergy Management in Response To Climate Change in China

Resources, Conservation & Recycling 163 (2020) 105095
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec
Review
Water resource synergy management in response to climate change in T

China: From the perspective of urban metabolism
⁎ ⁎
Haodong Lva,b, Lin Yanga,b, , Jinsheng Zhoua,b, , Xian Zhangc, Wenjing Wua,b, Yiming Lid,
Dalin Jiange
a
School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, 100083 Beijing, China
b
Key Laboratory on Resources and Environment Capacity under Ministry of Land and Resources of People's Republic of China, Beijing 100083, China
c
The Administrative Centre for China's Agenda 21 (ACCA21), Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Beijing 100038, China
d
School of Economics and Management, Inner Mongolia University, 010021, Inner Mongolia, China
e
China Energy Technology and Economics Research Institute, Changping District, Beijing 102211, China
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Climate change exacerbates the vulnerability of water resources, and water-energy-carbon nexus makes water
Climate change management more complicated. This paper attempts to explore the water resource synergy management paths
Urban metabolism within urban metabolic system against the background of human actively respond to climate change. We hold
Water management that: (1) Climate change would aggravate water scarcity risk from a supply-based perspective. Meanwhile, the
Synergy management
normal metabolism of water consumers and energy consumption and mitigation options against climate change
Water-energy-carbon nexus
would directly and indirectly respectively, affect the water usage from a demand-based perspective. (2)
Agriculture has great water-saving potential resulting from drip irrigation and drought-resistant technologies,
but the potentials would be gradually endangered by biomass crop popularization. Industrial water saving
mainly lies in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and CO2-enhanced water recovery (CO2-EWR). Domestic
water-saving depends on sewage source treatment and awareness of water and energy conservation. Ecological
water-saving should focus on the circulation of natural ecosystems and hydraulic systems. (3) Synergy man-
agement emphasizes the dynamic complementarity among water consumers in the urban metabolic system.
Particularly, it is possible to compensate industrial water usage through agricultural water-saving due to fossil
energy-based carbon capture and storage (CCS) in the medium to long term, while it is probably reversed due to
the biomass crops expansion and bioenergy-based CCS (BECCS) deployment in the future. Additionally, seasonal
changes and regional disparities should be fully taken into consideration. Overall, water resource policies
should contribute towards effective water allocation within the urban metabolic system and low-carbon tech-
nologies deployment against climate change.
1. Introduction Huang et al., 2016; Rajsekhar and Gorelick, 2017). Changes in water
quantity and spatial distribution will affect the supply of surface water
Climate change has serious impacts on the frequency and intensity and groundwater for agriculture, industry, hydropower, river ecosys-
of extreme events such as sea level rise, increased evaporation, un- tems, and domestic living (Xu and Zeng, 2012), which will further
predictable precipitation and persistent drought, leading to an in- weaken the water availability.
tensification of water cycle (Zhang et al., 2019). Particularly, the arid Undoubtedly, water are basic conditions for the survival of human
and semiarid regions are projected to increase by 23% compared with beings and are irreplaceable resources for supporting social and eco-
that of 1961–1990 and account for more than 50% of the global land nomic systems (Jia et al., 2018; Kosolapova et al., 2017). China's total
surface by the end of the 21st century, largely due to the water resource water resources were 2746.3 billion m3 in 2018, which was close to the
vulnerability caused by climate change (Cunningham et al., 2017; international warning level of 1700 m3 per capita (UN-Water, 2016).
⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: yanglin0413@hotmail.com (L. Yang), zhoujinsheng001@163.com (J. Zhou).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105095
Received 13 May 2020; Received in revised form 2 August 2020; Accepted 5 August 2020
Available online 18 August 2020
0921-3449/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Lv, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 163 (2020) 105095
The State Council has established "three red lines"1 for controlling the agricultural sectors (Falloon and Betts, 2010; Liu et al., 2020; Seung-
water usage in view of the water shortage crisis (GOSC, 2012). Mean- Hwan et al., 2013), energy sectors (Khan et al., 2016; Zohrabian and
while, the increasingly severe water pollution problem has imposed Sanders, 2018), construction sectors (Bertone et al., 2016) and domestic
higher requirements on urban sewage treatment facilities (WRI, 2014). households (Haque et al., 2015; Nauges and Wheeler, 2017); however,
In addition, the uneven distribution of water exacerbates the water there is a lack of research that considers the water system. In the
shortage crisis to some extent. Overall, the parts of the North, Southwest agricultural sector, Mo et al. (2017) analyzed the stable and sustainable
and Northeast and Northwest areas have been regarded as the severe impact of water shortages caused by climate change on agricultural
drought zones in China (see Fig. 1). water usage in the North China Plain and further evaluated possible
The relationship between human beings and water resource is mitigation and adaptation measures. To achieve sustainable and stable
mainly reflected by urban metabolism which is a metaphor for con- crop production, Seung-Hwan et al. (2013) analyzed the impact of
ceptualizing the flow of resources in the urban system with several climate change on water usage in crop growing systems and water
sectors, including agriculture, industry, households and commerce demand in agricultural reservoirs and proposed corresponding strate-
(Chen et al., 2020a; Serrao-Neumann et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2018), gies. With regard to the impact of climate change on water usage in the
revealing the connection between human beings and the natural system sector, Kyle et al. (2013) explored the net impact of climate change
(Dodder et al., 2016; Farooqui et al., 2016; Pincetl et al., 2012). Water mitigation policies on water demand in the power sector and proposed
metabolism refers to a series of processes such as evaporation, pre- a series of global climate policies and technical strategies for the power
cipitation and runoff in the water cycle and their functions of main- sector, namely, a comprehensive evaluation model for energy, agri-
taining water balance and natural purification to ecological metabolism culture and climate change. Some studies also assessed the optimal
(Jeong and Park, 2020; Renouf et al., 2017). Climate change ac- allocation of regional water resources (Ahmad et al., 2018; Fu et al.,
celerated the urbanization and increased water demand, resulting in an 2018; Yao et al., 2019). Pingale et al. (2014) proposed an integrated
additional burden on urban water supplies (WHO, 2017). Meanwhile, urban water management model considering climate change, and the
water shortages caused by climate change lead to the contradiction model is applicable to the optimal water allocation to meet the demand
between agriculture and industry for water conflicts in relation to urban of different water consumers under change scenarios.
metabolism (Bahri, 2012). The water-energy-carbon nexus has been considered as a major
Industry is the second largest water consumer behind agriculture challenge of sustainable development due to the interdependence of the
and is also the largest source of CO2 emissions affecting climate change energy sector on water resources and of the water supply sector on
(IEA, 2016). Especially, energy sectors, such as coal mining and power energy inputs. Fan et al. (2019) discussed the industrial water-energy
generation, consume large amounts of water resource (Cai et al., 2014; relationship from the two aspects of resource management and demand
Yang et al., 2020a). In 2014, primary energy production and generation management and proposed appropriate measures to provide insights for
accounted for approximately 10% of the global water usage the overall sustainable planning of an urban agglomeration.
(IEA, 2016). In addition, limiting warming to 1.5℃ would require a Lee et al. (2017) introduced the water-energy nexus into the urban
70–95% reduction in emissions by 2050 compared with 2010 levels water supply system to improve urban water shortages and energy ef-
(IPCC, 2014; Jiang et al., 2019). Water is essential for energy-related ficiency and proposed comprehensive management measures for the
activities, including the extraction, transportation and processing of impact of water risk on the urban water system. Currently, the pressure
fossil fuels and the irrigation of biofuel feedstocks (IEA, 2018). Mean- of reducing emissions is increasing as a result of fossil fuel-dominated
while, energy usage is also critical for a range of water treatment enery structure. Meanwhile, water vulnerability is aggravated, leading
processes, including water distribution, wastewater treatment and de- to a serious contradiction between water supply and demand. There-
salination (IEA, 2016). Water conservation measures can reduce energy fore, the water-energy-carbon nexus is a significant force driving urban
consumption and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (Engström et al., metabolism and is constrained by sustainable water usage.
2017; Xu et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019), and similarly, improving There is always the risk of uncertainty about water resource and
energy efficiency will help reduce water usage and carbon emissions climate change, which requires supply and demand strategies for urban
(Jin et al., 2017; Shang et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020a). Accordingly, water management to address future water crises. Hence, it is essential
the interdependence of water and energy has become a key global issue to measure the availability, demand and structure of water resources
and is the focus of the sustainable development goals (IEA, 2018; through urban metabolic systems. Nevertheless, the existing literatures
Meng et al., 2019; WEF, 2016). The proposal of a water-energy-carbon have some limitations. First, most studies mainly focused on water re-
nexus plays a significant role in alleviating the crisis of water and en- sources from the perspective of the watershed water cycle or hydrology,
ergy as well as in reducing CO2 emissions. ignoring the impact of climate change on urban water supply and de-
At present, climate change and water utilization are hot research mand. Second, the water-saving and emission reduction measures are
topics under the global sustainable development goals. Mujere and confined to a single sector, and the systematic management of water
Eslamian (2014) analyzed the potential effects of climate change on the resources is limited, which is not conducive to coordination among
hydrology and water resources in the Nyanyadzi River catchment in departments. Moreover, few studies explored the impact of emission
eastern Zimbabwe with focusing on climate change–water resource reduction on water-saving pressure in the context of climate change,
management nexus. Kusangaya et al. (2014) summarized the water and thus the water-energy-carbon nexus effects are not fully considered.
availability and utilization in different regions of Africa against climate Third, the water resource management is relatively simple and lack
change. Kundzewicz et al. (2018) studied the uncertainty of climate coordinated allocation in urban metabolic system. To fill the research
change on hydrology and water resources and proposed two possible gaps, this paper first reviews related studies to propose direct measures
management strategies. Other studies have focused on sustainable targeting water conservation-saving potential and indirect water dis-
water management in sectors in response to climate change, including tribution paths considering the influence of climate change on carbon
abatement related water demands in terms of several major water
consumers, including agriculture, industry, domesticity and ecology.
1 Second, some key issues are discussed to explore the synergy manage-
The policy of "three red lines" includes: (i) The red line for the development
and usage of water is set to be below 700×108 m3 by 2030. (ii) The red line for ment paths from the perspective of water metabolism. The results are
water efficiency is set to be at or near the world's advanced level by 2030, and expected to provide suggestions for sustainable water usage within
water usage per 10,000 yuan industrial value-added should drop below 40 m3. urban metabolism in response to climate change. To be specific, this
(iii) The red line for effective utilization coefficients of irrigation water is set to study aims to answer three questions: (i) what is the impact of climate
increase to above 0.6. change on water resource; (ii) how can water-saving potential be
2
Fig. 1. Distribution of drought-plagued counties in China (MWR, 2014).
Fig. 2. Research roadmap of this paper.
improved from the perspective of urban metabolism; and (iii) how can perspective and a demand-based perspectives. Moreover, the de-
we synergistically manage urban water systems (see Fig. 2). The main mand side includes not only the direct water demand from main-
contributions of this research are as follows: taining the normal metabolism of various urban water consumers,
but also the indirect water demand resulting from increasing energy
• This research enriches the evidences for the impacts of climate consumption and mitigation options in response to climate change.
change on urban water metabolic system from both a supply-based • This research takes into account multiple factors including climate
3
factors, technological factors and social factors that affect the urban each sector increased, among which ecological water consumption and
water system. In particular, the effects of some emerging low-carbon domestic water consumption presented the greatest increases, with the
technologies on urban water resource are first analyzed, which percentage of 151.8% and 35.8%, respectively. By contrast, agricultural
further complement and perfect the theory about water-energy- and industrial water consumption only increased by 7.6% and 7.3%,
carbon coupling in urban metabolic system. respectively. In terms of the proportion, domestic and ecological water
• This research refines the concept of synergy management of urban usage have increased while agricultural and industrial water usage have
water resources and discusses the probability of dynamic com- decreased. Meanwhile, China's total water supply is roughly equivalent
plementarity among several water consumers in urban metabolic to water usage. In 2018, the surface water supply accounted for 82.3%
system against the context of climate change. Moreover, some sug- and underground water supply accounted for 16.2% (MWR, 2018).
gestions are proposed considering the fluctuation of water resources Other water sources (including rainwater, seawater, etc.) accounted for
caused by a variety of factors. 1.5%. Remarkably, the shortage of surface water resources is quite
obvious in most of northern areas and therefore 65% of domestic water,
The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 introduces 50% of industrial water and 33% of agricultural irrigation water come
the structure of water system from the perspective of urban metabolism. from underground water. While in most of southern areas, surface
Section 3 systematically summarizes the recycling and sustainable uti- water supply is adequate since it close to the coast and has a subzone
lization of water resources in urban metabolic system in response to monsoon climate with more precipitation. In addition, seawater is
climate change. Section 4 provides a theoretical framework of water mainly used for once-through and circulating cooling water for thermal
resource synergy management in urban metabolic system. The con- (nuclear) power, with a contribution of 16–24%.
clusions and policy implications are drawn in Section 5. Water supply, water treatment and water delivery could be severely
affected by climate change. On the one hand, a change in the pre-
2. Structure of the water system in urban metabolism cipitation pattern would lead to a decrease in river flow and ground-
water levels, thus affecting the water supply (UN-Habitat, 2011). On
With the acceleration of industrialization and urbanization, water the other hand, with the increase in temperature, the occurrence of hot
usage rises sharply, making it increasingly difficult for water distribu- weather events and the increasing population would lead to a large
tion in urban metabolic system (DWR, 2014). In addition, resource- demand and serious competition for urban water. Moreover, the pre-
intensive industries not only intensify water demand but also waste- cipitation imbalance and sea-level rise will affect the water quality and
water discharge (Meng et al., 2017). Accordingly, wastewater re- sewage disposal. Urban water pollution further aggravates the water
clamation and reuse has been regarded as an effective strategy to re- shortage, leading to the coexistence of resource-based water shortages
lieve water resource pressure (Zhang et al., 2016). Fig. 3 depicts the and quality-based water shortages, which has become a principal factor
circulation and flow path of the water resource system. restricting the supply of water, energy and other resources.
The main sources of urban water supply are surface water, under- The quantity and quality of water resource show corresponding
ground water, rainwater and seawater. The social water cycle is ulti- sensitive characteristics on account of the global warming effects. In
mately delivered to the user after treatments such as sewage purifica- areas with increased precipitation, water loss from evaporation may be
tion or seawater desalination. In urban metabolic system, water replenished, but the available surface water will be greatly reduced in
resources are transported to all walks of life through the urban pipe areas with constant or reduced precipitation. Runoff is highly sensitive
network and then recycled and treated by the sewage treatment system to climate change and even small changes in precipitation or tem-
(Paul et al., 2019). Globally, more than 80% of domestic, industrial and perature can have a significant impact (Center for Climate
agricultural wastewater is recycled into nature and not reused. Fig 4 Change, 2019; Houghton, 2014). Additionally, a stronger water cycle
In 2018, China's total water usage was 601.55 billion m3, with a associated with global warming will lead to an increase in the fre-
increase of 69.6 billion m3 compared with the value in 2003 quency and intensity of floods and droughts, and many semi-arid re-
(MWR, 2003, 2018). In the past 15 years, the water consumption in gions will suffer severe reductions in water caused by climate change
Fig. 3. Water flow path in urban metabolism.
4
Fig. 4. Water usage and proportion in China's urban system in 2003 and 2018. Note: The reason why 2003 was chosen as the discussion object year is that China first
brought ecological water into the urban water system in 2003. .
(Zhu et al., 2019). Moreover, higher temperatures and greater pre- and the greenhouse effects caused by the energy use related to agri-
cipitation intensity aggravate all forms of water pollution, with im- cultural activities further intensify the pressure for reducing agri-
plications for ecosystems, human health, and the reliability and op- cultural emissions (El Gafy et al., 2017; Howells et al., 2013). Among
erational costs of water systems (Center for Climate Change, 2019). them, planting structure and fickle precipitation greatly affect the
carbon emissions and irrigation related energy consumption including
3. Sustainable water usage within urban metabolic systems pumping, transportation, surface water and groundwater application,
against climate change which further increase agricultural water consumption indirectly
(Mushtaq et al., 2009).
Urban water usage can be divided based on the water usage sector.
Water system in China is divided into agricultural water, industrial 3.1.2. Agricultural water-saving potential and path
water, domestic water and ecological water based on the water usage It is necessary to highlight the cycle-oriented water-saving agri-
characteristics (Chen et al., 2016a; Chu et al., 2015). cultural system to maintain the sustainable stability of the regional
water environment and to create ecological agriculture and low-carbon
3.1. Agricultural water usagessss agriculture (Mo et al., 2017).
In terms of policy support, the "three red lines" should be strictly
3.1.1. Current situation and circulation system of agricultural water enforced for agricultural water usage. Each region should strengthen
Agricultural water mainly comes from urban water sources and at- the construction of farmland infrastructure and reasonably adjust the
mospheric precipitation. However, it is extremely vulnerable to fre- planting area and planting scale of water-saving crops and biomass
quent drought (Li et al., 2020) and will rely on base flows in rivers crops in combination with low-carbon and green agricultural develop-
during the dry periods, and therefore is affected by the changes in the ment targets. Advanced crop-soil nutrition management concepts
recharge of groundwater (Mujere and Eslamian, 2014). Irrigation is the should be advocated to further enhance the water-energy-carbon nexus
main form of water withdrawal, accounting for 40% of water resources in agricultural production, thus improving the resource efficiency and
(GWP, 2018). Water delivery is the transformation and redistribution reducing emissions (Fan et al., 2020). Additionally, the market-based
process of field water and soil water in the root layer of the plant. mechanism can be adopted to allocate resource-affirming rights to en-
Agricultural water consumption mainly occurs in the process of root sure sustainable water usage.
absorption of crops and evaporation of soil water resources, including In terms of technological development, firstly, the techniques of
traditional crops and new biomass crops. Additionally, with the im- water-saving irrigation and conservation tillage are essential. Currently,
provement of living standards and diet structure, China's agricultural drip irrigation has been applied in over 80% of farmland, saving 20% of
water usage presents an evolutionary trend towards decreasing for water resource compared with traditional irrigation, and it is conducive
farmland irrigation and slowly increasing for forestry, animal hus- to recycling wastewater to relieve water pressure in the future
bandry and fisheries (Feng et al., 2013). Fig. 5 presents the agricultural (Hoff, 2011; Roost et al., 2008; Sarker et al., 2019). It is also imperative
water circulation in urban metabolic system. to carry out the fattening mode of translocation, reasonably adjust the
Agricultural water usage is affected by climate, technology, and species and density of aquaculture, and strengthen the forestry-hus-
social factors. First, the degradation of surface water and groundwater, bandry-fishery industry to improve the fishery infrastructure, so as to
as well as the drought caused by climate change, aggravate the im- regulate water competition between farming and aquaculture. Second,
balance between supply and demand of water resource. Second, poor irregular precipitation and drought caused by climate change seriously
soil and backward farming methods lead to low irrigation efficiency. It jeopardize crop growth. Rice and corn are more susceptible to pre-
is predicted that lobal net demand for irrigation is probably to grow by cipitation, while wheat and soybeans are more sensitive to temperature
20% by 2080 since climate change will increase water evaporation and (Zou et al., 2013). Accordingly, on the one hand, rainwater harvesting
crop growth periods (Fischer et al., 2007). Third, the rising water de- irrigation technology should be further developed. During abundant
mand for residents living and industrial production will compete with rainfall periods, reservoirs should be built to collect precipitation near
agricultural water usage. the farmland where rainwater gathers according to geographical con-
In addition, land management influences greenhouse gas emissions ditions to complement irrigation during seasonal drought; on the other
through planting structure and soil nutrient balance (Fan et al., 2020), hand, dry farming technology would promote crops to speed up the
5
Fig. 5. Diagram of agricultural water circulation in urban metabolism. Note: The solid line represents the natural water cycle and the dashed line represents the
artificial water cycle.
growth cycle while avoiding the peak season of water demand. At the Note: MWC = Mining and washing of coal; EPNG = Extraction of
same time, applying organic fertilizer could improve the ability of soil petroleum and natural gas; PPC = Processing of petroleum, coking, and
to absorb and store water. In addition, the application of drought-re- processing of nuclear fuel; PSEH = Production and supply of electricity and
sistant technology can greatly improve the drought-resistant capacity of heat; PSG = Production and supply of gas; MI = Metallurgical industry;
soil and crops and realize an increase in water-saving potential. ISI = Iron and steel industry; BMI = Building materials industry;
Considering the indirect water consumption in the process of MRCM = Manufacture of raw chemical materials and chemical products;
emission reduction, it is necessary to conduct farmland infrastructure CCS = Carbon capture and storage; CO2-EWR = CO2-enhanced water
construction, soil fertilization and soil improvement to reduce soil recovery.
erosion and improve soil carbon sequestration, all of which can be used Resource-intensive industries including five energy sectors and
to achieve carbon mitigation while improving crop adaptability some other sectors that are key water usage accounts, all of which are
(Gonzalez-Sanchez et al., 2019). Climate change has promoted the subject to the urban water supply constraints and the water withdrawal
demand of biomass crops which has been widely considered as a constraints called the "three red lines".
cleaner, greener source of energy than fossil fuels. Currently, adjusting Industrial water usage is restricted by climatic, technological and
the planting structure of crops and increasing the planting area and social factors. Climate change directly causes a decline in water quan-
scale of second generation bioenergy crops, such as switchgrass and tity and the deterioration of water quality, while increasing resource
miscanthus, could alleviate the pressure of emission reduction caused consumption in water treatment indirectly restricts water usage for
by climate change to some extent (Hu et al., 2020). However, biomass industry. Technology has a great influence on the fluctuation of in-
crop present more water usage than traditional crop (Hu et al., 2020), dustrial water usage, and improvements in the energy efficiency and
and therefore is probably to become one of the largest water de- energy conservation potential can produce great water-saving effects.
manders. In view of the fact that bioenergy electricity generation and In particular, the energy sector completely achieved a total water-
bioenergy carbon capture and storage (BECCS) will be widely deployed saving effect of 12.40×108 m3 from 2007 to 2012 by improving energy
in the future resulting from the demands for energy security and carbon efficiency (Jin et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2020a).With the industrial op-
reduction, the expansion of biomass crop will definitely increase the timization and the economic expansion, the pressure of emission re-
complexity of water-energy-carbon nexus and water conflicts in urban duction and water-saving has further strengthened the water-energy-
metabolic system (Bhatia et al., 2013). Accordingly, the research on carbon nexus.
improving water-saving potential of biomass crop should be taken
seriously at present.
3.2.2. Industrial water metabolism under climate change
Industrial activities will seriously exacerbate the effects of climate
3.2. Industrial water usage change and further alter water metabolism. China will still be the
world's largest coal producer by 2040, accompanied by water con-
3.2.1. Current industrial water usage and climate change effects sumption increasing to 12 billion m3, while gas-related water con-
The water resources and industry in urban metabolic system are sumption will remain relatively low, reaching approximately 3 billion
closely related due to the inherent characteristic of water-energy nexus. m3 (IEA, 2016). At present, the PSEH (Production and supply of electricity
Undoubtedly, China still requires resource-intensive sectors with great and heat) consumes the largest amount of water in the energy sector,
water demand to support its economic development for a long time to especially for the power plant with circulation cooling system. Other
come, and thus the shortage of water resources will become a severe resource-intensive industrial sectors, such as metallurgy, steel and ce-
challenge. The water usage of different industries should be taken into ment, consume as much water and energy as the energy sector, which
consideration to realize sustainable water usage and management are also key points in urban water saving and emission reduction
(Kilkis, 2019). Fig. 6 describes the supply and demand cycle of in- (Gao et al., 2020; Mazziotti Gomez de Teran et al., 2017).
dustrial water in urban metabolic system, and it is worth noting that the Climate change has made industry a major factor responsible for
water usage indirectly affected by emission reduction is also involved. reducing emissions in cities, especially in the energy sector. It also
6
Fig. 6. Brief diagram of industrial water supply and demand structure in urban metabolism.
requires a large reduction in emissions while providing enough energy, plays a significant role in promoting sustainable water metabolism.
which calls on the development of non-fossil energy to make energy
usage more efficient (Merschmann et al., 2013). There are several ways
to reduce carbon emission. Improving energy efficiency could con- 3.2.3. Industrial water-saving potential and path
tribute 40% of the total reduction, renewable energy 35%, and carbon In terms of policy, the total water consumption index should be
dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology 14% (IEA, 2007a). broken down step by step and detailed to specific industrial enterprises
However, renewable energy has not yet been applied on a large scale based on the "three red lines". The implementation of the water quota
and cannot completely replace fossil energy in the short term system could delimit the restricted boundary for the water consumption
(IEA, 2007b). The most effective way to achieve large-scale low-carbon of high-consumption industries and prevent extensive water usage to
utilization of fossil energy is CCS, which refers to the industrial process form a reverse force mechanism to improve water usage efficiency and
of sequestering CO2 from industrial sources for underground storage to reduce waste sewage discharge. Moreover, the IPCC has set a goal of
reduce CO2 emissions (Ali and Kumar, 2015). It is of great significance controlling the temperature rise to 1.5℃ (IPCC, 2018; Jiang et al.,
for China to mitigate emissions, prevent climate change and achieve a 2019); thus, it is necessary to implement low-carbon transition policies
low-carbon transition in resource-intensive sectors. Relative to fossil and rationally deploy low-carbon technologies and renewable energy
energy-based CCS, bioenergy carbon capture and storage (BECCS) under regional water resource constraints.
shows the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions with double In terms of technology, the low-carbon energy transition affected by
benefits of biological and geological isolation (IPCC, 2018; climate change is the goal of sustainable and clean urban development,
Sanchez et al., 2017), which is the overlap of conventional CCS tech- the core of which is the coupling of water and energy (WEF, 2012).
nology, i.e., biomass power plant and biofuel production technology Currently, the approach to decouple carbon emissions from water-en-
that generate electricity with burning biomass energy and capture CO2 ergy is to retrofit coal-fired power plants (and other resource-intensive
to achieve geological sequestration (Hu et al., 2020; GCCSI, 2010). industries in the future) with CCS. While CCS has the potential to in-
Future technological development and implementation may demon- crease flexibility to achieve emission reduction, no single technology
strate the confidence and effectiveness of renewable energy, fossil en- solution can fully satisfy the need for deep emission mitigation of 1.5℃
ergy-based CCS and BECCS in achieving negative emissions while in- (IPCC, 2005). BECCS is a technology that combines biomass energy and
evitably putting pressure on water resources. The conflict between CCS to achieve negative emissions (Smith et al., 2016), which is the
slowing global warming and exacerbating urban water crises needs to combination of agriculture and industry, and it should be developed by
be addressed, and in particular, the increased water footprint of crops approximately 2030 under the emission reduction mode of 1.5℃
due to biomass crop cultivation with BECCS application should also be (IPCC, 2018).However, CCS will dramatically increase the water de-
considered. mand, which will put additional pressure on resources in water-scarce
Currently, the water-energy-carbon nexus is becoming increasingly areas. In addition, biomass fuel greatly solves the emissions problem as
prominent, with increasing pressure to save water and reduce emissions a form of renewable energy at the expense of high water consumption
in the industrial sector. If the water allocation is unreasonable, the (Khan et al., 2016). Therefore, the key to sustainable water usage in
carbon footprint of industrial water usage will increase sharply to ex- urban metabolism is to achieve the target of water-energy-carbon de-
acerbate the contradiction between water demand and energy con- coupling and synchronous development of economic and environ-
sumption (Tong et al., 2019). Therefore, how to decrease industrial mental benefits by means of fossil energy-based and bioenergy-based
water consumption in urban metabolism while reducing emissions CCS, water conservation projects, and renewable energy power gen-
eration technology based on the climate change situation. Additionally,
7
the improvement of energy efficiency will positively promote the sy- flushing), especially in more developed cities where it is used for garden
nergistic effect of water-saving and energy conservation (Yang et al., irrigation, car washing and swimming. Therefore, the urban living
2020a), especially in the major energy-intensive industries, and the water cycle structure is more complex than that of towns, especially
synergistic effect is quite remarkable (Jin et al., 2017). with the advancement of urbanization and technological progress. The
First, there are specific water-saving potentials in different processes strengthening of sewage collection and treatment systems enhances the
relying on CCS: (ⅰ) burning high-quality coal or drought-resistant bio- efficiency of water utilization and alleviates the negative effects of
mass crops for power generation in power plants could reduce the water urban metabolism on the domestic water environment. The improve-
demand in the fuel supply process; (ⅱ) improving the condensate water ment of the sewage treatment rate of 94.54% in 2017 will further im-
recovery technology in the capture process to decrease the cooling load prove the resource use level and high-quality recycled water reuse
and promote water recycling; and (ⅲ) popularizing CO2-enhanced technology (NBSandMEE, 2018). From the perspective of domestic
water recovery (CO2-EWR) technology during the storage process to energy consumption, the indoor heating and cooling system and the hot
provide potential for underground saltwater development. CO2-EWR is water system are the main drivers of the domestic water-energy re-
the most effective underground regenerative water technology (Li et al., lationship (Liu and Jin, 2019). To effectively manage the integrated
2015; Wei et al., 2013), which refers to injecting CO2 captured with usage of domestic water and energy, attention needs to be paid to both
CCS into the deep geological area to extract salt water and realize water human behavior and technical characteristics.
sharing.
Second, many cities are applying seawater desalination technology 3.3.2. Domestic water-saving potential and path
due to the increasing water demand (GWI, 2011), which is one of the In terms of policy support, given the characteristics of water-energy-
most effective ways to produce drinking water by removing salt from carbon nexus, it is certainly worth improving water-saving conscious-
seawater (Fan et al., 2019). However, desalination operations will ness and cultivating water-saving from the aspects of thinking and
cause a large amount of carbon emissions using the current technology. behavior at the household level based on the fact that demand structure
Therefore, seawater desalination in urban metabolism not only depends and water usage pattern determine the water circulation in urban life.
on energy efficiency improvement but also needs to determine the Moreover, external policy measures determine household emission re-
available technological path to avoid having a greater negating impact duction potential (Ek and Soderholm, 2010). The integration of in-
on the ecological environment (Amy et al., 2017; Malek et al., 2016). formation sharing and economic incentives is necessary means to pro-
Additionally, sewage treatment plants realize the sustainable recycling mote family low-carbon action at the national level (Liu and Jin, 2019).
of urban water, which eliminates biological and chemical pollutants in Regarding technology advancement, the main technologies include
the water and then releases cleaner water into the environment to re- water-saving innovation technology and product innovation tech-
duce sewage impacts (Panepinto et al., 2016). nology. The drainage model of a centralized drainage network and
Third, renewable energy systems can contribute to energy supply treatment system takes water as the medium to remove pollutants in the
security and carbon mitigation. However, the construction of hydro- way of "energy consumption", which has a long distance between the
power plants may have an impact on the ecosystems and fisheries of transmission and collection networks and a high investment cost
existing rivers due to the water loss caused by stream changes and (Wang et al., 2019). Therefore, the innovative technology of urban
evaporation (Fu et al., 2014). In addition, hydropower does not require domestic water-saving can be derived from the concept of "sewage
cooling water, nor does it need as much water as biofuel crops. How- source separation" (Larsen et al., 2013). Domestic sewage comes from
ever, the high temperature in summer affects the efficiency of hydro- the kitchen, toilet, shower, laundry, toilet flushing, kitchen and other
power to some extent due to seasonal changes, which will drive the water points, distinctively in developed urban units including garden
demand for thermal power and lead to an increase in cooling water. watering, car washing and swimming. In addition, it can simply be
Although renewables are not yet ready to replace fossil fuels, the spread divided into gray water, black water and kitchen wastewater
of solar and wind power (especially in arid regions) will largely provide (Wang et al., 2019). Sewage source separation is the process of separ-
a decoupling solution that minimizes the water and environmental ating, collecting and transporting domestic sewage from the source,
footprint. specifically treating gray water and black water to realize resource and
energy utilization (Thomas et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2019). Product
3.3. Domestic water usage innovation technology requires the development of household water-
saving appliances. As the household water consumption of sanitary
3.3.1. Current situation and circulation system of domestic water ware products, water saving-based sanitary ware combination products
Domestic water circulation refers to the process of water flowing to would the future research and application focus.
satisfy the demands of residents (Wang et al., 2017). The demand of The popularity of domestic hot water systems is also driving the
domestic water is expected to reach 818 billion m3 by 2030 in China, rapid growth in energy consumption (Liu et al., 2019), which indirectly
which is exacerbated by severe residential sewage pollution increases the demand for domestic water. Energy for domestic hot
(WRI, 2009). Fig. 7 illustrates the circulation structure of domestic water comes from traditional fossil fuels. The energy conservation and
water in urban metabolism. emission reduction call for more water-efficient and energy technolo-
Temperature increases and seasonal and precipitation pattern var- gies. To achieve these positive goals, possible low-carbon measures
iations caused by climate change are the main climate factors that de- include the installation of solar water heaters and the adoption of en-
termine the domestic water circulation. During the urbanization, po- ergy-efficient appliances to improve household water and energy de-
pulation growth, economic development and improvement of living mand.
standards speed up the urban metabolic rate. Water-saving technology
and the construction of drainage facilities are the technical factors af- 3.4. Ecological water usage
fecting domestic water usage. Sewage treatment and reuse are the key
technical guarantees to achieve the balance between the domestic 3.4.1. Current situation and circulation system of ecological water
water supply and demand. The living space of human being is inseparable from the services
Domestic water sources generally come from direct drinking water provided by wetlands and water ecosystems, such as oxygen produc-
treatment, tap water treatment and rainwater collection treatment, tion, carbon storage, pollutant filtration, and flood protection (UN-
which are purified from urban surface water and groundwater and Habitat, 2011). In general, ecological water usage refers to the total
transported to households through municipal pipelines. Tap water amount of water resources that need to be consumed to stop ecological
serves all aspects of life (e.g., drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and environmental deterioration and cause gradual improvement
8
Fig. 7. Domestic water circulation in urban metabolism.
(Huang et al., 2020; Li et al., 2017). mainly reflects natural vegetation systems and hydraulic engineering
Severe climate change is wreaking havoc on water ecosystems and systems. The natural systems include urban and artificial oasis con-
exacerbating subsidence in some areas, which would affect the balance struction, landscape construction, and water for aquatic biota and riv-
of the ecosystem, worsen the ecological environment and finally in- erine vegetation (Hao et al., 2019), while river biological protection
tensify the contradictory ecological water usage (Oswald Spring, 2011). and utilization and channel and reservoir construction are the appli-
Meanwhile, with the increase in industrial and domestic water usage in cations of ecological water in hydraulic engineering systems
recent years, there has been an over-extraction of groundwater at the (Chen et al., 2016b). To improve the natural properties and recycling
expense of destroying the ecological environment, resulting in the de- efficiency, ecologically reclaimed water is further implemented to en-
cline of groundwater level (Hu et al., 2015; Li et al., 2014; Wu et al., sure the balance of ecological water supply and demand based on the
2014) . Fig. 8 depicts the circulation pattern of ecological water in characteristics of the water system and sewage recycling treatment
urban metabolic system. technology.
In addition, ecological water usage in urban metabolic system
Fig. 8. Pattern structure of ecological water usage in urban metabolism.
9
3.4.2. Ecological water-saving potential and path in water demand (Rickert et al., 2019), which further complicate the
From a policy perspective, first, the construction and protection of water resource management in urban metabolic system. As shown in
the ecological environment should be further strengthened, and mea- Fig. 9, supply-side impact refers to extreme events, such as large eva-
sures should be considered based on water and soil characteristics in poration of water resources and severe drought caused by temperature
different areas to control soil erosion and restore the ecological en- rise, resulting in severe water shortages and attenuated hydrologic cy-
vironment (Yang et al., 2020b). Second, effective greening policies cles, thus decreasing urban water resources; demand-side impact refers
should be formulated to adjust the urban greening scale under the to the direct water demand from maintaining the normal metabolism of
constriction of three red lines and the principle of energy conservation various urban water consumers, as well as the indirect water demand
and emission reduction, such as enriching garden plants, optimizing caused by the energy consumption and application of mitigation op-
urban landscape deployment, and building a complete green space tions.
system (Chen et al., 2020b), to further develop the service function of Climate change requires the synergistic management of water re-
urban ecosystems. sources within urban metabolic system, which emphasizes the com-
From a technology perspective, in the circulation of natural eco- plementarity between water supply and demand in various sectors and
systems and hydraulic systems, on the one hand, increasing the scale of encourages water conservation and regeneration. On the one hand, it
drought-resistant crops can not only decrease the water usage for should alleviate the water supply pressure from a supply-based per-
agriculture but promote the ecosystems balance; on the other hand, spective through increasing reservoirs and artificial rainfall, and on the
engineering measures (such as seawater desalination technology) are other hand, it should develop the water-saving technologies and adjust
adopted to transform the obtained reclaimed water into "ecological the water distribution from a demand-based perspective. Based on the
reclaimed water" to realize the stepwise recycling of ecological, in- above, four key issues are proposed to further explore the water synergy
dustrial and agricultural water (Hu et al., 2015). Regenerated water is a management paths in response to climate change.
very important supplemental water source, which can be viewed as the
second source of water in cities and the first source of water in industry • Dynamic complementarity in urban metabolic system
(Fan et al., 2018; Li et al., 2014). In particular, ecological water re-
generation further balances the contradiction among agricultural and Climate change mainly intensifies water demand in agricultural and
industrial water to supplement the water demand to some extent, al- industrial sectors. However, agricultural water-saving measures such as
though low-carbon technology for the energy industry intensifies water drip irrigation technology and drought-resistant crop cultivation can
usage during the urban energy transition. generate a large water-saving potential (such as 20% water-saving po-
tential achieved by drip irrigation technology), and agricultural water-
4. Urban water synergy management in response to climate saving is likely to realize the long-term compensation of industrial
change water usage. Moreover, climate change is adding to the pressure on
industry for emission mitigation. Energy efficiency improvement and
Climate change affects water resources from a supply-based per- renewable energy, as an important means to reduce emissions, could
spective and a demand-based perspective in urban metabolism. realize energy conservation and water savings to a certain extent
Meanwhile, industrial expansion, intensive irrigation, population (Henriques and Catarino, 2017); however, renewable energy still
growth and modern lifestyles have contributed to a significant increase cannot completely replace traditional fossil energy, resulting in
Fig. 9. Impact of climate change and water synergy management. Note that the yellow lines represent the impact mechanism of climate change, the blue lines
represent the impact of climate change on the urban water system, and the green lines represent the target of synergy management.
10
inevitable carbon emissions (IEA, 2007b). Therefore, CCS will become for efficient energy usage (Sharifzadeh et al., 2019).
the future popularized low-carbon technology at the cost of increasing
water consumption. At this time, the compensation scale of agricultural • Technology-driven regenerative water technology
water savings for industrial water usage has gradually increased. Ac-
cording to the CCS roadmap, 2030 is the best time for CCS retrofitting While agricultural water conservation can supplement industrial
and commercialization. With the continuous breakthrough of capture water usage, water consumption is set to worsen given the deployment
technology and the innovation of CO2-EWR technology, the industrial and spread of fossil energy-based and bioenergy-based CCS technology.
water demand can be further satisfied. Relying on the full life-cycle system of CCS, the condensate water re-
Unlike conventional fossil energy-based CCS, the water demand for covery and treatment technology in the CO2 capture process and the
BECCS comes from two aspects: (1) the water footprint of biomass crops CO2-EWR technology in the CO2 storage process should be taken into
and (2) the water demand for CCS. Among them, water usage for bio- consideration. Notably, CO2 emissions from other sectors (such as me-
mass crop growth, cooling processes or biofuel production will be more tallurgy, manufacturing, and the chemical industry) in urban metabo-
restricted (Fajardy and Mac Dowell, 2017; Hu et al., 2020). Therefore, lism could also be captured to achieve underground saltwater recovery
agricultural water-saving may also be allocated to BECCS to compen- by applying source-sink matching to increase the urban water effi-
sate for the gap in industrial water on the premise of meeting the water ciency. In addition to CO2-EWR technology, the recovery and reuse of
requirements of traditional crops in the medium to long term. Certainly, wastewater creates opportunities to increase the water supply effi-
future agricultural water-saving potential would probably be in- ciently, which contributes to establishing a closed cycle between the
sufficient with the expansion of biomass crops and BECCS deployment. water supply and sewage treatment and forms a synergistic eco-en-
Moreover, the advance of CO2-EWR is likely to produce more water for vironmental effect through source control, system management and
the replenishment of agricultural water. facility construction. In summary, (ⅰ) improving energy efficiency and
Backwater utilization and purification technology further increase applying alternative renewable energy are still the primary approaches
the circular availability and mobility of water resources. The sewage to relieve urban water shortages and cope with climate change
treatment technologies for the structural balance of water resources (Henriques and Catarino, 2017); (ⅱ) the development of innovative
play a key role (such as rainwater collection and treatment) and help to recycling technology provides a new model for urban metabolism with
slow the impact of the ecological environment to ensure access to an water and energy, which significantly reduces CO2 emissions from
adequate and reliable water supply. Additionally, as an important sewage due to advanced sewage collection and treatment. In addition,
supplemental water source, urban ecologically regenerated water fur- the stepwise recycling of system water usage would be realized gra-
ther balances the contradiction between agricultural and industrial dually through ecological regenerated water in the circulation of nat-
water to supplement the water demand. Improvements in urban water- ural ecosystems and hydraulic systems.
saving and sewage treatment technologies, with special attention paid
to the behavior and efficiency of domestic water usage, are critical to
the balance of water resources (i.e., rainwater collection and purifica- • Water sustainable usage of regional differences
tion of domestic/ecological water), as well as to mitigating the impact
of the ecological environment to ensure adequate and reliable water The spatial influence of climate warming on water resources may be
supply in the future. In addition, it should consider the negative effect manifested in the decrease in river runoff in the north and the increase
of energy consumption caused by water-saving and address inter- in river runoff and annual average evaporation in the south, which
sectoral sustainable water usage through the coupling relationship of further aggravates the instability and contradiction between water
water-energy-carbon. supply and demand in different areas (Chen et al., 2018; Li et al., 2020).
Additionally, the growing environment and planting structure of crops
• Water-energy-carbon regulation under seasonal changes are affected by the differences between the north and south. In the
northern region, the main food crops are wheat and corn with less
The decrease in water and drier conditions resulted from the un- precipitation and more dry lands, while the main grain crop is rice in
balanced seasonal distribution of precipitation, which is more con- the southern region, which has abundant precipitation and paddy
centrated in summer and autumn and less concentrated in winter and fields. Therefore, the reasonable adjustment of the agricultural planting
spring. The solution to the uneven seasonal distribution of water is to structure and planting scale has a positive role in promoting the sus-
build reservoirs, which can provide irrigation for downstream agri- tainability of urban water resources.
culture in the wet season and have a great impact on drought in the dry Hydropower, which accounts for 85% of the total renewable energy
season. Water-saving irrigation should be considered in agriculture to generation, is also critical to sustainable water usage in the south where
ensure the domestic water supply of the reservoir. In addition, the humidity is high and rainfall is plentiful. On the one hand, it can im-
improvement of domestic water-saving potential can satisfy the de- prove the efficiency of emission mitigation and prevent the rise in
mand for industrial and ecological water to relieve the urban water global average temperature to enhance the service function of water
supply pressure under the condition of water shortage in other in- ecosystems, and it can effectively weaken the competitive pressure of
dustrial sectors due to seasonal changes. inter-sector water usage to especially increase the water allocation for
Seasonal factors will also affect energy demand intensity and energy the energy sector. Compared with the south, there are more coal che-
consumption intensity and thus energy storage. Scaling up renewable mical industries in the north, with a large water demand for energy and
energy usage, especially the high availability of solar power, would a more prominent influence on water circulation and distribution. The
allow excess electricity to be stored from noon until night in the spring development of CO2-EWR technology is undoubtedly an important
and summer, while the stored energy is fed to the grid for consumption option to reduce water pressure. The main application areas are the
in the fall and winter. However, considering the relatively small pro- energy base in the western regions and the southern regions, with ca-
portion of renewable energy, peak adjustment of thermal power units is pacities of 66.15 billion tons and 11.06 billion tons, respectively. CO2-
an effective way to improve energy utilization, and priority CCS peak EWR would extract fresh water for 71.52 billion m3 based on the pro-
adjustment can simultaneously reduce the carbon emissions pressure to jection that 1.5 m3 of salt water is produced by 1 t of CO2 with a 40%
some extent. In addition, sewage treatment plants are the preferred recovery rate (i.e., desalination) (Li et al., 2013), which can effectively
water supply approach in the case of the lowest cost in summer and solve the water shortage crisis in the arid areas of North China.
spring with a great quantity of water consumption from the perspective
of urban water metabolism. More purification plants should be invested
11
5. Conclusions and policy implications consumption and mitigation options in terms of several major water
consumers without the support of mathematical models, so as to pro-
Climate change has effects on water resources from both supply- pose a theoretical framework of water resource synergy management
based and demand-based perspectives. On the one hand, the tempera- path in urban metabolic system against the context of climate change.
ture increase and drought have negative effects on water circulation Nevertheless, simulation will be conducted in the following research.
from a supply-based perspective, which further weaken availability of
water resources. On the other hand, the water supply crisis becomes Declaration of Competing Interest
apparent resulting from the normal metabolism maintainance of var-
ious urban water consumers from a direct demand-based perspective, as The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
well as the increased water consumption for low-carbon technologies interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
coping with climate change from an indirect demand-based perspec- ence the work reported in this paper.
tive. Hereby, the water resource synergy management paths within the
urban metabolic system in the context of climate change are proposed Acknowledgements
considering multiple factors, such as emission reduction, technological
innovation and social development demands. Especially, the effects of This study was supported by the National Natural Science
some promising low-carbon technologies on water resource are first Foundation of China (No. 71804166, 71991481, 71991480,
analyzed, which further complement and perfect the theory about 71772167), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
water-energy-carbon coupling in urban metabolic system. Overall, Universities (No. 2652019082) and the National Key Research and
water resource has become a key constraint factor for sustainable urban Development Program of China (No. 2017YFC04046044).
development, and more attention should be paid to the rational dis-
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Water Resource Synergy Management in Response To Climate Change in China

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 163 (2020) 105095

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

Water resource synergy management in response to climate change in T

Fig. 1. Distribution of drought-plagued counties in China (MWR, 2014).

Fig. 2. Research roadmap of this paper.

Fig. 3. Water ﬂow path in urban metabolism.

Fig. 7. Domestic water circulation in urban metabolism.

Fig. 8. Pattern structure of ecological water usage in urban metabolism.

• It is eﬀective to increase reservoirs and artiﬁcial rainfall to alle-

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