SYNTHESIS PATHWAYS FOR BIOCOMPOSITES

FROM VEGETABLE OILS

Reena Vaidya1, Gajanan N Chaudhari2, Nitin Raut3
1,2
Department of Chemistry, Shri Shivaji Science College, SGBAU Amravati, India.
3
Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, Sohar, Sultanate of Oman

ABSTRACT
Sustainable development demands productivity with future perspective from every field. Chemists need to develop
products which are environmentally acceptable, maintain ecological balance and have minimum consumption of
energy and raw materials. There has been an alarming increase in the use of plant and vegetable oil as a
renewable source in the manufacture of various chemicals and their derivative is increasing. The vegetable oils
can be chemically modified to yield useful composites which are biodegradable and hence ecofriendly and
economical. This will not only reduce the burden on conventional raw material but will enhance sustainable
growth. This article tries to explore the synthesis routes and pathways to produce biocomposites for a variety of
applications.

Keywords: polymerization, fatty acids, triglycerides, SOMGMA, BAMA, NPGMA

I. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

1.1 Sustainable Development and Chemistry
Sustainable development is the only keyidea to overcome various crises exists in this world. It is the progressive
and balanced gain of sustained economic development which leads to social equity and environmental quality.
Sustainable development comprises of three components viz. society, environment, and economy (F45igure 1.1). If
these three components are satisfied, its goals can be achieved.

Environment

Sustainable
Society development Economy

Figure 1.1.1Sustainable development.

Another major aspect for this process is the conservation and proper management of resources. At the beginning of
the 19th century basic chemicals demand was fulfilled by renewable raw materials but later on there was increase in
demand of coal from the chemical industries. Mineral oil was also in demand and it was most important source of
raw materials. But due to growing demand of petroleum-based products, its resulting negative effect on the
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environment and depletion in non-renewable resources, chemical industry began to use renewable resources as raw
materials.
Due to this situationuse of renewable agricultural feedstock has been increased to produce a wide range of base
chemicals and other industrial products. From the industrial application point of view natural oils and fats are very
important renewable raw materials due to their high availability and versatile applications [1, 2, 3, 4].
About 80% of the global oil and fat produced from vegetable oil and 20% from animal origin. This renewable raw
material is morebeneficial. It is environment friendly than fossil sources and sustainable also. Variousother
renewable resources in use are starch, cellulose, sugars, and lignin[5, 6, 7]..

1.2 Vegetable Oils: Composition and Chemistry

Vegetable oils and fats are categorized under lipids type of chemical compounds. These oils aremade up of
triglyceride molecules having three-armed star structure as shown in Figure 1.2. These triglycerides made up of
three fatty acids and joined at a glycerol junction. Fatty acids in common oils have14 to 22 carbons in length, with
0 to 3 double bonds per fatty acid.

O
O O

O
O
O

Figure 1.12Triglyceride molecule.

There are various fatty acids. Figure 1.3shows common fatty acids in vegetable oil. There are also some exotic oils
whichcontainsfatty acids with other functional groups such as hydroxyl, epoxy, and furanoid groups[8].

COOH COOH
Myristic Linoleic
COOH COOH
Myristoleic Linolenic

COOH COOH
Palmitic Arachidic
COOH COOH
Palmitoleic Gadoleic

COOH COOH
Margaric Eicosadienoic
COOH COOH
Margaroleic Behenic

COOH COOH
Stearic Erucic
COOH COOH
Oleic Lignoceric

Figure 1.1.3 Structure of common fatty acids

These oils are made up of various types of triglycerides having diverse levels of saturation at the molecular level. By
using newly developed genetic engineering techniques oil quality can be changed by introducing a new fatty acid.
High oleic soybeans (82.6% oleic acid content) produced are the example of genetic engineering techniques
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developed by DuPont .There are variousreactivesites in triglycerideswhich actasstartingpointsin differentreactions.
These are estergroups(a),C=Cdoublebonds(b),allylic positions(c),andtheα-position of ester groups (d).Nowadays,
modification of oil-based fatty compounds providesuseful products from renewable feedstocks. Industrial
oleochemistry has made use of carboxylic functionality of fatty acids and derived various useful products using
basic oleochemicals like free fatty acids, methyl esters, fatty alcohols, fatty amines, with glycerol as a by-
product[8].But enzymatic and microbial transformations also produce various useful products and this area of
chemistry still needs tobe developed[9, 3].

II. VEGETABLE OILS: POLYMER APPLICATIONS

Today polymers are used everywhere due to their diverse applications. Many polymers are produced from fossil
sources which are non-renewable sources of energy. With consumption of material and energy resources issues,
another major issue is pollution which takes place due to large amount of solid waste plastics produced from fossil-
fuel feedstock. Though recycling and combustion in incinerating plants are some of the remedies but have to be
considered carefully from economic and ecological point of view.
Due to these disadvantages, chemist developed interest in production ofvegetableoil-basedbiopolymers which are
more advantageousthan polymerspreparedfrom petroleum-basedmonomers.Thesearebiodegradable, cheaper
thanpetroleum-basedpolymers.Various vegetable oils and fatty acids are used for polymer applications such as
polymer additives (e.g., epoxidized soybean oil as plasticizer), as building blocks for thermoplastic polymers (e.g.,
dicarboxylic acids like azelaic, sebacic, and dimer acid for polyesters or polyamides), as a basis for thermosets,
polymers, adhesives, and composites with specific properties and applications [10].

III. POLYMERIC MATERIALS FROM VEGETABLE OILS

The various active sites in triglyceride molecules leads to no of chemical reactions and can be used to polymerize
triglycerides directly or with polymerizable groups. Same synthesis techniques are applicablewhich are used for
the synthesis of petroleum-based polymers.

3.1 Direct Polymerization

It is known[11]that double bonds C=Cpresent in triglyceride molecules can be polymerized through a free radical
or a cationic mechanism. Due to chain-transfer processes to the many allylic positions in the molecule, the free-
radical polymerization of triglyceride double bonds is not preferred by researchers.But vegetable oils such as
linseed and tung oils have been derived as drying oils and it is due to highly unsaturated nature of these oils which
leads to react with atmospheric oxygen forming a network. These oils are used in paints and coatings, inks and
resins.
Larock’s group [12]has studied widely direct cationic polymerization of the C=C double bonds of natural oils.
They prepared various thermosetting polymers ranges from rubbers to hard plastics using cationic polymerization
of a variety of oils such as fish, tung, and soybean oil with petroleum-based comonomers such as styrene,
divinylbenzene, and dicyclopentadiene and initiator boron trifluoride diethyl etherate. Thisnew thermosetting
material found to have good thermal and mechanical properties comparable to industrial plastics, as well as some
other useful properties, such as high damping and shape memory.

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Some vegetable oils have naturally occurring functional groups such as hydroxyl and epoxide. Due to presence of
these groups it is possible to make direct crosslinking with different hardeners to form polymer networks. For
e.g.Castor oil is triglyceride of ricinoleic acid.(Figure 1.7a). Ricinoleic acid has 18 carbon atoms, a double bond
(C9=C10), and a secondary hydroxyl group. This oil iswidely used in manypolyurethane applications[13, 14, 15].
Vernonia oil has triglycerides containing70–80% vernolic acid. It has a naturally occurring epoxide functional
group. The triepoxide functionality of vernonia oil is used to get crosslinked polymers with difunctional reagents,
such as dibasic acids[16. and aromatic diamines. Both oils are used to produce interpenetrating polymer networks
(IPNs) which increase the toughness and fracture resistance of conventional thermosetting polymers[17, 18].

3.2 Chemical Modification and Polymerization

The internal double bonds in the triglyceride structure are sufficiently reactive for cationic polymerization only and
to carry out other polymerization reactions for producing solid polymers, some modifications are necessary. These
modifications are
i. Introducing reactive groups into the aliphatic chains, which would exhibit a higher aptitude to polymerize
(synthesis route A, Figure 1.4), and
ii. the reduction of the triglycerides to monoglycerides through a glycerolysis reaction(synthesis route B).

O
Introducing polymerizablegroupsintothe O O R3
P
R2 O
triglyceride O
O
O
O O R3
R2 O O
O
OH
Reductionoftriglycerides
tomonoglycerides(B). HO
O
O

Figure 1.1.4Generalsynthesis routes

IV. SYNTHESIS ROUTE A: INTRODUCTION OF POLYMERIZABLE GROUPS

One of the most important functionalization reaction is the epoxidation reaction which involves C=C double
bonds. It increases reactivity of triglycerides byring-opening. Due to ring-opening of epoxidized vegetable oils,
introduction of polymerizable groups into triglyceride is possible. Lot of work is done on the preparation of
biobased epoxy resins from epoxidized vegetable oils by the researchers [19, 20, 21].
Triglyceride-based polyols suitable for polyurethane synthesis were also prepared by reaction of epoxidized
vegetable oils with various chemical reagents.
Following are some reactions for conversion of epoxy groups to secondary hydroxyl groups
i. Epoxy group reaction with hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid produces halogenated polyols (Figure 1.6)
ii. An acid-catalyzed ring- opening reaction with methanol, yielding a methoxylated polyol (c), or with water,
forming vicinal hydroxyl groups (d)
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iii. catalytic hydrogenation (e). [22, 23].
Epoxidation of unsaturated fatty compounds [24], peracetic acid (peroxy acid) prepared from hydrogen peroxide
and the corresponding acid in a separate step or in situ (Figure1.5). O
O O O R3 O
O O R3 R2 O
R2 H2O2 O
O O O
O R-COOH

Figure 1.1.5
For better results preformed peroxy acids such as m-chloroperbenzoic acid is used on laboratory scale. In other
epoxidation methods dioxiranes, various peracids from aldehydes and molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide
and methyltrioctyl-ammonium (diperoxotungsto) phosphate as a phase transfer catalyst34 are used. In another
chemoenzymatic self-epoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, unsaturated acid or ester is converted into an
unsaturated percarboxylic acid by a lipase-catalyzed reaction with H2O2, and in an intermolecular reaction it is
self-epoxidized.
In industry, unsaturated fatty compounds are epoxidized by in-situ performic acid process. Nowadays these
vegetable oils are used as plasticizers for polyvinyl chloride[25], reactive diluents[26], IPNs[27] and toughening

O O
R3
O O Cl O O R3
R2 R2 O Br
O O O
O OH OH
O

a. r ing-openingwithhydrochloricacid b. ring-openingwithhydrobromicacid

O O
O R3 O O R
O OH
R2 OCH3 R
O O O O
OH O O
O

c. r ing-openingwithmethanol d. r ing-openingwithwater

O
O O R3
R2 H
O O
O OH

e. r ing-opening b y catalytichydrogenation
materials for commercial epoxy resins[28]
Figure 1.1.6Polyols from ESO (ring opening with different chemical agents)
Carboxylic acid (–COOH group) can also react with a triglyceride structure by opening oxirane ring (Figure 1-7)
and formed polymer.
O O O
O O
O R3 O P O O R3
R2 O H R2 O O P
O O O
O O OH
Figure 1.1.7

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Many epoxidized vegetable oils and fatty acids can be modified with acrylic acid[29, 30, 31].This reaction is
partially catalyzed by acrylic acid and the additional catalysts N, N- dimethylaniline and triethylamine are used.
Hence the epoxy functional triglyceride incorporates polymerizable acrylate moieties onto the triglyceride (Figure
1.8).
O
O O
O R3 O
R2 O O
Acrylicacid O O R3
O R2 O O
O O
Catalyst O OH

Figure 1.1.8
Acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO)are used in surface coatings, urethane and amine derivatives of AESO
are used for coating and ink applications[32]are some of the applications.Free-radical polymerization of AESO,
and its blend with styrene is useful in structural applications[33].Pelletier et al 2006 [31], reported the
polymerization of AESO with free-radical photoinitiators. lso, cyclohexane dicarboxylic anhydride, having cyclic
groups which gives stiffening to the polymerreacts with epoxy groups of triglycerides to form modified resins with
better mechanical properties showing improvements in the storage modulus at room temperature and the glass-
transition temperature (Tg).Cinnamic acid reacts with epoxidized soybean oil using triphenyl phosphine (PPh3) as
a catalyst (Figure 1.9) [34].Cinnamic acid does not free-radically homopolymerize to a high-molecular-weight
polymer but it can undergo copolymerization with other alkene monomers (having electron-deficient double
bonds). The copolymerization of cinnamate ester of epoxidized soybean oil with 25% (w/w) styrene, vinyl acetate,
and methyl methacrylate produces insoluble thermosetting materials.

O O
O O R3
Cinnamicacid O O R3 O
O R2 O O
R2 O O
O PPh3 O
O Figure 1.1.9 O
H
When vernonia oil reacts with a conventional phenolic antioxidant, DHTB [3-(3, 5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)
propionic acid], forms a monomer which then combines with polystyrene and polyurethanes to form a
macromolecular antioxidant [35].Soybean phosphate ester polyol can be synthesized by acid hydrolysis of
epoxidized soybean oil in the presence of phosphoric acid, and is used in the preparation of polyurethane
formulations. Other synthesis routes are also there to introduce polymerizable groups into the aliphatic
chainexcluding epoxidation reaction.
Acrylate group can attach to triglyceride structures by addition of bromide and acrylate groups to a C=C double
bond. It is one step reaction. Soybean and sunflower oils are bromoacrylated in the presence of acrylic acid and
NBS (N- bromosuccinimide; Figure 1.10).
O O
O O R3 R3 O
O O
R2 O AcrylicA O
O R2 O
cid O
O NB O Br
S

Figure 1.1.10

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The free-radical homopolymerization of the bromoacrylated triglycerides is carried out in the presence of methyl
ethyl ketone peroxide and AIBN [2, 2’-azobis (isobutyl nitrile)]. These bromoacrylated soybean- and sunflower-
based polymers possess good flame-retardant properties due to bromine in the structure. Acrylate and bromine can
be added to the C=C double bonds of castor oil. This bromoacrylated castor oil reacts with toluene diisocyanate
(TDI) forming polyurethane prepolymer containing acrylate functional groups. This prepolymer finally
copolymerize with styrene, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, and 3-(acryloxy)-2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate, which
forms IPNs.
In Ritter reactionsoyabean and sunflower oils react with acrylonitrile in the presence of sulfuric acid (Figure
1.11)[36] to produce acrylamide derivative of triglycerides .It is a free-radical copolymerization which produces
semi-rigid polymers.
O
1.Acrylonitrile, O
OO O R3 R O
R2 O H2SO4 OO O 3
O R2 HN
O O
O 2. H2 O
O

Figure 1.1.11 Ritters Reaction

In hydroformylation, C=C double bonds of a vegetable oil are converted to primary alcohols using rhodium or
cobalt as a catalyst and then hydrogenation by Raney nickel[37]. In ozonolysis reaction, different vegetable oils
(triolein, low-saturated canola oil, and soybean oil), produces polyols with terminal primary hydroxyl groups and
different functionalities [38].When soybean oil reacts with paraformaldehyde in the presence of a catalyst Lewis
acid yields a hydroxymethylated soybean oil derivative [39]A reaction of epoxidized triglyceride with water yields
hydroxylated triglycerides with vicinal diols.
Hydroxylated oil synthesized from the unsaturated oil reacting with hydrogen peroxide and formic acid[40]Also,
hydroxybrominated triglyceride derivatives synthesized using an NBS/acetone/H2O mixture[41]
These hydroxylated vegetable oils are used in polyurethane formulations. However, These oils are also modified
with different reagents such as cyclic anhydrides maleic anhydride.Thismaleate half-ester derivative or
maleinized triglyceride then copolymerized with styrene to produce a rigid polymer. Other type of maleate half-
ester derivative, maleinated hydroxylated soybean oil, Hydroxylated triglyceride, triglyceride with maleate half-
esters are also there. It is observed that after completion of maleinization reaction, the monomer resin radically
polymerized and copolymerized with styrene to form homopolymer having better dynamic mechanical properties
than AESO polymers.
Maleic anhydride can react with unsaturated compounds. Eren et al., 2003 [42] converted soybean oil to succinic
anhydride-modified soybean oil (Figure 1.12) following polymerization with different alcohols and produced soft
and tacky polymers which could not be used as structural polymers but these new polymers are used as adhesives,
film formers, and textile and paper sizes.

O
O O O
O R3 O O O O
R O O R3
O O O
2 R2 O
O O
O
Figure 1.1.12Synthesis of maleinated soybean oil

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Maleinated oils are also used as an anhydride functional curing agents of epoxy resins, such as bisphenol-A (BA)-
diglycidyl ether and epoxidized vegetable oils.Diels-Alder reaction is also used for modification of vegetable oils.
Linseed oil was modified by reacting it with cyclopentadiene at high temperatures .It formed a partially
norbornylized product (Dilulin®) (Dilulin® contains an average of only one norbornyl group per triglyceride
molecule). Chen et al.2002 [43], synthesized highly norbornylized linseed oil via a high-pressure, high-
temperature Diels-Alder reaction (Figure 1.13).
O O
O
O
O R3 O R3
R2 R2 O
O O
O 240ºC
O O
/200psi
Figure 1.1.13 Diels-Alder reaction
Then this compound was epoxidized and photopolymerized. It is observed that curing rate is higher for norbornyl
epoxidized linseed oil than for epoxidized linseed oil and norbornylized linseed oil can be used in the formulation
of UV-curable hybrid films.ω-Unsaturated fatty compounds are obtained by catalytic metathesis with ethylene.
Olefins are converted into new olefins via an exchange of alkylidene groups in metathesis reactions.
These ω-unsaturated esters are prepared from unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters by metathesis with ethylene
using heterogeneous rhenium or homogeneous ruthenium catalysts. Another method is pyrolysis to get ω-
unsaturated fatty compounds.
O Grubbs’ catalyst O
O
O O R3 O R3
R2 O R2 O
O O
Ethylene
O O

Figure 1.1.14
Pyrolysis of ricinoleic acid produces 10-undecenoic acid.5 Bis(tricyclohexylphosphine) benzylidine ruthenium
(IV) dichloride [(Cy3P)2Cl2RuCHPh] (Grubbs’ ruthenium catalyst) are used in the metathesis of vegetable oils. 9-
undecenoyl triglyceride is obtained by reaction of triolein and ethylene in the presence of Grubbs’ catalyst (Figure
1.14).
Olefin metathesis is used as a polymerization reaction. By using cross- metathesis of soybean oil sticky to
rubbery polymers [44]are obtained. Polymerizable acrylic, styrenic, and glycidylic groups can be attach to
naturally occurring hydroxyl groups present in castor oil by reacting castor oil with acryloyl chloride [45] 3-
isopropenyl-α,α’-dimethyl benzyl isocyanate and epichlorohydrin. Castor oil glycidylicetheris used in
formulations of cationic UV-curable coatings.

V. SYNTHESIS ROUTE B: REDUCTION OF TRIGLYCERIDES TO MONOGLYCERIDES

Monomers can be synthesized by reducing triglycerides using a glycerolysis reaction.In this reaction triglycerides
reacts with glycerol and the product is a mixture of monoglycerides and diglycerides, asOshown inFigure 1.15
O R3 O O
O OH HO R R2O H
O
O R R1
2HO
O R3 OH 3 1
O O O
R2 O O
O Catalyst/ OH O O
temperature HO O H
Figure 1.1.15 Glycerolysis reaction R2 O OH
R1
O
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Plant oil triglycerides are converted to monoglycerides which areused as the diol component in polyesterification
reactions with various diacids and anhydrides to produce alkyd resins. Alkyd resins are well known oldest
polymers having good economy and easy for use [46].
Using monoglycerides mixtures derived from tallow oil, Friedman and Garti, 1983 [47], prepared monoesters of
maleic acid. Then these monoesters were sulfonated and used as wetting agents and surfactants. Wool’s
groupsynthesized and polymerized soybean oil monoglyceride maleates (SOMGMA) to produce rigid
thermosetting polymers.91 They maleinized mixtures of soybean oil monoglycerides, BA, and neopentyl glycol
(NPG) under the same reaction conditions, and obtained maleates [SOMGMA, BAMA), and NPGMA . These
maleates then copolymerized with styrene [48].Addition of NPGMA to SOMGMA increases the Tg. and modulus
of the final polymer and addition of BAMA had small effect on Tg. and was slight increase in the modulus.
Nowadays castor oil is in use at place of soybean oil in alcoholysis reactions with several alcohols: glycerol,
pentaerythritol, and BA propoxylate to reduce plasticizing effect. This alcoholysis product then reacts with maleic
anhydride to form maleate half-esters and finally copolymerized with styrene. It is observed that the polymers
prepared from castor oil have improved modulus, strength, and Tg.values than soybean oil-based polymers [49].

VI. CONCLUSION

As discussed the synthesis routes for processing a particular vegetable oil is different and varies with the operation
condition and choice of the catalyst. Depending upon the biocomposites application and desired properties,the
synthesis routes must be carefully selected in order to functionalize particular group in the tryglycerides.The type
of vegetable oil for synthesis of these biocomposites depends on the geographical location, yield and availability.

VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their deep sense of gratitude Department of Chemistry at Shri Shivaji Science College,
Amravati, India for providing their infrastructure and resources in undertaking this project.

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