5

1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry

This topic illustrates how quantitative relationships can be established when
different substances react. (The term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for all
compounds including ionic.)

alt
1.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

1.3 The determination of relative atomic masses, Ar

2 Atomic structure

2.1 Particles in the atom

2.2 The nucleus of the atom

Atomic Structure


Atomic Structure
 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content



Physical chemistry
1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry
This topic illustrates how quantitative relationships can be established when different substances react.

alt
(The term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for all compounds including ionic.)

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

1.1 Relative masses a) define and use the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and
of atoms and formula masses, based on the 12C scale
molecules

1.2 The mole and the a) define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
Avogadro constant

1.3 The determination a) analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances

of relative atomic (knowledge of the working of the mass spectrometer is not required)
masses, Ar b) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative
abundances of its isotopes, or its mass spectrum

1.4 The calculation a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula
of empirical and b) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or
molecular formulae composition by mass

1.5 Reacting masses a) write and construct balanced equations

and volumes (of b) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
solutions and gases)
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)
(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions
When performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the
number of significant figures given or asked for in the question. When
rounding up or down, candidates should ensure that significant figures
are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified (see also
Practical Assessment, Paper 3, Display of calculation and reasoning on
page 52)
c) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in
1.5(b)

Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 17

Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content

2 Atomic structure
This topic describes the type, number and distribution of the fundamental particles which make up an
atom and the impact of this on some atomic properties.

alt
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

2.1 Particles in the atom a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their
relative charges and relative masses
b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in
electric fields
c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both
atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers and charge

2.2 The nucleus of the a) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in
atom terms of proton number and nucleon number
b) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of
neutrons present
c) recognise and use the symbolism xy A for isotopes, where x is the nucleon
number and y is the proton number

2.3 Electrons: energy a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for

 levels, atomic the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
energy, electron
c) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton
affinity
number and charge, using the convention 1s22s22p6 , etc.
d) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
(iii) explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a
Group of the Periodic Table (see also Section 9.1)
e) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive
ionisation energy data
f) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
position of that element within the Periodic Table
g) explain and use the term electron affinity

18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel Back to contents page

 8

alt
 of the atom itself. Eventually, Rutherford was able to chip away from this nucleus small
positively charged particles. He showed that these were also identical to each other, no
matter which element they came from. This positive particle is called the proton. It is
much heavier than the electron, having nearly the mass of the 9hydrogen atom.
1
erford (right) and
ratory at Manchester
They are seen with
used to detect and
are the nuclei of 1. 1 What we know about atoms

alt
Atoms are mostly empty space!

Atoms have 2 charged particles:

Positively charged protons.

Negatively charged electrons.

Atoms have 1 uncharged particle called a neutron.

The total number of protons, neutrons and electrons in any one atom
Itdetermines
was another its
20 properties.
years before the last of the three sub-atomic particles, the neutron,
was discovered. Although its existence was first suspected in 1919, it was not until 1932
that James Chadwick eventually pinned it down. As its name suggests, the neutron is
electrically neutral, but it is relatively heavy, having about the same mass as a proton.
Scientists had therefore to change the earlier picture of the atom. In a sense the
picture had become more complicated, showing that atoms had an internal structure,
and were made up of other, smaller particles. But looked at in another way it had
become simpler – the 90 or so different types of atoms that are needed to make up
1. 2 Illustration of an atom
the various elements had been replaced by just three sub-atomic particles. It turns
out that these, in different amounts, make up the atoms of all the different elements.

of the atom in the

most of the volume

the nucleus is very small; of the atom is occupied
it contains the protons by the electrons
and the neutrons

21

02_02 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Barking Dog Art

21/10/14 9:22 AM

1. 3 Sub-atomic particles

Relative Relative
Mass / g Charge / C
mass charge

PROTON 1.672 x 10-24 1.602 x 10-19 1 +1

NEUTRON 1.675 x 10-24 0 1 0

ELECTRON 9.109 x 10-28 1.602 x 10-19 -1

1836

BilalHameed
Bilal Hameed Atomic structure Atomic Structure
 10
2

1. 4 Example

alt
Calculate the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

A neutral 12C atom has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.

Therefore, its mass is:

(6 x 1.672 x 10-24) + (6 x 1.675 x 10-24) + (6 x 9.109 x 10-28)

= 2.0089 x 10-23 g PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

2.2 The properties of the three

sub-atomic particles
Table 2.1 lists some of the properties of the three sub-atomic parti
Table 2.1 The properties of the sub-atomic
Property Electron Proton
particles. Note that the masses in the last row
1
are given relative to 12 the mass of an atom electrical charge/coulombs −1.6 × 10−19 +1.6 × 10−19
of carbon-12. These masses are often quoted charge (relative to that of the proton) −1 +1
relative to the mass of the proton instead,
when the relative mass of the electron is 1 , mass/g 9.11 × 10−28 1.673 × 10−
1. 5 Behaviour of particles in an electric
mass/amufield
and the relative masses of the proton and
(see section 1.4)
1836
5.485 × 10−4 1.007
neutron are both 1.
Because of their relative masses and charges, the three particles be
n
p+ an electric field, as shown in Figure 2.3. Neutrons are undeflected
neutral. Protons are attracted towards the negative pole, and elect
e– positive pole. If their initial velocities are the same, electrons are d
greater extent than protons because they are much lighter.
– +
The picture of the atom assembled from these observations is a

● Atoms are small, spherical structures with diameters ranging fro

3 × 10−10 m.
● The particles that contribute to the atom’s mass (protons and neu
within a very small central nucleus that has a diameter of about 1
● The electrons occupy the region around the nucleus. They are to b
inside the atom but outside the nucleus, which is almost the whole
● All the atoms of a particular element contain the same number o
equals the number of electrons within those atoms.
beam of particles ● The atoms of all elements except hydrogen also contain neutron
Figure 2.3 The behaviour of protons, nucleus along with the protons. Almost the only effect they hav
neutrons and electrons in an electric field of the atom is to increase its mass.

02_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2

2.3 Isotopes
Barking Dog Art
At the same time as Rutherford and his team were finding out abo
the nucleus, it was discovered that some elements contained atom
masses, but identical chemical properties.
1. 6 Isotopes These atoms were given the name isotopes, since they occupy
place (topos) in the Periodic Table. The first isotopes to be discove
of the unstable radioactive element thorium. (Thorium is element
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but
Periodic Table.) In 1913, however, Thomson was able to show tha
different number of neutrons.
obtained from liquid air contained atoms with a relative atomic m
as those with the usual relative atomic mass of 20. These heavier n
They have the same atomic number but different massstable,
number.

unlike the thorium isotopes. Many other elements contain i

which are listed in Table 2.2.
Chemical properties ofTable
isotopes
2.2 The are identical,
relative abundance ofwhereas, Isotope
physical Mass relative to hydrogen Relative
some isotopes
properties (such as density) can differ. boron-10 10.0 20%
boron-11 11.0 80%
neon-20 20.0 91%
neon-22 22.0 9%
magnesium-24 24.0 79%
magnesium-25 25.0 10%
The isotopes of an element differ in their
magnesium-26 26.0 11%
composition in only one respect – although
they all contain the same numbers of Most of the naturally occurring isotopes are stable, but some, like t
electrons and protons, they have different and also many artificially made ones, are unstable and emit radiatio
numbers of neutrons. radioactive isotopes.

22
Atomic structure Bilal Hameed

Atomic Structure 181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 22

Bilal Hameed
 Because of their relative masses and charges, the three particles behave differently in
n
p+ an electric field, as shown in Figure 2.3. Neutrons are undeflected, being electrically
neutral. Protons are attracted towards the negative pole, and electrons towards the
e– 11 are deflected to a
positive pole. If their initial velocities are the same, electrons
3
greater extent than protons because they are much lighter.
+
The picture of the atom assembled from these observations is as follows.

● Atoms are small, spherical structures with diameters ranging from 1 × 10−10 m to
3 × 10−10 m.
1. 7 Isotopes of hydrogen
● The particles that contribute to the atom’s mass (protons and neutrons) are contained
within a very small central nucleus that has a diameter of about 1 × 10−15 m.

alt
● The electrons occupy nucleus. They are to be found intritium
protium the region around the deuterium the space
inside the atom but outside the nucleus, which is almost the whole of the atom.
electron neutron
● All the atoms of a particular element contain the same number of protons. This also
equals the number of electrons within those atoms.
proton
eam of particles ● The atoms of all elements except hydrogen also contain neutrons. These are in the

e behaviour of protons, nucleus along with the protons. Almost the only effect they have on the properties
ectrons in an electric field of the atom is to increase its mass.
protons 1 1 1

m AS&A2
2.3
neutrons
Isotopes
1
0 1
2
2
3
isotopic symbol H
At the same time 1as Rutherford and his team were H H
1 finding out about the structure 1 of
the nucleus, it was discovered that some elements contained atoms that have different
Figure 2.8 The atomic structure
masses,andbut
isotopic symbols
identical for the three
chemical isotopes of hydrogen.
properties.
These atoms were given the name isotopes, since they occupy the same (iso)
place (topos) in the Periodic Table. The first isotopes to be discovered were those
the nucleon numberofafter the the name.radioactive
unstable For example, The chloride
element thorium. (Thorium ion has
is element a single
number negative
90 in the charge because
the isotopes of hydrogen can be called hydrogen-1, there are 17 protons
Periodic Table.) In 1913, however, Thomson was able to show that a sample of neon (+) and 18 electrons (−).
hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3.
obtained from liquid air contained atoms with a relative atomic mass of 22 as well
2+
as those with the usual relative atomic mass of 20. These Mgheavier→ neon atomsMgwere + 2e−
1. 8 Examples of more isotopes
stable, unlike the thorium isotopes. Many other elements magnesium magnesium
contain isotopes, some of 2 electrons
Check-up which are listed in Table 2.2. atom ion removed
relative abundance of 12 protons 12 protons
3 Use the Periodic Table on page 497 to Mass relative to hydrogen Relative abundance
Isotope
12 electrons 10 electrons
help you. boron-10 10.0 20%
a Write isotopic symbols for the following
boron-11 11.0 The magnesium 80% ion has a charge of 2+ because it has 12
neutral atoms:
neon-20 20.0 protons (+) but only 10 electrons (−
91% ).
i bromine-81 neon-22 22.0
Th e isotopic
9%
symbol for an ion derived from sulfur-
33 2−
ii calcium-44magnesium-24 24.0
33 is 16 S . Th
79%
is sulfide ion has 16 protons, 17 neutrons
iii iron-58magnesium-25 25.0
(because 33 − 16
10%
= 17) and 18 electrons (because 16 + 2 = 18).
of an element differ in their
iv palladium-110
magnesium-26 26.0 11%
only one respect – although
b
n the same numbers of
What is the number of protons and
Most of the naturally occurring isotopes are stable, but some, like those of uranium
neutrons in
protons, they have different andeach
alsoof these
many cially made ones, are unstable Check-up
atoms?
artifi and emit radiation. These are called
utrons. radioactive isotopes.
4 Deduce the number of electrons in each of
2.4 How many protons, these ions:

neutrons and electrons?

40
a 19K+

43.indd 22 In a neutral atom the number of positively charged b 157N3− 15/10/14 12:19 PM
protons in the nucleus equals the number of negatively 18 2−
c 8O
1. 9the nucleus.
charged electrons outside Relative
Whenmasses
an atom
gains or loses electrons, ions are formed which are d 71
31Ga
3+

Theexample:
electrically charged. For
12C (carbon-12) isotope is chosen as a standard and given a relative

mass of exactly 12.

Cl + e− → Cl−
chlorine atom Important relative
1 electron chloride measured
masses ion against this standard are:

gainedAtomic Mass (Ar)


Relative
17 protons 17 protons
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted average
17 electrons 18 electrons
mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of the element relative to one-
twelfth the mass of the Carbon-12 isotope.

2 Atomic structure 29

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure

Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure

 12
4

1. 10 Relative masses

alt
Relative Isotopic Mass

The relative isotopic mass of an element is the mass of an atom of the
isotope of the element relative to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of
the isotope carbon-12.

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)


The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is the mass of a
molecule of that compound relative to one-twelfth the mass of the
Carbon-12 isotope.

1. 11 Skill check
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are present in a sulphide ion,
S2-? Sulphur has atomic number 16 and mass number 32.

1. 12 Skill check
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are present in a potassium
ion, K+? Potassium has atomic number 19 and mass number 39.

Atomic structure Bilal Hameed

Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed

 13
5

1. 13 Mass spectrometer

alt
A mass spectrometer is used to calculate the relative atomic mass of
an atom by comparing it with the mass of a 12C atom.

You can also use a mass spectrometer to calculate the relative

abundance of different isotopes of any element.

2 .1 T H E N U C L E A R ATO M

Alternatively: ● The relative atomic mass, Ar , is the ratio of the average mass of the
atom to the unified atomic mass unit. Study tip
Relative atomic mass is a ratio
Ar − mass number ofAslighter isotope
mentioned in sub-topic 1.2, the average mass of the atom is a weighted
so it does not have units.
× 100
average of the atomic masses = isotopes
of its % of heavier
and theirisotope
relative abundances.
difference in mass number of two isotopes
The mass spectrometer
(192.22 − 191)
In the example here: × 100 = 61%
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to determine the relative
(193atomic
− 191)
mass of an element. It can also show its isotopic composition.
1. 14 How does a mass spectrometer work?
detector
lighest particles (stage 5)
positive ions are (deflected most)
accelerated in the electric
field (stage 3)
heating filament to vaporize magnet (stage 4)
determine the proportion of sample (stage 1)
n element. Figure 2.6 shows a
inlet to inject heaviest particles
meter. sample (deflected least)
N

electron beam to
ionize sample (stage 2)

Figure 10 Schematic diagram of a mass spectrometer

There are five stages in this process:

● Stage 1 (vaporization): The sample is injected into the instrument
where it is heated and vaporized, producing gaseous atoms or
molecules.
1. 15 Stage
● Mass spectrometer
2 (ionization): stage
The gaseous atoms 1 & 2 by high-
are bombarded
energy electrons, generating positively charged species:
100
X(g) + e- → X+(g) + 2e- 80.1 (area under peak)
Relative abundance

● Stage 3 (acceleration): The positive ions are attracted to negatively

charged plates and accelerated
– in the electric field. 50
● Stage 4 (deflection): The positive ions are deflected by a magnetic
field perpendicular to their path. The degree of deflection depends on 19.9 (area under peak)
+
the mass-to-charge ratio (the m/z ratio). The species with the smallest
0
mass, m, and the highest charge, z, will be deflected the most. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Particles with no charge are not deflected in the magnetic field. m/z
+
● Stage 5 (detection): The detector detects species of a particular m/z Figure 11 Mass spectrum of boron. The two
ratio. The ions hit the counter and an electrical signal is generated. peaks correspond to two isotopes
The instrument can be adjusted so that only positive ions of a single
charge are detected. The deflection will then depend only on the mass.
The mass spectrum is therefore a plot of relative abundance (of each
isotope) versus m/z or the mass number, A. The height of each peak
indicates the relative abundance of the respective isotope.

to produce gaseous atoms/molecules.

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure 47
+ –
Bilal Hameed
h high-energy electrons to produce Atomic Structure
+

+ –
 +

+
14
6

1. 16 Mass spectrometer stage 3

alt
ed and vaporised to produce gaseous atoms/molecules.
+ –
e bombarded with high-energy electrons to produce
+
2.7):
+ –
(g) + 2e−

ectrons knock other electrons out of the atoms.

e accelerated in an electric field (Figure 2.8).

1. 17 Mass spectrometer stage 4

The positive ions are deflected in a magnetic fi

+ Note: particles are deflected according to

The positive ions are deflected in a magne
(m/z) ratio; i.e. lighter ions and particles
+
+ deflected more.
Note: particles are deflected accordin
+ (m/z) ratio; i.e. lighter ions and part
+
deflected more.
+
A greater magnetic field is required to cause su
with higher mass :charge
A greater ratiofiso
magnetic eld that they tohitcaut
is required
with higher mass :charge ratio so that they

Usually the particles have only a single posit

Usually the particles have only a single
are therefore sorted according
are therefore to mass.to mass.
sorted according

Note: a particle will onlyNote: a particle will only undergo

undergo
deflection in a magnetic field if it is
deflection in a magnetic charged
field if–ituncharged
is particles are For one particular magnetic field, particles
charged – uncharged particles
not deflare
ected. For one particular magnetic These
the spectrometer. field,hitparticles of oan
the detector
not deflected. the spectrometer. of an electrichit
These current, which is proportion
the detector and pro
1. 18 Mass spectrum the detector. The magnetic field is varied t
of an electric current,
values. which is proportional to
The mass spectrum is a plot of the detector. The magnetic field is varied to sca
values.
relative abundance (of each In the mass spectrum of an element, we ge
isotope) versus m/e or the mass individual isotopes. The height of each p
under each peak) is proportional to the nu
number. The height of each peak In the mass spectrum
present inof
thean element,
sample. wespectrum
The mass get on
indicates the relative abundance of Figure 2.10.
individual isotopes. The height of each peak
The relative atomic mass can be calculated
the respective isotope. 
 under each peak) is proportional to the numbe
(78.6 × 24) + (10.1 × 25) + (11.3 × 2
present in the sample.
Ar = The mass spectrum of ma
100
Figure 2.10.
The relative atomic mass can be calculated as:
Sometimes it happens that more than one
(78.6 ×atom
24) when
+ (10.1
it is× 25) + (11.3
bombarded 26)
with×high-ene
Ar = is produced: 100 =
M(g) + e− M2+(g) + 3e−
This ion will be deflected twice as much a
the charge (there is very little difference in
Sometimes it happens that more than one elect
an extra electron). A 24Mg2+ ion will there
The smaller the massatom
: chargewhen it is bombarded24with high-energy e
value of 12 (i.e. 2 ) (see Figure 2.11). Thu
Atomic structure ratio, the more the ion is Bilal Hameed
is produced: (m/z = 24), 40Ca2+ (m/z = 20) and 48Ti3+
deflected for a certain magnetic
smallest mass : charge ratio, it will be deflec
M(g) + e−
field in a mass spectrometer. Min
field
2+
(g) + 3e
a mass
−
spectrometer.
Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed
This ion will be deflected twice as much as M+
the charge (there is very little difference in mas
24 2+
 15
7

1. 19 Mass spectrum of Mg

alt
Ar of neon
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file
100 A high-resolution mass spectrometer can give very a
16
5 Chromium has four naturally occurring isotopes, Indium relative isotopic masses. For example O = 15.995 a
Note that this answer is given 7toa3 significanthas two naturally occurring
figures, isotopes:
1. 20 Skill check
and their masses and natural abundances are shown
which is consistent
32
S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists can distinguis
indium-113 and indium-115. The relative
with the data given. molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have
in the table below. atomic mass of indium is 114.82. Calculate
relative molecular mass.the
The graph shows the mass spectrum of natural abundance of each isotope.
Neon.
b Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes:
90.9 %

100 gallium-69 and gallium-71. The relative atomic

How many isotopes does Neon contain?

80
mass of gallium is 69.723.1.4 Amount
Calculate of substance
the natural
Relative abundance / %

abundance of each isotope. The mole and the Avogadro constant

What are the relative isotopic masses of 60 8 Arrange the following ions Thin eterms
formulaofofhow
a compound
much shows us the num
the isotopes of Neon?
atomsspectrometer
they will be deflected in a mass of each element present in one formula
(the
40
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chromium to molecule
one that will be deflected most of the compound. In water we know
first):
What are the two
relative amounts
decimal places. of the 84 2+ 81 + atoms
120 of 2+hydrogen2 3(Ar =+1.0) combine with on
20 2 3Kr 35Br 50Sn 11Na
8.8 %

of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio of mass of h

0.3 %

isotopes of6Neon?
Silicon has three naturally occurring isotopes and 0 atoms to oxygen atoms in a water molecule is
their details are given in the table below. 19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of water we have
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio will always be the same. But the mass of even
is far too small to be weighed. We have to scal
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. more than this to get an amount of substance
easy to weigh.
Ar of neon The relative atomic mass or relative molecul
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file a substance in grams is called a mole of the su
100 Check-up A high-resolution mass spectrometerSocan give very
a mole
16
accurate (A = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g
of sodium r
Calculate the relative atomic mass 2 of silicon
Look at to
the two
mass
Note that this answer is given to 3 significant figures, spectrum
relative isotopic masses. For example
of germanium, Ge.
O = 15.995for
abbreviation anda mole is mol. We define the

1. 21 Skill check
32
decimal S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists canof
distinguish between
whichplaces.
is consistent with the data given. terms the standard carbon-12 isotope (see p
molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have the same
relative molecular mass.
36.7 %

Calculate the average relative atomic mass of40neon using the information
below: One mole of a substance is the amount of t
27.4 %
90.9 %

100 30 substance which has the same number of sp

1.4 Amount of substance
20.6 %
Abundance / %

particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there

80 20 atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isoto
Relative abundance / %

The mole and the Avogadro constant

7.7 %

7.6 %

60 The formula of a compound shows us the number of

10
atoms of each element present in one formula unit or one
40 0 molecule of the compound. In We wateroften refer tothat
we know thetwo
mass of a mole of substa
70
atoms
75
of hydrogen
80
(A molar mass (abbreviation M). The units of m
r = 1.0) combine with−1 one atom
20 Mass/charge (m/e) ratio are of
g mol
mass. of hydrogen
8.8 %

of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio

0.3 %

0 atoms to oxygen atoms in a waterTh

Figure 1.6 The mass spectrum of germanium.
e number
molecule of atoms in a mole of atoms is
23 is 2 : 16. No
19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of 6.02 water× 10 atoms.
we have, thisTh is number is called the A
ratio
a Write the isotopic formula
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio for the
will always beheaviest constant (or Avogadro
the same. But the mass of even 1000 atoms number). The symbol
isotope of germanium.is far too small to be weighed. We Avogadro
have toconstant
scale up ismuch
L. The Avogadro constan
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. b Use the % abundancemore of each
thanisotope
this to get an amount toof
atoms, molecules,
substance whichionsis and electrons. So in
to calculate the relativeeasyatomic mass of
to weigh. sodium there are 6.02 × 1023 sodium atoms an
germanium. of sodium
The relative atomic mass or relative chloride
molecular (NaCl)
mass of there are 6.02 × 10
a substance in grams is called a ions
mole and
of the × 1023 chloride ions.
6.02substance.
Check-up
So a mole of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g. The
Bilal Hameed 4 1 Moles and equations Atomic structure
abbreviation for a mole is mol. We define the mole in
2 Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge.
terms of the standard carbon-12 isotope (see page 1).
Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure
36.7 %

40
One mole of a substance is the amount of that
27.4 %

30 substance which has the same number of specific

%
/%
 16
8

1. 22 Skill check
Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes with the natural abundances

alt
shown.

Calculate Boron’s relative atomic mass.

Isotope Relative abundance/%

10 B 19.9

11 B 80.1

Ar of neon
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file
100 A high-resolution mass spectrometer can give very accurate
1. 23 SkillNote
check
16
relative isotopic masses. For example O = 15.995 and
that this answer is given to 3 significant figures, 32
S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists can distinguish betw
which is consistent with the data given. molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have the sam
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of lead using the information
relative molecular mass.
below:
90.9 %

Isotopic100mass Relative abundance/%

1.4 Amount of substance
20480 2
Relative abundance / %

The mole and the Avogadro constant

60 The formula of a compound shows us the number o
206 24
atoms of each element present in one formula unit o
40
molecule of the compound. In water we know that
207 22 atoms of hydrogen (Ar = 1.0) combine with one ato
20
8.8 %

of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio of mass of hydrog

0.3 %

2080 52 atoms to oxygen atoms in a water molecule is 2 : 16.

19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of water we have, this r
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio will always be the same. But the mass of even 1000
is far too small to be weighed. We have to scale up m
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. more than this to get an amount of substance which
easy to weigh.
The relative atomic mass or relative molecular ma
a substance in grams is called a mole of the substanc
1. 24 Skill check Check-up
So a mole of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g. The
2 Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge. abbreviation for a mole is mol. We define the mole
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of Germanium usingterms theof the standard carbon-12 isotope (see page 1
information below:
36.7 %

40
One mole of a substance is the amount of that
27.4 %

30 substance which has the same number of specific

20.6 %
Abundance / %

particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are

20 atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
7.7 %

7.6 %

10

0 We often refer to the mass of a mole of substance as

70 75 80 molar mass (abbreviation M). The units of molar m
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio are g mol−1.
The number of atoms in a mole of atoms is very la
Figure 1.6 The mass spectrum of germanium.
6.02 × 1023 atoms. This number is called the Avogad
a Write the isotopic formula for the heaviest constant (or Avogadro number). The symbol for th
isotope of germanium. Avogadro constant is L. The Avogadro constant app
b Use the % abundance of each isotope to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons. So in 1 mo
to calculate the relative atomic mass of sodium there are 6.02 × 1023 sodium atoms and in 1
germanium. of sodium chloride (NaCl) there are 6.02 × 1023 sodi
ions and 6.02 × 1023 chloride ions.
Atomic structure Bilal Hameed
4 1 Moles and equations

Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed

 17
9

1. 25 Calculating abundance
Naturally occurring potassium consists of potassium-39 and

alt
potassium-41. Calculate the percentage of each isotope present if the
average is 39.1:

Assume there are x nuclei of 39K in every 100, so there will be (100 – x)
of 41K

This means that:

39x + 41 (100 – x) = 39.1

100

1. 26 Mass Spectra: calculating abundance

therefore 39x + 4100 - 41x = 3910

thus - 2x = - 190

x = 95

There will be 95% 39K and 5% 41K.

1. 27 Skill check
Silver has two isotopes. 51.35% of the atoms are Silver-107 and 48.65%
of the atoms are Silver-109. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Silver.

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure

Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure

 18
10

1. 28 Skill check
The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5. Calculate the relative

alt
abundance of the two copper isotopes with relative isotopic masses of
63.0 and 65.0

1. 29 Skill check
Silver has two isotopes. 51.35% of the atoms are Silver-107 and 48.65%
of the atoms are Silver-109. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Silver.

1. 30 Skill check
A sample of element X contains 69% of 63X and 31% of 65X. What is the
relative atomic mass of X in this sample?

Atomic structure Bilal Hameed

Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed

 19
11

1. 31 Mass spectrum of molecular ions

Molecules also give peaks in their mass spectrum.

alt
For example the mass spectrum of chlorine gaseous molecule includes
both peaks of its isotopes and peaks of its molecular form (molecular
ions):

1. 32 molecular ions of chlorine

Cl2+ molecular ion produces three peaks:

peak at m/e @ 70: 35Cl - 35Cl 


Species responsible: 70Cl2+

peak at m/e @ 72: 35Cl - 37Cl 


Species responsible: 72Cl2+

peak at m/e @ 74: 37Cl - 37Cl 


Species responsible: 74Cl2+

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure

Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure