energies

Article
Multi Usage Applications of Li-Ion Battery Storage in
a Large Photovoltaic Plant: A Practical Experience
Christoph Wenge 1,2, * , Robert Pietracho 2,3, *, Stephan Balischewski 1 ,
Bartlomiej Arendarski 1,2 , Pio Lombardi 1,2 , Przemyslaw Komarnicki 1,2 and
Leszek Kasprzyk 3
1 Fraunhofer Institute for Factory Operation and Automation IFF, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany;
stephan.balischewski@iff.fraunhofer.de (S.B.); bartlomiej.arendarski@iff.fraunhofer.de (B.A.);
pio.lombardi@iff.fraunhofer.de (P.L.); przemyslaw.komarnicki@iff.fraunhofer.de (P.K.)
2 Electric Power Systems Engineering, Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences,
39114 Magdeburg, Germany
3 Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Poznań University of Technology, 60-965 Poznań, Poland;
leszek.kasprzyk@put.poznan.pl
* Correspondence: christoph.wenge@iff.fraunhofer.de (C.W.); robert.pietracho@put.poznan.pl (R.P.)




Received: 23 June 2020; Accepted: 25 August 2020; Published: 4 September 2020


Abstract: The number of large energy storage units installed in the power system has increased over
the last few years. This fact remains closely linked to the increase in the share of renewable energy
in electricity generation. This is necessary to maintain the stability of the grid, which is becoming
increasingly difficult to maintain due to the growing number of renewable energy sources (RES).
Energy production from these sources is difficult to estimate, and possible unplanned shortages and
surpluses in production are the cause of voltage and frequency fluctuations, which is an undesirable
state. Consequently, the use of energy storage not only contributes to the regulation of grid operation
but can also, under appropriate conditions, constitute an additional load if too much energy is
generated by RES, or the source when the generation from RES is insufficient. The main contributions
of this paper are as follows: A presentation of practical results achieved by implementing two optimal
control strategies for a 1 MW (0.5 MWh) battery energy storage (BES) cooperating with a large 144 MW
photovoltaic farm. In the first case, the BES was used to generate curtailment at photovoltaic farm to
avoid power grid overload. The second case focuses on maximizing profits from selling the energy
produced in periods when the unit price for energy was the highest according to energy market
forecasts. In both cases, the storage was used simultaneously to cover the producer’s own demand,
which eliminated the costs associated with the purchase of energy from the operator, especially during
the night supply. A technical and economic evaluation was prepared for both cases, considering
the real profits from the investment. The potential of using the BES to increase the functionality of
photovoltaic energy sources was determined and discussed in the paper.

Keywords: battery storage; intraday market; peak-shaving; photovoltaic power plant; power control;
smart grid

1. Introduction
A modern power system, also called the smart grid, requires the implementation of innovative
technological solutions by all energy participants as electricity consumers, distributers, transmission
grid operators, and energy producers, for example, in energy-efficient equipment, intelligent buildings,
and home PV installations. Power system operators, within the framework of power distribution
regulation, must operate in their own area, i.e., using optimal strategies to manage instantaneous

Energies 2020, 13, 4590; doi:10.3390/en13184590 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 4590 2 of 18

active and reactive power effectively. Consequently, methods for congestion management have been
developed, such as redispatch and feed-in management. The overall energy used in redispatch in
Germany has risen by over 300%, from 4.96 to 20.44 TWh between 2012 and 2017 [1]. The curtailed
energy from renewable energy sources (RES) has concurrently increased by more than fourteen times,
from 390 MWh in 2012 to 5.52 TWh in 2017 [2]. All methods regarding network and system security
combined to over 1.5 billion EUR in 2017 [1]. In addition, according to EU directives and regulations [3,4],
electricity grid operators are obliged to connect all new RES into the grid. These actions are often
associated with the need to expand both the distribution and transmission of the grid, which increase its
complexity and contribute to the increasing dynamics of the energy system. It is necessary to cooperate
and integrate new functionalities and elements which are complementary to smart grid technology
to properly control power distribution and stable and safe operation of the power grid involving
RES [5–7]. This technology includes energy meters [8], energy storage and electric vehicles [9,10],
and other technologies and techniques which increase the flexibility of the power system [11,12].
Energy storage has recently been increasingly used in the distribution network to improve
the quality of electricity supply [13] and to ensure the uninterrupted operation of conventional and
renewable sources [14]. The cooperation of types of energy storage with the power grid is connected with
a particular way of planning their distribution (voltage level), defining their type, tasks, and required
capacity to provide system services. An overview of types of energy storage is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Different types of storage utilization depending on the voltage level [15].

Voltage Level Power/Energy Storage Type Utilization

UPS systems, island
Low voltage up to 100 kW operation, energy efficiency
Battery (Pb, Li-ion)
0.4 kV up to 100 kWh improvement, regulation of
RES sources
Voltage and frequency
Medium voltage up to 1 MW Battery (Pb, Li-ion, NaS, regulation, control of load
6, 10, 20 kV up to 1 MWh Redox-Flow), flywheel changes, local cooperation
with RES, UPS systems
Global cooperation with
Battery (NaS, Redox-Flow),
High voltage up to 100 MW RES, voltage and frequency
SMES, flywheel, A-CAES,
110 kV up to 200 MWh regulation, energy
P2G, TEES
market balancing
National and international
Extra high voltage up to 1 GW integration of RES, energy
PSH, A-CAES, P2G, TEES
220, 400 kV up to 10 GWh market replication,
system services

Research on the types of energy storage in the power system is still being carried out by a wide
group of researchers worldwide. Numerous works published in recent years in international scientific
journals confirm this. Hybrid systems with RES, such as [16], where the sizing of cooperating pumped
hydro storage and PV generation units is described, and [17], where authors described an optimum
size economic model of a wind powered pumped hydro storage system, showing the advantages of
combining RES with energy storage. Apart from large pumped storage hydropower (PSH) systems,
thermoelectric energy storage (TEES) is also used in the power system. Thus, Henchoz et al. [18]
analyzed the TESS–PV system thermoeconomically. At the same time, the authors demonstrated the
possibility of using the potential of TEES for steady-state multi-objective optimization of a 50 MW
plant, minimizing the investment costs and maximizing the energy storage efficiency, which is similar
to that conducted in the context of this work. In addition, the utilization of RES and TEES is also
carried out for smaller systems [19], where the management of heat and electricity is developed to
optimally plan the main household appliances, generation, and storage components. The proposal in
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 3 of 18

more advanced applications, such as producing electricity exclusively from RES and converting it into
other energy forms to satisfy the multiple energy needs of a community is shown in Bruno et al. [20],
where a net-zero multi energy approach is described using RES and TEES. An adiabatic compressed
air system (A-CAES) is another type of storage used in the power system. The technical benefits and
corresponding operational costs of an A-CAES system based on the proposed model cooperating with
RES were estimated in Lombardi et al. [21]. It is worth noting that the authors were assuming in
the evaluation of the cost–benefit that the A-CAES did not operate as market driven. Another work
which addresses the operational analysis issues related to the generation system was carried out by
Abbaspour et al. [22]. In this paper, a wind farm with a similar concept of using storage to increase
profits from electricity sales for two similar scenarios was analyzed. They show, as in this case, that there
is a possibility of increasing profits from electricity generation depending on the control algorithm and
market price information. In this field, a similar but applied approach is presented by using a different
type of storage and electricity source. Flywheels are most commonly used to improve the reliability of
supply, similar to that presented in Tomczewski and Kasprzyk [23], where the authors determine the
minimum storage capacity required to maintain the accepted criteria for the reliability of the energy
supply. Tomczewski et al. [24] focus on minimizing the unit discounted cost of electricity generation in
a system containing a wind power plant and flywheel energy storage. Referring to the next type of
storage, an off-grid DC network simulation was presented in Kalamaras et al. [25], where the authors
used, apart from electrochemical energy storage, a hydrogen tank with fuel cells to reduce the cost
of energy purchases. A different approach is presented Zhang et al. [26]. The authors focused on
performing a Net Present Value and self-sufficiency ratio analysis to determine the profitability of two
types of energy storage (hydrogen and battery) cooperating with a grid-connected PV farm and with
known local load. Moreover, the analysis of costs related to the integration and operation of various
hybrid systems using RES and hydrogen storage was also described in Wang et al. [27].
Considering battery energy storage (BES), similar work to this was carried out by Małkowski et al. [28],
where the analysis the cooperation of BES with the PV system has also been conducted. In this work,
authors used a 25 kWh energy storage integrated with a PV system with a smaller output power
(33 kW) which operated as part of a day-ahead market. Moreover, Ranaweera and Midtgard [29] and
Hemmati and Saboori [30] dealt with similar economic analyses and operational cost optimization for
a hybrid BES–PV system, for which a major and achievable potential of utilizing residential storage
for grid load levelling was identified. The difference compared to this article is the analysis for small
installations in households. Another work which is also worth focusing on is research conducted
by Koller et al. [31], where an electrochemical storage with similar output parameters and power
value has been installed in a building’s load circuit, enabling frequency control, peak shaving, and the
possibility of operating the storage in an island mode with cooperating diesel motors. Moreover, similar
to Consiglio et al. [32], the efficiency of the large battery storage facility was determined based on actual
measurements. In contrast to Koller et al. [31], the BES system examined in this paper is considered
in terms of maximizing profits from the sale of electricity from a solar power plant while Hemmati
and Saboori [30] focus on ensuring the reliability, power quality of the customer, and shaping the load
curve. According to this study and Koller et al. [31], the lifetime and degradation process of the cells of
the BES were not analyzed.
This work consists of an economic analysis which determines the impact of using the storage facility
to control the generation (power curtailment) of a PV farm and determines the possibility of operating
the PV farm in a self-sufficient mode throughout the day and night. The main contribution of this work
is to determine the benefits of integrating a BES and a large PV farm with the implementation of various
control algorithms according to use cases A and B. The algorithm was aimed at maximizing profits
from energy production, similar to the work of Komarnicki [33], and minimizing electricity production
costs [34,35]. The results based on the algorithms accepted and the evaluation of cost-effectiveness
were estimated. Moreover, the paper describes the methodology for determining the optimum value
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 4 of 18

of the storage capacity but, in this case, it was not implemented because a ready-made technological
solution in the form of a storage with a given capacity was used.
In addition, many scientific papers could be found focusing on optimal sizing of the storage’s
energy capacity [36,37] and optimal placement of the storage [38], which are not the aim of this
study. Projects related to energy management in the distribution network are also very popular [39],
including broadly defined regulation of network parameters [31,40], allowing for their utilization in
wind farm regulation process [41] and the production of photovoltaic farms [42–44]. A noteworthy
issue in the practical integration of BES in the power system is not only their electrical connection
but also communication and related aspects of data exchange, protocols, and standards which are
described
Energies 2020,in
13,Hänsch et al.
x FOR PEER [45]. All these authors have faced the similar problem of energy storage
REVIEW 4 of 17
implementation with RES. They have tried to determine the potential benefits of this cooperation by
analyzing the
analyzing the results
results of
of their
their simulations,
simulations, creating
creating accurate
accurate models,
models, determining
determining optimal
optimal parameters,
parameters,
or performing
or performing fieldfield measurements
measurements on on real
real objects.
objects. This
This work
work focuses
focuses on
on the
the analysis
analysis of
of the
the functioning
functioning
of the PV–BES system based on measurements of operational parameters
of the PV–BES system based on measurements of operational parameters in a real field test.in a real field test.
Section 22 defines
Section defines the
the method
method of of energy
energy storage
storage sizing
sizing depending
depending on on the
the local
local load
load condition
condition with
with
which the storage is operating. Section 3 describes the construction of the BES system
which the storage is operating. Section 3 describes the construction of the BES system used, including used, including
the connection
the connection to to the
the photovoltaic
photovoltaic farm
farm and
and its
its communication architecture allowing
communication architecture allowing for
for the
the exchange
exchange
of valuable
of valuable information.
information. Section
Section 44 details
details two
two analyzed
analyzed cases
cases of
of cooperation
cooperation between
between thethe storage
storage and
and
the PV farm, including a comparison of the potential financial benefits of using an appropriate
the PV farm, including a comparison of the potential financial benefits of using an appropriate control control
algorithm. Section
algorithm. Section 55 presents
presents thethe final
final conclusions
conclusions from
from the
the conducted
conducted work.
work.

2. Usage of Energy Storage Systems and Sizing Methodology

2.
Energy storage is is one
oneofofthe
theelements
elementsofof thethe
power
powersystem,
system,the the
use use
of which
of whichis associated with
is associated
increasing
with the independence
increasing the independence of network operation
of network but also
operation butinvolves additional
also involves investment
additional costs.
investment
These These
costs. costs for highly
costs specialized
for highly systems
specialized may be
systems economically
may unprofitable
be economically in certain
unprofitable specific
in certain cases,
specific
although
cases, they may
although theyallow the maintenance
may allow the maintenanceof system stability
of system in case
stability of disruption.
in case of disruption. Therefore, the
Therefore,
optimum
the optimum value of the
value of the energy
energy storage
storage capacity
capacitycould
couldbebeestimated
estimatedand and determined
determined in in order to
minimize costs.
minimize costs.
Storageconsisting
Storage consistingofofpackets
packets of of Li-ion
Li-ion cells
cells can can
reachreach a capacity
a capacity of several
of several megawatts,
megawatts, which
which allows
allowstothem
them to betoused
be used to control
control the system
the system operation
operation composed
composed of renewable
of renewable sourcessources
and and allows
allows the
the parameters
parameters (voltage,
(voltage, frequency,
frequency, active
active power
power andand reactive
reactive power)ofofthis
power) thissystem
systemto to be
be controlled.
As with
As with other
other types
types of
of energy
energy storage,
storage, these
these systems
systems should
should bebe optimally
optimally sized
sized in
in terms
terms of of power
power and
and
energy capacity by using the input characteristics and residual load curve, i.e.,
energy capacity by using the input characteristics and residual load curve, i.e., considering both energy considering both
energy demand
demand and generation
and generation from “must-run”
from “must-run” conventional
conventional units, asunits,
shown asin
shown
Figurein1.Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Storage parameters from battery load curve.
curve.

Battery power PStor for a specific charging/discharging period x can be determined by analyzing
the power flow Pres which must be covered during this period by BES and determining the
maximum power for each time section according to Formula (1) [41]. The total number of battery
usage periods investigated is determined by i.

PStor,x = max (P+res (t)) ∀ x = {x ∈ ℕ | 1 ≤ x ≤ i } (1)

x
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 5 of 18

Battery power PStor for a specific charging/discharging period x can be determined by analyzing
the power flow Pres which must be covered during this period by BES and determining the maximum
power for each time section according to Formula (1) [41]. The total number of battery usage periods
investigated is determined by i.
 
+
PStor,x = max Pres (t) ∀ x = {x ∈ N | 1 ≤ x ≤ i } (1)
x

It is also possible to determine the power gradient αStor for BES, which can be calculated using
Formula (2). This gradient allows one to determine the power change ratio ∆PStor,x in time periods ∆tx
in a certain usage period x. The overall number of power gradients in all usage periods is determined
by j.
∆PStor
 

αStor,x = max ∀x = x ∈ N |1 ≤ x ≤ j (2)
∆t x
The capacity of the system CStor is determined based on energy EStor stored in a period x,
considering the maximum charging and discharging power. The value of the energy capacity can be
determined from Formula (3) for all l usage periods [34].

tx+1
Z
+
CStor,x = Pres (t)dt ∀ x = {x ∈ N | 1 ≤ x ≤ l} (3)
tx

The total power and capacity of the BES can be determined from (1), (2), and (3), which refer
to max(P ), max(α ) and CStor for a given period of the set under analysis. Even though the general
number of usage periods is the same for PStor , αStor , and CStor , different indexes are introduced as
values for each parameter may occur multiple times. These duplicates have been neglected for further
computing, which results in differing values for i, j, and l. The use of energy storage should also be
economically viable. Therefore, vectors of the technical parameters, containing all determined values
of power and energy capacity, as well as cost parameters are used to determine the investment cost
KStor presented in Formula (4) [33,46–48]:

• kcap —specific cost of battery storage capacity

• kpu —specific cost of related power unit
• kOH —overhead cost factor for utility components
 
KStor = kOH · kpu ·PStor ·eTk + kcap ·ei ·cTStor (4)

In order to perform the simulation, it is also necessary to determine the battery life of Tlife,i l ,
which can be determined by reference to the number of complete charge and discharge cycles. Based on
this, annual savings Rsave can be calculated for various configurations of the energy storage system.
The formula that allows one to determine the value of profits Rred from the use of energy storage with
the cooperating RES system—Formula (5)—can be defined using the relationships (4) [33].
!
KStor, i l
maxRred,i l = max Rsave,i l − (5)
Tlife, i l

3. System Analyzed

3.1. System Configuration and Grid Integration

Analysis of the developed practical application, assuming a reduction of electricity purchase costs,
was carried out based on the measurements and considering the 1 MW BES with a total capacity of
478 kWh. The construction of the battery container is shown in Figure 2. The storage system consists
3. System Analyzed

3.1. System Configuration and Grid Integration

Analysis
Energies of the
2020, 13, 4590 developed practical application, assuming a reduction of electricity purchase 6 of 18
costs, was carried out based on the measurements and considering the 1 MW BES with a total capacity
of 478 kWh. The construction of the battery container is shown in Figure 2. The storage system
of three compartments
consists responsible
of three compartments for energyfor
responsible storage,
energyprocess
storage, controls,
processand connection
controls, with the power
and connection with
grid. The energy storage is composed of a set of 5040 lithium-ion cells connected
the power grid. The energy storage is composed of a set of 5040 lithium-ion cells connected in eight parallel
in eight
series,
parallelwhich
series,arewhich
located arein located
an air-conditioned compartment
in an air-conditioned with a constant
compartment withambient temperature.
a constant ambient
The control of processes occurring during battery operation is connected
temperature. The control of processes occurring during battery operation is connected withwith the monitoring system
the
and transformers, fire protection, supervision, and a communication system. Two
monitoring system and transformers, fire protection, supervision, and a communication system. Two transformers on
two voltage levels
transformers on twocouldvoltagerealize
levelsthe power
could flowthe
realize between the energy
power flow between storage and the
the energy power
storage andgrid:
the
low voltage (0.3/0.4 kV) and medium voltage (0.3/10 kV). The electrical energy storage
power grid: low voltage (0.3/0.4 kV) and medium voltage (0.3/10 kV). The electrical energy storage also has two
500
alsokW
hasinverters
two 500 kW withinverters
commonwith regulation.
common regulation.

Energies 2020, Figure 2.

13, x FOR
Figure Construction
2. PEER REVIEW of
Construction of aa 11 MW
MW lithium-ion
lithium-ion battery
battery system
system for
for grid applications [49].
grid applications [49]. 6 of 17

The battery installation

installation was
was connected
connected to to the existing
existing photovoltaic
photovoltaic farm
farm located
located near
near Berlin,
Berlin,
Germany.
Germany. TheThe PV
PVfarm
farmhas
hasbeen
beenequipped
equippedwithwith a transformer
a transformer enabling
enabling thethe connection
connection with
with BESBES
at a at
lowa
low voltage
voltage levellevel (0.3/0.4
(0.3/0.4 kV).cooperation
kV). The The cooperation of the
of the BES BESthe
with with
farm the farm involves
involves theavailable
the use of use of available
capacity
capacity to determine
to determine the impacttheofimpact
specific of scenarios
specific scenarios on theproduction
on the energy energy production
of the PVoffarm.
the PV farm.
The The
storage
storage
was was connected
connected with a separated
with a separated part of thepart
PV offorthe PV for
testing testing Moreover,
purposes. purposes. before
Moreover, before was
the system the
system was commissioned,
commissioned, all preparatory alland
preparatory
operational and operational
works works were
were performed (e.g., performed (e.g., cable
cable connections) and
connections)
permission was andobtained
permission
fromwastheobtained
power gridfrom the power grid operator.
operator.

3.2. Supervision
3.2. Supervision and
and Communication
Communication System
System
An additional
An additional six
six Janitza
JanitzaPower
PowerAnalyzers
AnalyzersUMG UMG604 604were
wereinstalled
installedinin
the battery
the infrastructure
battery to
infrastructure
accurately
to record
accurately the cooperation
record of all of
the cooperation elements of the PV
all elements of system
the PVand energy
system andstorage.
energyThe analyzer’s
storage. The
tasks included recording the active and reactive power generated by the PV system
analyzer’s tasks included recording the active and reactive power generated by the PV system at one- at one-minute
intervals.
minute The control
intervals. and acquisition
The control of data
and acquisition from
of data thethe
from operation
operation of of
the
thePVPVfarm–BES
farm–BEShashas been
been
implemented using
implemented using the
the hardware
hardware and
and software
software arrangements
arrangements shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3.3.

Figure
Figure 3. Diagram
Diagram of
of control
control and
and data
data recording
recording systems in the supervision system considered.

The PV plant is equipped with an external component, which is responsible for controlling the
power plant generation, including processes related to the regulation, control, and monitoring of the
power grid integration in accordance with the guidelines of the network operator. The control and
monitoring of the power distribution
monitoring distribution (active
(active and
and reactive
reactive power)
power) takes
takes place
place via
via aa control
control interface,
interface,
skycontrol Remote Interface, which uses the Modbus protocol for communication. With this system,
it is possible to download information in real time about active, reactive, and apparent power; this
information is then stored in one-minute intervals on a server placed in the BES. In addition, the
battery system is equipped with a master controller, which allows one to perform 281 measurements
on the Modbus line. This controller also provides the ability to control energy storage functions
 Energies 2020, 13, 4590 7 of 18

skycontrol Remote Interface, which uses the Modbus protocol for communication. With this system,
it is possible to download information in real time about active, reactive, and apparent power;
this information is then stored in one-minute intervals on a server placed in the BES. In addition,
the battery system is equipped with a master controller, which allows one to perform 281 measurements
on the Modbus line. This controller also provides the ability to control energy storage functions
intelligently. It allows one to start the charging of the energy storage or its discharging depending on
the value of active and reactive power required by the operators in the power grid. An additional
element that has been added to the communication system is the e-mail server (SMTP protocol),
by means of which it is possible to obtain information about any errors occurring during the operation
or failures of the device.
An important element of the BES system is a server which consists of three blocks representing a
given component. The communication architecture is shown in Figure 4. The server’s tasks include the
reading of data measured from the master controller and from six power quality analyzers. In addition,
the server collects information about electricity generation from a PV farm. The information is retrieved
by the Modbus communication server element and then stored in the MySQL database. The Web
Server component provides the ability to display the current values measured and historical data
via a network interface. It is also possible to control the operation of the entire BES remotely using
this
Energies system.
2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Figure 4. Diagram
Figure of of
4. Diagram thethe
battery
batteryenergy
energystorage (BES)communication
storage (BES) communication architecture.
architecture.

4. Controllability Developed
4. Controllability Developed
As a result of connecting the BES to the PV farm, four strategies of energy storage control
As a result of connecting the BES to the PV farm, four strategies of energy storage control
algorithms were implemented depending on the PV farm generation. Two of them are described in
algorithms were[33],
Komarnicki implemented
in which the depending
assumptionson the PV
adopted farm
were generation.
discussed Two
in detail andof
thethem are
results ofdescribed
analyses in
Komarnicki [33], inThe
were presented. which the assumptions
remaining two variants areadopted
presentedwere
in thisdiscussed
article and in detailenergy
concern and generation
the results of
analyses werein
strategies presented. The remaining
the solar power plant with two variants
specific controlare presentedThe
parameters. in this article
installed and concern
nominal capacityenergy
of
generation
the PV strategies
generator isin144
theMW
solar
in power plant in
total, divided with specific
different control
sections. Theparameters. The energy
electrochemical installed nominal
storage
was connect
capacity of the PVin the form of a 478
generator kWh
is 144 MWLi-ion
in battery and with in
total, divided maximum
differentpower of 1 MW
sections. Thein electrochemical
a 77 MW PV
energy storage was connect in the form of a 478 kWh Li-ion battery and with maximumby
array. The energy storage was used to reduce the costs associated with electricity consumption the of
power
farm at night when it consumes an average of 350 to 450 MWh of electricity
1 MW in a 77 MW PV array. The energy storage was used to reduce the costs associated with per year. The analyses were
based on measurement data, which allowed conducting the necessary calculations using Microsoft
electricity consumption by the farm at night when it consumes an average of 350 to 450 MWh of
Office and MATLAB environment.
electricity per year. The analyses were based on measurement data, which allowed conducting the
necessary calculations using Microsoft Office and MATLAB environment.

4.1. Study Case A

In the first variant, energy generation from a solar farm is limited due to network conditions
(network overloads). If the supply grid is not able to absorb the full generation due to other load
flows, the PV park generation is limited to 𝑃 = 40 MW. The difference between the maximum
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 8 of 18

4.1. Study Case A

In the first variant, energy generation from a solar farm is limited due to network conditions
(network overloads). If the supply grid is not able to absorb the full generation due to other load
flows, the PV park generation is limited to PCu = 40 MW. The difference between the maximum power
Pmax and the power resulting from the PCu limitation could be used for charging the BES process,
HVAC systems, and covering the PV farm’s own demand. The reserve capacity is calculated for each
day since the cooling system’s power demand must be covered until the beginning of the next day’s
generation period. This is based on the period between the end of the generation period of the current
day and the beginning of the generation period of the following day. This results in the reserve capacity
required (average 90 kWh) and a corresponding minimum state-of-charge (SOCmin ) for each day of
the year. The control algorithms ensure that the battery is not discharged below the calculated reserve
SOC. Additionally, if the amount of energy generated is not enough to charge the BES to a specific SOC
value, the battery is recharged in the evening when production is limited (weather conditions) and the
network demand for energy is small. During the night, the stored energy is used to sustain the power
supply for the monitoring, control, and protection systems of the PV farm. The procedure of model
operation
Energies 2020,is13,presented
x FOR PEERinREVIEW
Figure 5. 8 of 17

Figure
Figure5.
5. Operation
Operationprocedure
procedureof
ofthe
thePV
PVfarm
farmin
inGermany
Germany with
with BES―study
BES—study case
case A.
A.

Furthermore, an economic analysis

Table of the profitability
2. Economic of usingmodel.
data for the adopted the energy storage in the operation
of the PV farm was carried out. Economic data accepted for the calculations is presented in Table 2.
Parameter Value
Feed-in tariff in EUR/MWh 161.50
Table 2. Economic data for the adopted model.
Electricity costs in EUR/MWh 162.53
Limit power
Parameter (reduction) in MW 40
Value
Feed-in
The control system must work tariff
with a in EUR/MWh
specific algorithm to161.50
implement the adopted model. The
algorithm should consider theElectricity
operatingcosts in EUR/MWh
model of the PV farm162.53
and the current SOC level of the
Limit power (reduction) in MW 40
battery. Depending on the mode in which the PV farm is operating, the algorithm switches the BES
accordingly. The scheme of the algorithm is shown in Figure 6.
The control system must work with a specific algorithm to implement the adopted model.
The algorithm should consider the operating model of the PV farm and the current SOC level of the
battery. Depending on the mode in which the PV farm is operating, the algorithm switches the BES
accordingly. The scheme of the algorithm is shown in Figure 6.
 Electricity costs in EUR/MWh 162.53
Limit power (reduction) in MW 40

The control system must work with a specific algorithm to implement the adopted model. The
algorithm should consider the operating model of the PV farm and the current SOC level of the
battery.2020,
Energies Depending
13, 4590 on the mode in which the PV farm is operating, the algorithm switches the9 BES
of 18
accordingly. The scheme of the algorithm is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Control algorithm for the adopted model.

The parameters
parametersnecessary
necessaryto perform the relevant
to perform calculations
the relevant were adopted
calculations to make an
were adopted to economic
make an
analysis
economic ofanalysis
the solution.
of the These parameters
solution. These are presented
parameters are in Table in
presented 3. Table
Based3.on the scenario
Based on the results,
scenario
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
aresults,
diagram of energyofdistribution
a diagram was created
energy distribution wasbetween
creatednetwork
betweenelements,
network which is presented
elements, which isin Figure 7.
presented
in Figure 7. Table 3. Techno-economic parameters for the adopted model.
Table 3. Techno-economic parameters for the adopted model.
Parameter Value
ParameterCurtailment energy in MWh 3598.4 Value
Stored
Curtailment energy
energy from curtailment in MWh
in MWh 76.87 3598.4
Stored energy
Sum offrom
the curtailment
stored energy in MWh
(from curtailment and 76.87
163
Sum of the
PVstored energy
recharge) in (from
MWh curtailment and PV recharge) in MWh 163
Energy supply
Energywithout
supply battery
withoutinbattery
GWh in GWh 56.311 56.311
Energy supply with battery in GWh
Energy supply with battery in GWh 56.178 56.178
PV park’sPVown consumption
park’s without battery
own consumption withoutinbattery
MWh in MWh 331.56 331.56
PV park’s own consumption with battery in MWh 215.90
PV park’s own consumption with battery in MWh 215.90
Battery load coverage from PV generation in MWh 28.20
Battery load coverage from PV generation in MWh 28.20
Battery load coverage from battery in MWh 31.43
Battery load
Number of billing days coverage from battery in MWh 31.43 167
Number of billing days 167

Figure 7.
Figure Diagramof
7. Diagram ofenergy
energy distribution
distribution in
in the
the power
power grid.
grid.

Energy production
Energy production by by the
the PV
PV farm,
farm, without
without the
the BES,
BES, in
in the
the period
period under
under consideration
consideration is
is
56.31 GWh.
56.31 GWh. In
In this
thiscase,
case,the profile
the of charging
profile the BES
of charging the at
BESspecific times has
at specific been
times applied.
has The presence
been applied. The
presence of the energy storage resulted in a reduction in energy production, which is resold to the
energy market to the value of 56.10 GWh. However, the analysis shows that the overall balance is
negative and significant reductions in energy losses can be observed. The list of model costs is
presented in Table 4. The unit price of energy at the level of 161.5 €/MWh was adopted.
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 10 of 18

of the energy storage resulted in a reduction in energy production, which is resold to the energy market
to the value of 56.10 GWh. However, the analysis shows that the overall balance is negative and
significant reductions in energy losses can be observed. The list of model costs is presented in Table 4.
The unit price of energy at the level of 161.5 €/MWh was adopted.

Table 4. Results for the adopted model.

Parameter Value in €
Cost of load coverage without battery 53.875
Cost of load coverage with battery 35.092
Difference in costs 18.782
Payment for energy supply without battery 9,094,296
Payment for energy supply with battery 9,072,844
Difference in payment −21.451
Potential profit (positive)/loss (negative) −2.668

4.2. Study Case B

The monopoly on the production and sale of electricity was abolished in the nineteenth century.
This created the possibility of a free market in which participants can compete with each other in
the field of electricity supply to the recipient. The prices of energy produced currently depend
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
on
10 of 17
demand and energy production, i.e., on the daily schedule of energy demand. The process of changing
energy prices
production during day
depending onand
thenight allows
current the utilization
market price for of the energy
1 kWh. storage
Scenario to adjust
B uses production
the BES, whose
depending on the current market price for 1 kWh. Scenario B uses the BES, whose
operation is related to the forecasted market situation. Figure 8 presents the principle operation is related
of the
to the forecasted market situation. Figure 8 presents the principle of the functioning of the
functioning of the B scenario. Economic data adopted for the calculations is the same as that presentedB scenario.
Economic
in Table 2. data adopted for the calculations is the same as that presented in Table 2.

Figure 8.
Figure Operationprocedure
8. Operation procedure of
of the
the PV
PV farm
farm in
in Germany
Germany with
with BES—study
BES—study case
case B.
B.

The BES
The BES control
control takes
takes place
place inin strictly
strictlydefined
definedhours
hoursrelated
relatedtotocurrent
currentunit
unitprices
pricesof
ofelectricity.
electricity.
The price of energy increases in the afternoon; this is related to the increase in energy
The price of energy increases in the afternoon; this is related to the increase in energy consumption. consumption.
During this
During this period,
period, itit is
is beneficial
beneficial to to sell
sell energy,
energy, including
including energy
energy stored
stored inin the
the BES.
BES. The
The charging
charging
period was adopted depending on the season of the year and the energy storage
period was adopted depending on the season of the year and the energy storage starts charging at starts charging at
15:00 for the winter season, at 17:00 for the interim, and at 19:00 for the summer.
15:00 for the winter season, at 17:00 for the interim, and at 19:00 for the summer. The simulation The simulation control
system system
control is basedis on the on
based decision algorithm
the decision shownshown
algorithm in Figure 9. Figure
in Figure 10 presents
9. Figure the results
10 presents of the
the results of
simulation in the diagram. The simulation results are summarized
the simulation in the diagram. The simulation results are summarized in Table 5. in Table 5.
The price of energy increases in the afternoon; this is related to the increase in energy consumption.
During this period, it is beneficial to sell energy, including energy stored in the BES. The charging
period was adopted depending on the season of the year and the energy storage starts charging at
15:00 for the winter season, at 17:00 for the interim, and at 19:00 for the summer. The simulation
control system
Energies 2020, is based on the decision algorithm shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 presents the results
13, 4590 11 of of
18
the simulation in the diagram. The simulation results are summarized in Table 5.

Figure
Figure 9. Control
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Control algorithm
algorithm for
for the
the adopted
adopted model.
model. 11 of 17

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Diagram
Diagram of
of energy
energy distribution
distribution in
in the
the power
power grid.
grid.

Table 5.
Table Technoeconomic parameters
5. Technoeconomic parameters for
for the
the adopted
adopted model.
model.
Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
Curtailment
Curtailment energy
energy in in
MWh MWh 3.598
3.598
Stored regulated energy in in
Stored regulated energy MWhMWh 272.40
Energy
Energysupply without
supply without battery in in
battery GWhGWh 56.31
Energy
Energysupply with
supply withbattery
batteryin in
GWhGWh 55.98
PVPV
park’s own
park’s consumption
own consumption without
withoutbattery in MWh
battery in MWh 331.56
331.56
PVPV
park’s own consumption with battery
park’s own consumption with battery in MWhin MWh 216.17
216.17
Battery load
Battery coverage
load coveragefrom PVPV
from generation
generationin in
MWhMWh 28.23
28.23
Battery load coverage from battery in MWh 31.43
Battery load coverage from battery in MWh 31.43
Number of billing days 167
Number of billing days 167

Based on the simulation, the potential profit was calculated depending on the electricity prices.
Based on the simulation, the potential profit was calculated depending on the electricity prices.
The calculations include fluctuations and changes in energy prices over time. The scope of price
The calculations include fluctuations and changes in energy prices over time. The scope of price
changes was adopted in accordance with Figure 11. The costs and profits were presented in Table 6
changes was adopted in accordance with Figure 11. The costs and profits were presented in Table 6
based on the accepted energy price of 161.5 €/MWh, similar to the case in Section 4.1.
based on the accepted energy price of 161.5 €/MWh, similar to the case in Section 4.1.
Table 6. Results for the adopted model.

Parameter Value in €
Cost of load coverage without battery 53.875
Cost of load coverage with battery 35.120
Difference in costs 18.754
Payment for energy supply without battery 9,094,296
Payment for energy supply with battery 9,084,251
Difference in payment −10.045
Energies 2020,2020,
Energies 13, x13,FOR
4590PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
12 of 18

Figure
Figure AA
11. 11. graphrepresenting
graph representing potential
potentialprofits fromfrom
profits the sale
theofsale
energy
of depending on electricity
energy depending onprices.
electricity
prices. Table 6. Results for the adopted model.

In the second case, the Parameter

BES for system applications, such asValue in €
the regulation for power losses, is
used during the time of the Cost day according
of load to thebattery
coverage without price of energy on the market. Time windows
53.875
Cost of load coverage with battery 35.120
depend on weather conditions, and therefore, the time window is limited in winter due to shorter
Difference in costs 18.754
production time. The decision Paymentabout charging
for energy supply orwithout
discharging
battery the energy storage is made based on
9,094,296
the signal received via thePayment
network forinterface. Thewith
energy supply signal is sent to9,084,251
battery the BES system and can take three
Difference in payment −10.045
states: “charging”, “discharging”, and “waiting.” Figure 12 presents the curve of the signal
Potential profit (positive)/losses (negative) 8.704
controlling operation of the 1 MW battery for study case B. The three states can be observed as
follows: At 8:15, the control signal changes the status to “wait” and then goes into the status
In the second case, the BES for system applications, such as the regulation for power losses,
“discharging”. During this time, the battery has been already discharged such that the “discharging”
is used during the time of the day according to the price of energy on the market. Time windows
command cannot be carried out (night discharge). Another control signal is “charge” in response to
depend on weather conditions, and therefore, the time window is limited in winter due to shorter
the current battery
production time.SOC. Appropriately,
The decision the discharge
about charging command
or discharging the is repeated
energy between
storage is made 11:45 and
based on12:00
and the
carried
signalout as a result
received via theofnetwork
the previous charging.
interface. The signalA slight
is sent displacement
to the BES system of the
andcontrol
can takesignal
three and
BESstates:
system response“discharging”,
“charging”, can be seenand in Figure 12.Figure
“waiting.” This 12
is presents
caused theby curve
different
of thedata resolutions—the
signal controlling
control signalofistheregistered
operation in 1for
1 MW battery min
studyintervals andthree
case B. The the states
Janitzacananalyzers
be observed record valuesAtat8:15,
as follows: 15-min
intervals.
the control signal changes the status to “wait” and then goes into the status “discharging”. During
this time, the battery has been already discharged such that the “discharging” command cannot be
carried out (night discharge). Another control signal is “charge” in response to the current battery
SOC. Appropriately, the discharge command is repeated between 11:45 and 12:00 and carried out as a
result of the previous charging. A slight displacement of the control signal and BES system response
can be seen in Figure 12. This is caused by different data resolutions—the control signal is registered in
1 min intervals and the Janitza analyzers record values at 15-min intervals.

Figure 12. Battery storage system operation using energy market information (2 March 2016).
the current battery SOC. Appropriately, the discharge command is repeated between 11:45 and 12:00
and carried out as a result of the previous charging. A slight displacement of the control signal and
BES system response can be seen in Figure 12. This is caused by different data resolutions—the
control signal is registered in 1 min intervals and the Janitza analyzers record values at 15-min
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 13 of 18
intervals.

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Figure 12. Battery storage system operation using energy market information (2 March 2016).
Figure 12. Battery storage system operation using energy market information (2 March 2016).
4.3. Night Supply
4.3. Night Supply
The energy storage installed at the solar farm plays the role of a power source and covers the
The energy storage installed at the solar farm plays the role of a power source and covers the energy
energy demand of the farm during the night in both cases. The energy demand results from the
demand of the farm during the night in both cases. The energy demand results from the necessity of
necessity of supplying the farm telecommunications systems, inverters, and control, protection, and
supplying the farm telecommunications systems, inverters, and control, protection, and automation
automation systems. The amount of energy needed to power the PV farm during the night in the
systems. The amount of energy needed to power the PV farm during the night in the variants presented
variants presented is known, and it is stored in the BES in accordance with the adopted algorithm
is known, and it is stored in the BES in accordance with the adopted algorithm (battery charging in the
(battery charging in the evening to the required SOC level).
evening to the required SOC level).
Figure 13 shows an example of using batteries for a specific time interval. It can be observed that
Figure 13 shows an example of using batteries for a specific time interval. It can be observed that
the battery is being charged with maximum power between 15:00 and 16:00. At the end of the
the battery is being charged with maximum power between 15:00 and 16:00. At the end of the charging
charging state, the charging power drops. This is related to the protection of battery cells in order to
state, the charging power drops. This is related to the protection of battery cells in order to avoid
avoid overloading. The energy storage status is changed at 18.00. From this point on, the BES is used
overloading. The energy storage status is changed at 18.00. From this point on, the BES is used to
to discharge a small amount of power to cover the PV farm’s own actual demand at night. The
discharge a small amount of power to cover the PV farm’s own actual demand at night. The discharge
discharge process is scheduled for the entire night but is limited by the capacity of the battery which
process is scheduled for the entire night but is limited by the capacity of the battery which is used.
is used. There could be a situation in winter when the energy stored during the day cannot cover the
There could be a situation in winter when the energy stored during the day cannot cover the demand
demand during the night. In this case, the part of the farm examined is powered by the grid.
during the night. In this case, the part of the farm examined is powered by the grid.

Figure 13. Representation of the BES operation to cover the farm’s demand during the night (19 October 2015).
Figure 13. Representation of the BES operation to cover the farm’s demand during the night (19
October 2015).

4.4. Discussion
In case A, the analysis showed a potential loss in the situation of using the energy storage
exclusively to cover own needs at fixed electricity purchase and sale prices. Nevertheless, Figure 14
presents the relationship, which shows that it is profitable to cover the load from the stored energy if
the purchase price of the energy from energy market is significantly higher than the energy sale price.
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 14 of 18

4.4. Discussion
In case A, the analysis showed a potential loss in the situation of using the energy storage
exclusively to cover own needs at fixed electricity purchase and sale prices. Nevertheless, Figure 14
presents the relationship, which shows that it is profitable to cover the load from the stored energy if
the purchase price of the energy from energy market is significantly higher than the energy sale price.
Thus, in study case A, a 14.25% increase in the purchase price of energy compared to the sale price of
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
energy allows reaching a break-even point where the power plant does not incur losses.

14. Values
Figure 14.
Figure Valuesofoflosses
lossesand
andprofits
profitsdepending on on
depending energy purchase
energy price.
purchase price.

In the situation where operators pay compensation in the case of energy production limitations
5. Conclusions
resulting from the need to limit the power flow, thus reducing overloads, this compensation will
allowThis article
profits to befocuses on the
generated operational
regardless of the strategies of the
energy storage Li-ion BES
utilization. with renewable
A limitation electricity
in production
sources (PV
occurs in plants)
both cases.connected
However, to thethe power
energy grid. will
storage The allow
paperfor
presents operation
a significant results
increase corresponding
in profits if the
to
purchase price of electricity in the future increases, as can currently be seen on local electricity markets for
two optimal scenarios mentioned in the configuration above. A techno-economic analysis
determining the potential
in European countries. Due benefits of such
to the limited integration
production and is carried
unsold out and
amount results are
of electricity described
(3521.4 MWh),and
analyzed in the paper.
the profit may be even higher if it is compared with the assumed study case B.
In the first case, the storage was used to reduce peak load energy generation to avoid overloads
5. Conclusions
in the distribution network. As a result of the operation optimization using the adopted algorithm,
the storage operation
This article focusesallowed
on the us to relievestrategies
operational the overload of Li-ion
of the the distribution network, however,
BES with renewable electricity this
sources (PV plants) connected to the power grid. The paper presents operation results
kind of energy storage mode resulted in lower profits from whole energy sales. This situation is corresponding
to two optimal
unfavorable for scenarios mentioned
PV electricity in thebut
producers, configuration above.
it enables the A techno-economic
proper functioning of the analysis for
transmission
determining the potential benefits of such integration is carried out and results are described
and distribution system (system services). Therefore, it is necessary in such a case to use the existing and
analyzed inpotential
regulatory the paper. while ensuring adequate financial compensation for producers.
In the first case,
In the second case, the the
storage was usedoftothe
functioning reduce peak
storage load energy
system generationon
was dependent tothe
avoid overloads
current situation
in the distribution network. As a result of the operation optimization using the adopted
on the energy market. The storing of energy and its sale were closely related to the forecast prices for algorithm,
the storageon
electricity operation allowed
the exchange us to relieve
market. Such antheapproach
overload of the distribution
made it possible network,
to generatehowever,
profits.this
Thekind
profits
of energy storage mode resulted in lower profits from whole energy sales. This situation is unfavorable
resulted largely from savings related to the use of the stored energy to cover the PV farm’s own needs
for PV electricity producers, but it enables the proper functioning of the transmission and distribution
during the night.
system (system services). Therefore, it is necessary in such a case to use the existing regulatory potential
Selected cases show the real benefits of cooperation between the storage and a volatile energy
while ensuring adequate financial compensation for producers.
source (a PV farm). It is possible to increase the functionality of the PV system (possibility of
In the second case, the functioning of the storage system was dependent on the current situation
providing system services) by using appropriate algorithms and a well-adopted control system;
on the energy market. The storing of energy and its sale were closely related to the forecast prices for
nevertheless, in order
electricity on the to achieve
exchange market.these
Such assumptions,
an approach made it is it
necessary to generate
possible to manage profits.
the operation of both
The profits
sources and storages properly as an integrated unit.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.W. and S.B.; methodology, S.B. and P.L.; validation, B.A., C.W. and
S.B.; formal analysis, C.W. and S.B.; investigation, B.A. and P.L.; resources, R.P. and C.W.; data curation, C.W.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.P.; writing—review and editing, R.P., P.L. and L.K.; visualization, S.B.;
supervision, P.K.; project administration, P.K.; funding acquisition, P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the
Energies 2020, 13, 4590 15 of 18

resulted largely from savings related to the use of the stored energy to cover the PV farm’s own needs
during the night.
Selected cases show the real benefits of cooperation between the storage and a volatile energy
source (a PV farm). It is possible to increase the functionality of the PV system (possibility of providing
system services) by using appropriate algorithms and a well-adopted control system; nevertheless,
in order to achieve these assumptions, it is necessary to manage the operation of both sources and
storages properly as an integrated unit.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.W. and S.B.; methodology, S.B. and P.L.; validation, B.A., C.W. and
S.B.; formal analysis, C.W. and S.B.; investigation, B.A. and P.L.; resources, R.P. and C.W.; data curation, C.W.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.P.; writing—review and editing, R.P., P.L. and L.K.; visualization, S.B.;
supervision, P.K.; project administration, P.K.; funding acquisition, P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper is partly a result of the project ACES (0350053B), funded by Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Energy according to a decision of the German Federal Parliament and part of the ERA-Net Smart
Energy Systems initiative.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
A-CAES adiabatic compressed air energy storage
BES battery energy storage
cTStor vector of length l and contains number of capacity values
vectors containing ones in every position with length according to number of
eTl , ei capacitance and power values (i,l) to open up the matrix containing all
combinations of PStor and CStor
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Li-ion lithium battery
NaS sodium sulfur battery
PStor vector of length i and contains all determined power values
+
Pres residual load power
P2G power-to-gas
PCu curtailed power
PSH pumped storage hydropower
PV photovoltaic
RES renewable energy sources
Rsave yearly savings that can be evaluated for every power and capacity combination
Pred profits from the energy storage utilization
SMES superconducting magnetic energy storage
SOC state of charge
TEES thermoelectric energy storage
UPS uninterruptible power supply

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