SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS

2nd SEMESTER
Learning Material in PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Name: Grade & Section:

Date Started: Date Finished:

Read and Explore!

Topic: ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
Learning Competency: Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier
elements during star formation and evolution. Explain how the concept of
atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory.
LC CODE: S11/12PS-IIIb-11

Astronomers theorize that it was the Big Bang that was responsible for the universe
to come into being at a single moment. According to this theory, there was, at one
time, a very, very small but incredibly hot region where all the matter and energy were
concentrated. This Big Bang Theory states that the universe began in an instant, billions
of years ago, in an enormous explosion. This does not refer to conventional explosion
but rather an incredible burst of expansion. This expansion is called inflation. Space itself
expanded at a tremendous speed - even faster than the speed of light. This caused the
rapid increase in size of the universe.

The origin of the Big Bang Theory can be credited to Edwin Hubble. Hubble
observed that the universe is continuously expanding. Moreover, he found out that the
galaxy's velocity is proportional to its distance. Galaxies twice as far from us move twice
as fast. The universe is expanding in every direction. This means that the time taken for
every galaxy to move away from its common starting point to where it is now is the
same. These observations provided by Edwin Hubble laid the foundation of the Big Bang
Theory.

The growth of the universe continued but this time at a slower rate. The universe
expanded quickly, and the temperature dropped. Matter was formed. Immediately
after the Big Bang, the universe was filled with gluons and quarks.

THE LIGHT ELEMENTS

The light elements were born during a process known as the Big Bang
nucleosynthesis. There was a rapid drop in temperature from 1032 K to 109 K. The cold
temperature allowed enough of these quarks and gluons to condense into nucleons,
1|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
which subsequently formed hydrogen and helium. The interstellar space still contains
the remnants of these hydrogen and helium.

Based on the Big Bang Theory, the temperatures in the early universe were so
high. Such condition allowed fusion reactions to take place. This is the reason why the
light elements were formed. These include hydrogen, deuterium - an isotope of
hydrogen, helium, lithium, and trace amounts of beryllium.

THE HEAVY ELEMENTS

When the universe was created as a result of the Big Bang, all matter consisted
of only two elements --- 75% hydrogen and 25 % helium. These two elements were
unevenly distributed in space. As a result, gravity was able to act easily on areas that
have higher concentration. This initiated the " clumping of matter".

Due to the slight discrepancies in the distribution of matter, gravity was able to
initiate the collapse of huge volumes of hydrogen and helium into more concentrated
areas of gas. A second level of more concentrated clumping of H and He would form
stars. This is where the higher mass elements would be created.

Figure 1 – Nebula and Protostar

The clouds of H and He are called nebulas. Such clouds located in the more
concentrated areas collapsed as the atoms were speeding up as they were pulled
toward the center of gravity. Since there was an increase in the velocity of the atoms,
the temperature also increased. In some cases, because of the tremendous rise in
temperature, the material began to glow. The atoms moved closer to each other thus,
increasing the collisions among them. The density of the material also increased. This
caused the mass of H and He to be spherical. In such stage, the mass of H and He is
called a protostar.

Since stars have very high temperatures, fusion reactions continue to take place
in them. Nuclear fusion in stars converts hydrogen into helium in all stars. In stars more

2|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
massive than the Sun but less massive than about 8 solar masses, further reactions that
convert helium to carbon and oxygen take place in successive stages of stellar
evolution. In the very massive stars, the reaction chain continues to produce elements
like silicon up to iron.

NUCLEAR FUSSION AND NUCLEOSYNTHESIS IN STAR

Stars are hot and bright because of the tremendous atomic collisions happening
in the core of a star. This causes an alteration in its atomic structure. As a result, an
enormous amount of energy is released.

The energy released comes from the nuclear fusion processes that take place in
the core of a star. However, nuclear fusion may only be possible if the temperature and
density are high enough. In fusion, many nuclei combine to make a larger nucleus
which is a different element. The resultant nucleus is smaller in mass than the sum of the
nuclei that made it; the lost mass is converted into energy, according to the equation
E=mc2.

Figure 2 – Nucleosynthesis

The formation of new elements through nuclear reactions is called

nucleosynthesis. The type of nucleosynthesis that will occur is determined by the mass
of a star. The smallest stars can only convert hydrogen into helium. This is the first fusion
cycle.

When the hydrogen becomes depleted, the medium-sized stars like our sun can
convert helium into oxygen and carbon. In the case of massive stars, with masses five
times greater than that of the sun, several reactions take place. First, when their
hydrogen becomes depleted, the high mass stars convert the helium atoms into carbon

3|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
and oxygen. This is followed by the fusion of carbon and oxygen into neon, sodium,
magnesium, sulfur, and silicon. Through further reactions, these elements are
transformed into calcium, iron, nickel, chromium, copper, and others. When these large
stars are already old with depleted cores, they create heavy elements and spew them
into space. These heavy elements refer to all the natural elements heavier than iron.

HYDROGEN AND HELIUM BURNING

The mass of the dust cloud is concentrated at the center. The intense force of
gravity leads fusion to take place. Since most of the matter present in the nebula is
hydrogen, the process of hydrogen burning takes place.

H + H → 2H + ℮+ + neutrino
2H + H → 3He + photon
3He + He → 4He + H + H

The protons (Hydrogen nuclei) are converted into He, along with energy particles
such as photons which reach the earth.

When the hydrogen fuel is depleted, the star will start to collapse again. At some
stage helium burning will begin to occur:

4He + 4He → 12C + photon

The Periodic Table provides information about the naturally occurring elements in
the universe. The very first ones to be made right after the Big Bang were hydrogen and
helium. The other succeeding elements as arranged in the Periodic Table up to iron with
atomic number 26 are made in the core of stars by nuclear fusion.

THE FORMATION OF ELEMENTS HEAVIER THAN IRON

More energy is needed in the fusion of elements with atomic numbers greater
than that of iron with atomic number 26. Elements heavier than iron cannot be fuel
sources in stars. Neither can they be produced in stars. If this is the case, where did they
come from?

Elements heavier than iron are done through the process of nucleosynthesis by
neutron capture. Since the neutron is electrically neutral, nuclei can capture or fuse with
it. Each neutron capture produces an isotope which may either be stable or unstable.
The unstable isotope will decay by emitting a positron and a neutrino to produce a new

4|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
element. Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but
a different number of neutrons. A positron is an atomic particle that has the same mass
as an electron, but its charge is positive. A neutrino is an atomic particle that has no
charge and is practically massless.

There are two processes or methods by which neutron capture can happen: the
slow or s-process and the rapid or r-process. The table below gives a brief description of
the two processes.

a. Slow (s) Process

- Neutron capture happens in the inert carbon core of a star.
- Works as long as the decay time for unstable isotopes is longer than the
capture time.
- Works only up to the element bismuth (atomic number 83).

Note: The more massive nuclei built from bismuth are unstable.

b. Rapid (r) Process

- Used to produce very heavy, neutron rich nuclei.
- Neutron capture happens in a very dense environment; unstable isotopes do
not have time to decay.
- High density of neutrons needed found only during a supernova explosion so
all the heavy elements specifically radium, uranium, and plutonium are
produced this way.

Note: The supernova explosion can propel the newly created elements into space to
seed molecular clouds that will form new stars and solar systems.

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND ISOTOPES IN THE UNIVERSE

There are 81 stable elements found on earth. These elements make up matter in
the universe. In addition to these, there are also ten radioactive elements, including
radon and uranium, that occur naturally on our planet. The half-lives of these elements
are very long. Their steady decay means that they are scarce on earth, in meteorites,
and in lunar samples.

Aside from the 10 naturally occurring radioactive elements, 19 more radioactive

elements have been artificially produced in the nuclear laboratories. These artificial
radioactive elements decay into other elements quite quickly unlike the naturally
occurring ones.

5|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
The table below us gives an idea as to the origin of the different chemical elements.

ISOTOPES

All the atoms of an element contain the same number of protons. Each of the
lithium atoms contains three protons and each of the uranium atoms contains 92
protons. They differ, however, in the number of neutrons.

Some isotopes are radioactive. Others are not. The atoms of the radioactive
isotopes can decay by emitting energy. This is in the form of radiation. When atoms
decay, they lose one or more proton(s) and/or neutron(s). As a result, the atom is
converted into a different isotope or sometimes a different element.

Isotopes that are not radioactive are called stable isotopes. About eighty of the
naturally occurring elements on earth have at least one stable isotope. There are
twenty-six elements that have only one stable isotope. Tin has the most number of stable
isotopes. It has ten in all. The average number of stable isotopes of the eighty elements
with at least one stable isotope is 3.2 per element.

According to astronomers, only the isotopes of hydrogen, helium and probably

lithium, beryllium, and boron were created in the Big Bang. The supernova explosions
created the remaining elements including most of their isotopes. Some isotopes form
when high energy cosmic rays collide with various atoms. They are also created when
other radioactive isotopes decay.

6|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
PERFORMANCE TASK NO. 1
LET’S DO THIS! Read the instruction below and do the following activity. (40 points)

A. Identify the term/person being described.

__________________ 1. An incredible burst of expansion

__________________ 2. He observed that the universe is continuously expanding.
__________________ 3. Process responsible for the birth of the light elements
__________________ 4. Nonradioactive isotopes
__________________ 5. Atoms with the same atomic numbers but different mass numbers

B. Fill in the blanks with the correct word/s to complete the statement. Choose your
answer from the word bank.

Our Cosmic Connection to the Elements

The (1) _________________ are all around us and are part of us. The (2) _________________
of the Earth, and the chemistry that governs the Earth and its biology are rooted in these
elements. The elements have their ultimate origins in (3) _________________. Further, different
elements come from a variety of different events. So, the elements that make up life itself reflect
a variety of events that take place in the (4) _________________. The (5) _________________ found
in water and hydrocarbons was formed in the moments after the (6) _________________. Carbon,
the basis for all terrestrial life, was formed in (7) _________________. Elements of lower abundance
in living organisms but essential to our biology, such as calcium and iron, were formed in (8)
_________________. (9) _________________ important to our environment, such as gold, were
formed in the explosive power of (10) _________________. And (11) _________________ used in our
technology were formed via (12) _________________. The (13) _________________, from which our
(14) _________________ was formed, was seeded with these elements, and they were present at
the Earth’s formation. Our very existence is connected to these elements, and to their (15)
_________________.

WORDBANK
hydrogen supernovae cosmic origin
Universe Heavier elements solar system
cosmic events large stars solar nebula
composition small stars cosmic rays
chemical elements Big Bang light elements

7|Page
 SCIENCE WEEK 1 – ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
WRITTEN TASK NO. 1
A. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the word/s describe in each statement. Write your answer
on the space provided before each number

____________ 1. The mass of the dust cloud is concentrated at the center.

____________ 2. The light elements were born during a process known as the Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.
____________ 3. There are ten elements that have only one stable isotope.
____________ 4. Stars are hot and bright because of the tremendous atomic collisions
happening around the star.
____________ 5. When the universe was created as a result of the Big Bang, all matter
consisted of only two elements - 75% hydrogen and 25 % helium.
____________ 6. The Periodic Table provides information about the naturally occurring
elements in the universe.
____________ 7. The origin of the Big Bang Theory can be credited to Erwin Hubble.
____________ 8. In the very massive stars, the reaction chain discontinues to produce
elements like silicon up to iron.
____________ 9. The growth of the universe continued but this time at a slower rate.
____________ 10. Based on the Big Bang Theory, the temperatures in the early universe
were so high.
____________ 11. Astronomers theorize that it was the Steady - state that was responsible
for the universe to come into being at a single moment.
____________ 12. A neutrino is an atomic particle that has the same mass as an electron,
but its charge is positive.
____________ 13. Isotopes that are not radioactive are called stable isotopes.
____________ 14. Elements heavier than iron are done through the process of
nucleosynthesis by neutron capture.
____________ 15. Aside from the twenty - six naturally occurring radioactive elements, 19
more radioactive elements have been artificially produced in the nuclear
laboratories.
____________ 16. Big Bang Theory states that the universe began in an instant, billions of
years ago, in an enormous expansion.
____________ 17. According to astronomers, only the isotopes of hydrogen, helium and
probably lithium, beryllium, and boron were created in the Big Bang.
____________ 18. Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons.
____________ 19. A positron is an atomic particle that has no charge and is practically
massless.
____________ 20. In addition to these, there are also 19 radioactive elements, including
radon and uranium, that occur naturally on our planet.

Sources:
de Villa, Rocelia M. Exploring Natural Science: Physical Science. Philippines: Salesiana Books by
Don Bosco Press Inc., (2016) page 3 – 12.

8|Page