Automobile Engineering

Automobile
Engineering

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Automobile Engineering

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
UNIT-1

Introduction : Components of an automobile – chassis and body – power unit – rear wheel drive front
wheel drive, 4 wheel drive – types of automobile engines, engine construction, oil filters, oil pumps –
crank case ventilation-Fuel gauge – oil pressure gauge, Engine temperature indicator.

UNIT – II

Fuel Supply Systems:

SI Engine: Types of Fuel Supply system Mechanical and electrical fuel pump – filter, Carburettors (Simple
& Zenith) – air fitters – petrol injection systems-types, Mechanical MPFI and Electronic injection system.

CI Engines: Requirements of diesel injection systems, types of injection systems, CRDE, fuel pumps
testing of fuel pumps.

UNIT -III

Cooling System: Cooling Requirements. Air Cooling. Thermostat Liquid cooling, Radiators Types, Cooling
Fan, water pump, thermostat, antifreeze solutions.

Ignition System: Function of an ignition system. Principle of Electronic Ignition System Distributer less
Electronic Ignition System.

Unit – IV

Emission Control: Introduction, Emission Norms – Pollution standards – types of emissions Reduction of
formation of pollutants, closed crankcase ventilation, fuel tank and carburettor ventilation, redesigning
the combustion chamber, changes in fuel supply system, modifications in ignition system, treating the
exhaust gasses to reduce pollutants – use of alternative fuel.

Starting system: Introduction, Starting Motor, Starting drives, Bendix drive mechanism starting motor
switches – Accessories, Horn. Speedometer. Wind screen wiper.

UNIT -V

Transmission System: Clutches – Principle- types. Single plate, multi plate, and centrifugal clutches gear
box types, constant mesh, synchromesh, epi-cyclic, over drive. Torque converter Propeller shaft – Hotch
Kiss drive, Torque tube drive, universal joint differential, rear axles

UNIT – VI

Steering System: Introduction, Types of steering mechanism – Ackerman steering mechanism, Davis
steering mechanism, Steering geometry – camber, castor, king pin rake, combined angle toe in, toe-out—
Steering gears – types, steering linkages.

Suspension System: Objects of suspension systems – rigid axle suspension system, torsion bar. Shock
absorber. Independent suspension system

Braking System: Introduction, Classification, Mechanical brake system. Hydraulic brake system air and
vacuum brake systems
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Automobile Engineering

Unit 01 INTRODUCTION
AUTOMOBILE
The word ‘Automobile’ is made up of two words i.e., ‘Auto’ and ‘mobile’. Auto is
self propelled and mobile is vehicle and as such the meaning of these two words is
‘self propelled vehicle’ i.e., which run with their own power are called automobiles.

COMPONENIS OF AN AUTOMOBILE
Although there are many varieties of automobiles today depending on their usage,
their basic construction are the same. The main components of an Automobile are
as under.

FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS

Chassis : Chassis is a French term and is used to denote the complete vehicle except
the body for the heavy vehicle. For light vehicles of mono construction types having
body integral with frame. It denotes the whole vehicle excluding the additional
fitment inside the body.
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Body: Body is the superstructure of the vehicle. Body is bolted to the vehicle. Body is
just like a cover to the chassis. It is made of number of pressed steel panels weld.
Some bodies consist of timber frame work reinforced by forged steel plates
together.

Power Plant (Engine)

The Engine provides the necessary power to run the automobile. The power plant
generally consists of an internal combustion engine which may be either of spark
ignition engine (petrol engine) or of compression ignition engine (Diesel engine)
Basic Structure (CHASIS CONSTRUCTION)
The basic structure consists of frame, suspension system, axles & wheel and Tyres.
(i) Frame: The frame is the main part of the vehicle, on which the remaining parts of
the chassis are mounted.
It is a rigid structure generally comprises of two side members and several cross
members connected together. Side members may be either of channel or box
shaped cross section and cross members are built so that they are deeper at the
centre where the stresses are the greatest.

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The frame is narrow at the front and widening out at rear to provide bigger space in
the body.
The engine is mounted in the forward end of the frame and is connected to the
clutch and Gearbox to form a complete power assembly. At the rear end of the
frame, the rear axle housing is attached through the rear spring. The wheels and
tyres fixed to the front axle and rear axle support the frame.
Frame is required to carry the weight of the vehicle and passengers. It shall be stiff
and strong enough to resist several stresses to which it is subjected.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FRAME
(1) To carry the weight of the vehicle and its passengers.
(2) To provide connecting link for front and rear wheels.
(3) To withstand the Engine and transmission torque, accelerating and braking
torques.
(4) To withstand the bending stresses and twisting caused due to the rise and fall of
the front and rear axles.
(5) To withstand the centrifugal force while cornering.
(ii) Suspension System:
The purpose of suspension system is to provide smoother riding by
cushioning the road shocks and vibrations and preventing them from being
transferred into the body and frame. The suspension system consists of spring to
absorb the road shocks and shock absorbers to absorb the excessive up and down
movement of the springs.
(ii) Axles:
The Axles it may be front or rear considered as beams supported at the
ends.
The front axle is used to carry the weight of the front part of the vehicle as well as
facilitate steering and suspension systems.
The rear axle is used to carry the rear weight of the vehicle as well as to facilitate to
transmit the drive to rear wheels.

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(iii) Wheels & Tyres :

The wheels serve to drive the vehicle as well as to support the vehicle. They
consist of front and rear wheels. The function of the front wheels is mainly to steer
the vehicle. The rear wheels are driven by the rear axle half-shafts. The tyre is of
rubber made attached to the outer rim of the wheel. A tube is fitted inside the tyre.
Its interior is filled with air to enable cushioning the road shocks.
The power developed by the engine is ultimately aimed to turn the
wheels so that the vehicle can move on the road. It is transmitted through the
various components, clutch, Gearbox, Universal Joints, Propeller shaft, differential
and axles. The transmission of power from engine to the driving wheels through all
these components is called Automobile Transmission System.

Functions of various components

The engine is situated at front such that the crankshaft transmits the
motion to the transmission system.
Clutch:
Clutch is located between the engine and the gear box. Clutch is a device
which engage and disengage the power from engine to gear box. When the clutch is
in engaged position, the power flows from engine to gear box and the vehicle
moves. When the clutch is in disengaged position, the power does not flows to the
gear box and the vehicle stops while the engine is still running.
Gear box:
Gear box is located between the clutch and propeller shaft. To start an
automobile from rest, pulling more loads, climbing a bridge or hill and meeting
other resistances, high torque is required. This is accomplished by set of gears called
gear box or transmission. The wheels speed can be increased or reduced to obtain
more speed or torque.
Universal Joints:
Universal joints are used to make a flexible connection between two rigid
shafts at an angle. They permit the transmission of power not only at an angle but
also while this angle is vary constantly. One universal joint is connected between
transmission (gearbox) main shaft and the propeller shaft, other universal joint is
connected between the other end of the propeller shaft and the differential.

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A slip joint is also attached to vary the length of the propeller shaft due to the
vibrations appeared to the shaft.
Propeller shaft (Drive shaft):
It is connected between the gear box and differential with universal joint at
each end. The propeller shaft simply transmits the power from gear box to
differential.
Differential:
Differential is situated at the end of the propeller shaft and in between the
two rear axles. It serves two purposes. Firstly, it turns the power at right angle from
the propeller shaft to the rear axles. Secondly, it provides relative motion to the two
rear wheels when the vehicle takes a turn.
Rear axle: The power obtained from the differential transmitted to the road wheels
through the rear axle half-shafts. The half shafts are connected to the differential at
one end and the other end is connected to the wheels.
Front axle:
The front axles are usually dead axles (They do not participate in power .
transmission) and is used to carry the weight of the vehicle and also to facilitate
suspension & steering system.
Wheel:
Wheels support the weight of the vehicle and transmits the power so that the
vehicle moves on the road.
TYPES OF DRIVES OF AUTOMOBILES (Power Train)
Some of the important drives of automobiles may be classified as follows:
A. Two wheel Drive (2WD)
1. Front engine – Front wheel drive (FWD)
2. Front engine – Rear wheel drive (RWD)
3. Rear engine – Rear wheel drive (RWD)
B. Four wheel drive(4WD) / All Wheel Drive(AWD)
Refer : https://youtu.be/TTMpzP-2QAQ

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A. Two wheel Drive (2WD)

01.Front Engine – Front wheel drive (FWD) :
Vehicles contain both the engine and the drive wheels on the front axle. This is the
most common powertrain and driveline arrangement for small and compact
vehicles, because of the advantages in terms of space and efficiency.
This drive pulling the car along provides good grip and good road holding on curves
due to major weight at the front. The chances of skidding especially on slippery
surfaces are very much reduced. Good road adhesion is provided by the large
proportion of the vehicle weight acting on the driven wheels. It avoids the usage of
propeller shaft. When the vehicle is to be ‘steered in to the curve, it provides
understeer characteristics which is always preferred by drivers
But this requires special universal joints and a more complicated assembly, to
prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy braking, the ‘reduced’ weight at
the rear usually necessitates special arrangement.

1. Internal combustion engine

2. Clutch / torque converter
3. Gearbox
4. Differential

02. Front engine – Rear wheel drive (RWD)

Vehicle usually have the Engine on the front axle and the drive wheels on the
rear axle. This is also called the “classical” driveline arrangement, because this is
how the first road vehicles were configured. Most of the luxury sedans and sport
cars have rear-wheel drive configuration. This layout is one of the oldest layout
which remained unchanged for many years, some of the advantages provided by
this system are:
(a) Balanced weight distribution between the front and the rear wheels.
(b) Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available.

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(c) Accessibility to various components like engine, gearbox and rear axle is
better in comparison to other layouts. The control linkages-accelerator,
choke, clutch and gearbox are short and simple.
(d) Full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicle’s movement is taken
by the forward radiator resulting in reduced power losses from a large fan
(e) Easy front wheel steering

1. Internal combustion engine

2. Clutch / torque converter
3. Gearbox
4. Differential
5. Propeller shaft

03. Rear engine – Rear wheel drive (RWD)

Vehicles contain both the engine and the drive wheels on the rear axle.
This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine is
mounted adjacent to the driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gear box-final drive form
a single unit in this layout. To reduce the overhang distance between the wheel
centres and the front of the engine, the final drive is generally placed between the
clutch and the gear box. In comparison to front wheel drive it has a simpler drive
shaft layout. Further, the weight of rear engine on the driving wheels provides
excellent traction and grip especially on steep hills as well as when accelerating.
Inspire of the low proportion of the vehicle weight transferring to the front wheels,
very effective rear wheel braking is possible. Due to the absence of the propeller
shaft the obstructed floor space is reduced. The front of the vehicle can, therefore,
be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow. The exhaust gases, fumes.
Engine heat and noises are also carried away from the passengers. It results in
compact layout and short car
The layout also has got certain disadvantages like restricted luggage space due to
narrow front compartment which houses the fuel tank also. Natural air cooling is
not possible, it requires a powerful fan. The floor is further obstructed due to long
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linkage required for the engine, clutch and the gear box controls. The rearward
concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side winds at high
speeds. This makes the vehicle unstable resulting in over steering and turning very
sharply into a curve. This necessitates the steering correction in the opposite
direction

1. Internal combustion engine

2. Clutch / torque converter
3. Gearbox
4. Differential
Both FWD and RWD vehicles are two-wheel
drive (2WD) vehicles because the power is
transmitted only through two wheels.

B. Four wheel drive(4WD) / All Wheel Drive(AWD)

When the engine power is distributed to all wheels the vehicle is all-wheel drive
(AWD) or four-wheel drive (4WD). The only difference is, in 4WD there is special
arrangement which allows to disconnect the power to any of the Axle either front or
Rear if the Driver desired, whereas in AWD both the Axel’s are driven.
In case of a AWD or 4WD vehicle, both front and rear axles need to be equipped
with a differential, due to the fact that all wheels transmit power and they need to
rotate with different speeds during vehicle cornering

4WD/ AWD vehicles are also called “four-by-four” (4×4) vehicles. The numbers come
from the vehicle driveline formula:

Total Number Of Axles x Total Number Of Drive Wheels

For a vehicle with two axles, if only one axle has the drive wheels, the formula
becomes “4×2“. If both axles have the drive wheels, the formula is “4×4“.

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1. Internal combustion engine

2. Clutch / torque converter
3. Gearbox
4. Rear differential
5. Rear propeller (longitudinal) shaft
6. Transfer case (with central differential and gear reductor (optional))
7. Front propeller (longitudinal) shaft
8. Front differential
9. Coupling device (viscous, electromagnetic)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION

With respect to fitting of the engine, chassis is classified as follows.
(i) Full forward chassis
(ii) Semi-forward chassis
(iii) Engine at front chassis (Conventional Chassis)
(iv) Engine at Rear chassis
(v) Engine at centre chassis
(vi) Long wheel base chassis
(vii) Overhung chassis
(viii) Half-integral & Half-frame chassis

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(i) Full Forward chassis: This type of chassis consists of engine fitted in front of
driven seat or driver cabin.

(ii) Semi forward chassis: This type of chassis consists of engine is fitted that half
of it is in the driver’s cabin an half, out of the driver’s cabin.

(iii) Engine at front chassis (conventional chassis): In which engine is mounted in

front of the driver’s cabin. This type of chassis used in most of the heavy
vehicles. The conventional control chassis is again divided into follow three
types.

(i) In the first type, the engine is fitted at the front but the drive is
provided to the rear wheels (Front engine rear wheel drive).

(ii) In the second type, the engine is fitted at the front and the drive is
also provided to the front wheels (Front engine front wheel drive).

(iii) In the third type, the engine is fitted in front in a cross-wise manner
and the drive is provided to the front wheels.

(iv) Engine at Rear chassis:

Engine is fitted at the rear of the vehicle and the drive is also provided
through the rear wheels (Rear engine rear wheel drive).
(v) Engine at centre chassis:
Engine is fitted in its centre under the chassis.
(vi) Long wheel base chassis:
To accommodate more passengers and to carry more load, vehicle
chassis are provided with longer wheel base resulting in longer chassis.
(vii) Overhang chassis :
To accommodate more floor space certain length of chassis is
extended before the front axle (front overhang) and after the rear axle (Rear
overhang).
(viii) Half-integral and Half-frame chassis :
In this type, half frame bolted to the floor of the vehicle is fixed at
the front end on which the engine, gear box and front suspension is fixed. Ex:
Ambassador cars

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Types of Automobile Engines

Automobile Engines are basically classified According to
1. Type of fuel used
a) Petrol engine; (b) Diesel engine; (c) Gas engine
2. Nature of cycle used
a) Otto cycle engine
b) Diesel cycle engine
c) Dual Combustion cycle engine
3. No. of strokes required
a) Two-stroke engine ; b) Four- stroke engine
4. Method of ignition
a) Spark ignition (S.I) engine ; b) Compression ignition engine
5. No. of cylinders
a) Single Cylinder engine ; b) Multi Cylinder engine
6. Method of cooling
a) Air cooled engine ; b) Water cooled engine
7. Method of Governing
a) Hit & miss method governed engine
b) Quality governed engine
c) Quantity governed engine
8. Method of charging
a) Natural aspirated engine
b) Super charged engine
9. Arrangement of cylinders
Horizontal engine, Vertical engine, V-engine, In-line engine,
Radial engine, Opposed Cylinder engine, Opposed piston engine
X- engine.
10. Speed of engine
a) Low speed engine; b)Medium speed engine; c) High sped engine
11. Application
Stationary engine, Marine engine, Locomotive engine, Air craft engine,
Automotive engine.

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Construction of I.C ENGINE

The major components of IC engine and their functions are follows

Cylinder Block :
The cylinder block is the main body of the engine. It supports all components of the
engine. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called as crank case. It is made of
Grey cast Iron or aluminium alloy.
Cylinder :
The cylinder barrel in which the piston reciprocates is cylinder. One end of the
cylinder is closed with cylinder head and the other end of the cylinder opens
towards crank case. The cylinders are provided with liners which may be easily
replaced when ever required. It is made with grey cast Iron.
Cylinder head:
The cylinder head is bolted to one end of the cylinder and serves as a cover for
cylinder. It accommodates valves, spark plug/fuel injector and provides combustion
chamber. It is made with Grey cast iron or aluminium alloy.

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Piston:
The piston reciprocates in the cylinder to complete cyclic events and transmit gas
force to the crank shaft through connecting rod & crank. It is made of Cast iron,
aluminium alloy & cast steel.
Piston rings:
They provides tight seal between the piston & cylinder wall. It prevents leakage of
combustion gases. It is made with special cast iron alloy with Chrome plating. There
are 3 piston rings, in which 2 are Compression rings and the remaining one is Oil
ring.
Connecting rod:
It connects the piston & the crank. It transmits the reciprocating motion of piston
continuously to the crank. It is made with medium Carbon steel &alloy steel.
Gudgen/wrist/piston Pin:
It connects small end of connecting rod to piston. It is made off steel.
Crank pin:
It connects big end of the connecting rod with crank. It transmits power from the
piston to crank through connecting rod. It is made of steel.
Crank:
It is the link between connecting rod & crank shaft. It is connected to the connecting
rod with crank pin. It converts & transmits linear motion of the piston I to rotary
motion to crank shaft.
Crank shaft:
The power developed in a cylinder is transmitted to crank shaft through connecting
rod and crank. Then crank shaft transmits the power to driven shaft. It is made with
forged steel.
Cam shaft:
It is driven by the crank shaft by means of Timing (valve) gears. The speed of the
crank shaft is half the speed of the crank shaft. It operates inlet and exhaust valves.
It is made with forged steel.

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Crank case:
It is a stationary body of the engine. It encloses the moving parts of the engine. It is
made of Aluminium alloy or grey cast iron.
Valves:
Two valves (i) Inlet valve & (ii) Exhaust valve are provided for each cylinder of each
cylinder of 4-stroke engine. SILICON-CHROME STEEL is used for Exhaust valve,
because it is exposed to intense heat of exhaust gases. The inlet valve remains cool
by the incoming charge. Therefore NICKEL-CHROME STEEL is suitable for inlet valve.
Inlet Manifold
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and
through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet
manifold.
Exhaust Manifold: The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve
of the engine and through Which the products of combustion escape into the
atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.

Oil Filters:
Oil filter is used to remove the dust particles/contaminants from the oil before it is
feeding to all the parts of the engine.

Types of Oil filters

There are 3 types of Oil Filters, and those are:
1. Cartridge Type Oil Filter
2. Edge Type Oil Filter
3. Centrifugal Type Oil Filter

Cartridge Type Oil Filter:

Cartridge type oil filter consists of filtering elements which are placed in the metallic
casing for removing the impurities present in the lubricating oil and is mostly used in
automobile engines.
Currently, filter elements with fine pores have been employed which has made it
practicable to stop or arrest the particles of the size to within the region of 5
microns.

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In the filter shown in the figure, the oil enters

the filter at the top of the casing and passes
through the filter elements as shown by the
arrow marks.
The pure oil has to be passed through the
porous metallic tube from where the oil goes to
the outlet for circulation. A drain plug is also
provided as shown in the figure. The filtering
elements of two types are either be cleaned or
to be changed at every interval of 10000
kilometres.

Edge Type Oil Filter:

Edge type oil filter is also called a stack type Oil filter.
In this oil filter, the oil is made to pass through several closely spaced discs which are
mounted on the centre spindle as well as
the square rod alternately as shown in the
figure The clearance or gap between two
successive discs is of few microns only.
The oil is allowed to pass through these
spaces between the discs and due to the
small spaces involved in between the discs,
the impurities are left on the disk
periphery itself from where they are
removed periodically using operating the
central knob.
This may be connected to the clutch
system and operated periodically using
clutch action or it can be done either
manually also.

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Centrifugal Type Oil filter:

In this Oil Filter, the impure oil from the engine enters the hollow Central spindle
having holes around its periphery as shown in the figure.
The impure/dirty oil comes out of these holes and fills the rotor casing after which it
passes through the tubes A at the ends of which Jets are attached.
The oil under pressure passes through these jets
and due to the reaction of which, it gives motion
to the rotor casing in the opposite direction so
that it starts rotating.
The oil impinges on the outer stationary casing
under heavy pressures where the impurities are
retained there itself and cleaned oil falls below
from where it is to be passed to other parts of the
engine.
Depending upon the oil pressure circulating the
oil, the working speed of the rotor is usually
between 2000 rpm and 7000 rpm.
The filter walls have to be cleaned at intervals of
about 70000 kilometre.

Oil Pumps :
The oil pump is the heart of the lubrication system. It sucks oil up from the oil pan
and forces it around oil ways in the engine, before the oil drops back into the sump
and is recirculated. The oil pump is a highly critical part of the engine. If an oil pump
stops working it will lead to expensive engine failure 100% of the time. That’s one
reason why the oil pump is so directly driven from the crankshaft.
Oil pumps are situated in the oil pan, or more usually at the front of the engine.

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Types of Oil Pumps :

01.Gear type Oil Pump
02. Rotor type Oil Pump
03. Eccentric rotor Oil Pump
04. Rotary-Plunger type Oil Pump
05. Sliding-Vane type Oil Pump
06. Double Gear wheel Oil Pump
07. Dry Sump Oil Pump

Crank Case Ventilation

In an internal combustion engine, a crankcase ventilation system
removes unwanted gases from the crankcase. The system usually consists of a tube,
a one-way valve and a vacuum source (such as the intake manifold).
The unwanted gases, called “blow-by”, are gases from the combustion chamber
which have leaked and pass through the piston rings. Early engines released these
gases to the atmosphere simply by them leaking through the crankcase seals. Later a
new system was invented named as “Positive Crank Case Ventilation.”

Positive Crank Case Ventilation:

When the engine is operating, some combustible mixture gas and exhaust gas
can enter into crankcase by means of piston ring. So the engine oil will be diluted.
The exhaust gas's high temp, acidity substances and water vapour can erode engine
component and alchemize (Changes the Properties) engine oil. On the other hand,
the mixture gas also can increase the crankcase’s inner pressure and temperature,
and this can cause engine oil seepage (the slow escape of a liquid or gas through
porous material or small holes) which forms engine malfunction.
The purpose of the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system is to remove these
harmful gases from the crankcase before damage occurs and combine them with
the engine’s normal incoming air/fuel charge.

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The Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system is basically a one way passage for
blow-by gases to escape in a controlled manner.
The Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system uses manifold vacuum to draw
vapours from the crankcase into the intake manifold. Vapour is then carried with the
fuel/air mixture into the combustion chambers where it is burned. The flow or
circulation within the system is controlled by the positive crankcase ventilation
(PCV) valve. The (PCV) valve is effective as both a crankcase ventilation system and
as a pollution control device. (PCV) systems have been standard equipment on all
new cars since the early sixties.
The major component in the (PCV) system is the PCV valve. It consists of a simple
spring-loaded valve with a sliding pintle inside. The movement of the pintle up and
down changes the orifice opening. As a result, regulating the volume of air passing
through the (PCV) valve.
The location of the valve allows it to pull vapours from inside the engine; without
sucking oil from the crankcase. There are baffles inside the valve cover or valley
cover; that deflect and help separate droplets of oil from the blow by vapours.
A hose connects the top of the (PCV) valve to a vacuum port on the throttle body;
carburettor or intake manifold. Allowing the vapours to be siphoned directly into
the engine.
For clear explanation refer: https://youtu.be/JotiMO3R8bQ
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PCV VALVE
HOW PCV FLOW CHANGES WITH ENGINE SPEED & LOAD
The flow rate of a PCV valve is calibrated for a specific engine application. For the
system to function normally, the PCV valve must adjust the flow rate according to
the change in operating conditions.
A When the engine is off, the spring inside the valve pushes the pintle shut to seal
the crankcase and prevent the escape of any residual vapours into the atmosphere.
B When the engine starts, vacuum in the intake manifold pulls on the pintle and
sucks the PCV valve open. The pintle is pulled up against the spring and moves to its
highest position. But the tapered shape of the pintle does not allow maximum flow
in this position. Instead, it restricts flow so the engine will idle smoothly.
The same thing happens during deceleration when intake vacuum is high. The pintle
is pulled all the way up to reduce flow.
C When the engine is cruising under light load and at part throttle, there is less
intake vacuum and less pull on the pintle. This allows the pintle to slide down to a
mid-range position and allow more airflow.
D Under high load or hard acceleration conditions, intake vacuum drops even more,
allowing the spring inside the PCV valve to push the pintle valve even lower to its
maximum flow position. If blowby pressure builds up faster than the PCV system can
handle it, the excess pressure flows back through the breather hose to the air
cleaner and is sucked back into the engine and burned.
E In the event of an engine backfire, the sudden rise in pressure inside the intake
manifold blows back through the PCV hose and slams the pintle shut. This prevents
the flame from traveling back through PCV valve and possibly igniting fuel vapours
inside the crankcase.
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There are 2 types of PCV systems.

01. Open pcv system
02. Closed pcv system

Open pcv system:

The open system draws fresh air though a vented oil filler cap. This presents
no problem as long as the vapour volume is minimal. However, when the crankcase
vapour becomes excessive it is forced back through the vented oil cap and into the
atmosphere. As a result, The open (PCV) system, is not completely effective as a
pollution control device.

Closed pcv system:

The closed Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system draws fresh air
from the air filter housing. There is no vent in the oil filler cap. Consequently, excess
vapour will be carried back to the air filter housing and from there into the intake
manifold. The closed system prevents vapour, whether normal or excessive, from
reaching the open atmosphere. The closed system is very effective as an air
pollution control device.

Fuel gauges:
A fuel gauge is used to indicate the driver the level of the fuel in the tank. It is
mounted on the instrument board in front of the driver.
Types of Fuel Gauge
The following are the types of fuel gauge:
I. A.C. electric fuel gauge with balanced coils.
II. Bimetal type electric fuel gauge.
III. Thermal type electric fuel gauge.
IV. Thermostatic-type electric fuel gauge.
E : Empty ; F : Full
1. A.C. Electric Fuel Gauge with Balanced Coils (IMP)
The figure shows an A.C. electric fuel gauge with balanced coils. It consists of two
units-tank unit and dash unit. The two units are connected by a single wire. In these

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types of fuel gauge, the tank unit comprises a rheostat (resistance coil and movable
contact) and a float.
The rheostat contact is operated by float to assume a position on the resistance
corresponding to the position of the float in the fuel tank. This movable contact is
earthed.
The dash unit or the instrument board unit consists of two coils spaced 90° apart
with an armature and pointer assembly provided at the intersection of the coil axes.
The right-hand coil is earthed.
Working
When the ignition switch is turned on, current from the battery flows through the
two coils. This produces a magnetic field that acts on the armature to which the
pointer is attached.

When the tank is full and the float is up, the resistance in the tank unit is high. The
current flowing through the E (empty) coil also flows through the F (full) coil. Thus
the armature is pulled to the right so that the pointer indicates on the F (full) side of
the dial.

When the tank begins to empty, the float goes down and resistance of the unit
drops. Thus, more of the current flowing through the E coil passes through the tank
unit. Since less current is flowing through the F coil, its magnetic field is weaker and
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the armature is pulled to the left so that the pointer indicates towards the E (empty
side of the dial).

The fuel gauge operates only when the ignition switch is turned on. The current
consumption of the gauge is so low (0.15 amp) as to cause no appreciable drain on
the electric system.

Vibrations in voltage depend supplied to the gauge do not affect their accuracy as
their operation depends upon the proportion of electric current flows through the
coils of the dash unit, rather than on the actual strength of their magnetic fields.

The construction of the fuel gauge depends upon the tank. For small tanks, the
movable contact is actuated directly by the float arm. The float may be either single
or double. For large tanks, the movable contact may be mounted on a vertical axis
and driven from the float arm by bevel gears.

Refer : https://youtu.be/O7jkYJnr37E

2. Bimetal-Type Electric Fuel Gauge

The figure shows a bimetal-type electric fuel gauge. It also consists of two nits-the
the sender unit and the dash unit or receiver unit. The sender unit is placed in the
fuel tank.

It consists of a heating coil wound around a bimetal strip and on external float
mechanism which acts through a cam and flexible diaphragm so that the position of
the float varies the height of earthed contact which in turn varies the tension in the
bimetal strip. The receiver unit located on the instrument panel in front of the driver.
The two units are connected by a wire and receiver current from the battery of the
generator.

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Working

When the fuel tank is empty, the float is down and the two contacts in the sender
unit are just touching. In this position, when the ignition switch is turned on, the
current flows through the circuit, and heat is generated in the heating coil causing
the bimetal to bend. As soon as the bimetal bends it opens the contact and the
circuit breaks.
Then the heating coil and bimetal cool and the spring returns to its former position
where contact is again made. Since the heating coils of the sender and receiver units
are connected in series, similar slight bending of the bimetal in the receiver unit
takes place, which pulls the pointer to zero position of the receiver unit.
When the fuel tank is full, the float is up, the eccentric shaft raises the earthed
contact against the insulated bimetal contact, bending the bimetal in the sender
unit. As the bimetal is under tension, more current is required to heat it so as to
bend is sufficiently to break contact.
Due to the increased current, a similarly increased bending of the bimetal in the
receiver unit occurs which pulls the pointer to “full” position. The cycle of opening
and closing of the contacts is continuously repeated.

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3. Thermal-Type Electric Fuel Gauge

The figure shows a thermal-type electric fuel gauge. It consists of two units-dash
and tank unit. The dash unit is exactly like the receiver unit of the bimetal electric
fuel gauge.

The tank unit consists of a rheostat in the form of a sliding contact on a resistance
wire, which is moved by the float. The two units are connected in series to a contact
voltage regulator, which is energized when the ignition switch is turned on.

Working
When the fuel tank is full and the float is up the circuit has the least resistance in the
tank unit resistance wire and more current flows through the circuit. This causes
heating the bimetal arm so that it bends the moves the needle towards a “full”
position. When the tanks begins to empty, the float drops. It increases the
resistance which reduces the current to a value that causes the bimetal arm to force
the needle towards “empty” position.

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4. Thermostatic Type Electric Fuel Gauge

The figure shows a thermostatic type electric fuel gauge. It is an early type gauge
still used on some late model cars. It uses two wires to connect the dash unit and
tank unit, instead of one wire in other gauges. The dash unit consists of a pair of
thermostat blades, each with a heating coil.
The coils are connected in series through the ignition switch to the battery. When
the ignition switch is turned on, the current passing through the coils beats them.
The heat causes the blades to bend so as to move an indicator over a scale. The tank
unit consists of a float that actuates a cam. The cam, on turning, imposes bending on
the tank thermostat blade.

Working
When the tank is full, and the float is up the cam puts a considerable bend in the
blade. The current flowing through the heater coils, when the ignition switch is
turned on, heats the tank blade, it bends farther so that the contact separates. Then
the blade cools and the points reopen.
This action continues as long as the ignition switch is on. Meanwhile, the blade in
the dash unit is heated and bends the same amount. Movement of this blade is
carried through linkage to the pointer which moves to indicates “full” position.
When the tank is empty, the float is down, the cam bends the tank thermostat
blade only a little. Thus, only a small amount of heating is enough to bend the blade
farther and open the contacts. The dash unit blade bends only a little and the
pointer indicates towards the “empty” position.
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Oil pressure Gauge

Functional Principle
Standard oil pressure sensors work by displaying a warning signal when the oil
pressure falls outside of the set range. Two important components to the oil
pressure sensor include the spring-loaded switch and a diaphragm. The spring-
loaded switch is connected to the diaphragm that is exposed to the oil pressure.
As the force of the oil pressure starts to build on the diaphragm, this force
overcomes the switch spring pressure, which then pulls apart the electrical contacts
to turn on the warning light. If the oil pressure falls below the set limit, the
diaphragm releases pressure off the springs to close the switch contacts that would
normally result in the display of a warning sign to the driver.

How to Read an Oil Gauge

Oil gauges look like most indicators on your dashboard. There’s a label (typically
“OIL”), numbers (ranging between 1-80 or 1-100), and a dial with an indicator
needle. Instead of numbers, some vehicles use “L” and “H” to indicate high or low
pressure

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Engine Temperature indicator

The temperature gauge in your vehicle is designed to indicate the temperature of
your engine’s coolant. This gauge will tell you if your engine’s coolant is cold,
normal, or overheating. It is an important dial that is located on the dashboard of
your vehicle

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