Introduction to foundation

Foundations signed to transfer building loads safely to the underlying ground.

They must satisfy the following two design criteria: are structural elements like
beams and columns, which are
1. Bearing capacity: There must be no failure within the surrounding soil; soil
failure would jeopardize the integrity of the foundation.
2. Settlement: The settlement must be within tolerable limits.

Foundations are of two types: shallow and deep foundations. A shallow

foundation is generally placed within the soil at a depth less than the width of the
foundation. A deep foundation can extend to a depth much larger than the width.
Shallow foundations include pad, strip, and mat (or raft) foundations. Pad
foundations, also known as pad footings or spread footings, can be square,
circular, or rectangular in plan and carry column loads, They spread the column
load evenly into the underlying ground. Strip foundations or footings, also known
as continuous foundations, support wall loads. Mat foundations can carry
multiple column or wall loads. Deep foundations include single piles, pile groups,
and drilled shafts

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Introduction to deep foundation (pile)
A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth
farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a sub‐surface
layer or a range of depths. A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep
foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the building site. There are
many reasons that a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation
over a shallow foundation, such as for a skyscraper. Some of the common reasons
are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints like
property lines. There are different terms used to describe different types of deep
foundations including the pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is
analogous to a column), drilled shafts, and caissons. Piles are generally driven into
the ground in situ; other deep foundations are typically put in place using
excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may vary between engineering
disciplines and firms. Deep foundations (Piles) are structural members made of
steel, concrete, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete or timber. They are
deep foundations where the depth (or length) is significantly larger than the width.
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Piles are recommended in the following situations:

1. In weak ground conditions

When the soil conditions near the surface are poor, shallow foundations will not be
able to carry the building loads, and deep foundations are required. If bedrock is
present at reasonable depth, it is possible to drive the pile into the bedrock and
transfer the entire load to the bedrock. Generally, when the pile is driven into a
thick deposit of soil, the load applied on the pile head is transferred to the soil
through the pile tip (or point) and the pile shaft

2. For carrying lateral loads

Tall buildings, earth-retaining structures, transmission towers, and chimneys can

be subjected to large lateral loading due to wind loads, earth pressures, or seismic
loads. Unlike shallow foundations, the piles can resist lateral loads very
effectively, Sometimes these piles are installed at an angle to the vertical to resist
the lateral load and are known as batter piles.

3. In expansive or collapsible soil

Expansive soil pose a significant threat to low-rise buildings, roads, and other
infrastructure in many parts of the world. Shallow foundations placed in expansive
soil can undergo repeated swelling and shrinkage due to seasonal variations, which
cause considerable damage to the superstructure. Piles can be driven well beyond
the depths where the expansive soil are present, so this problem can be avoided.
Collapsible soil such as loess become weaker when saturated and undergo large
settlements. Here, too, piles can be driven beyond the depths where such
problematic soil are present.

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4. For resisting uplift

In transmission towers, offshore platforms, and situations where the basement or

pump house lies below the water table, the foundations must be able to resist uplift.
Piles can be very effective for such situations. Sometimes, the bottoms of the piles
are enlarged to provide anchorage against uplift. Such piles are known as “belled”
or “under reamed” piles.

5. For bridge abutments

Bridge abutments and piers are usually constructed over pile foundations to avoid
the loss of bearing capacity that a shallow foundation may suffer because of soil
erosion at the ground level

6. As compaction piles

Under certain circumstances, piles are driven into granular soil to achieve
proper compaction of soil close to the ground surface. These piles are
called compaction piles. The lengths of compaction piles depend on
the relative density of the soil before and after the compaction and the
required depth of compaction. These piles are generally short; however,
some field tests are necessary to determine a reasonable length.

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Although numerous investigations, both theoretical and experimental, have
been conducted in the past to predict the behavior and the load-bearing capacity of
piles in granular and cohesive soil, the mechanisms are not yet entirely understood
and may never be. The design and analysis of pile foundations may thus be
considered somewhat of an art as a result of the uncertainties involved in working
with some subsoil conditions.

Concrete Pile’s

Concrete piles may be divided into two basic categories:

(a) precast piles and (b)cast-in-situ piles.
Precast piles can be prepared by using ordinary reinforcement, and they can be
square or octagonal in cross section ,
Reinforcement is provided to enable the pile to resist the bending moment
developed during pickup and transportation, the vertical load, and the bending
moment caused by a lateral load. The piles are cast to desired lengths and
cured before being transported to the work sites.
Some general facts about concrete piles are as follows:

● Usual length: 10 m to 15 m
● Usual load: 300 kN to 3000 kN
● Advantages:
a. Can be subjected to hard driving
b. Corrosion resistant
c. Can be easily combined with a concrete superstructure
● Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to achieve proper cutoff
b. Difficult to transport

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Precast piles can also be prestressed by the use of high-strength steel prestressing
cables. The ultimate strength of these cables is about 1800 MNym2. During casting
of the piles, the cables are pretensioned to about 900 to 1300 MNym2, and
concrete is poured around them. After curing, the cables are cut, producing a
compressive force on the pile section,gives additional information about
prestressed concrete piles with square and octagonal cross sections.

Some general facts about precast prestressed piles are as follows:

● Usual length: 10 m to 45 m
● Maximum length: 60 m
● Maximum load: 7500 kN to 8500 kN

The advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of precast piles.
Cast-in-situ, or cast-in-place, piles are built by making a hole in the ground
and then filling it with concrete. Various types of cast-in-place concrete piles are
currently used in construction, and most of them have been patented by their
manufacturers. These piles may be divided into two broad categories: (a) cased and
(b) uncased. Both types may have a pedestal at the bottom.
Cased piles are made by driving a steel casing into the ground with the help of a
mandrel placed inside the casing. When the pile reaches the proper depth, the
mandrel is withdrawn and the casing is filled with concrete. The pedestal is an
expanded concrete bulb that is formed by dropping a hammer on fresh concrete.
For a cased or uncased cast-in-place pile, a reinforcement cage is generally
provided for the upper part.

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Some general facts about cased cast-in-place piles are as follows:
● Usual length: 5 m to 15 m
● Maximum length: 30 m to 40 m
● Usual load: 200 kN to 500 kN
● Approximate maximum load: 800 kN
● Advantages:
a. Relatively cheap
b. Allow for inspection before pouring concrete
c. Easy to extend
● Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to splice after concreting
b. Thin casings may be damaged during driving

Following are some general facts about uncased cast-in-place concrete piles:
● Usual length: 5 m to 15 m
● Maximum length: 30 m to 40 m
● Usual load: 300 kN to 500 kN
● Approximate maximum load: 700 kN
● Advantages:
a. Initially economical
b. Can be finished at any elevation
● Disadvantages:
a. Voids may be created if concrete is placed rapidly
b. Difficult to splice after concreting
c. In soft soil, the sides of the hole may cave in, squeezing the concrete

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Introduction to mat foundation (raft)

T-footings. Under normal conditions, these square and rectangular footings are
economical for supporting columns and walls. However, under certain he types of
shallow foundations , it may be desirable to construct a footing that supports a line
of two or more columns. These footings are referred to as combined footings.
When more than one line of columns is supported by a concrete slab, it is called a
mat or raft foundation. , is essentially a continuous slab resting on the soil that
extends over the entire footprint of the building, thereby supporting the building
and transferring its weight to the ground. A raft foundation is often used when the
soil is weak, as it distributes the weight of the building over the entire area of the
building, and not over smaller zones (like individual footings) or at individual
points (like pile foundations). This reduces the stress on the soil. The concept of
stress is very basic to civil engineering. Stress is simply weight divided by area. .
So increasing the total area of the foundation can dramatically lower the stress on
the soil, which is nothing but weight per square meter. A raft foundation is also
very good for basements. Foundations are created by excavating soil in order to
find strong, compact, undisturbed natural soil that is at least a few feet below
ground level. This soil is much stronger than the loose soil at the surface. If much
stronger than the loose soil at the surface. If we construct a raft foundation at say
10 feet below ground, and build concrete walls around the periphery, this makes an
excellent basement. Therefore, an engineer designing a building with a basement
will tend to choose a raft foundation over other types of foundations.

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 Combined footings can be classified generally under the following categories:
a. Rectangular combined footing
b. Trapezoidal combined footing
c. Strap footing

Mat foundations are generally used with soil that has a low bearing capacity.
Mat Foundations are used under the following circumstances:
a. When more than 50% of the structure’s footprint will otherwise be constructed
as pad or strip footings,
b. When the type of structure requires that the differential settlements be limited to
very small values, or
c. When there are nonuniform soil conditions or soil where pockets of weak
soil are present.

references
-principles of foundation engineering, Braja M. Das, Dean Emeritus, California
State University, Sacramento, California, USA 2017
-www.wikiredia.com the free encyclopedia
-www.understand construction.com
-www.civilclik.com