SAT II Chemistry PDF

Introduction to the SAT II Chemistry Test
The best way to do well on the SAT II Chemistry test is to be really good at
chemistry. For that, there is no substitute. But the chemistry geek who
spends the night before taking the SAT II cramming all of the nuances of
crystal-field theory and coordination compounds probably won’t fare any
better on the test than the average student who reviews this book carefully.
Why? Because the SAT II Chemistry test doesn’t cover crystal-field theory
and coordination compounds.
Happy? Good. This chapter will tell you precisely what the SAT II
Chemistry test willtest you on, how the test breaks down, and what format
the questions will take. Take this information to heart and base your study
plan around it. There’s no use spending hours on end studying topics you
won’t be tested on
Content of the SAT II Chemistry Test

The SAT II Chemistry test is written to test your understanding of the
topics of chemistry that are typically taught in a one-year college-
preparatory-level high school chemistry course.
Well, math and chemistry go hand in hand, right? You might be surprised,
then, to learn that you aren’t allowed to use a calculator on the SAT II
Chemistry test. The math you’ll need to do on the test never goes beyond
simple arithmetic and manipulation of equations, which is good news for
you—you won’t be a victim of careless errors made on your calculator.
That said, you should be able to solve problems using ratios, direct and
inverse proportions, scientific notation, and some simpler exponential
functions. Since the test is an hour long, this means you have an average of
42 seconds to answer each of the 85 questions—the people at ETS realize
that isn’t enough time to delve into problems involving simultaneous
equations or complex algebra. They’re more interested in testing your grasp
of the basic concepts of chemistry. If you’ve grasped these concepts, your
weakness in math problem solving isn’t going to hurt you.
Youwill, however, be provided with a simple periodic table. This periodic
table will probably look more bare-boned than the one you’re used to using:
it will have only the symbols of the elements along with their atomic
numbers and masses.
Now let’s get into the nuts and bolts of what you’ll see on the exam. ETS
provides the following breakdown of the test, covering eight basic
categories, and as you can see, we’ve arranged the content review in this
book according to ETS’s outline:
Their Topic Our Section Approximate % Approximate
of the test no. of questions
devoted to you’ll see on
these topics. these topics.
Structure of Matter Includes atomic Structure of 25 21
theory and structure, chemical bonding, Matter
and molecular structure; nuclear
reactions
States of Matter Includes kinetic States of Matter 15 13
molecular theory of gases, gas laws,
liquids, solids, and phase changes;
solutions, concentration units,
solubility, conductivity, and colligative
properties
Reaction Types Includes acids and Reaction Types 14 12
bases, oxidation-reduction, and
precipitation
Stoichiometry Includes the mole Stoichiometry 12 10
concept, Avogadro’s number, empirical
and molecular formulas, percentage
composition, stoichiometric
calculations, and limiting reagents
Equilibrium and Reaction Equilibrium and 7 6
Rates Including gas equilibria, ionic Reaction Rates
equilibria, Le Chatelier’s principle,
equilibrium expressions; factors
affecting rate of reaction
Thermodynamics Includes energy Thermodynamics 6 5
changes in chemical reactions and
physical processes, Hess’s law, and
randomness
Descriptive Chemistry Includes Descriptive 13 11
physical and chemical properties of Chemistry
elements and their more familiar
compounds, chemical reactivity and
products of chemical reactions, simple
examples from organic chemistry and
environmental chemistry
Laboratory Includes equipment, Laboratory 8 7
measurement, procedures,
observations, safety, calculations, and
interpretation of results
The fact that this book is organized according to these basic categories will
give you the ability to focus on each topic to whatever degree you feel
necessary: if you know you’re weak on gas law questions, take extra time
going through “The States of Matter” section, for example. Also, each
question in the practice tests at the back of this book has been categorized
according to these eight categories so you can precisely identify your
weaknesses and then concentrate on the areas you need to study most
Format of the SAT II Chemistry Test
The 85 multiple-choice-type questions that make up the SAT II Chemistry
exam fall into three types, and according to the College Board Web site,
these types test three types of skill.
Skill Being Tested Approximate % of Approximate no. of
test that this question questions of this type
type makes up that you’ll see
Recall of knowledge: remembering 20 17
fundamental concepts and specific
information; demonstrating familiarity with
terminology
Application of knowledge: Applying a 45 38
single principle to unfamiliar and/or
practical situations to obtain a qualitative
result or solve a quantitative problem
Synthesis of knowledge: Inferring and 35 30
deducing from qualitative and/or
quantitative data; integrating two or more
relationships to draw conclusions or solve
problems
As you can see, the SAT II test tests your knowledge of chemistry in three
different ways. This test also contains three different types of questions:
classification questions, relationship-analysis questions, and five-choice
completion questions. Next we’ll talk about exactly what these three types
of questions look like.
Classification Questions
Classification questions are basically reverse-multiple-choice questions.
They consist of five answer choices followed by a string of three to five
questions. To make things more confusing, the answer choices may be used
once, more than once, or not at all—so although a classification question
often looks like simple matching, it isn’t!
The level of difficulty in any one set of classification questions is generally
pretty random: you can’t expect the first question in a set to be easier than
the last. However, in the test as a whole, each set of classification questions
is generally a bit harder than the one that came before.
Familiarize yourself with the following set of directions—if you read and
understand them now, you won’t waste precious time on test day.
Directions: Each set of lettered choices below refers to the numbered questions or
statements immediately following it. Select the one lettered choice that best
answers each question or best fits each statement and then fill in the
corresponding oval on the answer sheet. A choice may be used once, more than
once, or not at all in each set.
Questions 1–3
(A) Zinc
(B) Iron
(C) Helium
(D) Copper
(E) Fluorine
1. A highly electronegative element
2. Forms colored solutions when dissolved in water
3. Normally exists as a diatomic molecule but can react to form a 2 - ion

You can usually answer classification questions a bit more quickly than the
standard five-choice completion questions since you need to review only
one set of answer choices to answer a series of questions. The answer to
number 1 is E. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a
chemical bond to attract electrons to itself; in chapter 4 you’ll learn how to
use your periodic table to answer questions like this one. The answer to
number 2 is D, copper. Copper often forms green/blue solutions. The
answer to number 3 is A, zinc. Also in chapter 4, you’ll learn to predict what
ions certain elements will form and in what state they are normally found
in nature. Don’t worry if you don’t know the answers to these questions
right now. This example is meant mainly to show you how a classification
question is formatted.
Relationship-Analysis Questions
Relationship-analysis questions consist of a specific statement, statement I,
followed by another statement, statement II. To answer these questions,
you must determine first whether statement I is true or false and then
whether statement II is true or false. Next you must decide whether the
second statement is the reason for the first statement being true. These
questions may appear intimidating to you since they’re probably
unfamiliar, but after taking the practice exams in this book, you should feel
as comfortable with them as you do with the other question types.
One more thing about this question type: strangely enough, on the SAT II
Chemistry test, the section containing relationship-analysis questions is
always numbered starting with 101. There will be one section of these on
each of the tests, and they also get their own special section on your answer
sheet—also beginning with number 101. There are usually about 16 or 17
questions of this type on the SAT II Chemistry exam. Again, take the time
to familiarize yourself with these directions so you won’t have to even look
at them on test day.
Directions: Each question below consists of two statements, statement I in the
left-hand column and statement II in the right-hand column. For each question,
determine whether statement I is true or false and whether statement II is true or
false and fill in the corresponding T or F ovals on your answer sheet. Fill in oval
CE only if statement II is a correct explanation of statement I.
Statement I Statement II
101. A 1.0 M solution of HCl has a BECAUSE HCl contains chlorine.
low pH.
102. An atom of chlorine is smaller BECAUSE Chlorine has a greater effective
than an atom of sulfur. nuclear charge than sulfur.
Look at question 101. Statement I is true: HCl is an acid, which is a
substance that’s capable of donating H+ ions in solution. Acids have a pH
that’s lower than 7, while bases have a pH above 7. Statement II is also true:
HCl is made up of a hydrogen atom and a chlorine atom. Now do the final
step—is the pH of HCl directly related to the concentration of the chlorine
ions in solution? No, it is directly related to the number of H+ ions given off
by HCl in solution—you would not fill in the bubble marked CE (correct
explanation).
Now the answer to question 102. Statement I is true. Statement II is true.
As you’ll learn in “The Structure of Matter,” atomic radius decreases from
left to right across the periodic table because the more protons in the
nucleus of the atom, the more tightly and more closely held are the atom’s
electrons. This is an example of another way you can use the periodic table
while taking the test. If you understand periodic trends, you won’t have to
memorize the atomic radii of all of the elements. The CE, for “correct
explanation,” should be bubbled in.
Five-Choice Completion Questions
These are the multiple-choice questions we all know and love, and which
are the lifeblood of any multiple-choice exam. You know the drill: they ask a
question and give you five possible answer choices, and you pick the best
one. This will be the third and final part of the exam.
Here are the directions you’ll see on the exam:
Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by
five suggested answers or completions. For each question, select the one choice
that is the best answer to the question and then fill in the corresponding oval on
the answer sheet.
24. Which of the following molecules does not match its geometric shape?
(A)
BF 3 trigonal planar
(B)
CHCl 3 tetrahedral
(C)
H2O V shape (bent)
(D)
CO 2 linear
(E)
PCl 3 trigonal planar
The answer is E—the shape of this compound is irregular tetrahedron (also
known as trigonal pyramid). You’ll learn rules for predicting molecular
structures in chapter 4. Now, the above question is a straightforward
multiple choice, but there’s another type of five-choice completion question
on the test, and it looks like the question below:
25. Which of the following statements correctly describe the information

necessary for finding the concentration of an unknown monoprotic acid by
titration with KOH?
I. The concentration of the base
II. The total starting volume of acid
III. The volume of the base used to reach the equivalence point
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II, and III
Let’s analyze it. To find the concentration of the unknown acid, you’ll need
to know the molarity of the base used in the titration or, put in simpler
language, the moles of base per liter of solution. So, statement I is
necessary. We’ll also need the information in statements II and III, as you’ll
learn in “Laboratory.” The correct answer is E.
While knowing your chemistry inside and out is the best way to ensure that
you’ll do well on this test, it will also help you on test day if you’ve
developed a strategy that enables you to answer all the questions that test
you on chemistry you feel confident about and to guess intelligently on the
questions on areas in which you feel less confident. We will talk about some
strategies for how to deal with these harder questions in the next chapter
Scoring the SAT II Chemistry

Scoring on the SAT II Chemistry is the same as scoring for all other SAT II
tests. For every right answer, you earn one point. For every wrong answer,
you lose 1 /4 of a point. For each question you leave blank, you earn zero
points. These points combined equal your raw score. ETS converts your raw
score to a scaled score using a curve tailored to the particular test you take.
We’ve included a raw-to-scaled conversion chart below so you can translate
your raw score on a practice test into scaled scores.
Raw Score Scaled Score Raw Score Scaled Score Raw Score Scaled Score
80 800 49 600 18 420
79 800 48 590 17 410
78 790 47 590 16 410
77 780 46 580 15 400
76 770 45 580 14 390
75 770 44 570 13 390
74 760 43 560 12 380
73 760 42 560 11 370
72 750 41 550 10 360
71 740 40 550 9 360
70 740 39 540 8 350
69 730 38 540 7 350
68 730 37 530 6 340
67 720 36 520 5 340
66 710 35 520 4 330
65 700 34 510 3 330
64 700 33 500 2 320
63 690 32 500 1 320
62 680 31 490 0 310
61 680 30 490 -1 310
60 670 29 480 -2 300
59 660 28 480 -3 300
58 660 27 470 -4 290
57 650 26 470 -5 280
56 640 25 460 -6 280
55 640 24 450 -7 270
54 630 23 450 -8 270
53 620 22 440 -9 260
52 620 21 440 -10 260
51 610 20 430
50 600 19 420
This chart shows you that your score doesn’t plummet with every question
you can’t answer confidently. You can do very well on this test without
knowing or answering everything. The key to doing well on the SAT II
Chemistry is to follow a strategy that ensures you will see and answer all the
questions you can answer, while intelligently guessing on those slightly
fuzzier questions.
For example, on an 80 question test, you could score:
• 800 if you answered 79 right and left 1 blank
• 750 if you answered 73 right, 4 wrong, and left 3 blank
We’ll talk more about these strategies in the next chapter
Strategies for Taking the SAT II Chemistry Test
A machine, not a person, will score your SAT II test. The tabulating
machine sees only the filled-in ovals on your answer sheet and doesn’t care
how you came to those answers—it cares only whether your answers are
correct. A lucky guess counts in your favor just as much as an answer you
give confidently. By the same token, if you accidentally fill in (B) where you
meant (C), you won’t get any credit for having known what the answer was.
Think of the multiple-choice test as a message to you from the ETS: “We
score your answers, and not any of the work behind them.” So give them
right answers—as many as possible, using whatever means possible.
We’ll start by discussing some general principles for test taking that you can
use for this test as well as any other test you take, then we’ll move on to
strategies that apply directly to the SAT II Chemistry test
SAT II Chemistry Test-Taking Strategies

All the strategies discussed above can be applied equally to the SAT II
Chemistry test and the SAT II Modern Hebrew test. That’s why they’re
called “general hints.” However, as you may have noticed in the past, there
are a number of dissimilarities between the study of chemistry and the
study of modern Hebrew. And because chemistry is unlike modern Hebrew,
and even unlike English and biology, a number of strategies apply uniquely
to the SAT II Chemistry exam. Some of these strategies will help you out in
chemistry generally, while some are suited to the unique idiosyncrasies of
the SAT II format.
Chemistry Hint 1: Know Those Formulas!
As you know, you aren’t allowed to bring a calculator into the SAT II test,
nor are you allowed to bring in a sheet of paper with useful information on
it. That means that if you haven’t memorized formulas like Boyle’s law and
the ideal gas equation, you’re going to lose points.
This doesn’t mean you have to do a lot of rote memorization. In fact, it’s
more important to truly understand the principles of chemistry than it is
for you to memorize equations. You’ll find that as the principles of
chemistry become second nature to you, the equations that express these
principles will become increasingly intuitive. Knowing your chemistry will
help guide you to the right conclusions.
A lot of people feel burdened coming into an exam with lots of formulas and
equations in their head. It’s like your mind is “full,” and there’s no room for
the problem solving at hand. If you have trouble remembering formulas,
you might want to look them over carefully in the minutes before the test
and then, before you even look at the first question, write down the
formulas you have a hard time remembering on the back of the question
booklet. That way you can refer back to them without any painful effort of
recollection.
Chemistry Hint 2: Estimate
This hint goes hand in hand with one of the general hints above: Know
What You’re Being Asked. Don’t dive blindly into five possible answer
choices until you’ve already taken your best stab at coming up with the
answer yourself. Obviously, estimation is only useful in questions involving
calculation: you can’t “estimate” which law of thermodynamics states that
the world tends toward increasing disorder. In questions involving a
calculation, though, it may save you from foolish errors if you, for example,
have a sense of the order of magnitude you’re looking at. If you’re being
asked to calculate the pH of a slightly acidic solution, you can be pretty
confident that the answer won’t be pH = 0.50, which would be too small, or
pH = 14.00, which would be too big. You know that the correct answer
must lie somewhere between 2 and 6. Estimation is a good way to eliminate
some wrong answers when you’re making an educated guess.
Chemistry Hint 3: Put It on Paper
Don’t be afraid to write and draw compulsively. The first thing you should
do once you’ve made sure you understand the question is to make your own
notes about what you’re dealing with. Sketch molecules when dealing with
a bonding question, or electron configurations for periodic trend questions,
or whatever else may be appropriate. Not only will a visual representation
relieve some of the pressure on your beleaguered mind, it may also help the
solution jump right off the page at you.
Don’t forget to write down important information! Writing down all of the
information may lead you to a correct answer even if you don’t really
understand the question. Suppose the question asks for the volume of a gas
produced in a certain reaction. Write a balanced equation, plug in values,
fiddle around a little, and see if you can come up with an answer that looks
right. Chances are, it will be.
Chemistry Hint 4: Answers Are Not Convoluted
Remember, on the SAT II Chemistry test you’re not allowed to use a
calculator, and you’re only given, on average, 42 seconds to answer each
question. If you’re working on a problem and you find yourself writing out
lines and lines of conversions as you try to figure out the answer, you’re
probably not on the right track. These questions are designed in such a way
that if you understand what you’re being asked, you will need at most a
couple of simple calculations to get the right answer.
Chemistry Hint 5: Eliminate Wrong Answers
In the general hints above, Know How to Guess, we explained the virtues of
eliminating answers you know to be wrong and taking a guess. For most
questions, there will be at least one or two answer choices you can
eliminate. There are also certain styles of question that lend themselves to
particular process-of-elimination methods.
Classification Questions
The weakness of classification questions is that the same five answer
choices apply to several questions. Invariably, some of these answer choices
will be tempting for some questions but not for others.
Questions 1–3 relate to the following molecules:
(A) Sugar
(B) Ammonia
(C) Hydrochloric acid
(D) Carbon dioxide
(E) Acetic acid
1. An organic solid with a low melting point
2. Acts as a weak base when bubbled into pure water
3. Would be the best choice of the above to neutralize excess NaOH

For instance, if you’re pretty sure that ammonia, hydrochloric acid, and
acetic acid are not organic solids, just from your general knowledge of
chemistry, then you can eliminate B, C, and E. This helps you narrow the
answer choices down to two, and if you have to guess, you have a 50-50
chance of choosing the correct answer.
Another point that may help you guess in a pinch is that you’ll rarely find
the same answer choice being correct for two different questions. True, the
directions for classification questions explicitly state that an answer choice
“may be used once, more than once, or not at all,” but on the whole, the
ETS people shy away from the “more than once” possibility. This is by no
means a sure bet, but if you’re trying to eliminate answers, you might want
to eliminate those choices that you’ve already used on other questions in
the same set.
If you’re wondering, the answers to the above questions are 1 A, 2 B, and
3 C.
“EXCEPT”-Type Questions
“EXCEPT” questions are five-choice multiple-choice questions that contain
a bunch of right answers and one wrong answer. The questions always
contain an all-caps EXCEPT, LEAST, or some other similar word. Even if
you aren’t sure of the answer, you should be able to identify one or two of
the answer choices as being true statements and eliminate them.
32. Most compounds containing primarily ionic bonds are characterized by all of
the following EXCEPT:
(A) High melting points
(B) Exist mainly in the gaseous state of matter
(C) An attraction between positive and negative ions
(D) Usually composed of a metal and nonmetal or polyatomic ion
(E) Most dissolve readily in water
Perhaps you’re not sure which of the five answer choices is wrong. But you
should be able to identify that choice C or D might be correct because of the
word ion in the statement. See, you’ve already eliminated two possible
answers and can make a pretty good guess from there.
If you’re interested, the answer is B: ionic compounds usually exist as
crystalline solids, not gases, at room temperature.
“I, II, and III” Questions
As we discussed earlier, I, II, and III questions are multiple-choice
questions that provide you with three possible answers, and the five answer
choices list different combinations of those three.
11. A student performed an experiment to determine the heat of neutralization of

a strong acid with a strong base. Which of the following statements are true
of this type of experiment?
I. The reaction is exothermic.
II. Energy for this reaction cannot be directly measured.
III. The specific heat must be calculated for the acid.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III
There’s an upside and a downside to questions of this type. Suppose, for
example, that you know that in experiments involving heat of neutralization
for acids and bases, you need to know the specific heat—and you suspect
that you need the specific heat for the acid. This means that you can
eliminate A, B, and C and significantly increase your chance of guessing
the right answer. As long as you’re not afraid to guess—and remember that
you should never be afraid to guess if you’ve eliminated an answer—these
questions shouldn’t be too daunting. By the way, the answer is E.
Atomic Structure—What We Know Today

Elements and Atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical
properties of that element, and an element is defined as a substance that
can’t be broken down or separated into simpler substances through a
chemical reaction. Elements contain just one type of atom, and each
different element contains a different type of atom. Take the element sulfur
(S). A pile of sulfur (a yellow, powdery or crystallized substance) sitting on
a table represents a single element—sulfur—and this pile of sulfur is made
up of only one type of atom—sulfur atoms.
Each atom, regardless of its identity, is made up of three types of subatomic
particles.Protons, which are positively charged and situated at the center
of the atom (also known as the atomic nucleus); neutrons, which are
electrically neutral (meaning that they have no charge) and are also in the
nucleus of the atom; and electrons, which are negatively charged and are
situated outside the nucleus. The majority of the mass of an atom is
contained in its nucleus: while electrons are about the same size as protons
and neutrons, an electron has 1/837th the mass of protons or neutrons. You
should also be aware that the nucleus of an atom is much, much smaller
and more dense than the space occupied by an atom’s electrons—if an atom
were the size of a football field, the nucleus would be the size of a flea on the
50-yard line!
The number of protons an atom possesses is what gives the atom its
identity—all atoms of a particular element have the same number of
protons in their nuclei. For example, all of the sulfur atoms in the pile of
sulfur we looked at above have 16 protons in their nucleus. If they had one
more proton in their nucleus, they would have a different identity—they’d
be chlorine (Cl) atoms, and with one less, they’d be phosphorus (P) atoms.
Atoms of a given element can, however, differ in the number of neutrons
they contain, and atoms of the same element that have different numbers of
neutrons are known as isotopes. Most elements have at least two isotopes
that occur naturally, although a few have just one. Now take a look at how
atoms are usually symbolized:
This represents a carbon atom that has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. In this
notation, theatomic number (A), which is the number of protons the
atom contains, is indicated by the subscript, and the mass number (Z ),
which is the number of the atom’s protons plus the number of its neutrons,
is indicated by the superscript. Some relatively common isotopes of carbon
can contain 5, 7, or 8 neutrons, so although their atomic numbers would all
be 6, their mass numbers, respectively, would be 11 (6 + 5), 13 (6 + 7), and
14 (6 + 8). Isotopes can also be written as carbon-14, carbon-15, carbon-16,
etc., or C-14, C-15, C-16, where the number represents the mass number of
the atom.
The last thing you should know about the basic structure of an atom is that
atoms have the same number of protons and electrons, and since protons
are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged, neutral atoms
have no net electrical charge.
Example
The atomic number of a certain element is 11, and its atomic mass number
is 23. How many protons and neutrons does this atom have, and what is its
chemical symbol?
Explanation
If the atomic number is 11, this element is sodium and its symbol is Na. If
the atomic mass number is 23, the number of neutrons is equal to 23 - 11 =
12.
Atoms and the Periodic Table
The day of the SAT II Chemistry exam, you will be given a periodic table to
use while answering the questions. However, this periodic table will most
likely be much simpler than the ones you use in class or have seen in your
chemistry text. It will give you only two pieces of information for each
element: the element’s atomic number and the element’s atomic weight,
which is written below the element’s symbol in each box. The atomic
weight of an element represents its average atomic mass based on the
relative abundance of various isotopes of that element in nature. So, when
we say that the atomic weight of carbon is 12.0107, we mean that the
average weights of all of the isotopes of carbon that exist in nature, whether
the carbon is carbon-11, -12, -13, or -14, is 12.0107.
But what does it mean to say that the isotopes “weigh” 12.0107? 12.0107
what? Certainly not grams, or the isotopes would be a lot bigger than they
are. Atomic weights have the unit amu, or atomic mass unit, and one
atomic mass unit is equal to 1.66054 10-24 g.
Nuclear Reactions
All of the processes discussed in this section are examples
of nuclear reactions, which are different from ordinary chemical reactions.
Ordinary chemical reactions involve the exchange and sharing of electrons,
while nuclear reactions involve alterations in the very core of an atom; that
dense nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
Radioactivity
You will need to be familiar with several types of nuclear reactions and
terms related to them to be fully prepared for the SAT II Chemistry test,
and in this section we’ll review everything you’ll need to know. The first
concept we discuss is radioactivity. Strictly speaking, radioactivity is the
spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus and the
subsequent emission of radiation. But what makes atoms radioactive to
begin with, and what makes them undergo radioactive decay? It turns out
that there is a stable ratio of protons to neutrons for each element; for the
first 20 elements on the periodic table (hydrogen through calcium), this
ratio is 1 proton to 1 neutron, for example. Protons and neutrons in excess
of this stable number can be emitted radioactively. Below we have listed
examples of the important types of radioactive decay.
Alpha decay occurs when the nucleus emits an alpha particle. Alpha
particles have a positive charge and are equivalent in size to a helium
nucleus, and so they are symbolized as . Alpha particles are the largest
radioactive particle emitted. This type of radioactivity results in a decrease
in the atomic number by 2 and a decrease in the atomic mass by 4. The
equation below shows uranium-234 undergoing alpha decay:
Beta decay occurs when the nucleus emits a beta particle. Beta particles
have a negative charge and are much smaller than alpha particles. They’re
equivalent to high-speed electrons and are symbolized by or . This type
of radioactivity causes an increase in the atomic number by 1 but no change
in mass number. The equation below represents uranium-233 undergoing
beta decay.
How does a nucleus, which is composed of only protons and neutrons, eject
an electron? A neutron is composed of a proton and an electron fused
together. In beta emission, the electron is emitted from the nucleus, while
the proton part remains behind, thus increasing the atomic number by 1.
Example
Complete the balanced equation by determining the missing term.
Explanation
Remember, the sum of the atomic numbers and the mass numbers must be
equal on both sides of the equation. We are looking for a component that
has mass number of 80 and an atomic number of 34 (34 protons). Using
this information and the periodic table, we can identity the element
produced by this beta decay as Se, or selenium. The missing term is Se.
And the completed equation is:
Gamma decay consists of the emission of pure electromagnetic energy;

no particles are emitted during this process, and it is symbolized by
equation;00g. After beta, positron, or alpha decay, the nucleus is left in a
high-energy state, and at this point it will often emit gamma rays, which
allows it to relax to its lower-energy ground state. Since gamma rays do not
affect charge or mass, they are often not included in nuclear equations.
Positron emission occurs when an atom becomes more stable by
emitting a positron01e, which is the same size and mass as an electron
but has a positive charge. This process converts a proton into a neutron; the
positron is emitted and the neutron remains behind in the nucleus,
decreasing the atomic number by 1.
Often the emission of an alpha or a beta particle creates another radioactive

species, which undergoes further radiation/emission in a cascade called
a radioactive series. Notice that in the course of all of these types of
radioactive decay, neither protons nor neutrons are either created or
destroyed: this is due to what’s known as the law of conservation of
matter, which states that mass is neither created nor destroyed. So when
you see radioactivity equations on the SAT II Chemistry test, one of the
most important things to remember is that the sum of the mass numbers
and the sum of the atomic numbers must both be equal on both sides of the
equation.
Example
Write the equation for the alpha decay of radium-221.Write the equation
for the beta decay of sulfur-35.
Explanation
The radium-221 atom has atomic number (A) = 88 and mass number (Z) =
221. When an alpha particle is emitted, the atomic number is reduced by 2
and the mass number is reduced by 4. The atomic number of the resulting
atom is 86, so the element created as a result of this radioactive decay is
radon-217.
The sulfur-35 atom has an atomic number of 16 and a mass number of 35.
When it undergoes beta decay, the atomic number is increased by 1 and the
mass number remains the same. The atomic number of the atom created is
17, so the atom is chlorine-35.
Fission and Fusion

There are two main types of nuclear reactions: fusion and fission.
In fusion reactions, two light nuclei are combined to form a heavier, more
stable nucleus. In fissionreactions, a heavy nucleus is split into two nuclei
with smaller mass numbers. Both processes involve the exchange of huge
amounts of energy: about a million times more energy than that associated
with ordinary chemical reactions. In either case, if the new particles contain
more stable nuclei, vast quantities of energy are released.
Nuclear power plants rely on fission to create vast quantities of energy. For
example, U-235 nuclides can be bombarded with neutrons, and the result
is lots of energy, three neutrons, and two stable nuclei (Kr-92 and Ba-141).
The three neutrons formed can collide with other U-235 atoms, setting off a
chain reaction and releasing tons of
energy.
Example
Is the following process an example of fission or fusion?
Explanation
This is an example of fission. Fission occurs when a large nucleus is
bombarded by a small particle, such as a neutron. The result is two smaller
nuclei and additional neutrons, and a chain reaction process begins
Half-Lives
In discussions of radioactivity, the half-life of an isotope refers to the time it
takes for one-half of the sample to decay. If we start with 100 g of a
radioactive substance whose half-life is 15 days, after 15 days 50 g of the
substance will remain. After 30 days, 25 g will remain, and after 45 days,
12.5 g remains, and so on.
Example
A radioactive substance has a half-life of 20 minutes. If we begin with a 500
g sample, how much of the original sample remains after two hours?
Explanation
The easiest way to attack these questions is to start with the original
amount of the sample, then draw arrows representing each half-life. Two
hours is 120 minutes, so that’s six half-lives. At the end of the stated time
period, 7.8 g remains.
500 g 250 g 125 g 62.5 g 31.25 g 15.625 g 7.8125 g
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Energy Is Quantized
After Max Planck determined that energy is released and absorbed by
atoms in certain fixed amounts known as quanta, Albert Einstein took his
work a step further, determining that radiant energy is also quantized—he
called the discrete energy packets photons. Einstein’s theory was that
electromagnetic radiation (light, for example) has characteristics of both a
wave and a stream of particles.
The Bohr Model of the Atom

In 1913, Niels Bohr used what had recently been discovered about energy to
propose his planetary model of the atom. In the Bohr model, the neutrons
and protons are contained in a small, dense nucleus, which the electrons
orbit in defined spherical orbits. He referred to these orbits as “shells” or
“energy levels” and designated each by an integer: 1, 2, 3, etc. An electron
occupying the first energy level was thought to be closer to the nucleus and
have lower energy than one that was in a numerically higher energy level.
Bohr theorized that energy in the form of photons must be absorbed in
order for an electron to move from a lower energy level to a higher one, and
is emitted when an electron travels from a higher energy level to a lower
one. In the Bohr model, the lowest energy state available for an electron is
the ground state, and all higher-energy states are excited states.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
In the 1920s, Werner Heisenberg put forth his uncertainty principle,
which states that, at any one time, it is impossible to calculate both the
momentum and the location of an electron in an atom; it is only possible to
calculate the probability of finding an electron within a given space. This
meant that electrons, instead of traveling in defined orbits or hard,
spherical “shells,” as Bohr proposed, travel in diffuse clouds around the
nucleus.
When we say “orbital,” the image below is what we picture in our minds.
To describe the location of electrons, we use quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers are basically used to describe certain aspects of the
locations of electrons. For example, the quantum numbers n, l,
and ml describe the position of the electron with respect to the nucleus, the
shape of the orbital, and its special orientation, while the quantum
number ms describes the direction of the electron’s spin within a given
orbital.
Below are the four quantum numbers, showing how they are depicted and
what aspects of electrons they describe.
Principal quantum Has positive values of 1, 2, 3, etc. As n increases, the orbital becomes
number (n) larger—this means that the electron has a higher energy level and is
less tightly bound to the nucleus.
Second quantum Has values from 0 to n – 1. This defines the shape of the orbital, and
number or azimuthal the value of l is designated by the letters s, p, d, and f, which
quantum number correspond to values for l of 0, 1, 2, and 3. In other words, if the value
(l ) of l is 0, it is expressed as s; if l = 1 = p, l = 2 = d, and l = 3 = f.
Magnetic quantum Determines the orientation of the orbital in space relative to the other
number (ml) orbitals in the atom. This quantum number has values from -l through 0
to +l.
Spin quantum Specifies the value for the spin and is either +1/2 or -1/2. No more than
number (ms) two electrons can occupy any one orbital. In order for two electrons to
occupy the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.
Orbitals that have the same principal quantum number, n, are part of the
sameelectron shell. For example, orbitals that have n = 2 are said to be in
the second shell. When orbitals have the same n and l, they are in the
same subshell; so orbitals that have n = 2 and l = 3 are said to be
2f orbitals, in the 2f subshell.
Finally, you should keep in mind that according to the Pauli exclusion
principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This means no atomic orbital can contain more
than two electrons, and if the orbital does contain two electrons, they must
be of opposite spin.
Electron Configurations
Now let’s discuss how to determine the electron configuration for an atom
—in other words, how electrons are arranged in an atom. The first and most
important rule to remember when attempting to determine how electrons
will be arranged in the atom is Hund’s rule, which states that the most
stable arrangement of electrons is that which allows the maximum number
of unpaired electrons. This arrangement minimizes electron-electron
repulsions. Here’s an analogy. In large families with several children, it is a
luxury for each child to have his or her own room. There is far less fussing
and fighting if siblings are not forced to share living quarters: the entire
household experiences a lower-intensity, less-frazzled energy state.
Likewise, electrons will go into available orbitals singly before beginning to
pair up. All the single–occupant electrons of orbitals have parallel spins,
are designated with an upward-pointing arrow, and have a magnetic spin
quantum number of +1/2.
As we mentioned earlier, each principal energy level, n, has n sublevels.
This means the first has one sublevel, the second has two, the third has
three, etc. The sublevels are named s, p, d, and f.
Energy level principal quantum number, n Number of sublevels Names of sublevels
1 1 s
2 2 s, p
3 3 s, p, d
4 4 s, p, d, f
At each additional sublevel, the number of available orbitals is increased by
two: s = 1, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7, and as we stated above, each orbital can hold
only two electrons, which must be of opposite spin. So s holds 2, p holds 6
(2 electrons times the number of orbitals, which for the p sublevel is equal
to 3), d holds 10, and f holds 14.
Sublevel s p d f
Number of orbitals 1 3 5 7
Maximum number of electrons 2 6 10 14
Quantum number, l 0 1 2 3
We can use the periodic table to make this task easier.
Notice there are only two elements in the first period (the first row of the
periodic table); their electrons are in the first principal energy level: n = 1.
The second period (row) contains a total of eight elements, which all have
two sublevels: s and p; ssublevels contain two electrons when full,
while p sublevels contain six electrons when full (because p sublevels each
contain three orbitals).
The third period looks a lot like the second because of electron-electron
interference. It takes less energy for an electron to be placed in 4s than in
3d, so 4sfills before 3d. Notice that the middle of the periodic table contains
a square of 10 columns: these are the elements in which the d orbitals are
being filled (these elements are called the transition metals). Now look at
the two rows of 14 elements at the bottom of the table. In these rare earth
elements, the f orbitals are being filled.
One final note about electron configurations. You can use the periodic table
to quickly determine the valence electron configuration of each element.
The valence electrons are the outermost electrons in an atom—the ones
that are involved in bonding. The day of the test, as soon as you get your
periodic table (which comes in the test booklet), label the rows as shown in
the art above. The number at the top of each of the rows (i.e., 1A, 2A, etc.)
will tell you how many valence electrons each element in that particular
row has, which will be very helpful in determining Lewis dot structures.
More on this later.
Example
Using the periodic table, determine the electron configuration for sulfur.
Explanation
First locate sulfur in the periodic table; it is in the third period, in
the p block of elements. Count from left to right in the p block, and you
determine that sulfur’s valence electrons have an ending configuration of
3p4, which means everything up to that sublevel is also full, so its electron
configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p4. You can check your answer—the neutral
sulfur atom has 16 protons, and 16 electrons. Add up the number of
electrons in your answer: 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 4 = 16.
Another way of expressing this and other electron configurations is to use
the symbol for the noble gas preceding the element in question, which
assumes its electron configuration, and add on the additional orbitals. So
sulfur, our example above, can be written [Ne] 3s23p4.
Orbital Notation
Orbital notation is basically just another way of expressing the electron
configuration of an atom. It is very useful in determining quantum
numbers as well as electron pairing. The orbital notation for sulfur would
be represented as follows:
Notice that electrons 5, 6, and 7 went into their own orbitals before
electrons 8, 9, and 10 entered, forcing pairings in the 2p sublevel; the same
thing happens in the 3plevel.
Now we can determine the set of quantum numbers. First, n = 3, since the
valence electron (the outermost electron) is a 3p electron. Next, we know
that p sublevels have an l value of 1. We know that ml can have a value
between l and -l, and to get theml quantum number, we go back to the
orbital notation for the valence electron and focus on the 3p sublevel alone.
It looks like this:
Simply number the blanks with a zero assigned to the center blank, with
negative numbers to the left and positive to the right of the zero. The last
electron was number 16 and “landed” in the first blank as a down arrow,
which means its ml = -1 and ms = -1/2, since the electron is the second to
be placed in the orbital and therefore must have a negative spin.
So, when determining ml, just make a number line underneath the
sublevel, with zero in the middle, negative numbers to the left, and positive
numbers to the right. Make as many blanks as there are orbitals for a given
sublevel. For assigning ms, the first electron placed in an orbital (the up
arrow) gets the +1/2 and the second one (the down arrow) gets the -1/2.
Example
Which element has this set of quantum numbers: n = 5, l = 1, ml = -1,
and ms = -1/2?
Explanation
First, think about the electron configuration: n = 5 and l = 1, so it must be a
5pelectron. The ms quantum number corresponds to this orbital notation
picture:
Be sure to number the blanks and realize that the -1/2 means it is a pairing
electron! The element has a configuration of 5p4; so it must be tellurium.
Example
Complete the following table:
Element Valence electron Valence orbital notation Set of quantum
configuration numbers
[Ar] 3d 6
5, 1, 0, +1/2
4p 5
6, 0, 0, -1/2
Answer: Valence electron Valence orbital notation Set of quantum

element configuration numbers (n,l, ml, ms)
K [Ar] 4s 1 4, 0, 0, +1/2
Fe [Ar] 4s23d 6 3, 2, -2, -1/2
N 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 2, 1, 1, +1/2
Sn [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 2 5, 1, 0, +1/2
Br [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 5 4, 1, 0, -1/2
Ba [Xe] 6s 2 6, 0, 0, -1/2
The Periodic Table and Periodic Properties

We just saw how the periodic table can help us quickly determine electron
configurations and quantum numbers. As you’ll see in this section, this is
possible because of the special arrangement of elements in the periodic
table. There will almost definitely be at least one question about trends in
the periodic table on the SAT Chemistry test, so be sure to read this section
closely.
The Anatomy of the Periodic Table
As you are probably well aware, in the periodic table, elements are arranged
in order of increasing atomic number. The 18 vertical columns of the table
are called groupsor families, while the seven horizontal rows are
called periods and correspond to the seven principal quantum energy
levels, n = 1 through n = 7.
On the right side of the periodic table is a dividing line resembling a
staircase. To the left of the staircase lie the metals, and to the right of the
staircase lie the nonmetals. Many of the elements that touch the staircase
are called metalloids, and these exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic
properties. Study the diagram below and memorize the names of the
different types of elements, because you will definitely see questions about
these groupings on the test!
Metals are malleable, ductile, and have luster; most of the elements on the
periodic table are metals. They oxidize (rust and tarnish) readily and
form positive ions (cations). They are excellent conductors of both heat and
electricity. The metals can be broken down into several groups.
Transition metals (also called the transition elements) are known for
their ability to refract light as a result of their unpaired electrons. They also
have several possible oxidation states. Ionic solutions of these metals are
usually colored, so these metals are often used in pigments. The actinides
and lanthanides are collectively called therare earth elements and are
filling the f orbitals. They are rarely found in nature. Uranium is the last
naturally occurring element; the rest are man-made.
Nonmetals lie to the right of the staircase and do not conduct electricity
well because they do not have free electrons. All the elemental gases are
included in the nonmetals. Notice that hydrogen is placed with the metals
because it has only one valence electron, but it is a nonmetal.
Here are some specific families you should know about, within the three
main groups (metals, nonmetals, and metalloids):
Alkali metals (1A)—The most reactive metal family, these must be stored
under oil because they react violently with water! They dissolve and create
an alkaline, or basic, solution, hence their name.
Alkaline earth metals (2A)—These also are reactive metals, but they
don’t explode in water; pastes of these are used in batteries.
Halogens (7A)—Known as the “salt formers,” they are used in modern
lighting and always exist as diatomic molecules in their elemental form.
Noble gases (8A)—Known for their extremely slow reactivity, these were
once thought to never react; neon, one of the noble gases, is used to make
bright signs.
Now that you’re familiar with the different groupings of the periodic table,
it’s time to talk about the ways we can use the periodic table to predict
certain characteristics of elements.
Atomic Radius
Since in an atom there is no clear boundary beyond which the electron
never strays, the way atomic radius is measured is by calculating the
distance between the two nuclei of atoms when they are involved in a
chemical bond. If the two bonded atoms are of the same element, you can
divide the distance by 2 to get the atom’s radius. That said, one of the two
important things you’ll need to know about atomic radii for the SAT II
Chemistry exam is that atomic radii decrease ( ) moving across a
period from left to right. But why? It seems as though the more protons
you add, the more space the atom should take up, but this is not the case.
The reason for this lies in the basic concept that opposite charges attract
each other and like charges repel each other. As you increase the number of
protons in the nucleus of the atom, you increase the effective nuclear
charge of the atom (Zeff), and the nucleus pulls more strongly on the entire
electron cloud. This makes the atomic radius decrease in size. The second
thing you’ll need to know is that atomic radii increase moving down a
group or family. This is easier to understand if you refer to the Bohr
model. As you move down the table, the value of n increases as we add
another shell. Remember that the principal quantum number, n,
determines the size of the atom. As we move down a family, the attractive
force of the nucleus dissipates as the electrons spend more time farther
from the nucleus.
One more thing about atomic size. As you know, when an atom loses an
electron, acation, or positive ion, is formed. When we compare the neutral
atomic radius to the cationic radius, we see that the cationic radius is
smaller. Why? The protons in the nucleus hold the remaining electrons
more strongly. As you might expect, for negatively charged ions, or anions,
the nuclear attractive force decreases (and there is enhanced electron-
electron repulsion), so the electrons are less tightly held by the nucleus. The
result is that the anion has a larger radius than the neutral atom.
The SAT II Chemistry test might ask you to compare the sizes of two atoms
that areisoelectronic, meaning that they have the same number of
electrons. In this case, you would then consider the number of protons the
two atoms possess.
Example
Which ion is larger, F– or O2-?
Explanation
Since these two atoms are isoelectronic and in the same period, the atom
with more protons in its nucleus will hold its electrons more tightly and be
smaller. Fluoride will be smaller since it has more protons (9, compared to
oxide’s 8).
Ionization Energy (IE)
The ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to remove an
electron from the atom in the gas phase. Although removing the first
electron from an atom requires energy, the removal of each subsequent
electron requires even more energy. This means that the second IE is
usually greater than the first, the third IE is greater than the second, and so
on. The reason it becomes more difficult to remove additional electrons is
that they’re closer to the nucleus and thus held more strongly by the
positive charge of the protons.
Ionization energies differ significantly, depending on the shell from which
the electron is taken. For instance, it takes less energy to remove
a p electron than an selectron, even less energy to extract a d electron, and
the least energy to extract an felectron. As you can probably guess, this is
because s electrons are held closer to the nucleus, while f electrons are far
from the nucleus and less tightly held. You’ll need to remember two
important facts about ionization energy for the test. The first is
thationization energy increases as we move across a period.
The reason for this, as is the case with periodic trends in atomic radii, is
that as the nucleus becomes more positive, the effective nuclear charge
increases its pull on the electrons and it becomes more difficult to remove
an electron.
The second thing you’ll need to remember is that ionization energy
decreases as you move down a group or family. The increased distance
between electrons and the nucleus and increased shielding by a full
principal energy level means that it requires less energy to remove an
electron. Shielding occurs when the inner electrons in an atom shield the
outer electrons from the full charge of the nucleus. Keep in mind that this
phenomenon is only important as you move down the periodic table! Here
are the values for the first ionization energies for some elements:
There are some important exceptions to the above two ionization energy
trends in the periodic table, so make sure you study these closely:
• When electron pairing first occurs within an orbital, electron-electron
repulsions increase, so that removing an electron takes less energy
(it’s easier); thus the IE drops at this time. For example, less energy is
required to remove an electron from oxygen’s valence in spite of an
increasing Zeff because oxygen’s p4 electron is the first to pair within
the orbital. The repulsion created lowers the amount of energy
required to remove either electron.
• There is also a drop in ionization energy from s to p —also in spite of
2 1
an increasingZeff. This drop is due to the fact that you are removing
a p electron rather than an selectron. The p electrons are less tightly
held because they do not penetrate the electron cloud toward the
nucleus as well as an s electron does.
Example
Which of the following elements has the highest ionization energy: K, Ca,
Ga, As, or Se?
Explanation
The answer is arsenic, or As. Since IE increases as we move across a period,
you may have chosen Se. However, there is a drop in IE in spite of
increasing Zeff due to the increased electron-electron repulsion in the family
that contains oxygen, since they are np4.
Electron Affinity
An atom’s electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an
electron is added to the atom in its gaseous state—when an electron is
added to an atom, the atom forms a negative ion. Most often, energy
is released as an electron is added to an atom, and the greater the attraction
between the atom and the electron added, the more negative the atom’s
electron affinity.
For the SAT II Chemistry test, remember that electron affinity becomes
more negative as we move across a period. This means that it’s easier to
add an electron to elements, the farther to the right you travel on the
periodic table. Why? Again, this is because the higher Zeff increases the
nuclear attraction for the incoming electron. Important exceptions to this
rule are the noble gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe. They have electron
affinities that are positive (meaning very low), because if they were to
accept another electron, that electron would have to go into a new, higher-
energy subshell, and this is energetically unfavorable.
Electron affinities do not change very much as you go down a group. This
is because the lower electron-nucleus attraction that’s seen as we go down a
group is pretty evenly counterbalanced by a simultaneous lowering in
electron-electron repulsion. Remember that there is no clear trend for
electron affinity as you go down a group on the periodic table—this fact
could come up in a synthesis of knowledge question!
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction an atom has for electrons
when it is involved in a chemical bond. Elements that have high ionization
energy and high electron affinity will also have high electronegativity since
their nuclei strongly attract electrons. Electronegativity increases from left
to right as we move across a period and decreases as we move down any
group or family.
By now, these trends should make sense. You know that ionization energies
tend to decrease with increasing atomic number in a group, although there
isn’t a significant change in electron affinity, so it makes sense that atoms’
attraction for electrons in a bond would also increase as their Zeff increased.
We will discuss the concept of electronegativity further in the next section,
when we discuss chemical bonding.
Here’s a summary of the trends we discussed in this section. Make sure to
memorize them!
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

What Are Chemical Bonds, and Why Do They
Form?
A chemical bond is the result of an attraction between atoms or ions. The
types of bonds that a molecule contains will determine its physical
properties, such as melting point, hardness, electrical and thermal
conductivity, and solubility. How do chemical bonds occur? As we
mentioned before, only the outermost, or valence, electrons of an atom are
involved in chemical bonds. Let’s begin our discussion by looking at the
simplest element, hydrogen. When two hydrogen atoms approach each
other, electron-electron repulsion and proton-proton repulsion both act to
try to keep the atoms apart. However, proton-electron attraction can
counterbalance this, pulling the two hydrogen atoms together so that
a bond is formed. Look at the energy diagram below for the formation of
an H–H bond.
As you’ll see throughout our discussion, atoms will often gain, lose, or share
electrons in order to possess the same number of electrons as the noble gas
that’s nearest them on the periodic table. All of the noble gases have eight
valence electrons (s2p6) and are very chemically stable, so this phenomenon
is known as the octet rule. There are, however, certain exceptions to the
octet rule. One group of exceptions is atoms with fewer than eight electrons
—hydrogen (H) has just one electron. In BeH2, there are only four valence
electrons around Be: Beryllium contributes two electrons and each
hydrogen contributes one. The second exception to the octet rule is seen in
elements in periods 4 and higher. Atoms of these elements can be
surrounded by more than four valence pairs in certain compounds.
Types of Chemical Bonds
You’ll need to be familiar with three types of chemical bonds for the SAT II
Chemistry exam: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.
Ionic bonds are the result of an electrostatic attraction between ions that
have opposite charges; in other words, cations and anions. Ionic bonds
usually form between metals and nonmetals; elements that participate in
ionic bonds are often from opposite ends of the periodic table and have an
electronegativity difference greater than 1.67. Ionic bonds are very strong,
so compounds that contain these types of bonds have high melting points
and exist in a solid state under standard conditions. Finally, remember that
in an ionic bond, an electron is actuallytransferred from the less
electronegative atom to the more electronegative element. One example of
a molecule that contains an ionic bond is table salt, NaCl.
Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms rather
than transferred from one atom to another. However, this sharing rarely
occurs equally because of course no two atoms have the same
electronegativity value. (The obvious exception is in a bond between two
atoms of the same element.) We say that covalent bonds are nonpolar if
the electronegativity difference between the two atoms involved falls
between 0 and 0.4. We say they are polar if the electronegativity difference
falls between 0.4 and 1.67. In both nonpolar and polar covalent bonds, the
element with the higher electronegativity attracts the electron pair more
strongly. The two bonds in a molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2, are covalent
bonds.
Covalent bonds can be single, double, or triple. If only one pair of electrons
is shared, a single bond is formed. This single bond is a sigma bond (s),
in which the electron density is concentrated along the line that represents
the bond joining the two atoms.
However, double and triple bonds occur frequently (especially among
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur atoms) and come about
when atoms can achieve a complete octet by sharing more than one pair of
electrons between them. If two electron pairs are shared between the two
atoms, a double bond forms, where one of the bonds is a sigma bond, and
the other is a pi bond (p). A pi bond is a bond in which the electron
density is concentrated above and below the line that represents the bond
joining the two atoms. If three electron pairs are shared between the two
nuclei, a triple bond forms. In a triple bond, the first bond to form is a
single, sigma bond and the next two to form are both pi.
Multiple bonds increase electron density between two nuclei: they decrease
nuclear repulsion while enhancing the nucleus-to-electron density
attractions. The nuclei move closer together, which means that double
bonds are shorter than single bonds and triple bonds are shortest of all.
Metallic bonds exist only in metals, such as aluminum, gold, copper, and
iron. In metals, each atom is bonded to several other metal atoms, and their
electrons are free to move throughout the metal structure. This special
situation is responsible for the unique properties of metals, such as their
high conductivity.
Drawing Lewis Structures
Here are some rules to follow when drawing Lewis structures—you should
follow these simple steps for every Lewis structure you draw, and soon
enough you’ll find that you’ve memorized them. While you will not
specifically be asked to draw Lewis structures on the test, you will be asked
to predict molecular shapes, and in order to do this you need to be able to
draw the Lewis structure—so memorize these rules! To predict
arrangement of atoms within the molecule
1. Find the total number of valence electrons by adding up group
numbers of the elements. For anions, add the appropriate number of
electrons, and for cations, subtract the appropriate number of
electrons. Divide by 2 to get the number of electron pairs.
2. Determine which is the central atom—in situations where the central
atom has a group of other atoms bonded to it, the central atom is
usually written first. For example, in CCl4, the carbon atom is the
central atom. You should also note that the central atom is usually
less electronegative than the ones that surround it, so you can use this
fact to determine which is the central atom in cases that seem more
ambiguous.
3. Place one pair of electrons between each pair of bonded atoms and
subtract the number of electrons used for each bond (2) from your
total.
4. Place lone pairs about each terminal atom (except H, which can only
have two electrons) to satisfy the octet rule. Leftover pairs should be
assigned to the central atom. If the central atom is from the third or
higher period, it can accommodate more than four electron pairs
since it has d orbitals in which to place them.
5. If the central atom is not yet surrounded by four electron pairs,
convert one or more terminal atom lone pairs to double bonds.
Remember that not all elements form double bonds: only C, N, O, P,
and S!
Example
Which one of the following molecules contains a triple bond: PF3, NF3,
C2H2, H2CO, or HOF?
Explanation
The answer is C2H2, which is also known as ethyne. When drawing this
structure, remember the rules. Find the total number of valence electrons
in the molecule by adding the group numbers of its constituent atoms. So
for C2H2, this would mean C = 4 2 (since there are two carbons) = 8. Add
to this the group number of H, which is 1, times 2 because there are two
hydrogens = a total of 10 valence electrons. Next, the carbons are clearly
acting as the central atoms since hydrogen can only have two electrons and
thus can’t form more than one bond. So your molecule looks like this: H—C
—C—H. So far you’ve used up six electrons in three bonds. Hydrogen can’t
support any more electrons, though: both H’s have their maximum
number! So your first thought might be to add the remaining electrons to
the central carbons—but there is no way of spreading out the remaining
four electrons to satisfy the octets of both carbon atoms except to draw a
triple bond between the two carbons.
For practice, try drawing the structures of the other four compounds listed.
Example
How many sigma (s) bonds and how many pi (p) bonds does the molecule
ethene, C2H4, contain?
Explanation
First draw the Lewis structure for this compound, and you’ll see that it
contains one double bond (between the two carbons) and four single bonds.
Each single bond is a sigma bond, and the double bond is made up of one
sigma bond and one pi bond, so there are five sigma bonds and one pi
bond.
Exceptions to Regular Lewis Structures—

Resonance Structures
Sometimes you’ll come across a structure that can’t be determined by
following the Lewis dot structure rules. For example, ozone (O3) contains
two bonds of equal bond length, which seems to indicate that there are an
equal number of bonding pairs on each side of the central O atom. But try
drawing the Lewis structure for ozone, and this is what you get:
We have drawn the molecule with one double bond and one single bond,
but since we know that the bond lengths in the molecule are equal, ozone
can’t have one double and one single bond—the double bond would be
much shorter than the single one. Think about it again, though—we could
also draw the structure as below, with the double bond on the other side:
Together, our two drawings of ozone are resonance structures for the
molecule.Resonance structures are two or more Lewis structures that
describe a molecule: their composite represents a true structure for the
molecule. We use the double-directional arrows to indicate resonance and
also bracket the structures or simply draw a single, composite picture.
Let’s look at another example of resonance, in the carbonate ion
CO32-:
Notice that resonance structures differ only in electron pair positions, not
atom positions!
Example
Draw the Lewis structures for the following molecules: HF, N2, NH3, CH4,
CF4, and NO+.
Explanation
Molecular Shape
While Lewis dot structures can tell us how the atoms in molecules are
bonded to each other, they don’t tell us the shape of the molecule. In this
section, we’ll discuss the methods for predicting molecular shape. The most
important thing to remember when attempting to predict the shape of a
molecule based on its chemical formula and the basic premises of
the VSPER model is that the molecule will assume the shape that most
minimizes electron pair repulsions. In attempting to minimize electron pair
repulsions, two types of electron sets must be considered: electrons can
exist inbonding pairs, which are involved in creating a single or multiple
covalent bond, ornonbonding pairs, which are pairs of electrons that are
not involved in a bond, but are localized to a single atom.
The VSPER Model—Determining Molecular
Shape
Total number of single bonds, double bonds, Structural pair Shape
and lone pairs on the central atom geometry
2 Linear
3 Trigonal planar
4 Tetrahedral
5 Trigonal
bipyramidal
6 Octahedral
The above table represents a single atom with all of the electrons that
would be associated with it as a result of the bonds it forms with other
atoms plus its lone electron pairs. However, since atoms in a molecule can
never be considered alone, the shape of the actual molecule might be
different from what you’d predict based on its structural pair geometry. You
use the structural pair geometry to determine the molecular geometry by
following these steps:
1. Draw the Lewis dot structure for the molecule and count the total
number of single bonds, multiple bonds, and unpaired electrons.
2. Determine the structural pair geometry for the molecule by arranging
the electron pairs so that the repulsions are minimized (based on the
table).
3. Use the table above to determine the molecular geometry.
The table below shows all of the commonly occurring molecular geometries
that are found for molecules with four or fewer bonding domains around
their central atom.
Electron-Domain Bonding Nonbonding Molecular Example
Geometry Domains Domains Geometry
2 2 0
3 3 0
2 1
4 4 0
3 1
2 2
As you can see from the table, atoms that have normal valence—meaning
atoms that have no more than four structural electron pairs and obey the
octet rule (and have no lone pairs)—are tetrahedral. For instance, look at
methane, which is CH4:
Ammonia (NH3), which has three sigma bonds and a lone pair, however, is
trigonal pyramidal:
Water (H2O) has two lone pairs and its molecular geometry is “bent,” which
is also called V shaped:
So as you can see, lone pairs have more repulsive force than do shared
electron pairs, and thus they force the shared pairs to squeeze more closely
together.
As a final note, you may remember that we mentioned before that only
elements with a principal energy level of 3 or higher can expand their
valence and violate the octet rule. This is because d electrons are necessary
to make possible bonding to a fifth or sixth atom. In XeF4, there are two
lone pairs and four shared pairs surrounding Xe, and two possible
arrangements exist:
In the axial arrangement, shared pairs are situated “top and bottom.” In the
equatorial arrangement, shared pairs surround Xe. The equatorial
arrangement is more stable since the lone pairs are 180˚ apart and this
minimizes their repulsion. In both molecular arrangements, the electronic
geometry is octahedral, with 90˚ angles. The top figure has a molecular
geometry known as “seesaw,” while the bottom figure has a molecular
geometry that is more stable, known as square planar.
Example
Draw the dot formula for SeF4 and determine the hybridization at Se.
Explanation
First determine the number of valence electrons this molecule has: SeF4 has
6 + 4(7) = 34 valence electrons, which is equal to 17 pairs of electrons.
Selenium is surrounded by four fluorines and a lone pair of electrons.

That’s five sites of electron density, which translates
into sp3d hybridization. Se is from the fourth period, so it may have an
expanded octet.
So, to recap, focus on the number of binding “sites” or areas of
concentrated electron density:
Two areas of electron density: linear, planar molecule
Three areas of electron density: trigonal planar molecule
Four areas of electron density: tetrahedral molecule

Five areas of electron density: trigonal bipyramidal molecule
Six areas of electron density: octahedral molecule
Molecular Polarity
In chemical bonds, polarity refers to an uneven distribution of electron
pairs between the two bonded atoms—in this case, one of the atoms is
slightly more negative than the other. But molecules can be polar too, and
when they are polar, they are called dipoles. Dipoles are molecules that
have a slightly positive charge on one end and a slightly negative charge on
the other. Look at the water molecule. The two lone electron pairs on the
oxygen atom establish a negative pole on this bent molecule, while the
bound hydrogen atoms constitute a positive pole. In fact, this polarity of
water accounts for most of water’s unique physical properties. However,
molecules can also contain polar bonds and not be polar. Carbon dioxide is
a perfect example. Both of the C—O bonds in carbon dioxide are polar, but
they’re oriented such that they cancel each other out, and the molecule
itself is not polar.
Valence Bond Theory

Another topic that you’ll need to be familiar with for the SAT II Chemistry
test is that of valence bond theory. By now, you are aware that two atoms
will form a bond when there is orbital overlap between them, and a
maximum of two electrons can be present in the overlapping orbitals.
Since the pair of electrons is attracted to both atomic nuclei, a bond is
formed, and as the extent of overlap increases, the strength of the bond
increases. The electronic energy drops as the atoms approach each other,
but it begins to increase again when they become too close. This means
there is an optimum distance, the observed bond distance, at which the
total energy is at a minimum.
Let’s delve a little more deeply into sigma bonds now and describe them in
more detail. As you know, sigma (s) bonds are single bonds. They result
from the overlap of two s orbitals, an s and a p orbital, or two head-to-
head p orbitals. The electron density of a sigma bond is greatest along
the axis of the bond. Maximum overlap forms the strongest-possible sigma
bond, and the two atoms will arrange themselves to give the greatest-
possible orbital overlap. This is tricky with p orbitals since they are
directional along the x, y, and z axes.
Hybrid orbitals result from a blending of atomic orbitals (in other
words, s and porbitals) to create orbitals that have energy that’s in between
the energy of the lone orbitals. Look at the methane molecule, for example:
all four of the C—H bonds are 109.5º apart, while nonbonded p orbitals are
only 90º apart.
The orbitals shown at the left of the figure are for a nonbonded carbon
atom, but once the carbon atom begins to bond with other atoms (in this
case hydrogen), the atomic orbitals hybridize, and this changes their shape
considerably. Notice how the first set of figures form the sp3 atomic orbital,
the hybrid, and this leads to further hybridization.
Ammonia also has sp3 hybridization, even though it has a lone
pair.
Multiple Bonding
Now let’s look more closely at pi bonds. As we mentioned earlier in this
chapter, pi (p) bonds result from the sideways overlap of p orbitals, and pi
orbitals are defined by the region above and below an imaginary line
connecting the nuclei of the two atoms. Keep in mind that pi bonds never
occur unless a sigma bond has formed first, and they may form only if
unhybridized p orbitals remain on the bonded atoms. Also, they occur
when sp or sp2 hybridization is present on central atom
but not sp3hybridization.
Below, we show the formation of a set of sp2 orbitals. This molecule would
contain a double bond, like ethene. Notice again how the first set of figures
form the sp2 atomic orbital, the hybrid, and the last figure shows full
hybridization:
The set of p orbitals that are unhybridized are not shown in this depiction:
A different view, which doesn’t show the hydrogens and centers on the C
atoms, shows the unhybridized p orbitals that create the sideways overlap
that’s necessary to create the double pi bond:
Here’s how it looks with all the pieces put together:
Here is a table summarizing hybridization and structure:

effective pairs hybridization geometry
2 sp linear
3 sp 2 trigonal planar
4 sp 3 tetrahedral
5 dsp 3 trigonal bipyramidal
6 d 2 sp 3 octahedral
Practice Questions
1. An element consists of three isotopes in the relative abundance given below.
What is the atomic mass of this element?
30.00% = 40.00 amu
50.00% = 41.00 amu
20.00% = 42.00 amu
(A) 40.90
(B) 41.00
(C) 41.90
(D) 42.20
(E) 42.90
2. The total number of electrons that can be accommodated in the fourth principal
energy level is _____
(A) 2
(B) 8
(C) 18
(D) 32
(E) 50
3. If the set of quantum numbers n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = Â±1/2 represents the

last electron to be added to complete the ground state electron configuration of
an element, which one of the following could be the symbol for the element?
(A) Na
(B) Si
(C) Th
(D) V
(E) Zn
4. Which element has the following electron configuration?

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 4
(A) Cr
(B) Mn
(C) Mo
(D) S
(E) Se
5. Complete the balanced equation below. The missing term is
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
6. Oxygen-15 has a half-life of 9.98 minutes. How much of a 20.0 g sample of

oxygen-15 remains after 60.0 minutes?
(A) 0.156 g
(B) 0.312 g
(C) 0.625 g
(D) 1.25 g
(E) 2.50 g
7. Which of the following atoms would have the largest second ionization
energy?
(A) Mg
(B) Cl
(C) S
(D) Ca
(E) Na
8. Hydrogen has a lower ionization BECAUSE Hydrogen bonds with halogens to
energy than does helium. form polar covalent bonds.
9. Order the elements S, Cl, and F in terms of increasing atomic radii.
(A) S, Cl, F
(B) Cl, F, S
(C) F, S, Cl
(D) F, Cl, S
(E) S, F, Cl
10. The second ionization BECAUSE The second electron to be removed from
energy of B is higher than B and Be comes from the same principal
that of Be. energy level.
11. Oxygen has a smaller BECAUSE Oxygen has a higher Z eff value than does
first ionization energy fluorine.
than fluorine.
12. Removing an electron from sodium is an _____ process and removing an

electron from fluorine is an _____ process.
(A) Endothermic, exothermic
(B) Exothermic, endothermic
(C) Endothermic, endothermic
(D) Exothermic, exothermic
(E) More information is needed
13. Which numbered response lists all the molecules below that exhibit resonance
and none that do not?
I. AsF 5
II. HNO 3
III. SO 2
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) II and III
(D) III and IV
(E) I, II, and III
14. The sulfur hexafluoride molecule is nonpolar and contains no lone (unshared)
electron pairs on the sulfur atom. Which answer choice lists all of the bond
angles contained in sulfur hexafluoride?
(A) 120Âº
(B) 180Âº
(C) 90Âº and 180Âº
(D) 90Âº, 120Âº, and 180Âº
(E) 109.5Âº
15. Molecules that contain a BECAUSE If polar bonds in a molecule are
polar bond are not symmetrically arranged, then their
necessarily polar polarities will cancel and they will be
compounds. nonpolar.
16. The NH 3 molecule is more BECAUSE Fluorine atoms are larger than
polar than the NF 3 molecule. hydrogen atoms.
17. Which one of the following molecules is octahedral?

(A) BeCl 2
(B) SeF 6
(C) BF 3
(D) PF 5
(E) CF 4
18. Which molecule is incorrectly matched with the molecular geometry?
Molecule Molecular geometry

(A)
SF 6 octahedral
(B)
CH 4 tetrahedral
(C)
SO 3 trigonal planar
(D)
SeCl 4 tetrahedral
(E)
PH 3 trigonal pyramidal
Explanations
1. A
There are two ways to get this answer, the hard way and the easy way.
To solve this problem the hard way, first multiply the percent abundance
by the atomic mass of a given isotope and then add the products
together. You’ll see that the hard way actually isn’t very hard:
30.00% = 40.00 amu: 30% is 3 10%, right? So if 10% of 40 is 4, then
3 4 = 30% of 40, which is equal to 12 amu.
50.00% = 41.00 amu, and 50% is 1 / 2 of 41, which is 20.5 amu.
20.00% = 42.00 amu, and 20% = 2 10%, so 10% of 42 = 4.2, and 20%
= 2 4.2, which is 8.4 amu.
Now add those three numbers together to get your answer: 12 + 20.5 +
8.4 = 40.9 amu. But the easy way to get the answer is to guesstimate:
50% of the element exists as the 41.00 amu isotope. Now, 30% of the
remaining element is the 40.00 amu isotope, and only 20% of the
element exists as the 42.00 isotope. Therefore you can estimate that the
average of these three amounts should be less than 41 since there is
more of the lighter isotope. The only answer choice that’s less than 41
is A.
2. D
The fourth principal energy level has four sublevels: s, p, d, and f. If the
sublevel is completely filled, then s = 2 electrons, p = 6 electrons, d = 10
electrons, and f = 14 electrons; thus 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32 total electrons
for a full fourth principal energy level.
3. B
The set of quantum numbers given was n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = ±1/2.
If n = 3, this means that it’s a third energy level electron; if l = 1, then
it’s a p-sublevel electron; if ml = 0, then it’s in the middle position of the
set of three p orbitals. The only tricky thing is that ms = + or - 1/2. This
means it’s either a p2 or a p5 electron. However, if it were p5, then one of
the answer choices would be argon (a noble gas), but it isn’t listed, so it
must be the p2, which makes silicon the correct answer.
4. A
The configuration given is 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s2. The 3d4 is the
important part—it means the element we desire is in the first row of
the d-block elements and is the fourth element in that block, so it is Cr,
or chromium.
5. C
The mass number and atomic number must be equal on both sides of the
equation in order for the equation to be properly balanced. We are
looking for a component that has a mass number of 4 and an atomic
number of 2: helium. This is an example of alpha decay, and the answer
is C, .
The complete equation is:
6. B
This problem is easily solved without a calculator, especially if you’ve
been practicing your math skills. The half-life is given as 9.98 minutes,
which is mighty close to 10 minutes. The total time is given as 60.0
minutes, so the sample undergoes six half-lives. Start with this mass and
keep cutting it in half; each 10-minute half-life should be represented
with an arrow, and you can even put numbers under each arrow if you
want, in order to keep track.
20.0 10.0 5.0 2.5 1.25 0.625 0.3125, which is B.
7. E
This question asks about the second ionization energy. Remember that
the second ionization energy of any element is always larger than its first
ionization energy. The second ionization energy is significantly larger if
the second electron comes from a completed sublevel or principal
energy level. Na’s first electron removed is 3s1, while the second to be
removed comes from 2p6. There is a huge increase in the amount of
energy needed to remove that second electron because of the change in
principal energy levels.
8. T, T
(Do not fill in CE, for “correct explanation.”) Remember this type of
question? We told you about it in the first part of the book. Here we go:
statement I is true: hydrogen has a lower IE than helium. The electron
removed in each case is from the 1s sublevel, so Zeffbecomes very
important: H has a Zeff of 1, while He has a Zeff of 2. He attracts its
electrons with more force; thus it requires more energy to remove them.
Statement II is also true: The halogens are highly electronegative and
form polar bonds with hydrogen. However, is statement II the correct
explanation for why statement I is true? No, so you would not fill in
the CE bubble.
9. E
Remember, atomic radii decrease moving across a period from left to
right. This is because protons are added to the nucleus and these protons
attract the electrons more strongly, pulling them in tighter and
decreasing the atomic radius. Atomic radiusincreases moving down a
group or family, however, because the value of n increases as you add
another shell, the electrons spend more time away from the nucleus,
dissipating the attraction between nuclear protons and themselves. Since
fluorine and chlorine are both in the same group but chlorine is below
fluorine, we know that chlorine is bigger than fluorine. Sulfur is to the
left of both chlorine and fluorine, so it must be the smallest of all.
Arranged in order of increasing size, they are S, F, Cl, or answer E.
10. T, T
(Do not fill in CE.) In general, the ionization energy increases with
increasing Zeff, and the same is true for second ionization energies. B has
a higher Zeff than does Be, and since the second ionization energy would
be needed to remove protons from the same principal energy level, B’s
higher Zeff means that its second ionization energy would be higher than
that of Be.
11. F, F
(Do not fill in CE.) While oxygen has a lower first ionization energy
than nitrogen due to the p4 anomaly, as you pass oxygen (going from left
to right across the period), the trend of increasing ionization energy
continues; the increased Zeff results in subsequent elements in the period
(such as fluorine) having a higher ionization energy than oxygen.
Oxygen does not have a higher Zeff than that of fluorine, so the second
statement is also false, and you would not fill in the CE oval.
12. C
It simply requires the input of energy to remove an electron from any
type of atom. This is because energy must be put into the system in
order to overcome the favorable attraction between the electron and the
positively charged atomic nucleus. A reaction that must consume energy
in order to proceed is known as endothermic, while a reaction that gives
off energy is exothermic; both of these reactions are endothermic, and
the answer is C.
13. C
Draw each structure using the rules for drawing Lewis dot structures.
Remember that resonance structures refer to two or more Lewis
structures that are equally good descriptions of a molecule. So, you’re
looking for structures in which you found yourself placing one double
bond arbitrarily between a pair of atoms that, elsewhere in the molecule,
share only a single pair of atoms. You should also be looking for a
combination of single and multiple bonds occurring between the central
atom and a member of C, N, O, P, or S.
14. C
SF6 has six bonding sites as seen by its Lewis structure, drawn below. It
is octahedral. The four equatorial sites have F—S—F bond angles of
90˚, while the two axial sites have F—S—F bond angles of 180˚, so as
you can see, choice C is the best answer.
15. T, T, CE
The first statement is true: not all molecules that contain a polar bond
are themselves polar. And the second statement correctly explains why
this is so: in order for a molecule to be polar, it must contain at least one
polar bond or unshared pair of electrons that are not arranged
symmetrically so as to cancel each other out. If they are arranged so that
they do cancel each other out, the molecule will be nonpolar.
16. T, T
(Do not fill in CE.) While fluorine is indeed bigger than hydrogen, this
is not the reason NH3 is more polar than NF3. The true reason for this is
that the three N—F bonds are more polar than the N—H bonds: the
difference between the electronegativities of N and H are greater than
that between N and F, so in NH3, the nitrogen attracts electrons much
more strongly than do the hydrogens, and a significant dipole moment is
created.
17. B
An octahedral geometry is produced from six bonding
sites, sp3d2 hybridization, and an expanded octet. You know it cannot be
BeCl2, BF3, or CF4 since neither Be, B, nor C is from the third period or
higher. SeF6 and PF5 are both possibilities. The Lewis structures for the
remaining choices appear below:
You can see that PF5 has five bonding sites and is thus trigonal
bipyramidal. SeF6 has six bonding sites and is octahedral.
18. D
All of the Lewis structures appear below. Focus only on the positions of
the nuclei—you can’t see the lone pairs, but they determine the
molecular shape by their repulsions.
The States of Matter

Now that you know a bit about chemical bonding, let’s talk about the
different forms that groups of molecules can take. In other words, let’s talk
about the states of matter. The states of matter that you’ll need to know for
the SAT II Chemistry test are solid, liquid, and gas.
You might wonder why there are different states of matter at all. After all,
molecules only bond together in one way, right? The answer lies in the type
of intramolecular and intermolecular forces that exist both within and
between molecules of substances.
Intra- and Intermolecular Forces

Whether a particular group of bonded molecules takes the form of a solid,
liquid, or gas depends not only on the bonds that exist within each
individual molecule, but also on the presence and type of bonds between
molecules. Hark back to the different types of bonds we reviewed in the last
chapter: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Of these, ionic bonds tend to be the
strongest, and this means that substances that contain ionic bonds are
solids at room temperature. Substances that are primarily made up of
covalent bonds, which are weaker, can be solid or liquid, and their state will
depend on the presence and type of intermolecular forces.
The two main types of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules
are dipole-dipole forces (including hydrogen bonds) and London dispersion
forces.
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole attractions take place when two or more neutral, polar
molecules are oriented such that their positive (+) and negative (-) ends are
close to each other.
Because of the attraction between unlike charges, this is a fairly strong type
of intermolecular force, and molecules held together by dipole-dipole forces
tend to be in the solid or liquid state. Also, for molecules that are about the
same size and weight, the strength of the dipole-dipole forces increases as
the degree of polarity increases. In other words, the more polar a molecule
is, the stronger the dipole-dipole forces it will form with itself and other
molecules.
One very important and unique case of the dipole-dipole attraction is
known ashydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonds are not true bonds: they’re
just strong attractive forces between the hydrogen on one molecule and a
highly electronegative atom on a nearby molecule.
Hydrogen bonds most commonly form between hydrogen atoms and
fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. This type of intermolecular force is
responsible for water’s unique characteristics, such as its high specific heat
and boiling point temperature—but more about that later.
London Dispersion Forces—Weak
Intermolecular Forces
London forces are relatively weak forces of attraction that exist between
nonpolar molecules and noble gas atoms, like argon (a noble gas) and
octane (a hydrocarbon; C8H18). These types of attractive forces are caused
by a phenomenon known asinstantaneous dipole formation. In this
process, electron distribution in the individual molecules suddenly becomes
asymmetrical, and the newly formed dipoles are now attracted to one
another.
The ease with which the electron cloud of an atom can be distorted to
become asymmetrical is called the molecule’s polarizability. Think of this
as a probability issue. The greater the number of electrons an electron has,
the farther they will be from the nucleus, and the greater the chance for
them to shift positions within the molecule. This means that larger
nonpolar molecules tend to have stronger London dispersion forces. This is
evident when you look at the diatomic elements in group 7, the halogens.
All of these diatomic elements are nonpolar, covalently bonded molecules.
Now, going down the group, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a
liquid, and iodine is a solid! For nonpolar molecules, the farther you go
down the group, the stronger the London dispersion forces
Solids
As we mentioned above, the molecules that make up solids are generally
held together by ionic or strong covalent bonding, and the attractive forces
between the atoms, ions, or molecules in solids are very strong. In fact,
these forces are so strong that particles in a solid are held in fixed positions
and have very little freedom of movement. Solids have definite shapes and
definite volumes and are not compressible to any extent. There are a few
types of solids that you should be familiar with for the SAT II Chemistry
test, and we’ve listed them below. However, we will start by saying that
there are two main categories of solids—crystalline solids and amorphous
solids. Crystalline solids are those in which the atoms, ions, or molecules
that make up the solid exist in a regular, well-defined arrangement. The
smallest repeating pattern of crystalline solids is known as the unit cell,
and unit cells are like bricks in a wall—they are all identical and repeating.
The other main type of solids are called the amorphous
solids. Amorphous solids do not have much order in their structures.
Though their molecules are close together and have little freedom to move,
they are not arranged in a regular order as are those in crystalline solids.
Common examples of this type of solid are glass and plastics.
There are four types of crystalline solids, all of which you should be familiar
with for the exam.
Ionic solids—Made up of positive and negative ions and held together by
electrostatic attractions. They’re characterized by very high melting points
and brittleness and are poor conductors in the solid state. An example of an
ionic solid is table salt, NaCl.
Molecular solids—Made up of atoms or molecules held together by
London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds.
Characterized by low melting points and flexibility and are poor
conductors. An example of a molecular solid is sucrose.
Covalent-network (also called atomic) solids—Made up of atoms
connected by covalent bonds; the intermolecular forces are covalent bonds
as well. Characterized as being very hard with very high melting points and
being poor conductors. Examples of this type of solid are diamond and
graphite, and the fullerenes. As you can see below, graphite has only 2-D
hexagonal structure and therefore is not hard like diamond. The sheets of
graphite are held together by only weak London forces!
Metallic solids—Made up of metal atoms that are held together by
metallic bonds. Characterized by high melting points, can range from soft
and malleable to very hard, and are good conductors of electricity
Liquids
Liquids are generally made up of molecules that contain covalent bonds
and have strong intermolecular attractive forces. The atoms and molecules
that make up liquids have more freedom of movement than do those in
solids. Also, liquids have no definite shape but do have a definite volume,
and they are not easily compressible. We will discuss liquids in more detail
in the section on solutions in this chapter.
Gases
Gases generally consist of atoms and molecules that are covalently bonded,
and their intermolecular forces are very weak. The molecules of a gas are
highly separated, so we say that gases are mostly empty space. A gas has no
definite shape—it will take the shape of the container that holds it, and
gases are easily compressible
Phase Changes
In order for a substance to move between the states of matter; for example,
to turn from a solid into a liquid, which is called fusion, or from a gas to a
liquid (vaporization), energy must be gained or lost. The heat of
fusion (symbolized Hfus) of a substance is the amount of energy that must
be put into the substance for it to melt. For example, the heat of fusion of
water is 6.01 kJ/mol, or in other terms, 80 cal/g. The heat of
vaporization, not surprisingly, is the amount of energy needed to cause
the transition from liquid to gas, and it is symbolized Hvap. You will not be
required to memorize heat of fusion or vaporization values for the exam.
Changes in the states of matter are often shown on phase diagrams, and
you will probably see at least one of two different types of phase diagrams
on the SAT II Chemistry exam. Let’s start with the phase diagram for water.
The phase diagram for water is a graph of pressure versus temperature.
Each of the lines on the graph represents an equilibrium position, at which
the substance is present in two states at once. For example, anywhere along
the line that separates ice and water, melting and freezing are occurring
simultaneously.
The intersection of all three lines is known as the triple

point (represented by a dot and a T on the figure). At this point, all three
phases of matter are in equilibrium with each other. Point X represents
the critical point, and at the critical point and beyond, the substance is
forever in the vapor phase.
This diagram allows us to explain strange phenomena, such as why water
boils at a lower temperature at higher altitudes, for example. At higher
altitudes, the air pressure is lower, and this means that water can reach the
boiling point at a lower temperature. Interestingly enough, water would
boil at room temperature if the pressure was low enough!
One final note: If we put a liquid into a closed container, the evaporation of
the liquid will cause an initial increase in the total pressure of the system,
and then the pressure of the system will become a constant. The value of
this final pressure is unique to each liquid and is known as the
liquid’s vapor pressure. Water has a relatively low vapor pressure
because it takes a lot of energy to break the hydrogen bonds so that
molecules enter the gas phase. Water and other liquids that have low vapor
pressures are said to be nonvolatile. Substances like rubbing alcohol and
gasoline, which have relatively high vapor pressures, are said to
be volatile.
Example
What happens to water when the pressure remains constant at 1 atm but
the temperature changes from -10ºC to 75ºC?
Explanation
Looking at the phase change diagram for water and following the dashed
line at 1 atm, you can see that water would begin as a solid (ice) and melt at
0ºC. All of the water would be in liquid form by the time the temperature
reached 75ºC.
The second type of phase change graph you might see on the SAT II
Chemistry exam is called a heating curve. This is a graph of the change in
temperature of a substance as energy is added in the form of heat. The
pressure of the system is assumed to be held constant, at normal pressure
(1 atm). As you can see from the graph below, at normal pressure water
freezes at 0ºC and boils at 100ºC.
The plateaus on this diagram represent the points where water is being
converted from one phase to another; at these stages the temperature
remains constant since all the heat energy added is being used to break the
attractions between the water molecules.
Specific Heat
On the SAT II Chemistry test, you might see a diagram that looks
something like this one, and you might come across a question that asks
you to calculate the amount of energy needed to take a particular substance
through a phase change. This would be one of the most difficult questions
on the exam, but you might see something like it, or at least part of it. If you
were asked to do this, you would need to use the following equation:
energy (in calories) = mCp DT
where m = the mass of the substance (in grams)
Cp = the specific heat of the substance (in cal/g ºC)
DT = the change in temperature of the substance (in either Kelvins or
ºC, but make sure all your units are compatible!)
As you can see, this requires that you know the specific heat of the
substance. A substance’s specific heat refers to the heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1ºC. You will not be required to
remember any specific heat values for the exam.
Work through the example below to get a feel for how to use this equation.
Example
If you had a 10.0 g piece of ice at -10ºC, under constant pressure of 1 atm,
how much energy would be needed to melt this ice and raise the
temperature to 25.0ºC?
Explanation
First, the temperature of the ice would need to be raised from -10ºC to 0ºC.
This would require the following calculation. The specific heat for ice is
0.485 cal/g ºC. Substituting in the formula
energy = mCp DT; energy = (10.0 g) (0.485 cal/g ºC) (10.0ºC) = 48.5 cal
So 48.5 calories are needed to raise temperature.
Next, we must calculate the heat of fusion of this ice: we must determine
how much energy is needed to completely melt the 10 g of it.
energy = mH fus
energy = (10.0 g) (80 cal/g) = 800 cal
So 800 cal of energy are needed to completely melt this sample of ice.
Next, we need to see how much energy would be needed to raise the
temperature of water from 0ºC to 25ºC. The specific heat for liquid water is
1.00 cal/g ºC. So again use
energy = mCp DT to get energy = (10.0 g) (1.00 cal/g ºC) (25.0ºC) = 250 cal
Finally, add together all of the energies to get the total: 48.5 + 800 + 250 =
about 1100 calories are needed to convert the ice to water at these given
temperatures.
The Gas Laws

Ideal Gases
You will definitely see some questions on gases and the laws that govern
them on the SAT II Chemistry exam. All of the gas laws rely on some basic
assumptions that are made about gases, and together they constitute what
it means for a gas to be in anideal state. In an ideal state
1. All gas particles are in constant, random motion.
2. All collisions between gas particles are perfectly elastic (meaning that
the kinetic energy of the system is conserved).
3. The volume of the gas molecules in a gas is negligible.
4. Gases have no intermolecular attractive or repulsive forces.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas is directly proportional to its
Kelvin temperature and is the same for all gases at a specified
temperature.
Only four measurable properties are used to describe a gas: its quantity,
temperature, volume, and pressure. The quantity (amount) of the gas is
usually expressed in moles (n). The temperature, T, of gases must always
be converted to the Kelvin temperature scale (the absolute temperature
scale). The volume, V, of a gas is usually given in liters. Finally, the
pressure, P, of a gas is usually expressed in atmospheres. Gases are often
discussed in terms of standard temperature and pressure (STP),
which means 273K (or 0ºC) and 1 atm.
Example
Which of the following statements is not true of ideal gases?
1. The volume occupied by gas particles is only significant at very low
pressures.
2. Gas molecules occupy an insignificant volume compared to the
volume of the container that holds them.
3. The particles of a gas move in random straight line paths until a
collision occurs.
4. The collisions that occur between gas particles are considered elastic.
5. At a given temperature, all gas molecules within a sample possess the
same average kinetic energy.
Explanation
In this example, choice 1 is incorrect. Choices 2, 3, 4, and 5 all describe an
ideal gas. Choice 1 makes an incorrect assumption: it begins with a true
statement about volume not being very significant but then turns around
and gives the incorrect scenario—if the pressure is low, then gas particles
undergo very few collisions, so the volume is insignificant. The volume only
becomes significant if gas particles collide often, increasing the chances
that intermolecular forces will hold them together.
Measuring the Pressure of a Gas
Gas pressure is a gauge of the number and force of collisions between gas
particles and the walls of the container that holds them. The SI unit for
pressure is the pascal(Pa), but other pressure terms
include atmospheres (atms), millimeters of mercury (mmHg),
and torr. The following is a list of all of the standard pressure in every unit
for pressure. Memorize these for the exam so you can convert units where
necessary:
760 mmHg
760 torr
1.00 atm
101,325 Pa
101.325 kPa
The piece of lab equipment specifically designed to measure the pressure of
gases is known as the barometer. A barometer uses the height of a
column of mercury to measure gas pressure in millimeters of mercury or
torr (1 mmHg = 1 torr). The mercury is pushed up the tube from the dish
until the pressure at the bottom of the tube (due to the mass of the
mercury) is balanced by the atmospheric pressure.
When using a barometer, you calculate gas pressure with the following
equation:
Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure - h (height of the mercury)
The open-tube manometer is another device that can be used to
measure pressure. The open-tube manometer is used to measure the
pressure of a gas in a container.
The pressure of the gas is given by h (the difference in mercury levels) in

units of torr or mmHg. Atmospheric pressure pushes on the mercury from
one direction, and the gas in the container pushes from the other direction.
In a manometer, since the gas in the bulb is pushing more than the
atmospheric pressure, you add the atmospheric pressure to the height
difference:
gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + h
There is one other possibility for a manometer question that could appear
on the SAT II Chemistry test: they could ask you about a closed-tube
manometer. Closed-tube manometers look similar to regular
manometers except that the end that’s open to the atmospheric pressure in
a regular manometer is sealed and contains a vacuum. In these systems, the
difference in mercury levels (in mmHg) is equal to the pressure in torr
Boyle’s Law
This is the first of the five-odd gas laws you’ll need to know for the SAT II
Chemistry test. Study these laws closely because you are sure to see a
question or two that asks you to apply them.
Boyle’s law simply states that the volume of a confined gas at a fixed
temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted on the gas.
This can also be expressed as PV = a constant. This makes sense if you
think of a balloon. When the pressure around a balloon increases, the
volume of the balloon decreases, and likewise, when you decrease the
pressure around a balloon, its volume will increase.
Boyle’s law to can also be expressed in the following way, and this is the
form of the law that you should memorize:
P1V1 = P2V2
Example
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas is a component of car exhaust and power plant
discharge, and it plays a major role in the formation of acid rain. Consider a
3.0 L sample of gaseous SO2 at a pressure of 1.0 atm. If the pressure is
changed to 1.5 atm at a constant temperature, what will be the new volume
of the gas?
Explanation
If P1V1 = P2V2, then (1.0 atm) (3.0 L) = (1.5 atm) (V2), so V2 = 2.0 L. This
answer makes sense according to Boyle’s law—as the pressure of the system
increases, the volume should decrease
Charles’s Law
Charles’s law states that if a given quantity of gas is held at a constant
pressure, its volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Think of it this way. As the temperature of the gas increases, the gas
molecules will begin to move around more quickly and hit the walls of their
container with more force—thus the volume will increase. Keep in mind
that you must use only the Kelvin temperature scale when working with
temperature in all gas law formulas! Here’s the expression of Charles’s law
that you should memorize:
Try using Charles’s law to solve the following problem.

Example
A sample of gas at 15ºC and 1 atm has a volume of 2.50 L. What volume will
this gas occupy at 30ºC and 1 atm?
Explanation
The pressure remains the same, while the volume and temperature change
—this is the hallmark of a Charles’s law question.
So, , then 2.50 L/288K = V 2 /303K, and V 2 = 2.63 L

This makes sense—the temperature is increasing slightly, so the volume
should increase slightly. Be careful of questions like this—it’s tempting to
just use the Celsius temperature, but you must first convert to Kelvin
temperature (by adding 273) to get the correct relationships!
Avogadro’s Law
The volume of a gas at a given temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the quantity of the gas. Avogadro’s hypothesis comes
directly from this relationship, and you should definitely remember the
following statement (which is an extrapolation of the above idea) for the
SAT II Chemistry test: Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.
Avogadro’s law, which is derived from this basic idea, says that the volume
of a gas maintained at constant temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of moles of the gas, or
V = constant n (where n is the number of moles of the gas)
The Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law is the most important gas law for you to know: it
combines all of the laws you learned about in this chapter thus far, under a
set of standard conditions. The four conditions used to describe a gas—
pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles (quantity)—are all
related, along with R, the universal gas law constant, in the following
formula:
PV = nRT
where P = pressure (atm), V = volume (L), n = number of moles (mol), R =
0.08206 L · atm/mol · K, and T = temperature (K).
Now try an example using the ideal gas law equation.
Example
A 16.0 g sample of methane gas, CH4, the gas used in chemistry lab, has a
volume of 5.0 L at 27ºC. Calculate the pressure.
Explanation
Looking at all the information given, you have a mass, a volume, and a
temperature, and you need to find the pressure of the system. As always,
start by checking your units. You must first convert 16.0 g of CH4 into
moles: 16.0 g CH4 1 mol CH4/16.0 g CH4 = 1 mol of methane. The volume
is in the correct units, but you must convert the temperature into Kelvins:
27 + 273 = 300K. Now you’re ready to plug these numbers into the ideal gas
law equation:
PV = nRT
(P) (5.0 L) = (1.0 mol) (0.0821 L atm/mol K) (300K), so P = 4.9 atm
Don’t let the math scare you. Remember that your test will be all multiple
choice. You may be asked for proper setup, or at least you will have answers
to choose from, and you won’t have to do these lengthy calculations without
a calculator. These examples are only meant to give you practice using the
gas law equations
Density of Gases
Since gases are mostly empty space, the densities of gases are reported in
g/L, notg/mL as found for solids and liquids. As you’re probably aware,
density is equal to mass per unit of volume. To calculate the density of a gas
at standard temperature and pressure, you take the molecular formula
weight of the gas (grams per mole—from the periodic table) and divide that
by the standard molar volume for a gas, which is 22.4 L per mole:
where the formula weight (FW) is in g/mol, and the standard molar volume
is 22.4 L/mol. Now try using this in a problem.
Example
What is the density of helium gas at STP?
Explanation
If the density of the gas is equal to , then d = 4.00 g/mol ∏ 22.4 L/mol,
so the density = 0.179 g/L.
If conditions are not standard, we can use this expanded version of the
ideal gas equation:
Another really handy rearrangement of the ideal gas equation can be used
to find the molecular weight of an unknown gas . You’ll get a

chance to practice using these in the problems at the end of the chapter.
However, there is no need to memorize these last equations since they are
all rearrangements of the ideal gas law. Okay, two more important laws and
then we’re finished with our discussion of gases, and we move on to
solutions.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Dalton’s law states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures that each of the individual gases would exert if it were alone:
P total = P 1 + P 2 + . . . P n
Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion

Graham’s law states that the rates of effusion of two gases are inversely
proportional to the square roots of their molar masses at the same
temperature and pressure:
Effusion is the term used to describe the passage of a gas through a tiny
orifice into an evacuated chamber, as shown in the figure below.
The rate of effusion measures the speed at which the gas travels through
the tiny hole into a vacuum. Another term to remember for the test is
diffusion. Diffusion is the term used to describe the spread of a gas
throughout a space or throughout a second substance
Solutions
This section will focus on what you need to know about solutions, solution
concentrations, and colligative properties in order to be successful on the
SAT II Chemistry test. This material is closely tied in with the material from
the first half of this chapter and “The Structure of Matter.”
Properties of Solutions
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances that exist
in a single phase. There are two main parts to any solution. The solute is
the component of a solution that is dissolved in the solvent; it is usually
present in a smaller amount than the solvent. The solvent is the
component into which the solute is dissolved, and it is usually present in
greater concentration. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the
solute and water is the solvent. In solutions where water is the solvent, the
solution is referred to as an aqueous solution.
A solution does not have to involve liquids. For instance, air is a solution
that consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases, and
solder is a solution of lead and tin. The general rule of thumb for solutions
is the idea that like dissolves like. Polar, ionic substances are soluble in
polar solvents, while nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents. For
example, alcohol and water, which are both polar, can form a solution and
iodine and carbon tetrachloride, which are both nonpolar, make a solution.
However, iodine will not readily dissolve in polar water.
In a solution, the particles are really small—anywhere from 0 to 100 nm.
They never settle on standing, they cannot be separated by filtering, and
light will pass through a solution unchanged. One type of mixture that is
not a solution is known as the colloid. In a colloid, particles are between
100 and 1000 nm in size—still too small for our eyes to distinguish, but
particles this small will not settle. As is the case in solutions, the particles
cannot be filtered, but they do scatter light. Some examples of colloids
include gelatin, fog, smoke, and shaving cream. Another type of mixture
that is not considered a solution is known as a
suspension. Suspensions have much larger particles: usually over 1000
nm. Particles in a suspension will settle on standing, can often be separated
by a filter, and may scatter light, but they are usually not transparent. Some
examples of suspensions are muddy water, paint, and some medicines, like
Pepto-Bismol.
The Solution Process
In order for a solute to be dissolved in a solvent, the attractive forces
between the solute and solvent particles must be great enough to overcome
the attractive forces within the pure solvent and pure solute. The solute and
the solvent molecules in a solution are expanded compared to their position
within the pure substances.
The process of expansion, for both the solute and solvent, involves a change
in the energy of the system: this process can be either exothermic or
endothermic. After dissolving, the solute is said to be
fully solvated (usually by dipole-dipole or ion-dipole forces), and when the
solvent is water, the solute is said to be hydrated. The separation of the
solute particles from one another prior to dissolving is an endothermic
process for both solvent and solute (steps 1 and 2), but when the solute and
solvent combine with each other, this is an exothermic process (step 3). If
the energy released in step 3 is greater than the energy absorbed in steps 1
and 2, the solution forms and is stable.
The term solubility refers to the maximum amount of material that will
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature to produce a
stable solution. By looking at the plot of solubilities below, you can see that
most solids increase in solubility with an increase in temperature.
Gases, however, decrease in solubility with an increase in temperature.

Degrees of Saturation
When referring to solutions, there are three degrees of saturation—
unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated. If a solution is unsaturated,
the solvent is capable of dissolving more solute. When the solution
is saturated, the solvent has dissolved the maximum amount of solute
that it can at the given temperature. At this point we say that the solution is
in a state of dynamic equilibrium—the processes of dissolving and
precipitation are happening at the same rate. A supersaturated solution
is one in which the solvent contains more solute than it can theoretically
hold at a given temperature. Supersaturated solutions are often formed by
heating a solution and dissolving more solute, then cooling the solution
down slowly. These solutions are unstable and crystallize readily.
Concentration Terms
Solutions are often referred to as being concentrated or dilute. These two
terms are very general. While concentrated indicates that there is a lot of
solute dissolved in the solvent (perhaps the solution is near to being
saturated) and dilute indicates that a small amount of solute is dissolved
in the solvent, we often need to be exact with quantities in chemistry. The
units of concentration that you should be familiar with for the SAT II exam
are reviewed below.
Molarity (M )
The molarity of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute

per liter of solution. This is the most common concentration unit used in
chemistry. For instance, you might see an expression that looks like this:
[NaCl] = 0.75
which means that 0.75 mole of NaCl is dissolved per 1.00 L of solution. The
brackets around the number indicate that the concentration is expressed in
terms of molarity. Let’s now run through how you calculate the molarity of
a solution.
Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 20.0 g of solid
NaOH in enough water to make 100 mL of solution.
Explanation
Convert grams to moles:
Then convert mL to liters:
Then divide:
Dilution
Dilution is the process of taking a more concentrated solution and adding
water to make it less concentrated. The more concentrated solution before
the dilution is performed is known as the stock solution. You can relate the
concentration of the stock solution to the concentration of the diluted
solution using the equation below:
M1V1 = M2V2
where M is molarity and V is the volume, in liters, of the solution. Try the
following example using this equation.
Example
What volume of 6.0 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) must be used to prepare 2.0 L
of a 0.10M H2SO4 solution?
Explanation
Just plug the numbers into the formula! Be careful to read closely.
M1V1 = M2V2
(6.0 M) (V 1 ) = (0.10 M) (2.0 L)
V 1 = 0.033 L
or 33 mL should be measured out and then diluted by adding enough water
to make 2.00 L total volume.
Mass Percent (Weight Percent)
The mass percent of a solution is another way of expressing its
concentration. Mass percent is found by dividing the mass of the solute by
the mass of the solution and multiplying by 100; so a solution of NaOH that
is 28% NaOH by mass contains 28 g of NaOH for each 100 g of solution.
Here’s the equation:
Now try a problem involving the equation:

Example
A solution is prepared by mixing 5.00 g ethanol (C2H5OH) with 100.0 g
water. Calculate the mass percent of ethanol in this solution.
Explanation
Plugging the values we were given into the mass percent equation, we get:
Molality (m)
The molality of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute

per kilogram of solvent. Whereas the molarity of a solution is dependent on
the volume of the solution, the molality is dependent on the mass of the
solvent in the solution. Do not get these confused, and when you see either
term on the SAT II Chemistry test, double-check to make sure which one
they’re talking about—the words look similar, too! Try an example:
Example
A solution is prepared by mixing 80.0 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with
500.0 g of water. Calculate the molality of this solution.
Explanation
Convert grams of solute to moles:
Convert grams of solvent to kg:
Divide:
Electrolytes
Certain solutions are capable of conducting an electric current and these
solutions are referred to as electrolytes. Generally speaking, we say that
there are three classes of electrolytes (solutions that conduct a current):
acids, bases, and salts.
• Strong electrolytes consist of solutes that dissociate completely in
solution. Strong acids, strong bases, and soluble salts are in this
category. (We will discuss acids and bases in chapter 6.)
• Nonelectrolytes are substances that are predominantly covalently
bonded, generally will not produce ions in solution, and therefore are
considered nonconductors.
• Weak electrolytes consist of solutes that dissociate only a little in
solution. Weak acids, weak bases, and slightly soluble salts are in this
category.
The greater the degree of dissociation of the solute, the greater the
conductivity of the solution. Consider two acid solutions that have the same
concentration—hydrochloric acid and acetic acid. Hydrochloric acid ionizes
completely, while only about 2% of the acetic acid molecules ionize. If a
conductivity apparatus were used to test the two solutions, HCl would
conduct an electric current to a much greater degree because there is more
available charge in solution. Below is a figure showing the ionization of
barium chloride; as you can see, the Ba+ and Cl- ions are floating free in
solution, and this makes barium chloride an electrolyte.
Colligative Properties
Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles
present per solvent molecule are called colligative properties. The
concentration of solute in a solution can affect various physical properties
of the solvent including its freezing point, boiling point, and vapor
pressure. For the SAT II you will only need to be familiar with the first two.
Freezing Point Depression
The freezing point of a substance is defined as the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the solid and the liquid states of that substance are equal.
If the vapor pressure of the liquid is lowered, the freezing point decreases.
Why is a solution’s freezing point depressed below that of a pure solvent?
The answer lies in the fact that molecules cluster in order to freeze. They
must be attracted to one another and have a spot in which to cluster; if they
act as a solvent, solute molecules get in the way and prevent them from
clustering tightly together. The more ions in solution, the greater the effect
on the freezing point. We can calculate the effect of these solute particles by
using the following formula:
DTf = Kf m solute i
where
DTf = the change in freezing point
Kf = molal freezing point depression constant for the substance (for water =
1.86ºC/m)
m = molality of the solution
i = number of ions in solution (this is equal to 1 for covalent compounds
and is equal to the number of ions in solution for ionic compounds)
Boiling Point Elevation
As you learned earlier in this chapter, the boiling point of a substance is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Because vapor pressure is lowered by the addition of a nonvolatile solute,
the boiling point is increased. Why? Since the solute particles get in the way
of the solvent particles trying to escape the substance as they move around
faster, it will take more energy for the vapor pressure to reach atmospheric
pressure, and thus the boiling point increases. We can calculate the change
in boiling point in a way that’s similar to how we calculate the change in
freezing point:
DTb = Kb m solute i
where
Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant (for water = 0.51˚C/m)
Now try a problem that deals with freezing point depression and boiling
point elevation.
Example
Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution of 100 g of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in 900 g of water.
Explanation
Calculate molality:
Freezing point depression = (m)(Kf)(i)
Tf = (1.79)(1.86)(1) = 3.33ºC
Freezing point = 0ºC - 3.33ºC = -3.33ºC
Boiling point elevation = (m)(Km)(i)
Tb = (1.79)(0.51)(1) = 0.91ºC
Boiling point = 100ºC + 0.91ºC = 100.91ºC
Practice Questions
1. Ice, unlike most BECAUSE In water, hydrogen bonds can form between
substances, is denser the positively charged H atom on one water
than water in the liquid molecule and the slightly negatively
phase. charged O atom on a nearby water
molecule.
2. Which of the following gases would be the densest at standard temperature and
pressure?
(A) Helium
(B) Argon
(C) Carbon dioxide
(D) Xenon
(E) Nitrogen
3. In the laboratory, a sample of hydrogen is collected by water displacement.

The sample of hydrogen has a volume of 25 mL at 24.0ÂºC and a barometric
pressure for the day of 758 mmHg. What is the pressure of the dry gas at this
temperature? (The vapor pressure of water at 24.0ÂºC is 22.4 mmHg.)
(A) 455 mmHg
(B) 470 mmHg
(C) 736 mmHg
(D) 758 mmHg
(E) 780 mmHg
4. Calculate the approximate amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of

50.0 grams of liquid water from 10.0ÂºC to 30.0ÂºC. (The specific heat of
water liquid is 4.18 J/gÂºC.)
(A) 20 J
(B) 80 J
(C) 100 J
(D) 200 J
(E) 4,180 J
5. Using the sketch of the phase diagram for water given above, determine which
of the following statements is incorrect:
(A) The triple point is point A. This is the point at which all three phases are in
equilibrium with one another.
(B) The line AB is the line representing the solid-liquid equilibrium line.
Anywhere along this line the substance could melt or freeze.
(C) The slope of line AB is negative. This slope indicates that the solid is much
denser than the liquid.
(D) Line AD represents the phase changes of sublimation and deposition.
(E) Line AC represents where the substance would condense and vaporize.
6. Most ionic solids have BECAUSE Ionic solids are made up of positive and
high melting points. negative ions held together by electrostatic
attractions.
7. Which of the following best illustrates a graph of pressure versus volume for a
gas at constant temperature?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
8. Which of the following solutions would probably have the highest boiling
point?
(A) 0.100 m KOH
(B) 0.100 m Na 2 SO 4
(C) 0.100 m C 6 H 12 O 6
(D) 0.200 m CaCl 2
(E) 0.200 m CH 3 CH 2 OH
9. Which of the following must be measured in order to calculate the molality of

a solution?
I. Mass of the solute
II. Mass of the solvent
III. Total volume of the solution
(A) I only
(B) I and III only
(C) II and III only
(D) I and II only
(E) I, II, and III
10. The molarity of a solution that is composed of 80.00 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in 2.0 L of solution is
(A) 1.0 M
(B) 2.0 M
(C) 4.0 M
(D) 40.0 M
(E) 160.0 M
11. Which of the following substances would dissociate completely when placed
into excess amounts of distilled water?
(A) C 2 H 5 OH
(B) HC 2 H 3 O 2
(C) LiNO 3
(D) Mg(OH) 2
(E) All of these will dissociate completely in water
12. The solubility of carbon dioxide BECAUSE The solubility of a gas generally
in a soft drink decreases with a increases with an increase in
decrease in pressure. temperature.
13. The molarity of a solution obtained when 50.0 mL of 6.0 M HCl is diluted to
a final volume of 300.0 mL is
(A) 0.01 M
(B) 0.10 M
(C) 0.20 M
(D) 0.30 M
(E) 1.0 M
14. Which of the following solutes and solvents would be expected to form stable
solutions?
(A) I only
(B) I and II only
(C) III only
(D) I, II, and III only
(E) I, II, and IV only
Explanations
1. F, T
(Do not fill in CE.) The first statement is false—water is
actually less dense in its solid, frozen form, which is not true of most
liquids. This is due to the hydrogen bonds that form between water
molecules in water’s liquid state. When the temperature of water
becomes low enough that water freezes, the molecules are locked into a
regular, crystal lattice structure in which the molecules are actually
farther apart from each other than they are when water is in its liquid
state. The second statement is true, but since the first is false, there is no
need to fill in the CE oval.
2. D
You’ll need to use the periodic table you’re given during the exam to
answer this question since you’ll have to find the masses of the gases.
Remember that the density of a gas is measured in grams per liter and
that you will calculate the volume using the standard for gases at STP:
22.4 L per mole. Finally, remember that the heavier the molecule, the
more dense the gas. A Helium is only 4 g/mol, B argon is 40
g/mol, Ccarbon dioxide is 44 g/mol, D xenon is 131 g/mol,
and E nitrogen (N2) is diatomic, so this means it has a mass of 28 g/mol.
The best choice is D, xenon.
3. C
This question appears to be very involved, so you might be tempted to
use the ideal gas equation; however, the question only asks for the
pressure of the dry gas. You’re given atmospheric pressure and water
vapor pressure at the defined temperature, so all you need to do is
subtract the water vapor from the atmospheric pressure: 758 mmHg -
22.4 mmHg = 735.6 mmHg; this matches C. Since you will not have a
calculator, round numbers off: 760 - 20 = 740. The closest answer
choice is C.
4. E
In this problem, the phase does not change; liquid water increases in
temperature by 20.0˚C. This will take energy—to calculate the energy,
use the equation q = mCp DT. You have all the information that you
need: Q = (50.0 g)(4.184 J/gºC) (20.0ºC). Again, make the math easy:
approximate that 20 50 = 1000, then multiply by 4 to get 4000 J—the
only answer choice that’s close is choice E.
5. C
A is the triple point, so this statement is true. B is the line that separates
the solid and the liquid, so this is also a true statement. C is the answer.
The slope of this line is not negative; it is positive. The second half of
the statement is true: when there is a positive slope, the solid is more
dense than the liquid. D is where the solid and vapor phase meet, so this
statement is also true—sublimation and deposition are the changes of
state associated with solids and gases. Finally, E is also a true statement
—the line represents where the liquid meets the vapor, and so these
changes of state could take place.
6. T, T
(Fill in CE.) The first statement is true: most ionic solids are
characterized as having a high melting point. Ionic solids are also hard
and brittle, with poor thermal and electrical conduction. The second
statement is also true—ionic solids consist of positive and negative ions
held together by electrostatic attractions, and you should fill
in CE because the second statement is the reason for the first statement’s
being true.
7. E
To answer this question, you must think about the relationship between
pressure and volume. Boyle’s law states that if the pressure is increased,
the volume will decrease if all other factors are held constant. This type
of relationship is an inverse relationship, and choice E is the only graph
that shows an inverse relationship.
8. D
The boiling point of a solution depends on the solution’s concentration
in molality and the number of ions that exist in solution. First eliminate
any answer choices that contain organic compounds, since carbon
compounds are covalently bonded and do not disassociate into ions in
solution; in this way you can eliminates choices C and E.
ChoiceA would produce two ions in solution, choice B would produce
three ions in solution, and choice D would produce three ions in
solution. Now you must choose between Band D. Since the molality is
greater in D and D produces the same number of ions, it would have the
highest boiling point.
9. D
This question requires that you know the definition of molality: molality
is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Since moles
are not directly measured, instead the mass of the solute, (I), would be
the component measured in the laboratory. The mass of the solvent can
be expressed in kilograms of solvent, or (II). The total volume, (III), is
not needed to calculate molality—just molarity, so look for an answer
that contains both (I) and (II); the answer is D.
10. A
This question asks you to calculate the molarity, which is the moles of
solute per liter of solution. 80.0 grams of NaOH can be converted to
moles by dividing 80 by 40 (the molecular weight of NaOH), and this
gives you 2 moles. Now divide 2 by 2 to get 1.0 M, which is answer
choice A.
11. C
This question in essence asks which of the answer choices is a strong
electrolyte. Strong electrolytes are strong acids, strong bases, and
soluble salts. Let’s go through the answer choices. Choice A is not a
strong electrolyte—it’s an alcohol. Choice B is acetic acid, an organic
acid, and is only a weak electrolyte. Choice C is a soluble salt; all
nitrates are soluble and thus dissociate in solution. This is the correct
answer. Choice Dis ionically bonded but is not a strong base. In group
2A, only barium, strontium, and calcium hydroxides are considered to
be strong. Mg(OH)2 is a chalky white liquid often taken as a laxative.
12. T, F
(Do not fill in CE.) Statement I is true—when the pressure of a system
is decreased, the solubility of a gas decreases; as you probably know
from experience, when you open a soda bottle, the pressure of the
system decreases significantly, and gas bubbles rise to the top and
escape. Statement II says that heating a gas in a solution will make the
gas more soluble; this is not true. Since this statement is false, you
would not fill in the CEoval.
13. E
This is a dilution problem, so use the formula you learned in this chapter
to solve it:M1V1 = M2V2. The problem gave you the following values to
plug in: (6.0 M) (50.0 mL) = (M) (300.0 mL). Do the math, and you get
300 divided by 300 = 1.0 M. This is answer choice E.
14. E
When you see a problem that looks like this, inspect each pairing one at
a time. Here keep in mind that “like dissolves like,” so polar substances
will be soluble in polar and ionic substances, and nonpolar substances
will be soluble in nonpolar substances. Look at (I): ethanol is a polar
substance due to the hydroxyl group, and water is also polar, so these
two substances should make a stable solution. (II) Salt is ionically
bonded and water is polar, so these two should also make a stable
solution. (III) Oil is nonpolar, and vinegar (acetic acid) is polar because
of its carboxylic acid group, so these two substances should not mix
well. (IV) Oil and gasoline are both nonpolar, so these two substances
should make a stable solution. Look for the answer choice that contains
I, II, and IV; choice E is the match.
Reaction Types
Now that you are familiar with atoms and molecules and how they make up
the solids, liquids, and gases we see around us, let’s discuss what happens
when two molecules meet: namely, chemical reactions. A chemical
reaction is defined as a process by which one or more substances are
changed into one or more new substances. Chemical reactions are usually
portrayed in this way:
reactant product
The is read as “yields” or “produces.” You will often see the states of
matter in parentheses as subscripts after the chemical formulas of the
reactants and products. The symbols for the states of matter and some
other chemical reaction symbols you should be familiar with are given in
the table below.
Symbol Meaning
“Yields” or “produces”
+ “Reacts with” or “and”
(g) Gaseous state
(l ) Liquid state
(s) Solid state
(aq) Aqueous state (dissolved in water)
number subscript Represents the number of atoms of the element it’s to the right of
number How many molecules or moles of the substance are reacting
coefficient
A substance named above the arrow represents a catalyst in the reaction
A gas is produced
A precipitate is formed
kJ or J Energy term (kilojoules or joules)
Reversible equation; equilibrium
A delta above the reaction arrow indicates that heat is added to the
reaction
Balancing Chemical Equations

You may remember that the law of conservation of mass says that matter is
neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. This means that
all chemical reactions must be balanced—the number of atoms, moles, and
ultimately the total mass must be conserved during a chemical process.
Here are the rules to follow when balancing equations:
1. Determine the correct formulas for all the reactants and products in
the reaction.
2. Begin balancing with the most complicated-looking group. A
polyatomic ion that appears unchanged on both sides of the equation
can be counted as a single unit.
3. Save the elemental (single elements) reactant and products for
last, especially if it is hydrogen or oxygen. Keep your eye out for
diatomic molecules such as oxygen, hydrogen, and the halogens.
4. If you get stuck, double the most complicated-looking group and try
again.
5. Finally, make sure that all coefficients are in the lowest-possible ratio.
6. Know when to quit! None of the reactions you will encounter will be
that difficult. If the coefficients are getting wild, double-check what
you’ve done since you may have a simple mistake.
When balancing reactions, keep your hands off the subscripts! Use only
coefficients to balance chemical equations. Now let’s try an example. When
you solve it yourself, make sure to follow the steps!
Example
Write the balanced equation for the reaction between chlorine and sodium
bromide, which produces bromine and sodium chloride.
Explanation
First write the chemical formulas—be on the lookout for the diatomic
elements (such as Cl2):
Cl 2 + NaBr Br 2 + NaCl
Next, find the reagent with the scariest subscripts. In this case, start with
Cl2. You need a coefficient of 2 in front of NaCl, which then requires a
coefficient of 2 in front of NaBr. The balanced equation becomes
Cl 2 + 2NaBr Br 2 + 2NaCl
Finally, count up everything to make sure you balanced the equation
correctly. You have two chlorine atoms, two sodium atoms, and two
bromines on the reactants side and two bromines, two sodiums, and two
chlorines on the products side. You’re done.
Example
Write the balanced equation for the reaction between aluminum sulfate and
calcium chloride, which produces aluminum chloride and calcium sulfate.
Explanation
Write the chemical formulas on their correct sides:
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + CaCl 2 AlCl 3 + CaSO 4
In this reaction, the aluminum sulfate looks the most complicated, so start
there. Look at what happens with sulfate—since it remains sulfate on the
right side of the reaction, treat it as a unit. You have three on the left side
and only one on the right side, so place a coefficient of 3 in front of calcium
sulfate. Now deal with the aluminum. You have three on the left and one on
the right, so place a coefficient of 2 in front of aluminum chloride. Last, you
must place a coefficient of 3 in front of calcium chloride.
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 3CaCl 2 2AlCl 3 + 3CaSO 4
Count the atoms on both sides of the reaction and you’ll see that you’re
done
Types of Chemical Reactions

It is important that you know the basic types of chemical reactions for the
SAT II Chemistry test since the test often refers to reactions as being of one
type or another. Here’s a list of the different types of reactions, with
examples of each type included.
Synthesis reaction: This is a reaction in which two or more elements or
compounds combine to form a single product. This type of reaction follows
the general equation
A+B C
where A and B may be either elements or compounds.
Here are some examples:
2Na (s) + Cl 2(g) 2NaCl (s)
MgO (s) + H 2 O (l) Mg(OH) 2(aq)
SO 2(g) + H 2 O (l) H 2 SO 3(aq)
Decomposition reaction: In this type of reaction, a single reactant, a
compound, breaks into two or more parts. Often these are the most difficult
to predict. Here is the general equation:
AB A+B
where A and B may be either elements or compounds.
Here are some examples of decomposition reactions:
2H 2 O (l) 2H 2(g) + O 2(g)
H 2 CO 3(aq) H 2 O (l) + CO 2(g)
CaCO 3(s) CaO (s) + CO 2(g)
2KClO 3(s) 2KCl (s) + 3O 2(g)
Single replacement or displacement reaction: In this type of
reaction, a more active element replaces a less active element in a
compound. Among the halogens, F2 is the most active halogen, and the
activity of the halogens decreases as you go down the group. For the metals,
you will need to be given an activity series. General equation:
A + BC AC + B
where A is a metal.
Here is an example of a displacement reaction in which a metal is involved:
Cu (s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) 2Ag (s) + Cu(NO 3 ) 2(aq)
General equation:
A + BC BA + C
where A is a nonmetal.
Here is an example of a displacement reaction where a nonmetal is
involved:
Cl 2(g) + 2NaI (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + I 2(s)
Double replacement or displacement reaction: In this type of
reaction, two compounds react to form two new compounds. The formation
of a molecular compound such as water, the formation of a gas, or the
formation of a precipitate usually drives these reactions. Here’s the general
equation:
AB + CD AD + CB
And here are a couple of examples:
Pb(NO 3 ) 2(aq) + 2KI (aq) 2KNO 3(aq) + PbI 2(s)
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H 2 O (l) + NaCl (aq)
Combustion reaction: In this type of reaction, often a hydrocarbon is
burned in the presence of oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide (in a complete
combustion) or carbon monoxide (in an incomplete combustion, due to a
limited amount of oxygen). Here is the general equation in the presence of
plenty of oxygen:
CxHy + O 2(g) CO 2(g) + H 2 O (l) or (g)
An example of this is seen when methane gas is burned in the presence of
excess oxygen (Bunsen burner reaction):
CH 4(g) + 2O 2(g) CO 2(g) + 2H 2 O (g)
Here is the general equation for when a hydrocarbon is burned in an
incomplete combustion (oxygen is in limited supply):
CxHy + O 2(g) CO (g) + H 2 O (l)
Hydrolysis reaction: A reaction that involves water. Here is the general
equation for a hydrolysis reaction:
Net Ionic Equations

Net ionic equations are equations that show only the soluble, strong
electrolytes reacting (these are represented as ions) and omit
the spectator ions, which go through the reaction unchanged. When you
encounter net ionic equations on the SAT II Chemistry test, you’ll need to
remember the following solubility rules, so memorize them! Also keep in
mind that net ionic equations, which are the bare bones of the chemical
reaction, usually take place in aqueous environments. Here are those
solubility rules:
1. Most alkali metal compounds and compounds are soluble.
2. Cl , Br , I compounds are soluble, except when they contain Ag+,
- - -
, or Pb2+.
3. F- compounds are soluble, except when they contain group 2A
metals.
4. , , , and CH3COO- compounds are soluble.
5. compounds are soluble, except when they include Ca2+, Sr2+,
Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, or .
6. , , , , S , OH-, and O2- compounds are insoluble.
2-
7. Group 2A metal oxides are classified as strong bases even though they
are not very soluble.
The two solubility rules that you will use the most are numbers 1 and 4. You
must memorize that all group 1A metal and ammonium compounds are
soluble. As soon as you see a compound , Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, or Fr, you
should know that it’s soluble. Also, all nitrates are soluble—look at the end
of the compound. If it ends in , you know that it’s soluble.
What’s the big deal with solubility? Well, if the ion is soluble, it won’t form
a precipitate, and this means it doesn’t react and should be left out of the
net ionic equation. The key is first to write the compound’s chemical
formula and then determine if it’s soluble. If it is soluble, then ionize it—if it
isn’t, don’t ionize it; leave it as a molecule.
Here are some additional rules about common reaction types that you
should be familiar with for the exam:
• If an insoluble precipitate or gas can be formed in a reaction, it
probably will be.
• Oxides (except group 1A) are insoluble, and when reacted with water,
they form either acids (nonmetal oxides) or bases (metal oxides).
• There are six strong acids that completely ionize: HCl, HBr, HI,
HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4. All other acids are weak and are written
together, as molecules.
• The strong bases that ionize are oxides and hydroxides of group 1A
and 2A metals. All other oxides and hydroxides are considered weak
and written together, as molecules.
Now try writing some net ionic equations, using the rules above.
Example
Write the net ionic equation for a mixture of solutions of silver nitrate and
lithium bromide.
Explanation
Ag + + + Li + + Br -
This is a double replacement reaction. Both compounds are soluble, so
everything ionizes. If anything is formed, it will come from recombining the
“inside” two ions with the “outside” two ions to make LiNO3 and AgBr. If
either of them is insoluble, a precipitate will be formed, and the ions that
react to form it will be in our net ionic equation; the other ions are
spectators and should be omitted! As we said, the two possible products are
lithium nitrate and silver bromide. Since halides are solubleexcept those
containing silver, mercury, or lead, we have a precipitate of silver bromide,
and our net ionic equation looks like this:
Ag + + Br - AgBr
Example
Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide are mixed. Write the net ionic
equation.
Explanation
This is a mixture of a strong acid and a strong base, so each ionizes
completely.
H + + Cl - + Na + + OH -
The two possible compounds formed are sodium chloride, which is soluble,
and water, which is molecular; thus water is the only product in our net
ionic equation.
H + + OH - H2O
Example
Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium iodide; write the net
ionic equation.
Explanation
This one is a single replacement, so you need to consider the activity series.
Since halogens are involved, you can determine their activity by using the
periodic table: Cl is more active than I.
Cl 2 + K + + I -
Remember that halogen is diatomic and that all potassium compounds are
soluble. The resulting compound is also soluble, so K+ is a spectator and is
left out of the final equation.
Cl 2 + I - I 2 + Cl -
The Chemistry of Acids and Bases

Acid-Base Theories
Let’s start our discussion of acids and bases by defining some terms that are
essential to the topics that follow.
Arrhenius acids and bases are:
acid—a substance that increases the concentration of protons (H+) in water
base—a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in
water (OH-)
These definitions are limited to aqueous solutions.
Brønsted and Lowry acids and bases as:
acid—a substance that donates a proton to another substance
base—a substance that accepts a proton
These definitions can also apply to reactions that are not aqueous, so they
are more accurate.
Lewis acids and bases are:
acid—a substance that accepts an electron pair
base—a substance that donates an electron pair
Here are some other terms that you’ll need to be familiar with:
hydronium (H3O+)—H+ riding “piggyback” on a water molecule; water is
polar, and the positive charge of the naked proton is greatly attracted to one
of the negative electron pairs on adjacent oxygen
monoprotic—describes acids that can donate one H+
diprotic—describes acids that can donate two H+ ions
polyprotic—describes acids that can donate more than one H+ ion
amphiprotic—describes a substance that can act as either an acid or a
base. This means it can either lose a proton or gain one. Water is
amphiprotic: it can form either a hydroxide ion or a hydronium ion. Other
examples of amphiprotic substances are , ,
The Chemistry of Acids and Bases

Acid-Base Theories
Let’s start our discussion of acids and bases by defining some terms that are
essential to the topics that follow.
Arrhenius acids and bases are:
acid—a substance that increases the concentration of protons (H+) in water
base—a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in
water (OH-)
These definitions are limited to aqueous solutions.
Brønsted and Lowry acids and bases as:
acid—a substance that donates a proton to another substance
base—a substance that accepts a proton
These definitions can also apply to reactions that are not aqueous, so they
are more accurate.
Lewis acids and bases are:
acid—a substance that accepts an electron pair
base—a substance that donates an electron pair
Here are some other terms that you’ll need to be familiar with:
hydronium (H3O+)—H+ riding “piggyback” on a water molecule; water is
polar, and the positive charge of the naked proton is greatly attracted to one
of the negative electron pairs on adjacent oxygen
monoprotic—describes acids that can donate one H+
diprotic—describes acids that can donate two H+ ions
polyprotic—describes acids that can donate more than one H+ ion
amphiprotic—describes a substance that can act as either an acid or a
base. This means it can either lose a proton or gain one. Water is
amphiprotic: it can form either a hydroxide ion or a hydronium ion. Other
examples of amphiprotic substances are , ,
Acid–Base Reactions: Neutralization Reactions

When a strong acid and a strong base solution are mixed, a neutralization
reaction occurs, and the products do not have characteristics of either acids
or bases. Instead, a neutral salt and water are formed. Look at the reaction
below:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H 2 O (l) + NaCl (aq)
The anion from the acid (Cl ) reacts with the cation from the base (Na+) to
–
give a salt, and a salt is defined as any compound formed whose anion
came from an acid and whose cation came from a base.
When a strong acid and a weak base are mixed, the resulting salt will be
acidic; likewise, if a strong base and a weak acid are mixed, the resulting
salt will be basic. If on the SAT II Chemistry test you are asked to determine
if a salt formed in a particular reaction is neutral, acidic, or basic, first ask
yourself, Which acid reacted with which base to form this salt? Next ask
yourself, Was the acid strong or weak?and then, Was the base strong or
weak? Consider K2CO3. K2CO3 is formed when the base, potassium
hydroxide (which is strong since potassium is a 1A metal), reacts with the
acid, H2CO3 (which is weak since it isn’t one of our six strong acids). Since
this is a combination of a strong base and a weak acid, the salt formed will
be basic.
The good news is that for the SAT II Chemistry exam, you needn’t worry
about weak-weak combinations. Now try some problems on your own.
Example
Classify each of the salts listed below as acidic, basic, or neutral.
1. Fe(NO3)3
2. MgSO4
3. Ni(ClO4)2
Explanation
1. Fe(NO3)3—This salt was formed from the reaction of a weak base, iron
(III) hydroxide, with a strong acid, nitric acid. This means that the
salt will be acidic.
2. MgSO4—This salt was formed from the reaction of a strong base,
magnesium hydroxide, with strong acid, sulfuric acid. This reaction
results in a neutral salt.
3. Ni(ClO4)2—This salt was formed from the reaction of a weak base,
nickel (II) hydroxide, with a strong acid, perchloric acid. This is an
acidic salt.
Redox and Electrochemistry

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are another important type of
reaction that you will see questions about on the SAT II Chemistry test. The
test writers will expect you to be able to identify elements that are oxidized
and reduced, know their oxidation numbers, identify half-cells, and balance
redox reactions. The following is a brief overview of the basics.
Oxidation-Reduction
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons between
substances. They take place simultaneously, which makes sense because if
one substance loses electrons, another must gain them. Many of the
reactions we’ve encountered thus far fall into this category. For example, all
single-replacement reactions are redox reactions. Before we go on, let’s
review some important terms you’ll need to be familiar with.
Electrochemistry: The study of the interchange of chemical and
electrical energy.
Oxidation: The loss of electrons. Since electrons are negative, this will
appear as an increase in the charge (e.g., Zn loses two electrons; its charge
goes from 0 to +2). Metals are oxidized.
Oxidizing agent (OA): The species that is reduced and thus causes
oxidation.
Reduction: The gain of electrons. When an element gains electrons, the
charge on the element appears to decrease, so we say it has a reduction of
charge (e.g., Cl gains one electron and goes from an oxidation number of 0
to -1). Nonmetals are reduced.
Reducing agent (RA): The species that is oxidized and thus causes
reduction.
Oxidation number: The assigned charge on an atom. You’ve been using
these numbers to balance formulas.
Half-reaction: An equation that shows either oxidation or reduction
alone.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
A reaction is considered a redox reaction if the oxidation numbers of the
elements in the reaction change in the course of the reaction. We can
determine which elements undergo a change in oxidation state by keeping
track of the oxidation numbers as the reaction progresses. You can use the
following rules to assign oxidation states to the components of oxidation-
reduction reactions:
1. The oxidation state of an element is zero, including all elemental
forms of the elements (e.g., N2, P4, S8, O3).
2. The oxidation state of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge.
3. In compounds, fluorine is always assigned an oxidation state of -1.
4. Oxygen is usually assigned an oxidation state of -2 in its covalent
compounds. Exceptions to this rule include peroxides (compounds
containing the group), where each oxygen is assigned an oxidation
state of -1, as in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
5. Hydrogen is assigned an oxidation state of +1. Metal hydrides are an
exception: in metal hydrides, H has an oxidation state of -1.
6. The sum of the oxidation states must be zero for an electrically
neutral compound.
7. For a polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation states must equal the
charge of the ion.
Now try applying these rules to a problem.
Example
Assign oxidation numbers to each element in the following:
1. H2S
2. MgF2
3.
Explanation
1. The sum of the oxidation numbers in this compound must be zero
since the compound has no net charge. H has an oxidation state of +1,
and since there are two H atoms, +1 times 2 atoms = +2 total charge
on H. The sulfur S must have a charge of -2 since there is only one
atom of sulfur, and +2 - 2 = 0, which equals no charge.
2. F is assigned an oxidation state of -1 (according to rule 3), and there
are two atoms of F, so this gives F a total charge of -2. Mg must have a
+2 oxidation state since +2 - 2 = 0 and the compound is electrically
neutral.
3. This time the net charge is equal to -3 (the charge of the polyatomic
ion—according to rule 7). Oxygen is assigned a -2 oxidation state (rule
4). Multiply the oxidation number by its subscript: -2 4 = -8. Since
there is only 1 phosphorus, just use those algebra skills: P + -8 = -3.
Phosphorus must have a +5 charge.
Example
When powdered zinc metal is mixed with iodine crystals and a drop of
water is added, the resulting reaction produces a great deal of energy. The
mixture bursts into flames, and a purple smoke made up of I2 vapor is
produced from the excess iodine. The equation for the reaction is
Zn (s) + I 2(s) ZnI 2(s) + energy
Identify the elements that are oxidized and reduced, and determine the
oxidizing and reducing agents.
Explanation
1. Assign oxidation numbers to each species. Zn and I2 are both
assigned values of 0 (rule 1). For zinc iodide, I has an oxidation
number of -1 (group 7A—most common charge), which means that
for zinc, the oxidation number is +2.
2. Evaluate the changes that are taking place. Zn goes from 0 to +2
(electrons are lost and Zn is oxidized). The half-reaction would look
like this:
Zn 0 Zn 2+ + 2e -
And I2 goes from 0 to -1 (it gains electrons and so is reduced). This half-
reaction would look like this:
1. Here, zinc metal is the reducing agent—it causes the reduction to take
place by donating electrons—while iodine solid is the oxidizing agent;
iodine solid accepts electrons.
Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells
Redox reactions release energy, and this energy can be used to do work if
the reactions take place in a voltaic cell. In a voltaic cell (sometimes called
a galvanic cell), the transfer of electrons occurs through an external
pathway instead of directly between the two elements. The figure below
shows a typical voltaic cell (this one contains the redox reaction between
zinc and copper):
As you can see, the anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs; you
can remember this if you remember the phrase “an ox”—“oxidation occurs
at the anode.” Reduction takes place at the cathode, and you can
remember this with the phrase “red cat”—“reduction occurs at
the cathode.” An important component of the voltaic cell is the salt
bridge, which is a device used to maintain electrical neutrality; it may be
filled with agar, which contains a neutral salt, or be replaced with a porous
cup. Remember that electron flow always occurs from anode to cathode,
through the wire that connects the two half-cells, and a voltmeter is used to
measure the cell potential in volts.
Batteries are cells that are connected in series; the potentials add to give a
total voltage. One common example is the lead storage battery (car battery),
which has a Pb anode, a PbO2 cathode, and H2SO4 electrolyte is their salt
bridge.
Standard Reduction Potentials
The potential of a voltaic cell as a whole will depend on the half-cells that
are involved. Each half-cell has a known potential, called its standard
reduction potential(Eº). The cell potential is a measure of the difference
between the two electrode potentials, and the potential at each electrode is
calculated as the potential forreduction at the electrode. That’s why they’re
standard reduction potentials, not standard oxidation potentials. Here is
the chart:
On this reduction potential chart, the elements that have the most
positive reduction potentials are easily reduced and would be good
oxidizing agents (in general, the nonmetals), while the elements that have
the least positive reduction potentials are easily oxidized and would be good
reducing agents (in general, metals). Let’s try a quick problem.
Example
Which of the following elements would be most easily oxidized: Ca, Cu, Fe,
Li, or Au?
Explanation
Use the reduction potential chart: nonmetals are at the top and are most
easily reduced. Metals are at the bottom and are most easily oxidized.
Lithium is at the bottom of the chart—it’s the most easily oxidized of all. So
the order, from most easily oxidized to least easily oxidized, is Au, Fe, Cu,
Ca, Li.
Example
Which one of the following would be the best oxidizing agent: Ba, Na, Cl, F,
or Br?
Explanation
Using the reduction potential chart and the fact that oxidizing agents are
the elements that are most easily reduced, we determine fluorine is the best
oxidizing agent.
Electrolytic Cells
While voltaic cells harness the energy from redox reactions, electrolytic
cells can be used to drive nonspontaneous redox reactions, which are also
called electrolysis reactions. Electrolytic cells are used to produce pure
forms of an element; for example, they’re used to separate ores, in
electroplating metals (such as applying gold to a less expensive metal), and
to charge batteries (such as car batteries). These types of cells rely on a
battery or any DC source—in other words, whereas the voltaic cell is a
battery, the electrolytic cell needs a battery. Also unlike voltaic cells, which
are made up of two containers, electrolytic cells have just one container.
However, like in voltaic cells, in electrolytic cells electrons still flow from
the anode to the cathode. An electrolytic cell is shown below.
Practice Questions
1. What is the sum of the coefficients of the following equation when it is
balanced?
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + Ca(OH) 2 Al(OH) 3 + CaSO 4
(A) 5
(B) 6
(C) 7
(D) 8
(E) 9
2. Indium reacts with bromine to form InBr 3 . In the balanced equation for this
reaction, the coefficient of the indium (III) bromide is
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(E) 6
3. When the following equation is balanced, what is the sum of the coefficients?
Al 2 (CO 3 ) 3 + Mg(OH) 2 Al(OH) 3 + MgCO 3
(A) 3
(B) 4
(C) 8
(D) 9
(E) 10
4. The balanced net ionic equation for the reaction of aluminum sulfate and
sodium hydroxide contains which of the following terms?
(A) 3Al 3+ (aq)
(B) OH - (aq)
(C) 3OH - (aq)
(D) 2Al 3+ (aq)
(E) 2Al(OH) 3(s)
5. When solutions of phosphoric acid and iron (III) nitrate react, which of the
following terms will be present in the balanced molecular equation?
(A) HNO 3(aq)
(B) 3HNO 3(aq)
(C) 2FePO 4(s)
(D) 3FePO 4(s)
(E) 2HNO 3(aq)
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(A) HCN
(B) HNO 3
(C) H 2 O
(D) OH -
(E) CH 3 OH
8. Which of the following is not true for a solution at 25ÂºC that has a hydroxide
concentration of 1.0 10 -6 M?
(A) Kw = 1 10 -14
(B) The solution is acidic.
(C) The solution is basic.
(D) The [H + ] is 1 10 -8 M.
(E) The pOH equals 6.0.
9. Which of the following would produce a basic aqueous solution?

(A) SO 2
(B) KCl
(C) CO 2
(D) NH 4 Cl
(E) Na 2 O
10. Equimolar solutions of which of the following would produce the most acidic
solution?
(A) H 3 PO 4
(B) HClO
(C) HClO 2
(D) HClO 3
(E) HClO 4
11. In which of the following substances would nitrogen have the highest
oxidation number?
(A) NO
(B) N 2 O
(C) NO 2
(D) N 2 O 4
(E)
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14. Which of the following half-cell reactions describes what is happening at the
anode in the diagram?
(A) Zn Zn 2+ + 2e -
(B) H 2 2H + + 2e -
(C) 2Cl - Cl 2 + 2e -
(D) SO 4 - S + 2O 2 + 6e -
(E) 2H + + 2e- H2
15. Given the following chemical reaction for the formation of lithium oxide,
which of the following statements is true?
4Li (s) + O 2(g) 2Li 2 O (s)
(A) Lithium metal is the oxidizing agent.
(B) Oxygen gas is the reducing agent.
(C) Lithium is oxidized.
(D) Oxygen is oxidized.
(E) Oxygen loses two electrons to become a -2 ion.
Explanations
1. E
This equation has two polyatomic ions. If you recognize that right away, the question is not as
difficult. Treat the polyatomic ions as one species. The balanced equation is
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)22Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4
The sum of the coefficients is then 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 9.
2. B
Here you are basically given the correct chemical formula for the product. The balanced reaction
is
2In + 3Br22InBr3
The coefficient of the indium (III) bromide is 2.
3. D
The balanced equation is
Al2(CO3)3 + 3Mg(OH)22Al(OH)3 + 3MgCO3
The sum of the coefficients is thus 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 9.
4. C
You must know your solubility rules to get the correct answer. Aluminum sulfate is soluble, as is
sodium hydroxide. The ions participating are Al3+, , Na+, and OH-. It is a double displacement,
and the key is knowing that sodium sulfate is soluble, while aluminum hydroxide is written
molecularly since it is a weak base. The balanced net ionic equation is
Al 3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
5. B
This is also a double displacement reaction. The balanced molecular equation is
H3PO4 + Fe(NO3)3FePO4 + 3HNO3
6. T, T
(Fill in CE.) The first statement is true: the conjugate base of a weak acid is a strong base.
Remember that conjugate acid-base pairs are acids and bases that differ only in the presence or
absence of a proton. The second statement is also true: a strong Brønsted-Lowry acid will not be
a strong Brønsted-Lowry base. It is an explanation for the first statement, so you would fill in the
CE oval.
7. B
This question asks you to find the compound with the greatest [H3O+], which means it’s asking
you to find the compound with the lowest pH or determine which one is the most acidic. As you
look down the list, you can see only one compound that is on our list of the six strong acids, and
that’s choice B, HNO3.
8. B
If the temperature is 25ºC, then Kw = 1.010-14, so A is true. If the hydroxide concentration is
equal to 1.010-6 M, then the pOH = 6, so E is true. (You know that 1.010-6 is the same as plain
old 10-6. The log of 10-6 is -6. Simply use the exponent when a number, any number, is written
as 10power, so the “negative” of the log is equal to -(-6) or simply 6.) Therefore the pH is equal
to 14 - 6, which equals 8. If the pH = 8, then the solution is basic, so C is true. Furthermore,
when the pH = 8, the [H+] = 1.010-8, so D is true. Only B is not true.
9. E
Recall that aqueous solutions of oxides and hydroxides of 1A and 2A metals form strong bases.
Now review what you learned about strong bases: the strong bases are hydroxides (—OH), and
oxides of 1A and 2A metals (except Mg and Be), H-, and CH3-.
10. E
Perchloric acid is the strongest acid in this list. Remember our discussion of how the increased
number of oxygens makes the proton more likely to dissociate. Here’s that list of strong acids
again: the hydrohalic acids (HCl, HBr, HI), nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and
perchloric acid (HClO4).
11. E
In this problem, it is probably easiest to determine the charge on each nitrogen first. The oxygen
in each case is -2. In choice A, NO, the nitrogen has a charge of +2. In choice B, N2O, the
charge on nitrogen is +1. In choice C, NO2, and in choice D, N2O4, the nitrogen has a charge of
+4. In choice E, , the nitrogen has a charge of +5.
12. T, F
(Do not fill in CE.) Statement I is a true statement: voltaic cells harness the energy released
during redox reactions, and this energy is used to perform work. However, statement II is false.
The flow of electrons from anode to cathode takes place through a wire, not the salt bridge. The
salt bridge is present in order to retain electrical neutrality in the cells. Since the second
statement is not an explanation or reason for the first statement, you would not fill in the CE
oval.
13. T, T
(Do not fill in CE.) Look at the statements one at a time. The first statement is true— electrolytic
cells require the input of energy. These cells are used to separate ores, to electroplate, and as car
batteries. The second statement is also true: whereas voltaic cells have two containers, one at the
anode and one at the cathode, electrolytic cells have just one (although they still have an anode
and a cathode). Since the second statement is not an explanation for the first, you would not fill
in the CE oval.
14. A
The anode and cathode are not labeled in the diagram, so you must first remember that electrons
travel from the anode to the cathode—according to the arrow showing electron movement in the
diagram, this means that the chamber on the left must be the anode. This narrows the answer
choices down to A or D since these are the only two ions in the anode half-cell. Now, since
oxidation occurs at the anode, the metal will lose electrons, and you can determine that choice A
shows the appropriate half-reaction.
15. C
The first step to solving a problem like this is to assign charges to each element and then decide
exactly what’s happening before you look at the answer choices. On the reactants side, lithium
and oxygen both are assigned charges of zero. In lithium oxide, Li has a +1 charge and O has a
-2 charge. Li has been oxidized: it lost 2e- and is the reducing agent. O has been reduced: it
gained 2e- and is the oxidizing agent. The only statement that matches is choice C
Explanations
1. E
This equation has two polyatomic ions. If you recognize that right away,
the question is not as difficult. Treat the polyatomic ions as one species.
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 3Ca(OH) 2 2Al(OH) 3 + 3CaSO 4
The sum of the coefficients is then 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 9.
2. B
Here you are basically given the correct chemical formula for the
product. The balanced reaction is
2In + 3Br 2 2InBr 3
The coefficient of the indium (III) bromide is 2.
3. D
Al 2 (CO 3 ) 3 + 3Mg(OH) 2 2Al(OH) 3 + 3MgCO 3
The sum of the coefficients is thus 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 9.
4. C
You must know your solubility rules to get the correct answer.
Aluminum sulfate is soluble, as is sodium hydroxide. The ions
participating are Al3+, , Na+, and OH-. It is a double displacement,
and the key is knowing that sodium sulfate is soluble, while aluminum
hydroxide is written molecularly since it is a weak base. The balanced
net ionic equation is
Al 3+ (aq) + 3OH - (aq) Al(OH) 3(s)
5. B
This is also a double displacement reaction. The balanced molecular
equation is
H 3 PO 4 + Fe(NO 3 ) 3 FePO 4 + 3HNO 3
6. T, T
(Fill in CE.) The first statement is true: the conjugate base of a weak
acid is a strong base. Remember that conjugate acid-base pairs are acids
and bases that differ only in the presence or absence of a proton. The
second statement is also true: a strong Brønsted-Lowry acid will not be a
strong Brønsted-Lowry base. It is an explanation for the first statement,
so you would fill in the CE oval.
7. B
This question asks you to find the compound with the greatest [H3O+],
which means it’s asking you to find the compound with the lowest pH or
determine which one is the most acidic. As you look down the list, you
can see only one compound that is on our list of the six strong acids, and
that’s choice B, HNO3.
8. B
If the temperature is 25ºC, then Kw = 1.0 10-14, so A is true. If the
hydroxide concentration is equal to 1.0 10-6 M, then the pOH = 6,
so E is true. (You know that 1.0 10-6 is the same as plain old 10-6. The
log of 10-6 is -6. Simply use the exponent when a number, any number,
is written as 10power, so the “negative” of the log is equal to -(-6) or
simply 6.) Therefore the pH is equal to 14 - 6, which equals 8. If the pH
= 8, then the solution is basic, so C is true. Furthermore, when the pH =
8, the [H+] = 1.0 10-8, so D is true. Only B is not true.
9. E
Recall that aqueous solutions of oxides and hydroxides of 1A and 2A
metals form strong bases. Now review what you learned about strong
bases: the strong bases are hydroxides (—OH), and oxides of 1A and 2A
metals (except Mg and Be), H-, and CH3-.
10. E
Perchloric acid is the strongest acid in this list. Remember our
discussion of how the increased number of oxygens makes the proton
more likely to dissociate. Here’s that list of strong acids again: the
hydrohalic acids (HCl, HBr, HI), nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), and perchloric acid (HClO4).
11. E
In this problem, it is probably easiest to determine the charge on each
nitrogen first. The oxygen in each case is -2. In choice A, NO, the
nitrogen has a charge of +2. In choiceB, N2O, the charge on nitrogen is
+1. In choice C, NO2, and in choice D, N2O4, the nitrogen has a charge
of +4. In choice E, , the nitrogen has a charge of +5.
12. T, F
(Do not fill in CE.) Statement I is a true statement: voltaic cells harness
the energy released during redox reactions, and this energy is used to
perform work. However, statement II is false. The flow of electrons
from anode to cathode takes place through a wire, not the salt bridge.
The salt bridge is present in order to retain electrical neutrality in the
cells. Since the second statement is not an explanation or reason for the
first statement, you would not fill in the CE oval.
13. T, T
(Do not fill in CE.) Look at the statements one at a time. The first
statement is true— electrolytic cells require the input of energy. These
cells are used to separate ores, to electroplate, and as car batteries. The
second statement is also true: whereas voltaic cells have two containers,
one at the anode and one at the cathode, electrolytic cells have just one
(although they still have an anode and a cathode). Since the second
statement is not an explanation for the first, you would not fill in
the CE oval.
14. A
The anode and cathode are not labeled in the diagram, so you must first
remember that electrons travel from the anode to the cathode—
according to the arrow showing electron movement in the diagram, this
means that the chamber on the left must be the anode. This narrows the
answer choices down to A or D since these are the only two ions in the
anode half-cell. Now, since oxidation occurs at the anode, the metal will
lose electrons, and you can determine that choice A shows the
appropriate half-reaction.
15. C
The first step to solving a problem like this is to assign charges to each
element and then decide exactly what’s happening before you look at the
answer choices. On the reactants side, lithium and oxygen both are
assigned charges of zero. In lithium oxide, Li has a +1 charge and O has
a -2 charge. Li has been oxidized: it lost 2e- and is the reducing agent. O
has been reduced: it gained 2e- and is the oxidizing agent. The only
statement that matches is choice C
The Mole
In the last chapter, we reviewed the process of balancing equations and based the rules for
balancing equations on the principle that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of
a chemical reaction. With this idea still in mind, let’s begin our discussion of moles and formula
weights.
When you look at the periodic table, you see that one of the pieces of data given for each
element is its atomic weight. But what exactly is the atomic weight of a substance? It is the mass
of one mole of a substance. In turn, one mole of a substance is equal to 6.021023 atoms or
molecules of the substance (depending on what it is), and finally, the number 6.021023 is known
as Avogadro’s number. For example, carbon’s atomic weight is roughly 12 amu; this means that
6.021023 carbon atoms, in a pile, weigh 12 grams.
In order to find the formula weight of a substance, you simply add up the atomic masses of all of
the atoms in the molecular formula of a compound. But don’t forget to multiply the atomic mass
of each element by the subscript behind that element. Formula weights have the units amu, or
atomic mass units; for example, the formula weight of water, H2O, is about 18 amu. (O = 16
amu plus 2 times H = 1 amu = 18 amu.) Similarly, the molar mass of a molecule is the mass (in
grams) of 1 mol of a substance; so the molar mass of H2O is also roughly 18.
Now try calculating some molar masses and formula weights on your own by filling in the
following chart.
Example
Substance Molar mass Number of moles Mass in gramsNumber of particles
Carbon dioxide, CO2 3.0
Oxygen, O2 64.0
Methane, CH4 0.279
Nitrogen, N2 9.501025
Explanation
Three significant digits were used throughout, with the exception of molar masses, where two
decimal places were used. But don’t stress over significant figures for this test: it’s multiple
choice, and the answers will never be that precise. Here’s the table, filled in.
Substance Molar mass Number of moles Mass in gramsNumber of particles
Carbon dioxide, CO2 44.01 3.00 132 1.811024
Oxygen, O2 32.00 2.00 64.0 1.201024
Methane, CH416.05 0.279 4.48 1.681023
Nitrogen, N2 28.02 158.00 4430 9.501025
Now that you’ve had some practice figuring out molecular weights, let’s talk about how you’ll
be expected to use them, and other stoichiometric tools, on the exam. For example, you will
almost certainly be asked to find the percent composition of a compound, so let’s talk about that
first
Percent Composition of Compounds

There are two different ways to describe the composition of a compound: in
terms of the number of its constituent atoms (like C2H6) and in terms of the
percentages (by mass) of its elements. When showing the constituent atoms
of a molecule, you can either show the chemical formula, which shows the
real number of atoms in the molecule, like C2H6, or show the empirical
formula, which merely shows their relative amounts in a substance, so the
above molecular formula would be expressed as CH3.
You can describe the composition of a compound in terms of the weights of
its constituent elements by determining the percent composition of
particular elements in the molecule. To calculate percent compositions, you
would find the weight of each constituent atom, then figure out what
percent of the total molecular weight it makes up. Consider ethanol,
C2H5OH. Taking subscripts into consideration, you have 2 mols of carbon, 6
mols of hydrogen (5 + 1), and 1 mol of O. Now convert moles into grams for
each constituent element as well as for the entire molecule:
Mass of C = 2 12.01 = 24.02 g
Mass of H = 6 1.01 = 6.06 g
Mass of O = 1 16.00 = 16.00 g

Mass of 1 mol of C 2 H 5 OH = 46.08 g
Now use the formula you learned above to find the percent compositions of
the constituent elements:
Mass percent of C: 100% = 52.14%
Mass percent of H: 100% = 13.15%
Mass percent of O: 100% = 34.77%

Not so bad, right?
More Complex Stoichiometric Calculations

When you’re asked to do stoichiometric calculations on the SAT II Chemistry exam, make sure
that if you need to write out the chemical formulas, you do this correctly. No matter how good
you are at math and how well you understand the stoichiometric rules that follow, you won’t get
the right answer if your chemical formulas are wrong! If you feel that you’re weak in this area,
see the review (in Appendix II) of chemical formula naming and writing.
Perhaps the easiest way to approach problems that ask you to calculate the amounts of reactants
consumed or products produced during the course of a reaction is to start by creating a table or
chart. Let’s work through a typical example. Say the SAT II Chemistry test asks you what mass
of oxygen will react completely with 96.1 grams of propane. Notice that for this question, you’ll
need to start by writing the chemical formulas. Now follow these steps:
Write the chemical equation.
Calculate the molar masses and put them in parentheses above the formulas; soon you’ll figure
out you don’t have to do this for every reactant and product, just those you’re specifically asked
about.
Balance the equation.
Next put any amounts that you were given into the table. In this example, you were told that the
reaction started with 96.1 g of propane.
Find the number of moles of any compounds for which you were given masses. Here you’d start
with propane: you divide 96.1 grams by the molar mass of propane (44.11 g/mol) to get the
number of moles of propane (2.18 mol).
Use the mole:mole ratio expressed in the coefficients of each of the compounds to find moles of
all of the necessary compounds involved. The only one you really need to know is oxygen, but
let’s run through all of them for practice. If the coefficient for propane, which is 1, is equal to
2.18 moles of propane, then the number of moles of oxygen must be 52.18 = 10.9, the moles of
CO2 is 32.18 = 6.54, and the moles of H2O = 42.18 = 8.72.
Molar mass (44.11)(32.00)(44.01)(18.02)
Balanced equation C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
No. of moles 2.18 10.9 6.54 8.72
Amount 96.1 g
Reread the problem to determine which amount was asked for. The question asks for the mass of
oxygen, so convert moles of oxygen to grams and you have the answer:
10.9 mol44.01 g/mol = 349 g oxygen
Molar mass (44.11)(32.00)(44.01)(18.02)
Mole:mole 1 5 3 4
No. of moles 2.18 10.9 6.54 8.72
Amount 96.1 g 349 g
But what if this question had asked you to determine the liters of CO2 consumed in this reaction
at STP (273K, 1 atm)? You would take the number of moles of CO2 that we calculated from the
table and use the standard molar volume for a gas, or 22.4 L/mol. So, 6.54 mol22.4 L/mol = 146
L.
Finally, what if the question had asked how many water molecules are produced? You would
take the number of moles of water and multiply it by Avogadro’s number, 6.021023, to get
5.251024 molecules of water.
Molar mass (44.11)(32.00)(44.01)(18.02)
Mole:mole 1 5 3 4
No. of moles 2.18 10.9 6.54 8.72
Amount 96.1 g 349 g 146 L 5.251024
You certainly don’t have to write out several tables; we just did that to make the method clearer
to you. Once you practice, you won’t need to write the categories to the left, either. They will
become second nature. In essence, you can work the problems faster and set yourself up nicely
for a clear understanding of equilibrium problems in your future.
Perhaps your teacher at school taught you to solve this type of problem using dimensional
analysis. If so, and if you feel comfortable solving problems using that method, don’t learn to do
it our way: stick to the method with which you feel comfortable. We’ll go through this problem
using dimensional analysis: What mass of oxygen will react with 96.1 grams of propane? Again,
you would first write the chemical formula and make sure your equation is correctly balanced:
C3H8 + 5O23CO2 + 4H2O
The amount to start with, when setting up the dimensional analysis, is 96.1 g, and your goal is to
calculate the number of grams of oxygen produced:
Not too hard, right? Now, how many liters of CO2 would be produced at STP?
And how many water molecules are produced?
Some people prefer the table method, while others are more comfortable with dimensional
analysis. Use whatever method you feel more comfortable using, but just be consistent—if you
always do the same types of problems the same way, you’ll feel much more confident on test
day. Now try the method you prefer on some problems.
Examples
Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove exhaled carbon dioxide from the air;
it reacts with carbon dioxide to form solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. What mass of
gaseous carbon dioxide will be consumed in a reaction with 1.00 kg of lithium hydroxide?
Explanation
First write the reaction, then create and fill in your chart, and when you’re done filling in the
necessary blocks, it should look like this:
Molar mass (23.95)(44.01)
Balanced equation 2LiOH + CO2 Li2CO3 + H2O
No. moles 1000 g/23.95 g/mol = 41.8 moles 20.9 20.9 20.9
Amount 1.00 kg 20.944.01 = 920 g
Baking soda (NaHCO3) is often used as an antacid. It neutralizes excess hydrochloric acid
secreted by the stomach in the reaction below:
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq)NaCl(aq) + H2O(l ) + CO2(aq)
How many grams of NaHCO3 would be needed to completely react with 10.0 g of HCl?
Explanation
According to the balanced equation above, 1 mole of NaHCO3 reacts with 1 mole of HCl. First
you need to calculate how many moles of HCl are in 10 grams of HCl. The formula weight of
HCl is about 36 g/mol, so you set up the equation:
= 0.27 moles HCl.
Now, knowing that 1 mole of baking soda reacts with 1 mole of NaCl, we next need to figure out
how many grams of baking soda would react with 0.27 moles of baking soda: 0.27 moles134
g/mol baking soda = 37.2 grams/mole NaHCO3
Molar mass (85.32)(36.46)
Balanced equation NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl +H2O + CO2
No. moles 0.274 10.0/36.46 = 0.274
Amount 0.27485.32 = 23.4 g 10.0 g
Limiting Reagents
Have you ever noticed that hot dogs are sold in packages of 10, while the buns come in packages
of eight? In this scenario, the buns are the limiting reactant in the sense that they limit the hot
dog preparation to eight. The limiting reactant or reagent is the one that is consumed first in the
chemical reaction, and its consumption halts the progress of the forward reaction.
When answering questions about limiting reagents on the exam, your first step should always be
to convert all the masses you were given into moles. You should set up your table as you did
before, only now you’ll have two amounts and thus two numbers of moles to get you started.
Let’s look at a specific question, involving the Haber process. Basically, this is the process of
making ammonia from the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases. The reaction is shown
below:
Molar mass (28.02)(2.02) (17.04)
Balanced equation N2 + 3H2 2NH3
No. of moles
Amount
Suppose you have a total of 25.0 kg of nitrogen to react with a total of 5.00 kg of hydrogen.
What mass of ammonia can be produced? Which reactant is the limiting reactant? What is the
mass of the reactant that’s in excess? Insert the masses in the correct rows and find the number
of moles of both.
Molar mass (28.02)(2.02) (17.04)
No. of moles 892 mol 2475 mol
Amount 25,000 g 5000 g
Start with nitrogen. You have 892 moles of it available, and in order for the nitrogen to react
completely with hydrogen, you’d need 3(892 mol) = 2676 moles of hydrogen, which you don’t
have. Therefore, hydrogen is the limiting reagent. Now let’s answer the other parts of the
question. The mass of ammonia that can be produced is limited by the amount of hydrogen, so
do your calculations based on the number of moles of hydrogen available. Your chart should
look like the one below:
Molar mass (14.02)(2.02) (17.04)
No. of moles 825 mol used 2475 mol usedtherefore 1650 mol produced
Amount 892 mol 23,117 g used 25,000g 5000 g 1650 mol (17.04) = 28,116 g
produced
Chemical Yields
There are three types of yields you’ll need to be familiar with for the SAT II
Chemistry test: theoretical yields, actual yields, and percent yields. Here’s a
quick review of what all of these mean to you. The theoretical yield of a
reaction is the amount of product formed once the limiting reactant has
been completely consumed. This assumes perfect conditions and gives a
maximum amount. The actual yield is what actually occurs in the course of
the reaction—how much product is actually formed. Finally, the percent
yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, and you can get
this value using the following formula:
Going back to our last example, the 28,116 grams you calculated would be
thetheoretical yield. But what would the percent yield be if you
performed this reaction and you actually collected 26,450 grams of
ammonia? You would calculate it using the above formula. Here it is with
the numbers plugged in:
Practice Questions
1. How many moles of hydrogen sulfide are contained in a 35.0 g sample of this gas?
(A) 1.03 mol
(B) 2.06 mol
(C) 6.18 mol
(D) 9.45 mol
(E) 11.3 mol
2. What is the molar mass of ethanol (C2H5OH)?
(A) 34.2
(B) 38.9
(C) 46.1
(D) 45.1
(E) 62.1
3. Ammonia can be produced by the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gas. Suppose the
reaction is carried out starting with 14 g of nitrogen and 15 g of hydrogen. How many grams of
ammonia can be produced?
(A) 17.04 g
(B) 34.08 g
(C) 51.1 g
(D) 85.2 g
(E) 102 g
4. How many atoms of hydrogen are present in 12.0 g of water?
(A) 1.11023
(B) 2.01023
(C) 4.01023
(D) 8.01023
(E) 4.81024
5. Which compound contains the highest percent by mass of hydrogen?
(A) HCl
(B) H2O
(C) H3PO4
(D) H2SO4
(E) HF
6. In a balanced equation, the number of moles of each substance is equal. BECAUSE
Once the limiting reagent has been consumed, the reaction can no longer continue.
7. A hydrocarbon (a compound consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen) is found to be
96% carbon by mass. What is the empirical formula for this compound?
(A) C2H
(B) CH2
(C) C3H
(D) CH3
(E) C4H
8. An unknown compound contains the elements C, H, and O. It is known to contain 48% C
and 4.0% H by mass. The molar mass of this compound has been determined in the lab to have a
value of 200. The molecular formula for this compound is
(A) C2H3O2
(B) C4H6O4
(C) C4H4O3
(D) C8H3O6
(E) C8H8O6
9. When 7.0 g of ethene (C2H4) burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water, how
many grams of CO2 are formed?
C2H4 + 3O22CO2 + 2H2O
(A) 9.0 g
(B) 22 g
(C) 44 g
(D) 82 g
(E) 180 g
10. Consider the reaction below. What mass of CF4 is formed by the reaction of 8.00 g of
methane with an excess of fluorine?
CH4(g) + 4F2(g)CF4(g) + 4HF(g)
(A) 19 g
(B) 22 g
(C) 38 g
(D) 44 g
(E) 88 g
Explanations
1. A
The formula for hydrogen sulfide is H2S; this means that its molar mass is equal to 2(1) + 32 =
34 g/mol. The closest answer choice, and the correct answer, is A, which is thus slightly more
than 1 mole. Don’t try to use the standard molar volume for a gas in this problem, even though
the problem asks about a gas, because the volume of the gas is not mentioned at all.
2. C
This is a simple question: round the atomic masses that you get from the periodic table to
calculate the molar mass of C2H5OH. The answer is 2(12) + 6(1) + 16, which is equal to slightly
more than 46 g/mol.
3. A
Because there are two starting amounts, you might have guessed that one of them would act as a
limiting reagent. The reaction is written below, and you’ll need to start by finding all the molar
masses to make your determinations. Round off the numbers. The number of moles of nitrogen is
14 g (1 mol/28 g/mol) = 0.5 mol, and hydrogen = 15 g (1 mol/2 g/mol) = 7.5 mol. Now check to
see which of the reactants is the limiting reagent. If you started with 0.5 mole of N2, in order to
consume this amount of nitrogen completely, you’d need to use 3(0.5) = 1.5 moles of hydrogen.
You have much more hydrogen than that (you have 7.5 moles), so nitrogen is the limiting
reagent. The question asks you how much ammonia would be produced, so now you know which
reactant amount to use to calculate that, and the answer is 2(0.5 mol) = 1.0 moles, which is equal
to 17 g of NH3, answer choice A.
Molar masses 28 2 17
Reaction N2 + 3H2 2NH3
No. of moles 0.5 mol available limiting reactant 1.5 mol used 6.0 moles excess! 7.5 mol
available 1.0 mole produced
Amounts 14 g 15 g Slightly more than 17 g
4. D
This question gives you the grams of water but asks for atoms of hydrogen. You’ll need to find
the number of water molecules and then double it since H2O contains 2 atoms of H for every 1
molecule of water. The molar mass of water is 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol. The number of moles of
water, then, is 12 g H2O (1 mol/18 g/mol) = .66 mol of 6 (as in 6.021023) is 41023 molecules of
water. Doubling that you get 81023 hydrogen atoms.
5. B
This question is a percent composition question, so you’ll be looking for the molecule that has
the largest mass of H compared to its whole molar mass. Examine the analysis below, and it’s
clear that water has the highest percent composition of hydrogen.
Hydrogen’s atomic weight = 1, chlorine’s atomic weight = 35, so hydrogen makes up 1/36, or
2.7%, of the compound.
Hydrogen’s atomic weight = 1, oxygen’s atomic weight = 16; there are two hydrogens here, so it
makes up 2/18 of the total weight, or 11%.
Hydrogen’s atomic weight = 1, phosphorus’s weight = 31, oxygen’s weight = 16, so after you
add up the total weight to get 3(1) + 31 + 4(16) = 98, hydrogen makes up 3/98 = 3%.
Hydrogen’s weight = 1, sulfur’s = 32, and oxygen’s = 16. The total weight is equal to 2(1) + 32
+ 4(16) = 98, and hydrogen makes up 2% of this.
Hydrogen’s weight = 1, fluorine’s weight = 19, so hydrogen makes up 1/19, or 5.2%, of the
molecule by weight.
As you can see, choice B, in which hydrogen makes up 11% of the total compound, is the correct
answer.
6. F, T
(Do not fill in CE.) The first statement is false—in most chemical reactions, most times the
number of moles of the compounds involved is not equal. The second statement, however, is
true. Once a limiting reagent has been consumed in the course of a reaction, the reaction can no
longer proceed.
7. A
To solve this problem, first turn the percentages into grams: C becomes 96 g carbon, so the
remaining 4% is hydrogen, so there are 4 g of hydrogen present. Now convert these masses into
moles: the moles of C = 96 g (1 mol/12 g/mol) = 8 mol. For hydrogen, H = 4 g (1 mol/1 g/mol) =
4 mol. The C:H ratio is 8:4; remember that the empirical formula is the formula that shows the
relative numbers of the kinds of atoms in a molecule, so this simplifies to 2:1, and the empirical
formula is C2H.
8. E
Turn the percentages into grams and find the number of moles of each element. Since the
compound is 48% C and 4% H, it must also be 48% O to make the percentages total 100%.
Simplify the mole:mole ratio to get the empirical formula. Calculate the empirical molar mass.
The molecular mass will be some multiple of the empirical mass. Mol C = 48 g (1 mol/12 g/mol)
= 4 mol. Mol H = 4 g (1 mol/1 g/mol) = 4 mol. Mol O = 48 g (1 mol/16 g/mol) = 3 mol. The
empirical formula is then C4H4O3. The empirical molar mass = 4(12) + 4(1) + 3(16) = 100, so
the molecular formula is twice the empirical formula, or C8H8O6.
9. B
This is not a limiting reactant problem since only one amount is given here, 7.0 g of ethene. First
find the number of moles of the substance, in this case ethene: 7 g (1 mol/28 g/mol) = 0.25 mol,
then use mole:mole to determine the moles of the rest of the compounds involved in the reaction.
To find the grams of CO2, you would do the following: 1 mol44 g/mol = 44 g CO2.
Molar mass 28 32 44 18
No. of moles 0.25 1.25 0.5 0.5
Amount 7g 22 g
10. D
Here, determine the moles of methane and use the mole:mole ratio to determine the number of
moles, then grams of CF4 that can be produced.
Molar mass 16 38 88 20
Balanced equation CH4 + 4F4 CF4 4HF
No. of moles 0.5 2 0.5 2
Amount 8g 44 g
Equilibrium and Reaction Rates
Factors That Affect Reaction Rates
For the SAT II Chemistry test, you’ll have to be familiar with certain aspects
of chemical reactions, such as equilibrium and reaction rate. The reaction
rate is a measure of the change in the concentration of reactants or
products over time in a chemical reaction. Four main external conditions
affect reaction rate. The first is the concentration of reactants. Generally
speaking, if we increase the concentration of one or more reactants, the
reaction will go more quickly. This is simple because the more molecules,
the more collisions between molecules, and the faster the reaction will go.
The second factor that influences reaction rate is temperature. The higher
the temperature of the reaction, the more quickly it will proceed. At higher
temperatures, the molecules are moving around more quickly (they have
more kinetic energy); this means they will collide with each other with
more energy, and it’s more likely that they will overcome the activation
energy needed to start the reaction. It’s a general rule of thumb that a 10˚C
increase in temperature will double the reaction rate.
The addition of a catalyst will also speed up a chemical reaction.
A catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy.
Biological catalysts are known as enzymes. The only other important thing
you need to remember about catalysts is that they are not consumed in the
course of the reaction.
The final factor that affects certain reactions is the physical state of the
reactants. For example, if you mix two gases or two liquids, this represents
a homogenous reaction, but if reactants are in different phases, for
example, if one is a gas and one is a liquid, then the reaction area is limited
to the area where they touch each other, and the larger this area, the faster
the reaction will proceed. For example, consider a teaspoon of salt
dissolving in water. If you were to dump the salt into the beaker of water
and let it float to the bottom without stirring it, it would take much longer
for it to dissolve than if you stirred the solution.
Now let’s quickly go through those factors that influence reaction rate
again:
1. Concentration of the reactants
2. Temperature
3. Presence of a catalyst
• Physical state of the reactants
Energy Diagrams
We know that in order for a reaction to occur, reactant molecules must collide and that both an
increase in the concentration of reactant molecules and an increase in the temperature of the
system can cause an increase in reaction rate. But it takes more than just a regular collision to
cause a chemical reaction to occur—in fact, only a very small fraction of collisions that occur in
the solution lead to a reaction. This is true for two reasons. First of all, for a reaction to occur, the
colliding molecules must be oriented in exactly the correct way: they must be oriented in suitable
way for the product molecule bonds to be formed. Second, the two molecules must collide with
sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy of the reaction. The activation energy is
defined as the minimum energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction, and it is symbolized by
Ea.
Now let’s talk about the energy diagram below.
This energy diagram is a graph of the progress of a chemical reaction, versus the total energy of
the system. The reactant in this case is BrNO, and the products are NO and Br2. As you can see,
after the reaction occurs, the energy of the system is lower than it was before the reaction. This
energy diagram shows an exothermic reaction, one in which energy is given off. In the energy
diagram for an endothermic reaction, the energy of the products would be higher than that of the
reactants.
In this diagram, the activation energy is signified by the hump in the reaction pathway and is
labeled. At the peak of the activation energy hump, the reactants are in the transition state,
halfway between being reactants and forming products. This state is also known as an activated
complex.
The figure below shows the energy diagram for a reaction in the presence of a catalyst and in the
absence of a catalyst. As you can see, the catalyst has decreased the activation energy of the
reaction, which means that more molecules are able to surmount it and react.
Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium has been reached in a reaction when the rate of the forward reaction is
equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. When a chemical reaction has reached equilibrium,
collisions are still occurring: the reaction is now happening in each direction at the same rate.
This means that reactants are being formed at the same rate as products are being formed, and
this is indicated by double arrows, . At equilibrium, the reaction can lie far to the right, meaning
that there are more products in existence at equilibrium, or far to the left, meaning that at
equilibrium there are more reactants. The concentration of the reactants and products in a
reaction at equilibrium can be expressed by an equilibrium constant, symbolized K or Keq:
For the general reaction
aA + bB cC + dD
In the above expression, the brackets, as always, symbolize the concentration of the reactants and
products in molarity. However, while in the above expression we used the plain symbol K to
symbolize the equilibrium constant, there are several types of equilibrium constants. For
example, Kc symbolizes the equilibrium constant in an aqueous solution, Kp symbolizes the
partial pressures of gases in equilibrium, and Ksp symbolizes the solubility product of solids
classified as insoluble. K values have no units, and a K > 1 means that the reaction favors the
products at equilibrium, while a K < 1 means that the reaction favors the reactants at equilibrium.
Here are a couple of rules to follow when using equilibrium constant expressions on the exam:
Pure solids do not appear in the equilibrium expression.
Pure liquids do not appear in the equilibrium expression.
Water, either as a liquid or solid, does not appear in the equilibrium expression.
When a reactant or product is preceded by a coefficient, its concentration is raised to the power
of that coefficient in the Keq expression.
When the Keq of a reaction has been multiplied by a number, the K is raised to the power of the
multiplication factor (Kn), so if it has been multiplied by 2, K is squared, if it has been multiplied
by 3, K is cubed, and so on.
The Keq of a reaction occurring in the reverse direction is simply the inverse of the Keq of the
reaction occurring in the forward direction (1/Keq).
The Keq of a net reaction that has two or more steps is found by the product of the Keq s for
each of the steps: Ks = (K1K2K3 . . .).
Let’s work through an example now of an equilibrium question.
Example
Write the equilibrium expression for the following equation:
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
If K is calculated to have a value of 2.5 for the reaction above, what is the value of the
equilibrium constant for the following reaction?
4HI(g) 2H2(g) + 2I2(g)
Explanation
The equilibrium constant expression for the reaction is
The reaction has been doubled and reversed, so the new K is the reciprocal of the old K squared
(since the reaction coefficients are doubled):
Le Chatelier’s Principle
You may see an equilibrium question that asks you to use or apply Le
Chatelier’s principle on the SAT II Chemistry exam. Le Chatelier’s
principle basically states that if stress is applied to a system at
equilibrium, the position of the equilibrium will shift in the direction that
reduces the stress to reinstate equilibrium. For example, if more reactants
are added to the system, the reaction will shift in the forward direction, and
if more products are added, the reaction will shift in the reverse direction.
If heat is added to the system and the reaction is exothermic, heat should
be thought of as a product and the reaction will shift to the left; if the
reaction is endothermic and heat is added, the reaction will shift to the
right. The addition of pressure will cause a shift in the direction that results
in the fewer number of moles of a gas, while if pressure is relieved, the
reaction will shift in the direction that produces more moles of a gas.
Practice Questions
Use the following diagram to answer questions 1–3:
1. Which letter corresponds to the activation energy of the reaction?

(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) Y
(E) X
2. Which letter corresponds to the change in energy for the overall reaction?
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) Y
(E) X
3. The reaction shown above is exothermic. BECAUSE Energy difference B is greater
than energy difference A.
4. A system is at equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the
reverse reactions. BECAUSE At equilibrium, the concentration of the products is equal to
that of the reactants.
5. Which of the following statements best describes the condition(s) needed for a successful
formation of a product in a chemical reaction?
(A) The collision must involve a sufficient amount of energy, provided from the motion of
the particles, to overcome the activation energy.
(B) The relative orientation of the particles has little or no effect on the formation of the
product.
(C) The relative orientation of the particles has an effect only if the kinetic energy of the
particles is below some minimum value.
(D) The relative orientation of the particles must allow for formation of the new bonds in the
product.
(E) The energy of the incoming particles must be above a certain minimum value and the
relative orientation of the particles must allow for formation of new bonds in the product.
6. The catalyzed pathway in a reaction mechanism has a _____ activation energy and thus
causes a _____ reaction rate.
(A) higher, lower
(B) higher, higher
(C) lower, higher
(D) lower, steady
(E) higher, steady
7. Write the equilibrium expression for the following reaction:
(A) [A]2[B][D]
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
8. If at a given temperature the equilibrium constant for the reactionis Kp, the equilibrium
constant for the reactioncan be represented as
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
9. The value of the equilibrium constant, K, is dependent on
I. The temperature of the system
II. The concentration of the reactants
III. The concentration of the products
IV. The nature of the reactants and products
(A) I, II
(B) II, III
(C) III, IV
(D) I and IV
(E) I, II, and IV
10. Consider the system below at equilibrium. Which of the following changes will shift the
equilibrium to the right?
I. Increasing the temperature

II. Decreasing the temperature
III. Increasing the pressure on the system
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and III
(E) II and III
Explanations
1. A
The activation energy is the energy that must be overcome for the reaction to proceed. Also
remember that for a reaction to occur, the collisions between molecules must be sufficiently
energetic and of the proper geometric orientation.
2. C
The energy change for the overall reaction is simply the difference between the energies of the
products and reactants, and this is indicated by the letter C on the diagram.
3. T, T
(Fill in CE.) The energy change indicated by A on the diagram represents the activation energy
of the reaction—the energy investment required to form the activated complex Y, also known as
the energy that must be put into the system to make the reaction go. B on the diagram represents
the energy released when the unstable transition state molecule Y goes to a lower energy state as
the products Z. The reaction is exothermic when the energy payoff exceeds the energy
investment, and since the second statement is the reason for the first statement, you would fill in
the CE oval.
4. T, F
(Do not fill in CE oval.) The first statement is true—when a chemical reaction is at equilibrium,
the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, in which the reactants
are formed. However, statement II is incorrect and is a common misconception. The amount of
reactant and product remain constant at equilibrium but usually do not equal each other. Since
the second statement is false, you would not fill in the CE oval.
5. E
Two conditions must be met in order for a chemical reaction to occur. First of all, the molecules
must collide with sufficient energy, and second, the molecules must collide with such an
orientation that the product bonds can be formed.
6. C
The addition of a catalyst lowers the activation energy, thus speeding up a chemical reaction.
7. D
First, be on the lookout for pure liquids and pure solids: These do not appear in equilibrium
constant expressions. C is a solid, so do not include it in the expression. Second, remember that
the expression is written as the product of the products raised to the power of their coefficients
over the product of the reactants raised to the power of their coefficients. Thus, the correct
answer is
.
8. C
The reaction is reversed, so take the reciprocal of Kp, and the coefficients in the balanced
equation are halved, so you’ll raise Kp to the power, which is the same as finding the square
root of Kp. The correct answer is
9. D
Look through the statements carefully, one by one. First, you know that the value of K depends
on the temperature of the system: if you change the temperature, the value of K changes, so item
I is correct. Next, K is independent of the concentrations of the reactants or products, so both
items II and III are incorrect. K is dependent on the nature of the products and reactants,
however, so IV is correct.
10. E
This question combines two concepts. The reaction is exothermic, so think of heat as a product.
Increasing the temperature has the same effect as increasing a product’s concentration, so it
causes a shift to the left, meaning statement I cannot be in the answer choice. Decreasing the
temperature (removing heat) would have the same effect as removing a product (since the
reaction is exothermic), so this would cause a shift to the right, and II must be in the correct
answer choice. Finally, since all reactants and products are in the gas phase, and there is a total
of four moles of gas on the left and a total of two moles of gas on the right, increasing the
pressure will push the reaction toward the side with the fewest moles of gas. In this case, the side
with the fewer moles of gas is the products side, so this also causes a shift to the right. III is also
correct, and answer choice E is correct
Thermodynamics
The SAT II Chemistry exam will test your ability to understand the concepts of enthalpy,
entropy, and free energy for various systems. All of these concepts fall under the broad category
of chemical thermodynamics, and thermodynamics is the area of chemistry that deals with
energy relationships. You will also be expected to find values for these energy relationships and
use specific heat and energy changes in different systems. We will begin this chapter by
introducing some terms and concepts that are probably already familiar to you.
The law of conservation of energy (also known as the first law of thermodynamics) states that in
the course of a chemical reaction, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But what exactly
is energy? So far we’ve talked about it only tangentially, but here we can define energy (E) as
the ability to do work or produce heat. Energy is measured in joules. Heat (q) refers to the
transfer of energy in a physical or chemical process: heat always flows from a warmer object to a
cooler one. Heat is also measured in joules. The sum of all of the potential and kinetic energy in
a system is known as the internal energy of the system.
Energy comes in several different forms. Let’s go through a few of them now. Potential energy,
in chemical terms, is the energy stored in chemical bonds. Energy is needed in order to break
bonds and is given off when bonds form. Another type of energy, called kinetic energy, exists in
matter in motion. Usually the energy of particles is proportional to the temperature, in kelvins, of
the system as well as the mass and the velocity of the object: KE = mv2.
Enthalpy
Often chemical changes result in either the release or the absorption of heat, and this change in
heat in the system is measured in terms of the system’s enthalpy (H). A reaction in which there is
a net absorption of heat energy is called an endothermic reaction, and in this type of reaction
energy is a reactant, and the change in enthalpy of the system, DH, has a positive value. A
reaction in which there is a net production of heat by the system is called an exothermic reaction.
In this type of reaction, energy is a product, and the change in enthalpy of the system, DH, has a
negative value. The figure below shows an exothermic reaction—you can see that the products
have lower energy than the reactants and that the DH of the reaction has a positive value—890
kJ.
There are several different forms of enthalpy you might encounter on the SAT II Chemistry
exam, so make sure to study the following list so nothing surprises you on test day.
Enthalpy of reaction (DHrxn)—The amount of heat absorbed or released by the chemical
reaction
Enthalpy of combustion (DHcomb)—The amount of heat absorbed or released by combustion
(burning; usually in the presence of O2)
Enthalpy of formation (DHf)—The amount of heat absorbed or released when 1 mole of a
compound is formed from elements in their standard states
Enthalpy of fusion (DHfus)—The amount of heat that must be absorbed to melt 1 mole of solid
to liquid at the normal melting point
Enthalpy of vaporization (DHvap)—The amount of heat that must be absorbed to change 1 mole
of liquid to gas at the normal boiling point
Some final notes about enthalpy before we move on. First of all, enthalpy is a state function,
meaning that its value is fixed when temperature, pressure, composition, and physical form are
specified. Second, at a constant pressure, DH = q, meaning that at constant pressure, the enthalpy
of a system is equal to the heat, in joules, of a system. Finally, the enthalpy changes of a reaction
can be calculated in several ways, including by using stoichiometry, calorimetry, tables of
standard values, Hess’s law, and the bond energies of the substances involved. Let’s now move
on to determining DH values of systems using the above methods
Spontaneous Reactions
A reaction is said to be spontaneous if it occurs without being driven by
some outside force. There are two driving forces for all chemical reactions.
The first is enthalpy, and the second is entropy. Entropy (DS) is a
measure of the disorder of a system, and systems tend to favor a more
disordered system: nature tends toward chaos. Spontaneous reactions
occur without outside intervention. They may occur quickly, like the
combustion of hydrogen, or slowly, like when graphite turns to diamond.
Let’s try a problem that might come up on the SAT II Chemistry test.
Example
The addition of 14.0 g solid potassium hydroxide pellets to water causes the
following reaction to take place:
1. Does the beaker get warmer or colder as the reaction takes place?
2. Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic?
3. What is the enthalpy change for the dissolution of the 14.0 grams of
KOH?
Explanation
1. This is an exothermic reaction (heat is a product), so heat is released
to the surroundings and the beaker gets warmer.
2. As stated above, this is an exothermic reaction: Heat is a product and
the DH is positive.
3. To solve this problem, you would first convert the grams of KOH to
moles and then multiply that by the energy change seen when 1 mol
of KOH is added to water, in the following proportions:
14.0 g KOH = 0.25 mol KOH -43 kJ = -10.7 kJ
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

We can determine the value of DH for a reaction in the lab by using a
calorimeter, which measures the heat flowing into and out of a system as
the reaction proceeds. We’ll talk more about this in chapter 11, the
Laboratory chapter. The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of
heat energy it must consume in order to raise its temperature by 1K or 1ºC;
it can be expressed using either the units joules or calories. A calorie is
defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1.00 gram
of water by 1.00ºC, and joules are the SI units for energy; 1 calorie = 4.184
joules.
Every pure substance involved in a chemical reaction has a unique heat
capacity, and the heat capacity of 1 mol of a pure substance is known as its
molar heat capacity (J/mol-K or J/mol-ºC). The heat capacity of 1 gram of
a substance is known as its specific heat (J/g-K). The following equation
relates the specific heat of a substance, the temperature change, the mass of
the substance, and how much energy was put into the system:
q = mCpDT
where
q = quantity of heat (joules or calories)
m = mass in grams
DT = Tf - Ti (final – initial)
Cp = specific heat capacity (J/g ºC)
One thing about specific heats that you should probably remember for the
SAT II Chemistry test is that the specific heat of liquid water is 4.184 J/g ºC
(or 1.00 cal/g ºC), which is unusually high (this is due to hydrogen
bonding).
Example
How much energy would be needed to heat 450 grams of copper metal
from a temperature of 25.0ºC to a temperature of 75.0ºC? The specific heat
of copper at 25.0ºC is 0.385 J/g ºC.
Explanation
Given mass, two temperatures, and a specific heat, you have enough values
to plug into the specific heat equation
q = mCpDT
and plugging in your values you get
q = (450 g) (0.385 J/g ºC) (50.0ºC)
= 8700 J
Example
100.0 mL of 1.0 M NaOH and 100.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl are mixed in a
calorimeter. Both solutions were originally at 24.6ºC. After the reaction, the
final temperature is 31.3ºC. Assuming that the solution has a density of 1.0
g/cm3 and a specific heat capacity of 4.184 J/g ºC, calculate the enthalpy
change for the neutralization of HCl by NaOH. Assume that no heat is lost
to the surroundings or the calorimeter.
Explanation
We are looking for energy in this problem too. Remember that the solution
has a density of 1.08/cm3, and we have a total of 200 ml of solution, so the
total mass to be considered is 200 g. You have all of the information you
need, so again plug it into the formula q = mCpDT:
q = (200 g) (4.184 J/g ºC) (6.7 ºC)
The answer is -5.6 kJ/mol
Enthalpies of Reactions
You can find the overall enthalpy of a reaction by subtracting the enthalpy
at the beginning of the reaction from the enthalpy at the end of the
reaction:
DH = H final - H initial
which is virtually the same as saying
DH = H products - H reactants
under the thermodynamic standard states 25ºC (298K), 1 atm, and 1 M. Try
using this equation in a problem.
Example
Calculate the DH for the following:
3Al (s) + 3NH 4 ClO 4(s) Al 2 O 3(s) + AlCl 3(s) + 3NO (g) + 6H 2 O (g)
given the following values:
Substance (kJ/mol)
NH 4 ClO 4(s) -295
Al 2 O 3(s) -1676
AlCl 3(s) -704
NO (g) 90
H 2 O (g) -242
Al ( x ) 0 (since it’s an element)
Explanation
[1(-1676) + 1(-704) + 3(90) + 6(-242)] - [3(0) + 3(-295)] = -2677 kJ
This is an exothermic reaction since DH is negative. Don’t forget to
multiply values by coefficients since each coefficient represents the number
of moles of each substance!
Try another one:
Example
Find the DHf of C6H12O6(s) using the following information:
C 6 H 12 O 6(s) + 6O 2(g) 6CO 2(g) + 6H 2 O (l) + 2800 kJ
Substance (kJ/mol)
CO 2(g) -393.5
H 2 O (l) -285.8
Explanation
[6(-393.5) + 6(-285.8)] - [1(x) + 6(0)] = -2800 kJ
Now solve the above for x and you have your answer! The value 2800 is
negative because this reaction is exothermic. Oxygen is considered an
element in its free state, so it is assigned a value of zero. (All diatomic
molecules are assigned zeros for the same reason.) After solving for x, you
get for glucose.
Hess’s Law
The total enthalpy of a reaction is independent of the reaction pathway.
This means that if a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, the enthalpy
change (DH) for the overall reaction will be equal to the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the individual steps. This idea is also known
as Hess’s law. Here are some rules for using Hess’s law in solving
problems:
1. Make sure to rearrange the given equations so that reactants and
products are on the appropriate sides of the arrows.
2. If you reverse equations, you must also reverse the sign of DH.
3. If you multiply equations to obtain a correct coefficient, you must also
multiply the DH by this coefficient.
Finally, in doing Hess’s law problems, it’s often helpful to begin by working
backward from the answer that you want. In other words—write the final
equation first. Try it out.
Example
Given the following equations
H 3 BO 3(aq) HBO 2(aq) + H 2 O (l) DH rxn = -0.02 kJ
H 2 B 4 O 7(aq) + H 2 O (l) 4HBO 2(aq) DH rxn = -11.3 kJ
H 2 B 4 O 7(aq) 2B 2 O 3(s) + H 2 O (l) DH rxn = 17.5 kJ
find the DH for this overall reaction:
2H 3 BO 3(aq) B 2 O 3(s) + 3H 2 O (l)
Explanation
Multiply the first equation by 4:
4H 3 BO 3(aq) 4HBO 2(aq) + 4H 2 O (l) DH rxn = 4(-0.02 kJ) = -0.08
Reverse the second equation:
4HBO 2(aq) H 2 B 4 O 7(aq) + H 2 O (l) DH rxn = +11.3 kJ
Leave the last equation as is:
H 2 B 4 O 7(aq) 2B 2 O 3(s) + H 2 O (l) DH rxn = 17.5 kJ
Cross out common terms and you are left with:
4H 3 BO 3(aq) 2B 2 O 3(s) + 6H 2 O (l) DH rxn = 28.8 kJ
Divide the above equation and the enthalpy by 2 and you see that the
answer is 14.4 kJ (the reaction is endothermic).
Bond Energies
As we mentioned earlier, another way of calculating the enthalpy change in
a chemical reaction is by using bond energies. You are probably aware that
energy must be added or absorbed to break bonds and that energy is
released when bonds are formed. Therefore, you can calculate the total
enthalpy of the reaction using the following formula:
DH = bonds broken - bonds formed
Now try this on a problem.
Example
Using bond energies, calculate the change in energy that accompanies the
following reaction:
H 2(g) + F 2(g) 2HF (g)
Bond type Bond energy
H—H 432 kJ/mol
F—F 154 kJ/mol
H—F 565 kJ/mol
Explanation
[1(432) + 1(154)] - [2(565)] = -544 kJ
The answer is -544 kJ.
If the problem you’re trying to solve involves more complex molecules, be
sure to draw out their structures to determine how many bonds of each
type you have
More About Entropy

For the SAT II Chemistry exam, you’ll be expected to be have an
understanding of all of the laws of thermodynamics, so to refresh your
memory, the first law of thermodynamics says that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics says that
the disorder of the universe, meaning its entropy, or DS, is constantly
increasing. The third law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of a
perfect crystal at 0K is zero. What does the third law mean to you? It means
that we can calculate the entropy of any substance that’s at a temperature
higher than 0K. Here are some rules about determining the entropy of a
system:
1. The greater the disorder or randomness in a system, the larger the
entropy.
2. The entropy of a substance always increases as it changes state from
solid to liquid to gas.
3. When a pure solid or liquid dissolves in a solvent, the entropy of the
substance increases.
4. When a gas molecule escapes from a solvent, there is an increase in
entropy.
5. Entropy generally increases with increasing molecular complexity.
6. Reactions that increase the number of moles of particles often
increase the entropy of the system.
Example
3. Which of the following reactions results in the largest increase in entropy?

(A) CO 2(s) CO 2(g)
(B) H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) 2HCl (g)
(C) KNO 3(s) KNO 3(l)
(D) C (diamond) C (graphite)
Explanation
All of the reactions result in an increase in disorder, but A, in which
CO2 moves from a solid state to a gaseous one, represents the largest
change in disorder.
You can calculate entropy using a table of standard values in much the
same way that you calculated enthalpy earlier by using the equation below:
The units of entropy are J/K. The higher the S value, the more disordered
the system, so a positive (+) S value is more disordered, and a –S value is
less disordered. Remember that disorder is the favored condition,
according to the second law of thermodynamics. Now try a problem that
involves using standard S values.
Example
Calculate the entropy change at 25ºC in J/K for
2SO 2(g) + O 2(g) 2SO 3(g)
given the following data:
SO 2(g) : 248.1 J/mol-K
O 2(g) : 205.3 J/mol-K
SO 3(g) : 256.6 J/mol-K
Explanation
[2(256.6)] - [2(248.1) + 1(205.3)] = -188.3 J/K
Don’t forget to multiply by coefficients, just as you did in enthalpy, because
the given data are still per 1 mole
Gibb’s Free Energy
As we said earlier, the two driving forces for chemical reactions are
enthalpy and entropy. If a chemical reaction is endothermic, it must result
in an increase in entropy, and if a reaction results in a decrease in entropy,
it must be exothermic. For the SAT II Chemistry test, you will be expected
to know how to use given entropy (S) and enthalpy (H) values to calculate if
a reaction will be spontaneous or not, and you can do so by using
the Gibb’s free energy (G) equation:
DG = DH - TDS
The Gibb’s free energy equation combines all the information that we have
learned thus far. But what does the Gibb’s free energy value tell us about a
reaction? It tells us the following:
1. If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
2. If G is equal to zero, the reaction is at equilibrium.
3. If G is positive, then the reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward
direction, but the reverse reaction will be spontaneous.
4. for elements at standard state (pure elements at 25ºC and 1
atm are assigned a value of zero).
The Gibb’s free energy equation can be used to calculate the phase change
temperature of a substance. During a phase change, equilibrium exists
between phases, so if the G is zero, we know that the reaction is in
equilibrium.
Example
Find the thermodynamic boiling point of
H 2 O (l) H 2 O (g)
given the following information:
H vap = +44 kJS vap = 118.8 J/K
Explanation
You would solve this problem by setting the equation equal to zero since in
equilibrium, G has a value of 0.
0 = (44,000 J ) - (T )(118.8 J/K)
Now solve for T: the answer is 370K, the boiling point of water.
Here’s a handy reference table for interpreting what enthalpy and entropy
values say about chemical reactions:
DH DS Result
Negative Positive Spontaneous at all temperatures
Positive Positive Spontaneous at high temperatures
Negative Negative Spontaneous at low temperatures
Positive Positive Never spontaneous
Much as is the case with both enthalpy and entropy, you can calculate
DG using the following equation:
The units for DG are the same as the units as for enthalpy: J/K.
Now try using the above equation in a problem.
Example
Find the free energy of formation for the oxidation of water to produce
hydrogen peroxide.
2H 2 O (l) + O 2(g) 2H 2 O 2(l)
given the following information:
∆ G f˚
H 2 O (l) -56.7 kcal/mol
O 2(g) 0 kcal/mol
H 2 O 2(l) -27.2 kcal/mol
Explanation
Plugging all of the values you were given into the equation (remember that
elements have a DGf˚ of 0), you get
[2(-27.2)] - [2(-56.7) + 1(0)] = 59.0 kcal/mol
Practice Questions
1. The reaction shown BECAUSE The total enthalpy of the products in this
above is exothermic. reaction is less than that of the reactants.
2. Use the bond energies given below to estimate the enthalpy, DH, for the
following reaction:
(A) DH = -800 kJ
(B) DH = -680 kJ
(C) DH = -150 kJ
(D) DH = +150 kJ
(E) DH = +200 kJ
3. Each of two solutions are mixed separately, and both solutions are found to be
the same temperature. The two solutions are mixed, and a thermometer shows
that the mixture’s temperature has decreased in temperature. Which of the
following statements is true?
(A) The chemical reaction is exothermic.
(B) The chemical reaction is absorbing energy.
(C) The chemical reaction is releasing energy.
(D) The energy released could be found by multiplying the temperatures
together.
(E) The energy absorbed by the solution is equal to the difference in
temperature of the solutions.
4. Consider the reaction below. When a 45.00 gram sample of ethanol is burned
with excess oxygen, about how much energy is released as heat?
C 2 H 5 OH (l) + 3O 2(g) 2CO 2(g) + 3H 2 O (l)
∆H = -1.40 10 3 kJ
(A) 0.995 kJ
(B) 5.1 10 2 kJ
(C) 1.40 10 3 kJ
(D) 2.80 10 3 kJ
(E) 5000 kJ
5. In neutralizing 500 mL of 1.0 M HCl with 500 mL of 1.0 M NaOH, the

temperature of the solution rises 5.0ÂºC. Given that the density of the solution
is 1.0 g/mL and the specific heat of the solution is 4.184 J/g ÂºC, calculate the
approximate energy released from this experiment.
(A) 20 J
(B) 1000 J
(C) 4200 J
(D) 2.1 10 4 J
(E) 1.0 10 4 kJ
6. Based on the relationship of entropy to the degree of disorder of a system,

which response includes all the occurrences listed that represent a decrease in
entropy?
I. The freezing of water
II. The vaporization of water
III. Sublimation (vaporization) of dry ice, solid CO 2
IV. The extraction of Mg and pure water from seawater
(A) I and II
(B) II and IV
(C) I and IV
(D) III
(E) II and III
7. Spontaneous reactions are driven by

(A) Low enthalpy values and high entropy values
(B) Low enthalpy values and low entropy values
(C) High enthalpy values and low entropy values
(D) High enthalpy values and high entropy values
(E) High temperatures and low pressures
8. If an exothermic process is spontaneous, which of the following statements

must be true?
(A) DG must be positive.
(B) DS must be positive.
(C) DS must be negative.
(D) The temperature must be over 500K.
(E) DG must be negative.
9. Consider the following hypothetical reaction (at 375K). The standard free
energies in kJ/mol are given below each substance in parentheses.What is the
value of the Gibb’s free energy for the reaction at this temperature? Is the
reaction spontaneous?
(A) -220; yes

(B) -180; no
(C) -160; yes
(D) +180; no
(E) -160; no
10. Which of the following events is least likely to occur with an increase in
temperature for the reaction given? (With H = -45.9 kJ/mol.)
(A) The gas particles will move more quickly.

(B) The reaction will produce more ammonia in a shorter time.
(C) The reaction will reverse and ammonia will decompose.
(D) The entropy of the system will increase.
(E) The equilibrium constant will become smaller.
Explanations
1. T, T
(Fill in CE.) In an exothermic reaction, the DH value is negative—
energy is given off in the course of the reaction, and the products are at a
lower energy than the reactants. The first statement is true since you see
that the DH value is negative, and the second statement is also true: the
enthalpy value of the products is less than that of the reactants in an
exothermic reaction. The second statement is the reason for the first, so
fill in theCE oval.
2. C
This question asks you to do a little arithmetic. The formula for finding
enthalpy from bond energies is bonds broken minus bonds formed (this
translates into the energy of the reactants broken minus the energy of the
products formed). You need to draw the structures so that you see what
is going on:
Bonds broken: 4 C—H bonds; 1 C=C bond; 1 Cl—Cl bond

Bonds formed: 4 C—H bonds; 1 C—C bond; 2 C—Cl bonds
The C—H bonds cancel each other out, so you don’t need to include
them in your calculations.
So, DH = (612 + 243) - [347 + 2(341)] = -174. Choice C is closer to
this.
3. B
After a quick survey of the answer choices, it is evident that
choices A, C, and D are all saying essentially the same thing—the
reaction is exothermic. Reread the question—the temperature is going
down, so the reaction is endothermic. Choice B is the correct answer.
4. C
To solve this problem, you must first convert the grams of ethanol to
moles. The mass of ethanol, C2H5OH, is about 46 g/mol. Since the initial
mass is 45.00 grams, you have about 1 mole of ethanol. Multiply 1 mole
by the DH value given in the equation, and the answer is C.
5. D
If you remembered the formula for calculating energy from specific
heat, this problem isn’t hard at all. If not, that formula is q = mCpDT.
The total mass in the solution would be 500 mL + 500 mL = 1000 mL =
1000 g (since the density is 1.0 g/mL). The specific heat is 4.184 J/g ºC
(round to 4). The change in temperature is 5.0ºC. Essentially, you have
20 1000 = 20,000 J. The only answer that is close to this value is D.
6. C
Remember the laws of thermodynamics—a decrease in entropy means
that a system becomes more organized. Before looking at the answer
choices, decide whether each statement represents a system becoming
more or less organized, then make your selections. Statement I gets
more organized—solids represent the most organized state. II is
becoming more disorganized—vapors are gases and are more
disorganized than liquids. III is also more disorganized—vapors are
more disorganized than solids. IV is more organized—when purifying a
mixed-up solution you are organizing the solution. Therefore, I and IV
represent a decrease in entropy, and the answer is C.
7. A
This question tests your knowledge of Gibb’s equation, DG = DH - TDS.
Before approaching all of the choices and getting confused, decide what
should happen if all conditions are favored. In order for the reaction to
be spontaneous, its DG must be negative. You know that exothermic
reactions, which have negative enthalpy values, are favored. You also
know that entropy is favored and that the more positive the value of DS,
the higher the entropy. You are looking for something that says little
enthalpy, large entropy. Choice A states just this.
8. E
Answering this question correctly just takes some close reading. The
question tells you that the reaction is exothermic and spontaneous,
which means that DH is negative and DG is negative. A can be
eliminated immediately because a positive free energy value would
mean a nonspontaneous reaction. B and C could both be true—
depending on temperature—but the question asks which must be true.
Choice D gives a specific temperature. This fact is insignificant without
any other numerical values. So E must be the answer—a negative
DG value means a spontaneous reaction.
9. C
To solve this problem, you must remember the formula for calculating
Gibb’s free energy using standard values provided. The general equation
is DG = S DG products - S DG reactants. Making the math easy, this
gives you [150 + (-350)] - [2(-20)] = -160. There is only one answer
choice with this value—C: when DG is negative, the reaction is
spontaneous.
10. B
This reaction is an exothermic equilibrium reaction. You are looking for
the statement that represents an event that’s least likely to occur.
Option A should happen, according to kinetic molecular theory: the
more energy, the faster the particles’ movement. ChoiceC also seems
true—when temperature is increased for an exothermic reaction, the
tendency is a shift to the reactants. Statement D would definitely be true
—the more energy, the more random the particle movement.
Statement E basically restates choiceC—there is a shift of equilibrium to
the reactants, so K decreases. Statement B is the correct answer. With
the reaction shifting to the reactants, less product will be produced, not
more.
Descriptive Chemistry
This chapter is a collection of various physical and chemical properties of
some of the more common elements and compounds encountered in
chemistry. The SAT II Chemistry test devotes about 10 questions to this
group of subjects, so take this chapter seriously
Organic Chemistry
Simple Organic Compounds
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies carbon
compounds. This field is very important since carbon compounds are all
around us—they make up a wide array of common substances such as
plastics, oil, gasoline, and alcohols and are also a part of many of the foods
we eat, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
One reason that there are so many carbon compounds is because of
carbon’s unique ability for bonding. Recall the electron structure of carbon:
Carbon has four valence electrons, and these electrons can hybridize
into sp3, sp2, and sp atomic orbitals. This enables carbon to join with other
elements and be involved in single, double, and triple bonds. Organic
compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are
called hydrocarbons.
Some general properties of organic compounds are
1. They usually have low melting points.
2. They usually are nonpolar (unless they bear functional groups).
3. They are usually nonconductors of electricity.
4. They can exist in solid, liquid, and gaseous form. Compounds with:
• 1–4 carbons tend to be gases at room
temperature; butane and propane are among the lightest
hydrocarbons and are used for fuel
• 5–10 carbons tend to be in the liquid state at room temperature;
compounds that fall in this size range are used to make gasoline and
solvents
• 12–18 carbons make up jet fuels and kerosene
• More than 18 carbons tend to be solids at room temperature
Organic compounds can exist as polymers, in which many repeating units
(calledmonomers) make up a larger molecule. Amino acids are
monomers of proteins when amino acids are bonded in a chain, they
make a polypeptide or protein. Starches are polymers of the
monomer glucose. Plastics are polymers of organic molecules extracted
from crude oil. Some common examples include
• Polyethylene—Many ethenes strung together with covalent bonds
(ethylene is another name for ethene); shopping bags and plastic
bottles are made of polyethylene.
• Polypropylene—Many propenes strung together; glues and carpets
are made of polypropylene.
• Polystyrene—A clear, hard, brittle polymer used in CD cases; if you
blow carbon dioxide into it during manufacture and you get the soft,
opaque, foamy polymer used in a coffee cup.
Common Functional Groups
Functional groups are atoms or groups of atoms attached to an organic
compound that impart characteristic shapes and chemical properties to the
compound. There are a few functional groups that you should be able to
recognize for the SAT II Chemistry test.
1. Hydroxyl group, —OH: Compounds that contain an —OH group
are consideredalcohols. An example of an alcohol, ethanol, is shown
below:
2. Carboxylic acid group, —COOH: In a carboxyl group, the carbon
is doubly bonded to one oxygen and singly bonded to an OH group.
An example of an organic compound containing a carboxyl group,
trichloroethanoic acid, is shown below:

3. Amine group, –NH2: An amino group contains a nitrogen and two
hydrogens. In organic chemistry, an R, like the one in the diagram
below, is often used as a shorthand notation to signify the rest of the
molecule. This notation is generally used when only a specific part of
the molecule is being discussed.

Naming Organic Compounds
Take this opportunity to look through Appendix II, Chemical Formulas
Review, if you need a refresher on how to name organic compounds. It
might come in handy on test day.
Isomerism
Isomers are compounds that have the same number and kinds of atoms
but have different structures—meaning that the atoms are arranged
differently in the molecule. Generally the number of isomers increases
dramatically as the number of carbon atoms increases because there are
more options for molecular structure.
1. Different carbon skeletons (one or more bonds differ). An
example is C4H10:
2. Different functional groups. An example is C2H6O:
3. Different positions of functional groups. An example is

C3H7NH2.
Don’t worry about memorizing all of the names of these compounds. They
are only included to show that isomers are completely different
compounds, with different names.
Simple Organic Reactions
You will be expected to be familiar with a few simple, common organic
reactions for the SAT II Chemistry exam, so we’ll go through them briefly
now. Let’s start with combustion reactions. Combustion reactions are
reactions that occur between oxygen and hydrocarbons, or CxHyOz. There
are two main types of combustion reactions—complete and incomplete.
Complete combustion occurs when excess oxygen is present; this type of
reaction produces carbon dioxide and water.
CH 4 + 2O 2 CO 2 + 2H 2 O
Incomplete combustion occurs when a limited amount of oxygen is
present, and the products of incomplete combustion are often difficult to
determine. There may be carbon monoxide, carbon, and water or some
mixture of all of these. When cooking outdoors on a grill, you often are left
with pure carbon (soot) on utensils. Space heaters and automobiles often
undergo incomplete combustion and produce deadly carbon monoxide
(CO) gas. Here’s the reaction for an incomplete combustion:
2CH 4 + 3O 2 2CO + 4H 2 O
Another common organic reaction is called an addition reaction. In
an addition reaction, two reactants join to form a single product:
H 2 C = CH 2 + H 2 H 3 C - CH 3
Finally, we have the substitution reactions. In a substitution reaction,
one group replaces another group on the main carbon chain. The atom
that’s most commonly replaced in a substitution reaction is hydrogen. One
common example of this is halogenation, which is the addition of a halide—
remember, group 7A on the periodic table.
CH 4 + Cl 2 CH 3 Cl + HCl
Chemistry of Some Common Substances

There will probably be several questions on the SAT II exam that will ask
about some common properties of chemicals. The list below constitutes
some of the things that everyone should know about chemistry.
Group 1A (Alkali Metals)
This group consists of the most active metals on the periodic table; these
metals react with water at room temperature to form bases. They react
readily with acids to produce hydrogen gas and get even more reactive as
you move down the family. This makes sense because as you move down
the family, there are more energy levels, more shielding, so it’s harder for
the nucleus to hold on to the lonely valence electron, and so on. Many drain
cleaners contain sodium hydroxide.
Group 7A (Halogens)
This group contains the most reactive nonmetals on the periodic table, and
all of these elements are diatomic. Fluorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid, and
iodine is a solid, which makes sense because as the molecules get larger,
there are more intermolecular forces to hold them together. Fluorine is the
most reactive of the halogens. Chlorine is a very common antibacterial
agent, found in bleach and muriatic acid (HCl), and is added to every city’s
water supply. Fluorine is the anti-tooth-decay element. Most cities also add
fluoride ion to the water supply.
Group 8A (Noble Gases)
The noble gases are considered the most stable family on the periodic table.
Many of these gases appear in signs (such as neon signs). Helium is used to
fill balloons because it is much less dense than air. Argon is fairly abundant
in our atmosphere.
Metals
You might recall from our earlier discussions (see “The Structure of
Matter”) that metals have a positive center surrounded by a sea of
electrons. This sea of electrons makes metallic substances very good
conductors of electricity. Alloys are substances that contain a mixture of
elements that have metallic properties. An alloy is often much stronger
than the individual metal itself. Some of the more common alloys include
Brass: mixture of copper and zinc
Sterling silver: mixture of silver and copper
Steel: mixture of iron and carbon
Bronze: mixture of copper, zinc, and other metals
Pewter: mixture of tin, copper, bismuth, and antimony
Properties of Some Common Gases
Hydrogen: H2 is a colorless, odorless gas. It was once used to fill blimps
because of its low density, but now helium is used since hydrogen is very
flammable. When hydrogen gas is collected in a test tube in the lab, a
burning splint inserted into the test tube filled with hydrogen will “bark” as
the hydrogen ignites.
Oxygen: O2 makes up about 21% of our atmosphere (the other major gases
that make up the atmosphere are nitrogen and argon). It is a colorless,
odorless gas that is necessary for life and supports combustion reactions.
When oxygen is collected in a test tube in the laboratory, a glowing wooden
splint will reignite.
Carbon dioxide: CO2 is also a colorless, odorless gas that does not
support combustion; many fire extinguishers use carbon dioxide to
extinguish flames. When carbon dioxide gas is collected in a test tube in the
laboratory, a burning wooden splint will go out when placed into the gas.
Another common lab test for CO2 is to bubble it into limewater, Ca(OH)2.
The clear solution will turn cloudy as calcium carbonate, CaCO3, begins to
precipitate.
Chlorine: Cl2 is a deadly yellow-green gas. It has often been used as a
weapon in warfare
Environmental Chemistry
Fuels
The major sources of energy in the United States are coal, petroleum, and
natural gas, all of which are known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed
millions of years ago by the decomposition of animals and plants and thus
are in limited supply. We are quickly depleting the available fossil fuels.
Coal is solid and is composed of large hydrocarbons and other compounds
that contain sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. When it’s combusted, the sulfur it
contains is converted to SO2, which is an air pollutant. Petroleum is a
liquid made up of hundreds of different components, but mostly
hydrocarbons. It also contains some compounds that have functional
groups containing sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen. The first step in refining
(processing) petroleum is to separate it into fractions based on the different
boiling points of its components. Natural gas consists of hydrocarbons in
the gas phase, primarily methane (CH4).
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the contamination of air by a variety of substances, causing
health problems and damaging our environment. It has thinned the ozone
layer above the earth, exposing us to harmful UV radiation from the sun.
Some of the major pollutant gases are listed below.
Carbon monoxide: CO is produced from incomplete combustion of all
types of natural and synthetic products, including cigarette smoke. When it
builds up in high concentrations, it can be very toxic. Cities with heavy
traffic problems are known for dangerous CO levels.
Carbon dioxide: CO2 is the principal greenhouse gas and is primarily
responsible for the greenhouse effect. It can be formed from all types of
common human activity, such as burning fuels and even breathing.
Chlorofluorocarbons: Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, are used in great
quantities in industry, for refrigeration and air-conditioning, and in
consumer products. When released into the air, they rise into the
stratosphere, where they readily react with the ozone that constitutes the
ozone layer, effectively degrading it.
Ozone: O3 gas occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, where it shields
the earth from the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet rays. When found at ground
level, however, it’s a pollutant. It can cause damage to humans (especially
our respiratory system), the environment, and a wide range of natural and
artificial materials. Vehicle exhaust and industry waste are major sources of
ground-level ozone.
Nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide: NOx and SOx are major
contributors to smog and acid rain. These gases both react with volatile
organic compounds to form smog, which can cause respiratory problems in
humans. Acid rain can harm vegetation, change the chemistry of river and
lake water by lowering the pH so that it’s harmful to animal life, and react
with the marble of statues and buildings and decompose them
Practice Questions
1. Which statement is INCORRECT?
(A) All of the gases in the atmosphere mix completely unless they react with
each other.
(B) The atmosphere of our planet consists of a mixture of gases and various
particles in the liquid and solid state.
(C) The major gaseous components of our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen,
and argon.
(D) Carbon dioxide, another major component of our atmosphere, has
concentrations that are relatively the same everywhere within our
atmosphere.
(E) The amount of moisture in our atmosphere varies with location.
2. Refining of petroleum BECAUSE The hydrocarbon chains that make up
requires the separation of its petroleum have the same basic
components into different carbon chain (same number of C’s in
fractions. the parent).
3. Alloys are mixtures of metallic substances. Which of the following pairs are
matched INCORRECTLY?
(A) Brass – copper and zinc
(B) Steel – iron and copper
(C) Bronze – copper, zinc, and others
(D) Pewter – tin, copper, bismuth, and antimony
(E) Sterling silver – silver and copper
4. Which of the following hydrocarbons would be expected to have the highest

boiling point?
(A) CH 4
(B) C 3 H 8
(C) C 4 H 10
(D) C 5 H 12
(E) C 6 H 14
5. When methane, CH 4 , burns in excess oxygen, the products would be
(A) CH 4 O 2
(B) CO + H 2 O
(C) CO + CH 2 OH
(D) CO 2 + H 2 O
(E) CO 2 + 2H 2
6. A student performed an experiment and a gas was produced. After the gas was
collected and tested with a burning splint, a loud popping noise was heard.
Which of the following gases was produced?
(A) Hydrogen
(B) Oxygen
(C) Carbon dioxide
(D) Chlorine
(E) Methane
7. Which of the following gases is known to shield the earth from harmful
ultraviolet radiation?
(A) CO
(B) CO 2
(C) CFCs
(D) SO 2
(E) O 3
8. Which compound is INCORRECTLY matched to the functional group that it

contains?
(A)
CH 3 COOH hydroxyl
(B)
CH 3 OH hydroxyl
(C)
CH 3 CH 2 NH 2 amine
(D)
CCl 3 COOH carboxylic acid
(E)
C 6 H 5 COOH carboxylic acid
Explanations
1. D
If you don’t know which is the incorrect answer here, at least try to
eliminate choices that you know are true. Choice A is true. Chemical
reactions are taking place in the atmosphere. For example, water freezes
to form snow. Choice B is also a true statement. Clouds form when
water vapor collects on a dust particle. Choice C: you know that oxygen
and nitrogen are major components of the atmosphere, and argon is the
next most abundant. Choice D must be false because it states that the
concentration of carbon dioxide is basically the same everywhere on the
planet! If you live in New York City, the concentration of CO2 in your
neighborhood is definitely higher than in the neighborhood of someone
who lives in rural Kansas. Choice E is true. The United States and many
other countries have desert climates as well as rainy ones.
2. T, F
(Do not fill in CE.) First look at statement I—the first step in processing
petroleum is to separate its components based on their different boiling
points. For instance, gasoline is one of the components and can be
separated out in this way. This statement is true. Now look at the second
statement. If petroleum were made up of hydrocarbon chains that had
the same number of carbons in them, we would not be able to separate
out the components based on their boiling points since they would all
have the same boiling point. So this second statement is false, and you
would not fill in the CE oval.
3. B
Choice B, steel, is actually composed of iron and varying combinations
of carbon. All of the rest of the alloys are listed next to the correct
components.
4. E
You should always think about intermolecular forces in your head when
you see the term boiling point. In order to boil, molecules must separate
from each other, and this takes energy. The molecules that are held most
tightly to each other would require the most energy. Since all the
molecules listed are nonpolar, the determining factor is polarizability—
the more electrons available to have London dispersion forces of
attraction. The largest molecule, hexane, choice E, will have the greatest
attractive forces.
5. D
When excess oxygen is present, combustion will occur. Hydrocarbon
combustion produces carbon dioxide and water. Choice B shows
possible products for an incomplete combustion.
6. A
This question requires you to know the properties of the various gases
listed. Hydrogen, choice A, is odorless, is colorless, and readily ignites
with a popping noise. This is the answer. Oxygen, choice B, is also
odorless, colorless, and flammable but does not produce any sound when
ignited. Carbon dioxide, choice C, would not ignite. It would put out a
flame. Chlorine, choice D, is a yellow-green gas that has a pungent odor.
It does not readily ignite with a noise. Choice E might be familiar to you
as a gas that you use in the laboratory. Though methane is flammable, it
does not make a particular sound when ignited.
7. E
This is simply a recall question. The ozone layer in the atmosphere
protects us from UV rays. The other four gases listed in this question do
cause air pollution. CFCs, choice C, are thought to contribute to the
depletion of the ozone layer. Choices A and B are some of the
“greenhouse” gases, especially B, carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
thought to be the reason for global warming. Choice D is one of the
gases that contributes to the acid rain problem when the gas is released
into the atmosphere.
8. A
A hydroxyl group is OH, an amine is the NH2 group attached to a carbon
chain, and carboxylic acids contain the COOH group. Choice B is
methanol, wood alcohol, and does have the hydroxyl group. Choice C is
clearly an amine. Choice D and E are both carboxylic acids since they
contain -COOH. Choice A is acetic acid, vinegar, and should be placed
with the carboxylic acid group
Laboratory
Though the SAT II Chemistry exam cannot test extensively on the
laboratory experience, there will be questions that attempt to accomplish
this task. A good chemistry course does include some basic laboratory
skills, and we will review those skills in this chapter
Common Laboratory Equipment

Color Review
One way to identify elements is by performing a simple flame test in the
laboratory. When the electrons are heated, they get excited and jump away
from the nucleus. As they fall back down, they release energy, often in the
form of visible light. Some of the most common colors of flames are listed.
You may recognize many of these from fireworks displays!
Ion Flame color
+ 2+ 2+
Li , Sr , Ca Red
Na + Yellow
K+ Purple (pink)
2+
Ba Light green
2+
Cu Blue-green
Fe 3+ Gold
Many solutions in chemistry also have color, which is often the result of
unpaired electrons. Metal ions often are colored.
Ion Solution color
2+
Cu Blue
3+
Fe Yellow to orange (rusty)
Ni 2+ Green
Purple
Yellow
Orange
Common Experiments
Chromatography
The purpose of chromatography is to separate out parts of a solution—to
isolate substances. You might have used paper chromatography in your
chemistry lab. In paper chromatography, a small drop of the substance to
be separated is placed on one end of the chromatography paper. A pencil is
used to mark the spot where the substance was placed, and then the tip of
the paper is placed into a container with solvent. As the solvent travels up
the paper, the substance separates into its various components. Whatever
component is most like the solvent travels the greatest distance. At the end
of the experiment, measurements are taken of how far each component
traveled. The distance that the solvent traveled and the distance that the
solutes (the components) traveled are usually measured in centimeters. A
ratio, called the Rf value, is then calculated for each component. This
information can be used to identify various parts of the mixture.
The formula for the calculation is
Example
Data:
Dis 0.0
tan cm
ce
sol
ven
t
tra
vel
ed:
Dis 7.0
tan cm
ce
red
dye
tra
vel
ed:
Dis 4.0
tan cm
ce
blu
e
dye
tra
vel
ed:
Calculate the Rf for the red dye and the blue dye.
Explanation
Just plug your numbers into the equation:
Rf for red dye:
Rf for blue dye:

Density of Liquids and Solids
Density is defined as a pure substance’s mass over its volume. Density is a
property of matter that is often used to identify an unknown substance
since pure substances have known densities. The units of density are
usually grams divided by milliliters or cubic centimeters:
Density of a solid: Typically the solid sample is massed on the balance

first. The mass is recorded in grams. If the solid is a regularly shaped
object, the length, width, and height may be measured with a metric ruler.
These three measurements are then multiplied together to obtain the
volume in cubic centimeters (cm3) or some similar unit. If the solid is
irregular, the volume can be obtained by water displacement. A known
amount of water is recorded, the object is immersed, and the final volume
of water is recorded. The difference in volumes will give the volume of the
object. Density can then be calculated by dividing the mass by the volume.
Density of a liquid: The density of a liquid is obtained in much the same
way as above. To obtain the mass of the liquid, the mass of a container must
first be measured, the liquid poured in, and the total mass recorded. The
difference in mass is the mass of the liquid. It is often convenient to
measure the liquid in a graduated cylinder. Now try a density problem.
Example
Data (for an irregular solid):
Ma 5.00
ss g
of
the
soli
d:
Init 30.0
ial mL
vol
um
e
of
wat
er:
Fin 32.5
al mL
vol
um
e
of
wat
er:
Find the density of the unknown solid.
Explanation
Volume of solid: (final - initial volumes) = 32.5 - 30.0 = 2.5 mL
Density of solid:
Titration
A titration (also called volumetric analysis) is a laboratory procedure that
usually involves either an acid and base neutralization reaction or a redox
reaction. In a titration, two reagents are mixed, one with a known
concentration and known volume (or a solid with a known mass) and one
with an unknown concentration. The purpose of a titration is to find the
concentration of the unknown solution. There must be some way to
indicate when the two reagents have reacted essentially completely, and at
the end of the titration the unknown solution’s concentration can be
calculated since the volume of the solution required to complete the
reaction has been accurately measured.
The titrant is the solution of known concentration and is usually placed in
the burette. The burette must be rinsed with the solution to be placed in
it before filling.
The solution from the burette is added to a flask that contains either a
measured volume of a solution or a weighed quantity of solid that has been
dissolved. An indicator that changes color at or near the equivalence point
is usually added to the solution to be analyzed before titration. The solution
of known concentration is then added to the flask from the burette until the
color changes. The equivalence point is the point in the reaction where
enough titrant has been added to completely neutralize the solution being
analyzed. The end point is the point during the titration where the
indicator changes color. It is important to choose an indicator that has an
end point that is at the same pH as your expected equivalence point. The
burette has graduations that are used to read the volume of titrant that’s
added to the flask.
The data required for titrations include the mass of the dry substance to be
analyzedor an accurately measured volume of the substance to be analyzed,
the initial volume and final volume of titrant required to reach the end
point, and the molarity of the titrant. At the equivalence point, the moles of
the titrant will be equal to the moles of the substance analyzed. To obtain
the moles of the unknown substance, multiply the molarity of the titrant by
the volume (in liters) of the titrant. Once moles are known, just divide
moles by volume and you have the molarity of the unknown substance
If the substance to be analyzed is a solid, you will be trying to calculate the

molecular weight of the unknown solid. Remember that molecular weight is
grams per mole. The mass in grams will be known from the beginning of
the experiment, when the solid sample was massed. You can find the moles
of the unknown substance by multiplying the molarity of the titrant by the
volume (in liters) of the titrant. Divide grams by moles to get molecular
weight.
If you are doing a titration of a strong base with a strong acid, the
equivalence point occurs at a pH of 7.00. The dilution formula can be used
to calculate the moles of acid, which will equal the moles of base at the
equivalence point:
M1V1 = M2V2
or moles of acid = moles of base. Don’t try to use this formula if either the
acid or base is weak!
Example
Data:
Vol 10.0
um mL
e
of
unk
no
wn
aci
d
sa
mpl
e:
Init 0.0
ial mL
vol
um
e
of
titr
ant
(ba
se):
Fin 20.0
al mL
vol
um
e
of
titr
ant
(ba
se):
Mo 1.0
lari M
ty
of
titr
ant
(ba
se)
(m
ust
be
giv
en)
:
Find the molarity of the unknown acid solution.
Explanation
Don’t forget to change mL to L.
0.020 L (titrant) 1.0 mole/liter (titrant molarity) = 0.020 mole of base
titrant
At the equivalence point: moles acid = moles base = 0.020 mole of acid
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is used to determine the amount of heat released or absorbed
during a chemical reaction. In the lab we can experiment with finding the
energy of a particular system by using a coffee-cup calorimeter. The
coffee-cup calorimeter (shown below) can be used to determine the heat of
a reaction at constant (atmospheric) pressure or to calculate the specific
heat of a metal. The coffee-cup calorimeter is a double plastic foam cup
with a lid; the lid has a hole in it where the thermometer pokes through.
The data to be collected include the volumes of the solutions to be mixed,

the initial temperatures of each solution, and the highest temperature
obtained after mixing. Accurate results depend on measuring precisely and
starting with a dry calorimeter. The total volume recorded must be changed
into grams (use the density and multiply density volume = grams). The
change in temperature must be calculated by subtracting the final and
initial temperatures. To find the heat of reaction, multiply the specific heat
capacity, the mass, and the change in temperature: q = mCpDT.
Example
Data (for a specific heat of a metal):
Ma 24.0
ss 0 g
of
the
soli
d
met
al:
Init 100.
ial 0ºC
tem
per
atu
re
of
the
met
al:
Ma 100.
ss 00 g
of
wat
er
in
pla
stic
foa
m
cup
:
Init 25.0
ial ºC
tem
per
atu
re
of
the
wat
er:
Hig 30.0
hes ºC
t
tem
per
atu
re
of
the
wat
er:
Find the specific heat of the metal.
q = mCpDT (Cp = 4.18 J/g ºC)
Explanation
Temperature change for the metal = 100.0 - 30.0 = 70.0ºC
Temperature change for the water = 30.0 - 25.0 = 5.0ºC
We can assume that the heat lost by the metal should equal the heat gained
by the water.
Calculate the heat gained by the water:
Heat gained by water = (sp. heat water)(mass of water)(DT water)
= (4.18 J/g ºC)(100.0 g)(5.0ºC)
= 2090 joules gained
Then find the specific heat of metal:
(Small values for metals are very typical!)

Stoichiometry
Many experiments require the use of stoichiometry to find an unknown.
One typical experiment is the neutralization of an acid with a base to
produce a salt and water. If a known volume and concentration of an acid
and a base are reacted, the amount of salt produced can be predicted.
Typical data would require the accurate recording of molarities and
volumes of the acid and the base. The mass of the reacting vessel must be
recorded, and then the two solutions are mixed. The mixed solution is then
evaporated over a low flame (to avoid spattering and loss of mass) to
dryness. The vessel is allowed to cool, and the final weight is then recorded.
The vessel should be heated to a constant mass in this type of experiment.
This requires heating, cooling, and weighing until two consecutive
measurements are within an acceptable range of each other. The mass of
the solid salt obtained is calculated by subtracting the mass of the vessel
from the total mass of the vessel with the salt. This mass is known as the
actual (or experimental) yield. To find the theoretical yield (what should
have been produced), a balanced chemical equation must be written. The
moles of each substance reacted must be determined (multiply molarity by
volume) and also the moles of the limiting reagent (using coefficients).
From the moles of limiting reagent, multiply by the mole ratio and then
convert to grams using the formula weight of the salt from the periodic
table. This gives the theoretical yield of salt. It is typical to calculate the
percent yield. The closer to 100%, the better your results were!
Practice Questions
1. Which instrument would be best suited for use in a volumetric analysis to find the
unknown molarity of base when titrated with a known acid?
(A) Graduated cylinder
(B) Pipette
(C) 250 mL beaker
(D) Burette
(E) Triple beam balance
2. In a neutralization reaction performed in lab, a student mixed 0.20 M NaOH with 0.10 M
HCl until the reaction was complete. After the liquid left in the container was dried, which of the
following statements must be true?
I. The student produced a salt and water. All that was left in the container was the salt.
II. The total mass of the products in the evaporating dish at the end of the experiment had a
lower mass than before heating.
III. The student was left with an ionically bonded, white, crystalline solid.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II, and III all are true
3. Which of the following laboratory techniques would not be a physical change in
components of a mixture?
(A) Chromatography
(B) Precipitation
(C) Filtering
(D) Distillation
(E) Evaporation
4. A student mixes 10.0 mL of 0.10 M AgNO3 with excess copper metal. The reaction
should produce 0.107 gram of silver; however, the student obtains a mass of 150 grams of silver.
Plausible explanations for this yield >100% might include
I. The student did not subtract the mass of the filter paper before recording results.
II. The student did not thoroughly dry the sample before massing.
III. The copper metal did not react completely.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II, and III
5. Which of the following mixtures would best be separated by gravity filtration?
(A) A solid precipitate in a liquid solution
(B) A mixture of oil and water
(C) A mixture of solid iron with solid sulfur
(D) Carbon dioxide gas bubbles in a soft drink
(E) A mixture of dyes in a felt-tip pen
6. Which of the following statements is the most probable explanation for color in
solutions?
(A) Solutions with color contain oxygen.
(B) Solutions with color contain metals.
(C) Solutions with color are ionically bonded with water.
(D) Solutions with color usually contain transition metals with unshared electron pairs.
(E) Solutions with color have electron configurations that are isoelectronic with the noble
gases.
Explanations
1. D
Choosing the appropriate instrument is a typical laboratory question on
the test. When the question states volumetric analysis and then the
word titrated in the same sentence, a burette, choice D, should be your
first thought. Choice E is an easy elimination: a balance measures mass
in grams and would be used in gravimetric analysis. Choice C is the next
elimination: Beakers are not accurate measuring instruments. The
markings on a beaker may only be accurate to within a 5–10% range! A
pipette, choice B, and a graduated cylinder, choice A, are both very
accurate measuring instruments. However, this question discussed a
titration, so the best answer is the burette.
2. E
This question requires that you understand the reaction that will occur.
In this question, NaOH will react with HCl in a double replacement
(neutralization) reaction and produce a salt, NaCl, and water. The
concentration of each solution is irrelevant information and is thus
ignored. Focus on what the question asks—after drying, what will
remain? Statement I is a true statement. If you evaporate all of the water
away, NaCl will be the only remaining product. Statement II is a bit
tricky. If you read quickly and are thinking law of conservation of
matter, you’ll think that this must be false. However, the question states
that after drying has occurred, water will evaporate and the mass will be
less since some is given off as water vapor. You know then, that the
answer contains I and II. Just for confirmation, you could check
statement III. This answer is also correct. A metal and a nonmetal bond
ionically and salt crystals will be white in color so, E is the answer.
3. B
Answering this question makes you think about physical and chemical
changes. You are looking for the one process that is chemical; changing
substances, not physical. Chromatography, choice A, is a physical
separation of a substance by polarities (as in paper). Filtering, choice C,
is also a physical separation of a solid from a liquid. Distillation,
choice D, and evaporation, choice E, both involve changes of state,
which are also physical changes. Choice B is the only chemical change
listed. Precipitation is the formation of a solid when two or more liquids
are combined. The formation of a precipitate is one indicator that a
chemical change may have taken place.
4. C
Once again, you are in search of the true statements. Statement I is true.
If the student forgot to subtract out the mass of the filter paper, the mass
obtained would appear larger. Statement II is also correct. If the
substance was not completely dry, the moisture would cause the mass to
be greater. Statement III is a true statement, but it should not increase the
mass of silver unless the student failed to separate all of the silver from
the copper before massing. The question states that copper is in excess,
meaning that it would not all react. Statement IV, the concentration of
the silver nitrate needed to be stronger, does not match the problem—we
had too much silver! So the answer is C.
5. A
Choice A is the correct answer. Using a filter paper and funnel, you can
easily separate a solid from a liquid. The solid stays in the paper, and the
liquid runs through the paper. Choice B would not separate easily using
a filter paper. Oil and water would layer and could easily be separated
using a pipette. Choice C, two solids, would not separate with filter
paper. The easiest separation technique for these two solids would be to
use a magnet to gather all of the iron particles. Choice D, gas bubbles,
would not be trapped in piece of solid filter paper. To remove the gas, a
hose could be attached to the soda, and the soda could be heated or
shaken to remove the carbon dioxide gas. Choice E, a mixture of dyes,
could be separated with filter paper but not with filtration. The technique
to separate the dyes is known as chromatography.
6. D
Color is a result of the way light is reflected. When unshared electrons
are present, especially in different energy levels, as is possible with the
transition elements and their dorbitals, color is often a result. Most of the
color comes in solutions of transition metals. Thus, choice D gives the
correct answer. Choices A and B are partial statements of fact but are
neither reasons nor explanations. Many solutions of transition elements
do contain oxygen in the polyatomic ion, such as nickel (II) nitrate—
nitrate contains oxygen, but this has nothing to do with the color. The
term metals in statement B is too broad. Over three-quarters of the
periodic table is composed of metals, and there are not that many
colored solutions! Statement C is also a partially true statement. Most
transition metals will be ionically bonded when in salt form, but bond
type does not give rise to color. Statement E makes the incorrect
assumption that noble gases are all colored. This may have tricked you
since you know that neon lights have color. However, the color of the
neon light is the direct result of electrons getting excited and falling back
to a lower energy level
Basic Measurement and Calculation Review

The SAT II Chemistry test will not directly test you on any of the skills that this appendix
discusses. However, a good working knowledge of the information in this chapter will still prove
very helpful during the exam. Remember, you can’t use a calculator during the test!
The SI System
The Système Internationale (International System), SI, more commonly known as the metric
system, is the only system of measurement that you’ll see on the SAT II Chemistry test. Here’s a
quick refresher course on how to use this system.
Standard Prefixes
The metric system is fairly straightforward. The table of prefixes below is only partial, but it
includes the ones that you need to be familiar with for the test.
Prefix Power Meaning Examples of measurements
nano (n) 10-9 one-billionth nanometer (nm): wavelength of light
micro (m) 10-6 one-millionth micrometer (mm): width of a hair
milli (m) 10-3 one-thousandth milliliter (mL): volume of acid in burette
centi (c) 10-2 one-hundredthcentimeter (cm): length of paper
deci (d) 10-1 one-tenth deciliter (dL): amount of liquid
kilo (k) 103 one thousand times kilogram (kg): your weight
Also useful to know are the units in the table below. Most of them will probably be familiar to
you.
What is being measured Common units
length meter (m)
mass gram (g)
volume liter (L) or cm3
temperature degree Celsius (˚C) and kelvin (K)
time second (s)
pressure kilopascal (kPa); atmosphere (atm); mmHg
energy joules ( J); calorie (cal)
amount of substance mole (mol)
Scientific Notation
This is an easy way to express really large or really small numbers conveniently. The general
format for numbers expressed this way is
some number10some power
For instance, 6.0221023 is really big, and 3.0010-6 is really small. Notice that the proper
position for the decimal is to the right of the first nonzero digit. If you must move the decimal to
get it into this position, moving the decimal to the left makes the exponent appear larger, while
moving decimal to the right makes the exponent appear smaller. For example, 0.000567 in
scientific notation would be 5.6710–4.
You need to be able to handle numbers of this sort without a calculator. Basically, you need to
remember the following. For multiplication, add exponents, and for division, subtract exponents.
To get the log of a value, raise it to the power of ten. This is mostly useful for pH calculations.
Now try some problems.
Example
(4.5105)(3.0108).
Explanation
The answer is 1.351014 (or rounded, 1.41014). In solving this, think: 35 = 15, and then add the
exponents: 5 + 8 = 13. Move the decimal to the right of the first nonzero digit, or one place to the
left.
Example
Try another one: .
Explanation
The answer is 3.410-12. In solving this, think: 6.8/2 = 3.4, and then subtract the exponents: (-2) -
(10) = -12.
Example
Let’s try another: Find the log of 1.010-7.
Explanation
The answer is -7. The thought process is as follows. The log of 1.00 is 0. The log of 10-7 is just
the power of 10.
Temperature Conversions
The only two temperature scales that are needed for the SAT II Chemistry test are the Celsius
scale and the Kelvin scale. One degree on the Celsius scale is the same increment as 1 kelvin on
the Kelvin scale.
Celsius scale: This is the scale used in the chemistry laboratory for most experiments. The
freezing point of water is 0ºC, and the boiling point of water is 100ºC. This was the original
metric standard for temperature.
Kelvin scale: This is the scale used for working through gas law problems. There are no negative
numbers on this scale. At 0K, all motion theoretically ceases.
Calculations Involving Metric Measurements (Dimensional Analysis)
Dimensional analysis offers an easy way to solve problems using conversion factors and unit
cancellations. Conversion factors are ratios that equal 1. You know many of these ratios of
equivalencies from everyday living. For example, 1 gallon equals 4 quarts, 12 inches equals 1
foot, etc. This is a useful technique for calculations that might come up on the test, so work
through the following problems to practice it.
Example
How many inches tall is a person who is 5 feet, 4 inches tall?
Explanation
Example
How many milliliters would there be in 3.5 liters of soda?
Explanation
You’ll have to do plenty of conversions like the one above to solve problems on the exam. Be
sure that you are familiar with all the metric prefixes listed earlier so that you can be successful
when you need to convert numbers.
Density
Density is a complex unit. It is defined as mass per unit of volume:
All pure substances have a unique density at a given temperature. Density is an intensive
physical property, meaning that it does not change with sample size. Usually the solid form of a
pure substance is denser than the liquid form of the same substance. This makes sense because in
most solids, the particles are much closer together than in their liquid counterparts.
Typical units for density of solids and liquids are grams per milliliter or grams per cubic
centimeter. (Remember: 1 cm3 = 1 mL.) Typical units for density of gases are grams per liter.
Example
Find the density of a substance that has a mass of 45.0 g and a volume of 3.0 mL.
Explanation
Example
What would be the mass of a substance that occupies a space of 2.0 cm3 and has a density of 7.5
g/cm3?
Explanation
. Rearrange the equation to solve for mass: M = DV.
Then
M = (7.5 g/cm3)(2.0 cm3) = 15 g
Chemical Formulas Review: Nomenclature and Formula Writing

Naming Simple Compounds
There are four naming systems you should familiarize yourself with to succeed on the SAT II
Chemistry exam. The trick is recognizing which naming system to use. Here are the guidelines:
If the compound starts with H, it is an acid. Use the naming acids rules.
If the compound starts with C and contains quite a few H’s and perhaps some O’s, it is organic.
Use the naming organic compounds rules.
If the compound starts with a metal, it is most likely ionic. Use the naming binary ionic
compounds rules.
If the compound starts with a nonmetal other than H or C, use the naming binary molecular
compounds rules.
It is also essential that you memorize some common polyatomic ions. Polyatomic ions behave as
a unit. If you need more than one of them, enclose them in parentheses when you write formulas.
You need to know their names, formulas, and charges. If you learn the nine that follow, you can
get many others from applying two simple patterns.
Name of polyatomic ion Formula and charge
Ammonium ion NH4+
Acetate ion C2H3O2-
Cyanide ion CN-
Hydroxide ion OH-
Nitrate ion NO3-
Chlorate ion ClO3-
Sulfate ion SO42-
Carbonate ion CO32-
Phosphate ion PO43-
Pattern 1: The -ates “ate” one more oxygen than the -ites and their charge doesn’t change as a
result! For instance, if you know nitrate is NO3-,then nitrite is NO2-.If you know phosphate is
PO43-,then you know phosphite is PO33-.You can also use the prefixes hypo- and per- with the
chlorate series. Perchlorate, ClO4-,was really “hyper and ate yet another oxygen” when
compared to chlorate, ClO3-.Hypochlorite is a double whammy: it is -ite and therefore “ate” one
less oxygen than chlorate and it is hypo-, which means “below,” so it “ate” even one less oxygen
than plain chlorite, so its formula is ClO-. You can also substitute the other halogens for Cl and
make additional sets of the series.
Pattern 2: The -ates with charges less than negative 1 (that is, ions with charges of -2, -3, etc.)
can have an H added to them to form new polyatomic ions. For each H added, the charge is
increased by a +1. For instance, CO32-can have an H added and become HCO3-.HCO3-is called
either the bicarbonate ion or the hydrogen carbonate ion. Since phosphate is -3, it can add one or
two hydrogens to make two new polyatomic ions, HPO42-and H2PO4-.These are named
hydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate, respectively. If you keep adding hydrogen ions
until you reach neutral, you’ve made an acid! That means you need to see the naming acids rules.
Pattern 3: The following periodic table will also come in handy. Notice there are simple patterns
for determining the most common oxidation states of the elements based on their family’s
position in the periodic table. Notice the 1A family is +1, while the 2A family is +2; then skip
across to the 3A family and see that aluminum is +3. Working backward from the halogens, or
7A family, the oxidation states are most commonly -1, while the 6A family is -2, and the 5A
family is -3. The 4A family is “wishy-washy”: they can be several oxidation states, with the most
common being +4.
Naming Acids
How do you know it’s an acid? The compound’s formula begins with an H, and water doesn’t
count! Naming acids is extremely easy if you know your polyatomic ions. There are three rules
to follow:
H + element: When the acid has only an element following the H, use the prefix hydro-, followed
by the element’s root name and an -ic ending. HCl is hydrochloric acid; H2S is hydrosulfuric
acid. When you see an acid name beginning with hydro-, think: Caution, element approaching!
HCN is an exception since it is a polyatomic ion without oxygen, so it is named hydrocyanic
acid.
H + -ate polyatomic ion: If the acid has an -ate polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an -ic
acid. H2SO4 is sulfuric acid.
H + -ite polyatomic ion: When the acid has an -ite polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an
-ous acid. H2SO3 is sulfurous acid.
Acids have enough H+ added to the anion to make the compound neutral. Supply either the
acid’s name or its formula to complete the table below:
Acid formula Acid name
HCl
Hypochlorous acid
Chlorous acid
Chloric acid
Hyperchloric acid (or perchloric acid)
HNO3
Hydrobromic acid
H3PO4
H3PO3
Hydrocyanic acid
HC2H3O2
Carbonic acid
Hydroiodic acid
HF
Naming Organic Compounds
How do you know it’s organic? The formula will start with a C followed by H’s. Most of the
organic carbons you will encounter will be either hydrocarbons or alcohols, and luckily for you,
these are the simplest of all to name. Learn the list of prefixes in the table following this section:
they correspond to the number of carbons present in the compound. The following silly
statement will help you remember the order of the first four prefixes since they are not ones you
are familiar with: “Me eat peanut butter.” This corresponds to meth-, eth-, prop-, and but-, which
correspond to one, two, three, and four carbons, respectively.
Now that we have a stem, we need an ending. There are three common hydrocarbon endings; the
ending changes depending on the structure of the molecule:
-ane = alkane (all single bonds and saturated); CnH2n+2; saturated: it contains the maximum
number of H’s
-ene = alkene (contains double bond, unsaturated); CnH2n
-yne = alkyne (contains triple bond, unsaturated); CnH2n-2; polyunsaturated: it contains more
than one double or triple bond
For any hydrocarbon, you can remove one H and replace it with a hydroxyl group, or —OH
group, to form an alcohol. Do not be fooled—this looks like a hydroxide group but isn’t! The
OH does not make this hydrocarbon an alkaline or basic compound, nor do you name it as a
hydroxide! C2H6 is ethane, while C2H5OH is ethanol. Fill in the missing formulas and names
for each compound in the table:
No. of carbon atoms = n Prefix or stem -ane CnH2n+2 -ene CnH2n -yne CnH2n–2
-anol CnH2n+1 + OH
1 meth- Must have 2 carbons CH3OH
2 eth-
3 prop- C3H6
4 but-
5 pent- C5H12
6 hex-
7 hept- C7H15OH
8 oct- C8H14
9 non-
10 dec-
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
How will you know a compound is ionic? You’ll know because the formula will begin with a
metal cation or the ammonium cation. Formulas often end with a polyatomic anion. If only two
elements are present, they are usually from opposite sides of the periodic table, like in KCl. If the
metal is one of the transition metals, be prepared to use a Roman numeral to indicate which
oxidation state the metal is exhibiting. Silver, cadmium, and zinc are exceptions to the Roman
numeral rule! First, let’s name the ions.
NAMING POSITIVE IONS (USUALLY METALS)
Monatomic, metal, cation: simply the name of the metal from which it is derived. Al3+ is the
aluminum ion (these are often referred to as group A metals).
Transition metals form more than one ion; Roman numerals (in parentheses) follow the ion’s
name. Cu2+ is copper (II) ion. Exception: mercury (I) is Hg22+, that is, two Hg+ bonded
together covalently.
NH4+is ammonium.
Roman numerals are not usually written with silver, cadmium, and zinc. Arrange their symbols
in alphabetical order—the first one is 1+ and the other two are 2+.
NAMING NEGATIVE IONS (USUALLY NONMETALS OR POLYATOMIC IONS)
Monatomic, nonmetal, anion: add the suffix -ide to the stem of the nonmetal’s name. Halogens
are called the halides. Cl- is the chloride ion.
Polyatomic anion: you must memorize the polyatomic ion’s name. NO2-is the nitrite ion.
Naming ionic compounds: The positive ion name is given first (remember, if it’s a transition
metal, the Roman numeral indicating its charge is part of its name), followed by the name of the
negative ion. No prefixes are used.
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
How will you know if it’s a molecular compound? Well, it will be a combination of nonmetals,
both of which lie near each other on the periodic table. Use the following set of prefixes, and
don’t forget the -ide ending to the name.
Subscript Prefix
1 mono- (usually used only on the second element, such as carbon monoxide or nitrogen
monoxide)
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-
7 hepta-
8 octa-
9 nona-
10 deca-
If the second element’s name begins with a vowel, the a at the end of the prefix is usually
dropped. N2O5 is dinitrogen pentoxide, not dinitrogen pentaoxide. PCl5 is phosphorous
pentachloride, not phosphorous pentchloride
Formula Writing
The naming is the tricky bit! Once you’ve been given the name, the formula writing is easy as
long as you know the formula and charges of the polyatomic ions. The prefixes of a molecular
compound make it really easy since the prefix tells you how many atoms are present! Roman
numerals are your friend: they tell you the charge on the transition metal. Remember, Ag, Cd,
and Zn are usually not written with a Roman numeral—arrange the symbols in alphabetical
order, and the first listed is +1, while the other two are +2. Most important, the sum of the
charges must add up to zero in order to form a neutral compound. The “crisscross method” is
very useful—the charge on one ion becomes the subscript on the other. Always double-check to
see that the subscripts are in their lowest terms! Here are some examples:
Fill in the following chart with the proper chemical formulas. If the charges are missing, it’s
because you should already know them or be able to determine them from their position in the
periodic table.
Ag Si2+ Cu+ Ba NH4 P5+ Mn7+
N
O
Br
S
SO4
ClO2
PO3
Fill in the following chart with the proper chemical names. If the charges are missing, again, it is
because you should already know them or be able to determine them from their position in the
periodic table.
Ag Si2+ Cu+ Ba NH4 P5+ Mn7+
N
O
Br
S
SO4
ClO2
PO3
Answers to the Table Exercises

Naming Acids Exercise
Acid formula Acid name
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HClO Hypochlorous acid
HClO2Chlorous acid
HClO3Chloric acid
HClO4Perchloric acid (or hyperchloric acid)
HNO3 Nitric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
H3PO3 Phosphorous acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid
HC2H3O2 Acetic acid
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
HI Hydroiodic acid
HF Hydrofluoric acid
Naming Organic Compounds Exercise
No. of carbon atoms = n Prefix or stem -ane CnH2n+2 -ene CnH2n -yne CnH2n–2
-anol CnH2n+1 + OH
1 meth- CH4 methane Cannot form* CH3OH methanol
2 eth- C2H6 ethane C2H4 ethene C2H2 ethyne C2H5OH ethanol
3 prop- C3H8 propaneC3H6 propeneC3H4 propyne C3H7OH propanol
4 but- C4H10 butane C4H8 butene C4H6 butyne C4H9OH butanol
5 pent- C5H12 pentane C5H10 pentene C5H8 pentyne C5H11OH pentanol
6 hex- C6H14 hexane C6H12 hexene C6H10 hexyne C6H13OH
hexanol
7 hept- C7H16 heptane C7H14 heptene C7H12 heptyne C7H15OH
heptanol
8 oct- C8H18 octane C8H16 octene C8H14 octyne C8H17OH octanol
9 non- C9H20 nonane C9H18 nonene C9H16 nonyne C9H19OH
nonanol
10 dec- C10H22 decane C10H20 decene C10H18 decyne C10H21OH
decanol
*Must have two carbons for a double or triple bond!
Formula Writing and Naming Exercise
Ag+ Si2+ Cu+ Ba2+ NH4+ P5+ Mn7+
N3- Ag3N silver nitride Si3N2 trisilicon dinitride Cu3N copper (I) nitride Ba3N2
barium nitride (NH4)3N ammonium nitride P3N5 triphosphorus pentanitride Mn3N7
manganese (VII) nitride
O2- Ag2O silver oxide SiO silicon monoxide Cu2O copper (I) oxide BaO barium
oxide (NH4)2O ammonium oxide P2O5 diphosphorus pentoxide Mn2O7 manganese
(VII) oxide
Br- AgBr silver bromide SiBr2 silicon dibromide CuBr copper (I) bromide BaBr2
barium bromide NH4Br ammonium bromide PBr5 phosphorus pentabromide MnBr7
manganese (VII) bromide
S2- Ag2S silver sulfide SiS silicon sulfide Cu2S copper (I) sulfide BaS barium
sulfide (NH4)2S ammonium sulfide P2S5 diphosphorus pentasulfide Mn2S7 manganese
(VII) sulfide
SO42- Ag2SO4 silver sulfate SiSO4 silicon sulfate Cu2SO4 copper (I) sulfate BaSO4
barium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ammonium sulfate P2(SO4)5 diphosphorus pentasulfate
Mn2(SO4)7 manganese (VII) sulfate
ClO2- AgClO2silver chlorite Si(ClO2)2silicon chlorite CuClO2 copper (I) chlorite
Ba(ClO)2 barium chlorite NH4ClO2ammonium chlorite P(ClO2)5 phosphorus
pentachlorite Mn(ClO2)7manganese chlorite
PO33- Ag(PO3)3 silver phosphite Si3(PO3)2silicon phosphite Cu3PO3 copper (I) phosphite
Ba3(PO3)2 barium phosphite(NH4)3PO3 ammonium phosphite P3(PO3)5
triphosphorus pentaphosphite Mn3(PO3)7 manganese (VII) phosphate
Practice Tests Are Your Best Friends
Believe it or not, the SAT II Chemistry test has some redeeming qualities.
One of them is reliability. The test doesn’t change much from year to year.
While individual questions will never repeat from test to test, the topics
that are covered and the way in which they’re covered will remain constant.
This constancy can be of great benefit to you as you study for the test. To
show how you can use the similarity between different versions of the SAT
II Chemistry to your advantage, we provide a case study.

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Introduction to the SAT II Chemistry Test

Content of the SAT II Chemistry Test

1. A highly electronegative element

2. Forms colored solutions when dissolved in water

3. Normally exists as a diatomic molecule but can react to form a 2 - ion

25. Which of the following statements correctly describe the information

Scoring the SAT II Chemistry

SAT II Chemistry Test-Taking Strategies

1. An organic solid with a low melting point

2. Acts as a weak base when bubbled into pure water

3. Would be the best choice of the above to neutralize excess NaOH

11. A student performed an experiment to determine the heat of neutralization of

Atomic Structure—What We Know Today

Gamma decay consists of the emission of pure electromagnetic energy;

Often the emission of an alpha or a beta particle creates another radioactive

Fission and Fusion

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

The Bohr Model of the Atom

Answer: Valence electron Valence orbital notation Set of quantum

Fe [Ar] 4s23d 6 3, 2, -2, -1/2

The Periodic Table and Periodic Properties

Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Exceptions to Regular Lewis Structures—

Let’s look at another example of resonance, in the carbonate ion

Selenium is surrounded by four fluorines and a lone pair of electrons.

Three areas of electron density: trigonal planar molecule

Four areas of electron density: tetrahedral molecule

Six areas of electron density: octahedral molecule

Valence Bond Theory

Ammonia also has sp3 hybridization, even though it has a lone

Here’s how it looks with all the pieces put together:

Here is a table summarizing hybridization and structure:

5 dsp 3 trigonal bipyramidal

3. If the set of quantum numbers n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = Â±1/2 represents the

4. Which element has the following electron configuration?

5. Complete the balanced equation below. The missing term is

6. Oxygen-15 has a half-life of 9.98 minutes. How much of a 20.0 g sample of

12. Removing an electron from sodium is an _____ process and removing an

17. Which one of the following molecules is octahedral?

18. Which molecule is incorrectly matched with the molecular geometry?

Molecule Molecular geometry

The States of Matter

Intra- and Intermolecular Forces

The intersection of all three lines is known as the triple

The Gas Laws

The pressure of the gas is given by h (the difference in mercury levels) in

Try using Charles’s law to solve the following problem.

So, , then 2.50 L/288K = V 2 /303K, and V 2 = 2.63 L

The Ideal Gas Law

to find the molecular weight of an unknown gas . You’ll get a

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion

Gases, however, decrease in solubility with an increase in temperature.

The molarity of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute

Then convert mL to liters:

Now try a problem involving the equation:

The molality of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute

Convert grams of solvent to kg:

3. In the laboratory, a sample of hydrogen is collected by water displacement.