Cell Cycle &

Division
All Materials © Cmassengale

Cell Division:
 All cells are derived from preexisting cells (Cell Theory)
 Cell division is the process by which cells produce new cells
 Cell division differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists,
fungi, plants, & animals)
 Some tissues must be repaired often such as the lining of gut, white
blood cells, skin cells with a short lifespan 
 Other cells do not divide at all after birth such as muscle & nerve 

Reasons for Cell Division:

 Cell growth
 Repair & replacement of damaged cell parts
 Reproduction of the species

Copying DNA: 
 Since the instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA,
each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules
 This requires that the DNA be copied (replicated,
duplicated) before cell division
Chromosomes & Their Structure:
 The plans for making cells are coded in DNA
 DNA, deoxyribose nucleic acid, is a long thin molecule that stores
genetic information
 DNA in a human cell is estimated to consist of six billion pairs
of nucleotides
 DNA is organized into giant molecules called chromosomes
 Chromosomes are made of protein & a long, single, tightly-coiled
DNA molecule visible only when the cell divides

 When a cell is not dividing the DNA is less visible & is called chromatin

 DNA in eukaryotic cells wraps tightly around proteins called histones to
help pack the DNA during cell division
 Nonhistone proteins help control the activity of specific DNA genes
 Kinetochore proteins bind to centromere and attach chromosome to the
spindle in mitosis
 Centromeres hold duplicated chromosomes together before they are
separated in mitosis
 Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes which are important in cell
aging
 When DNA makes copies of itself before cell division, each half of the
chromosome is called a sister chromatid 
  DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular chromosome attached to
the inside of the cell membrane

Chromosome Numbers:
 Humans somatic or body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46
chromosomes (diploid or 2n number)
 The 2 chromatids of a chromosome pair are called homologues (have
genes for the same trait at the same location)

Homologs
 Human reproductive cells or gametes (sperms & eggs) have one set or
23 chromosomes (haploid or n number)
 Every organism has a specific chromosome number

Chromosome Number
Organism
(2n)
Human 46
Fruit fly 8
Lettuce 14
Goldfish 94

 Fertilization, joining of the egg & sperm, restores the diploid

chromosome number in the zygote (fertilized egg cell)
 Sex chromosomes, either X or Y, determine the sex of the organism
 Two X chromosomes, XX, will be female and XY will be male
 All other chromosomes, except X & Y, are called autosomes
 Chromosomes from a cell may be arranged in pairs by size starting
with the longest pair and ending with the sex chromosomes to make
a karyotype
 A human karyotype has 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex
chromosomes (23 total)

 
Human Male Karyotype
Genes:
 A section of DNA which codes for a protein is called a gene
 Each gene codes for one protein
 Humans have approximately 50,000 genes or 2000 per chromosome
 About 95% of the DNA in chromosome is "junk" that does not code for
any proteins

Cell Cycle:
 Cells go through phases or a cell cycle during their life before they
divide to form new cells 
 The cell cycle includes 2 main parts --- interphase, and cell division

 Cell division includes mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (division

of the cytoplasm)
 Interphase is the longest part of a cell's life cycle and is called
the "resting stage" because the cell isn't dividing
 Cells grow, develop, & carry on all their normal metabolic
functions during interphase
 Interphase consists of 3 parts --- G1, S, & G2phases

Interphase:
 G1 or 1st Growth Phase occurs after a cell has undergone cell division
 Cells mature & increase in size by making more cytoplasm & organelles
while carrying normal metabolic activities in G 1 
  S or Synthesis Phase follows  G1  and the genetic material of the
cell (DNA) is copied or replicated 

 G2 or 2nd Growth Phase occurs after S Phase and the cell makes all
the structures needed to divide

Cell division in Prokaryotes:

 Prokaryotes such as bacteria do not have a nucleus
 Prokaryotes divide into two identical new cells by the process of binary
fission
 Binary fission is an asexual method of reproduction
 In binary fission,  the chromosome, attached to cell membrane, makes a
copy of itself and the cell grows to about twice its normal size
 Next, a cell wall forms between the chromosomes & the parent cell
splits into 2 new identical daughter cells (clones)
Cell Division in Eukaryotes:
 Eukaryotes have a nucleus & membrane-bound organelles which must
be copied exactly so the 2 new cells formed from division will be exactly
alike
 The original parent cell & 2 new daughter cells must
have identical chromosomes
 DNA is copied in the S phase of the cell cycle & organelles, found in the
cytoplasm,  are copied in the Growth phases
 Both the nucleus (mitosis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) must be
divided during cell division in eukaryotes

Stages of Mitosis:
 Division of the nucleus or mitosis occurs first
 Mitosis is an asexual method of reproduction
 Mitosis consists of 4 stages --- Prophase, Metaphase, anaphase, &
Telophase
 Prophase:
o Chromosomes become visible when they condense into sister
chromatids
o Sister chromatids attach to each other by the centromere
o Centrioles in animal cells move to opposite ends of cell
o Spindle forms from centriole (animals) or microtubules (plants)
o Kinetochore fibers of spindle attach to centromere
o Polar fibers of spindle extend across cell from pole to pole
o Nuclear membrane dissolves
o Nucleolus disintegrates
 Metaphase:
o Chromosomes line up in center or equator of the cell attached to
kinetochore fibers of the spindle
 Anaphase:
o Kinetochore fibers attached to the centromere pull the sister
chromatids apart
o Chromosomes move toward opposite ends of cell
 Telophase:
o Nuclear membrane forms at each end of the cell around the
chromosomes
o Nucleolus reform
o Chromosomes become less tightly coiled & appear as chromatin
again
o Cytokinesis begins
Cytokinesis:
 Cytoplasm of the cell and its organelles separate into 2 new daughter
cells
 In animals, a groove called the cleavage furrow forms pinching the
parent cell in two

 In plants, a cell plate forms down the middle of the cell where the new
cell wall will be
Summary of Mitosis:

   
 Early Prophase  
 Interphase
1. Chromosomes
1. Cell matures & carries
condense & become
on normal activities
visible
2. DNA copied & appears
2. Centrioles separate
as chromatin
& spindle starts
3. Nucleolus visible
forming

 
 Late Prophase  Metaphase

1. Spindle forms with aster 1. Chromosomes line

at each pole up at the equator of
2. Nuclear membrane & the cell attached to
nucleolusdisintegrate kinetochore fibers of
 3. Centromere of
chromosomes attaches to
spindle
spindle fibers

 Telophase/Cytokinesis  

 Anaphase 1. Nuclear membrane

& nucleolus reform
1. Centromeres split apart 2. Cell pinches into 2
2. Homologs move to cells in animals
opposite poles of the cell 3. In plants, a cell plate
separates the 2 new
cells

Cancer is Uncontrolled Mitosis:

 Mitosis must be controlled, otherwise growth will occur without limit
(cancer)
 Control is by special proteins produced by oncogenes
 Mutations in control proteins can cause cancer

Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction

 Reduces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number in
the original cell
 New cells have a single copy of chromosomes (23 total) but are not
identical to each other or the original parent cell
 Used for making gametes ( sperm and eggs) with the haploid or
n number
 In meiosis, cells divide twice after a single DNA duplication
 Meiosis I separates homologs & the Meiosis II separates sister
chromatids
 Meiosis I stages are Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, & Telophase
I
  Meiosis II stages are Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, &
Telophase II
 Produces 4 haploid cells or gametes
 When a sperm fertilizes an egg to form a zygote, the diploid number of
chromosomes is restored (23 + 23 = 46)
 Egg cells or ova (ovum, singular) are larger , nonmotile cells
 Gametoogenesis is meiosis producing eggs & occurs in the
female's ovaries

Oogenesis
 Sperms contain less cytoplasm so they're smaller & have a flagellum to
swim to the egg
 Spermatogenesis is meiosis producing sperm cells & occurs in the testes

 
 Spermatogenesis
Meiosis I:
 The cell that undergoes Meiosis I is a primary spermatocyte or oocyte
 Prophase I:
o Chromosomes coil tightly & are visible
o Nuclear membrane & nucleolus disintegrate
o Spindle forms
o Synapsis (joining) of homologous chromosomes occurs making
tetrads
o Kinetochore fiber forms on each chromosome
o Chromosomes in tetrad exchange fragments by a process
called crossing over

 Metaphase I:
o Tetrads become aligned in the center of the cell attached to
spindle fibers
 Anaphase I:
o Homologous chromosomes separate
 Telophase I:
o May not occur in all species
o Cytokinesis occurs producing 2 cells
o In females,  2nd cell in females is called the 1st Polar Body
o 1st Polar Body dies due to uneven splitting of the cytoplasm

 Prophase II:
o Cells called Secondary Spermatocytes or oocytes
o DNA is not copied before cell divides
o Chromatids attach to spindle fiber
 Metaphase II:
o Chromosomes become aligned in the center of the cell attached to
spindle fibers
 Anaphase II:
o Sister chromatids separate randomly
o Called independent assortment
 Telophase I:
o Cytokinesis occurs producing 4 cells in males called spermatids
o Spermatids mature & form flagellum to become sperm
o Cytokinesis in females produces a 2nd Polar Body that dies and
an ootid 
o Ootids mature to become ovum or egg
  

Asexual & Sexual reproduction:

 Evolution is the slow process of change in living populations over time
 Variations are differences that occur due to crossing-over among
members of a sexually reproducing population
 Variations are important to the survival of individuals in a
population (some must survive to reproduce)
 Asexually reproducing organisms rarely show variations because the
organisms have identical genes