1.

compare and contrast the five early school of thought in

psychology
The first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first psychology
lab, Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance
in psychology.

Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook
focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers
associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of
structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The
structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human
mind.

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions and
adaptations. Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology,
functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, there are some different
functionalist thinkers associated with this outlook including John Dewey and James Rowland
Angell.

Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead
interested in the role that these processes play.

Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as
unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. the gestalt psychologists believed
that you must look at the whole of experience. According to the Gestalt thinkers, the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts.

Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including
classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.

The behavioral school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology,
and many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely
used today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other techniques are
frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought

emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego.
The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of personality charged with
dealing with reality. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the ideals and
values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these
three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors.

Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories.

2. compare and contrast the modern psychology

There are different ways of thinking about human behavior. Psychologists utilize a variety of
perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave.

Some researchers focus on one specific school of thought, such as the biological perspective,
while others take a more eclectic approach that incorporates multiple points of view. There is no
single perspective that is "better" than another; each simply emphasizes different aspects of
human behavior.

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of
psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior, as well as to treat mental
illnesses.

Much thanks to Freud's work and influence, psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major
forces within psychology. Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key
elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.

 The id is the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and unconscious desires.
 The ego is the aspect of the psyche that must deal with the demands of the real world.
 The superego is the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with managing all of
our internalized morals, standards, and ideals.

While the psychodynamic perspective is not as dominant today, it continues to be a useful

psychotherapeutic tool.1

2. The Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral psychology focuses on learned behaviors. It was founded on the work of

psychologists such as Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson.2 Behaviorism dominated
psychology in the early twentieth century but began to lose its hold during the 1950s.

Behaviorism differs from other perspectives because it focuses solely on observable behaviors
rather than on emphasizing internal states.
Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and
reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and
counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology emerged. This area of
psychology focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, problem-solving, language, and
decision-making.3

Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, the cognitive perspective
has grown tremendously in recent decades.

Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model (comparing the human

mind to a computer) to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and
utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate
science. Today, the perspective is known as biological psychology (also called biopsychology or
physiological psychology). The point of view emphasizes the physical and biological bases of
behavior.4

Researchers with a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics influence
behavior or how damage to specific areas of the brain affect personality.

The nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the endocrine system are just a
few subjects of interest to biological psychologists. Over the last few decades, the perspective
has grown significantly with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain
and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans give
researchers tools to observe the brain under a variety of conditions. Scientists can now look at
the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were not possible in the past.

5. The Humanistic Perspective

In the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology arrived. It was greatly
influenced by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

The humanistic perspective emphasizes the role of motivation in thought and behavior. Concepts
such as self-actualization are essential. Psychologists with a humanist perspective focus on what
drives humans to grow, change, and develop their personal potential.
Positive psychology (which focuses on helping people live happier, healthier lives) is a recent
movement in psychology with roots in the humanist perspective.

3.please reflect on the relationship between the goal of psychology and

the three types of research method using examples;-

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. While you might understand what
psychology is, many people are not quite so sure about what psychology does. What purpose
does psychology serve? What are its goals?

One of the first goals of psychology is simply to describe behavior. Through describing the
behavior of humans and other animals, we are better able to understand it and gain a better
perspective on what is considered normal and abnormal.

Psychology researchers utilize a range of research methods to help describe behavior including
naturalistic observation, case studies, correlational studies, surveys, and self-report inventories.

Researchers might start by observing human behavior and then describing a problem. By
understanding what is happening, psychologists can then work on learning more about why the
behavior happens and even how to change it.

Imagine that researchers want to learn more about consumer behavior. They might use market
research surveys, direct observation, and other data collection methods to gather information on
what people are doing when they shop. This gives researchers greater insight into what is really
happening in a particular population.

Explain

As you might imagine, in addition to merely describing it, psychologists are also interested in
explaining behavior. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to
development, personality, social behavior, and mental health problems?

Throughout psychology's history, many theories have emerged to help explain various aspects of
human behavior. A few examples of such approaches including classical conditioning and
attachment theories.

Some theories focus on just a small aspect of human behavior (known as mini-theories) while
others serve as all-encompassing theories designed to explain all of human psychology (known
as grand theories).

Predict
Not surprisingly, another primary goal of psychology is to make predictions about how we think
and act. Once we understand more about what happens and why it happens, we can use that
information to make predictions about when, why, and how it might happen again in the future.

Successfully predicting behavior is also one of the best ways to know if we understand the
underlying causes of our actions.

Prediction also allows psychologists to make guesses about human behavior without necessarily
understanding the mechanisms underlying the phenomena.

For example, if researchers notice that scores on a particular aptitude test predict high school
dropout rates, they can use that information to estimate how many students might drop out of
school each year.

In the previous example looking at consumer behavior, psychologists would use the information
they collected to try to predict what consumers will purchase next. Businesses and marketers
often employ consumer psychologists to make such predictions so that they can create products
that will appeal to buyers.

Change

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to change, influence, or control
behavior to make constructive and lasting changes in people's lives.

In our previous example, researchers might take what they know about the link between scores
on an aptitude test and dropout rates and use the information to develop programs designed to
help students stay in school.

From treating mental illness to enhancing human well-being, changing human behavior is a huge
focus of psychology.

Learning Objectives

1. Differentiate the goals of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs and
explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
2. Explain the goals of descriptive research and the statistical techniques used to interpret it.
3. Summarize the uses of correlational research and describe why correlational research cannot be
used to infer causality.
4. Review the procedures of experimental research and explain how it can be used to draw causal
inferences.

Psychologists agree that if their ideas and theories about human behaviour are to be taken
seriously, they must be backed up by data. However, the research of different psychologists is
designed with different goals in mind, and the different goals require different approaches. These
varying approaches, summarized in Table 3.2, are known as research designs. A research
design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data.
Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and each provides an
essential avenue for scientific investigation. Descriptive research is research designed to
provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs. Correlational research is research designed
to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from
present knowledge. Experimental research is research in which initial equivalence among
research participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given
experience for these groups and a measurement of the influence of the manipulation. Each of the
three research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations, and it is important to
understand how each differs.

4.Mention the steps of condacting research in psychology

Conducting your first psychology experiment can be a long, complicated, and sometimes
intimidating process. It can be especially confusing if you are not quite sure where to begin or
which steps to take.

Like other sciences, psychology utilizes the scientific method and bases conclusions upon
empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is important to follow the seven basic
steps of the scientific method:1

1. Ask a question or find a research problem to solve.

2. Determine what you will test to answer this question.
3. Review current knowledge on the subject.
4. Design an experiment.
5. Perform the experiment.
6. Analyze results using statistical methods.
7. Draw your conclusion and share the results with the scientific community.

1. Define Your Variables

Variables are anything that might impact the outcome of your study. An operational definition
describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within the context of your
study. For example, if you were doing a study on the impact of sleep deprivation on driving
performance, you would need to operationally define sleep deprivation and driving performance.
In this example, you might define sleep deprivation as getting less than seven hours of sleep at
night. You might define driving performance as how well a participant does on a driving test.

What is the purpose of operationally defining variables? The main purpose is control. By
understanding what you are measuring, you can control for it by holding the variable constant
between all of the groups or manipulating it as an independent variable.

2. Develop a Hypothesis

The next step is to develop a testable hypothesis that predicts how the operationally defined
variables are related. In the recent example, the hypothesis might be: "Students who are sleep-
deprived will perform worse than students who are not sleep-deprived on a test of driving
performance."

In order to determine if the results of the study are significant, it is essential to also have a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the prediction that one variable will have no association to the
other variable. In other words, the null hypothesis assumes that there will be no difference in the
effects of the two treatments in our experimental and control groups.

The null hypothesis is assumed to be valid unless contradicted by the results. The experimenters
can either reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis or not reject the null
hypothesis.

It is important to remember that not rejecting the null hypothesis does not mean that you are
accepting the null hypothesis. To say that you are accepting the null hypothesis is to suggest that
something is true simply because you did not find any evidence against it. This represents a
logical fallacy that should be avoided in scientific research.2

3. Conduct Background Research

Once you have developed a testable hypothesis, it is important to spend some time doing some
background research. What do researchers already know about your topic? What questions
remain unanswered? You can learn about previous research on your topic by exploring books,
journal articles, online databases, newspapers, and websites devoted to your subject.

Reading previous research helps you gain a better understanding of what you will encounter
during your own experiment. Understanding the background of your topic provides a better basis
for your own hypothesis.

After conducting a thorough review of the literature, you might choose to alter your own
hypothesis. Background research also allows you to explain why you chose to investigate your
particular hypothesis and articulate why the topic merits further exploration.
5. Psycologyist is interesting in exploring the effect of supporet on students in
academic performance and assign into tow