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Remote Sensing and GIS for Wetland Inventory,

Mapping and Change Analysis

Article in Journal of Environmental Management · April 2008

DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.027 · Source: PubMed

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 Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153
www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Remote sensing and GIS for wetland inventory,

mapping and change analysis
L.-M. Rebelo*, C.M. Finlayson, N. Nagabhatla
International Water Management Institute, PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Received 12 March 2007; received in revised form 8 May 2007; accepted 25 June 2007
Available online 25 March 2008

Abstract

A multiple purpose wetland inventory is being developed and promoted through partnerships and specific analyses at different scales in
response to past uncertainties and gaps in inventory coverage. A partnership approach is being promoted through the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands to enable a global inventory database to be compiled from individual projects and analyses using remote sensing and GIS. Individual
projects that are currently part of this global effort are described. They include an analysis of the Ramsar sites’ database to map the distribution
of Ramsar sites across global ecoregions and to identify regions and wetland types that are under-represented in the database. Given the extent of
wetland degradation globally, largely due to agricultural activities, specific attention is directed towards the usefulness of Earth Observation in
providing information that can be used to more effectively manage wetlands. As an example, a further project using satellite data and GIS to
quantify the condition of wetlands along the western coastline of Sri Lanka is described and trends in land use due to changes in agriculture,
sedimentation and settlement patterns are outlined. At a regional scale, a project to map and assess, using remote sensing, individual wetlands
used for agriculture in eight countries in southern Africa is also described. Land cover and the extent of inundation at each site is being
determined from a multi-temporal data set of images as a base for further assessment of land use change. Integrated fully within these analyses
is the development of local capacity to plan and undertake such analyses and in particular to relate the outcomes to wetland management and to
compile data on the distribution, extent and condition of wetlands globally.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Wetland; Inventory; Mapping; Remote sensing; GIS

1. Introduction techniques that can fill gaps in baseline inventory and has
supported the development and application of inventory
The need for information in support of wetland manage- techniques including the application of remote sensing and
ment is multi-scalar e from global, regional and national GIS (Finlayson et al., 1999; Lowry, 2006; Rosenqvist et al.,
assessments to guide policy-making and prioritization of 2007; Davidson and Finlayson, 2007).
responses to more local information on specific wetlands to At the same time advancements in Earth Observation
guide management planning processes, including assessment coupled with ground analyses have provided opportunities
and monitoring. However, in many instances baseline wetland for identifying, describing and mapping the distribution of
inventory is incomplete, and what has been collected is often wetlands at a range of scales from local to global (Sahagian
inconsistent and/or is not readily accessible to those who need and Melack, 1996; Darras et al., 1999; Lehner and Döll,
to use it (Finlayson and Spiers, 1999). The Ramsar Conven- 2004; Fernandez-Prieto et al., 2006). However, the methods
tion on Wetlands has long recognised the need to develop by which wetlands have been identified or classified using
global data sets have varied and the results have often been in-
compatible or inconsistent (Finlayson et al., 1999; Lehner and
* Corresponding author. Döll, 2004). As a consequence there are some major gaps in
E-mail address: l.rebelo@cgiar.org (L.-M. Rebelo). wetland inventory (e.g. in southern America and for peatlands)

0301-4797/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.027
 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153 2145

and inconsistencies in methods and efforts to assess the extent wetlands worldwide have been lost was seen as speculative
and condition of wetlands, and the estimates of the rate of and not supported by available data (Finlayson and D’Cruz,
wetland loss and degradation globally are incomplete or based 2005). A separate analysis of wetland extent using multiple
on unsubstantiated assertions (Finlayson et al., 2005). data sets (Lehner and Döll, 2004) produced a global estimate
Despite, or perhaps because of the absence of reliable data of 917 million hectares with substantial differences to the
the continuing loss and degradation of wetlands is of ongoing previous estimates by Finlayson et al. (1999) particularly in
concern to the Ramsar Convention that has through its in- relation to the area of wetlands in Europe and the Neotropics
volvement in recent remote sensing initiatives (Fernandez- (incorporating the Caribbean and Central and South America)
Prieto et al., 2006; Davidson and Finlayson, 2007; (Table 1). Some differences are perhaps not unexpected given
Rosenqvist et al., 2007) and the Millennium Ecosystem the differences in data and approaches being used for inven-
Assessment (Finlayson et al., 2005) promoted the need to tory analyses, but the disparity between estimates also sug-
make available a comprehensive information base on the sta- gests that further standardisation may be useful.
tus and trends of wetlands, their values, and the major drivers In response to the ongoing uncertainties over wetland area
of change. Through its triennial Conference of Parties the the compilation of a global wetland inventory is being pro-
Convention has also promoted further analyses of its existing moted through the Ramsar Convention in partnership with
data on wetlands listed as internationally important (Wetlands international, national and local organisations (Davidson and
International, 2005), and an assessment of the interactions Finlayson, 2007) and the incorporation of information from in-
between wetlands and agriculture. In response to the well- dividual projects based on existing and new data sources (e.g.
recognised data limitations and need for further information Rosenqvist et al., 2007). In particular, methods are being eval-
and analyses we report on several initiatives using Earth uated for their applicability and congruence with criteria rele-
Observation to provide such information. These initiatives vant to building a global assessment and monitoring capability
cover: (i) steps to compile a global overview of wetlands; based upon Earth Observation applications. This brings into
(ii) an analysis of the geographic representivity of wetlands play a series of methods e high amongst these are the devel-
of international importance; and (iii) analyses of change in opment of improved wetland specific methods for using newly
specific wetlands. available and advanced remote sensing data (Fernandez-Prieto
et al., 2006; Davidson and Finlayson, 2007; Rosenqvist et al.,
2. Global initiatives 2007) as well as further consideration of the usefulness of
multiple-scale approaches such as those suggested by the Con-
2.1. A global wetland inventory vention (Davidson and Finlayson, 2007).
The global inventory includes an analysis of the geographic
The achievements and limitations of global wetland inven- distribution of wetlands, based initially on existing data such
tory have been assessed and reported as part of the Millennium as that contained in the continental directories largely com-
Ecosystem Assessment (Finlayson and D’Cruz, 2005). The piled more than a decade ago (Finlayson and van der Valk,
Assessment confirmed that the extent of wetland mapping 1995) and supported by global analyses of remotely sensed
and inventory was inadequate and that the most recent esti- data (Sahagian and Melack, 1996; Darras et al., 1999; Lehner
mates of wetland extent were underestimates with significant and Döll, 2004). Further methodological developments that
gaps regionally and for various types of wetlands. Further, are under consideration include the methods and databases
the global estimate by Finlayson et al. (1999) of 1280 million being assembled for mapping irrigated areas globally (see
hectare was an underestimate (Table 1); this was derived from Thenkabail et al., 2006) and the application of new satellite
national sources and was much higher than previous estimates data resources to the challenges of a global remote sensing-
produced through Earth Observation (Finlayson et al., 1999). based approach to wetland mapping, including improved and
Additionally, assertions (e.g. Dugan, 1990) that 50% of cost effective methods to deal with seasonal and episodic inun-
dation of forested and non-forested ecosystems (Rosenqvist
et al., 2007). Additionally, geospatial analysis of existing in-
Table 1
formation is being used to assess eco-regional gaps in wetland
Estimates of global wetland area (million hectare with percentage area in
parentheses) for each of the six geopolitical regions used by the Ramsar conservation and protection within a land cover and land use
Convention on Wetlands (www.ramsar.org) context, such as that outlined in southern Africa (see below)
Region Global review of Global lakes and and at specific sites, such as the recently completed mapping
wetland resources wetlands database of wetlands in Sri Lanka (IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central
(Finlayson et al., 1999) (Lehner and Döll, 2004) Environmental Authority, 2006).
Africa 125 (10) 131 (14) As a further step, an inventory with scale-related core data
Asia 204 (16) 286 (32) elements, based on the Ramsar-recognised Asian Wetland
Europe 258 (20) 26 (3) Inventory (Finlayson et al., 2002), is being built through
Neotropics 415 (32) 159 (17) a combination of individual initiatives. This will provide an
North America 242 (19) 287 (31)
Oceania 36 (3) 28 (3)
up-to-date analysis of the extent of wetland mapping and
inventory data and techniques and make these available to
Total 1280 917
managers. Importantly, it will also develop regional
2146 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153

knowledge exchange and capacity to undertake wetland inven- consistent data for wetlands characterization and disturbance
tory through integrated analyses and specific capacity building monitoring through the establishment of a fine resolution
exercises and encourage the operationalisation of Earth Obser- (10e20 m) multi-temporal L-band SAR image archive
vation research. Fernandez-Prieto et al. (2006) point out that (Rosenqvist et al., 2007).
simply having more data through Earth Observation research
does not mean that we have better analyses. 2.3. The global data set of wetlands of international
importance
2.2. A partnership for inventory
The global network of wetland sites known popularly as
In order to accomplish meaningful, accurate and up-to-date Ramsar sites now contains over 1600 wetlands covering
mapping, inventory and assessment of global wetlands, it is more than 135 million hectares. The database containing in-
essential to develop a platform, which will allow the many formation on the sites is regularly updated (see www.ramsar.
agencies and groups working in wetlands to work together org/index_list.htm) and a formal overview provided to the
towards this goal. This requires not only organizational coher- Convention every 3 years (Wetlands International, 2005).
ence, but also a solid technical and scientific foundation. To While this database constitutes the most extensive source of
this end, a voluntary multi-stakeholder initiative for global inventory information on individual wetlands available to
wetlands inventory and mapping has been proposed by the the public it contains many gaps with some wetland types
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United under-represented, although exactly what is meant by under-
Nations, through the Coastal Panel of the Global Terrestrial represented has proven difficult to define as the database is
Observing System (C-GTOS), and the International Water not based on spatial data and the selection of sites is not fully
Management Institute (IWMI) and accepted by the Ramsar supported by a consistent or complete information base. In the
Convention’s Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) last triennial overview four categories of under-representation
(June 2006). The initiative has been developed in line with were identified (Wetlands International, 2005). These were (i)
the requirements of the United Nations Commission for Sus- global coverage e the global distribution of designated
tainable Development for partnerships that promote sustain- wetlands in relation to the global wetland resource, (ii) re-
able development (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/partnerships/ gional/national under-representation according to appropriate
csd11_partnerships_decision.htm). biogeographic classifications, (iii) numbers of sites designated
The aim of the partnership is to support and introduce for certain wetland types, and (iv) numbers of sites designated
coherence to global wetland and mapping efforts that will for their wetland-dependent biodiversity.
eventually provide both the foundation and the results that As part of an ongoing initiative to support the listing of
can be assembled into an accurate global inventory. The focus wetlands of international importance an analysis is underway
of the partnership is on collaboration and capacity building. through the STRP to determine the geographic representivity
Goals include the development of regional knowledge ex- of the distribution of listed sites globally. The aim of this
change and capacity to undertake wetland inventory through work is to highlight geographic areas and wetland types of pri-
integrated analyses of wetland condition and trends, and to sup- ority for further inventory, and areas where the use of Earth
port national-based efforts and capacity building for national Observation for wetland identification and delineation may
monitoring programs. Development of a standardized wetland be targeted. Under-represented areas identified through this
classification system suitable for land cover/use is an important analysis will determine future research directions as part of
component of the proposal. As an initial step the partnership is the global wetland mapping and inventory efforts.
contributing to the inventory tasks being addressed by the This analysis has initially been undertaken using the 825
Ramsar Convention’s STRP covering wetland classification terrestrial ecoregions identified by WWF (Olson et al.,
and delineation, and assessing the extent and consequences 2001). In this instance the ecoregions are defined as units of
of adverse change. land containing a distinct assemblage of natural communities
The partnership is an open process and depends on collab- and species and have been identified through a classification
oration between multiple agencies and organisation; these framework that builds on existing biogeographic knowledge
features have been embraced through the relationships already as well as a detailed level of biogeographic resolution. In ad-
established with international and regional organisations as dition to sharing environmental conditions and a large majority
represented through input to the Ramsar Convention’s Scien- of their species and ecological dynamics, the components of
tific and Technical Review Panel (STRP). An established these ecoregions interact ecologically in ways that are critical
example involving the STRP is the Kyoto & Carbon (K&C) for their long-term persistence. As biomes are the first tier in
Initiative which is an international collaborative effort led by this global classification the distribution of the global Ramsar
the Japanese space agency, JAXA, to support information sites has been investigated across these. While it has been
needs posed by carbon cycle science and environmental con- suggested (Olson et al., 2001) that this classification is likely
ventions by using data acquired by the L-band SAR instrument to reflect the distribution of species and communities more ac-
(PALSAR) on the Advanced Land Observing Satellite curately than landscape units based on models derived from
(ALOS), which was launched in January 2006. This contains gross biophysical features such as temperature and rainfall
a dedicated wetlands theme to provide repetitive and (Holdridge, 1967), vegetation structure or remote sensing
 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153 2147

derived spectral information (Loveland and Belward, 1997), compiled by Scott and Carbonell, 1986) and that for Asia
the distribution of wetland sites across these or similar systems (IWMI, 2006, compiled by Scott, 1989) are now available on
will be examined subsequently in a more detailed analysis. the Internet.
The distribution of global Ramsar sites across the WWF Wetland sites utilised for agriculture are of interest in the
biomes is displayed in Figs. 1 and 2. The greatest concentra- current research given the importance of wetlands for agricul-
tion of Ramsar sites within a single biome is found in Europe ture and the important role of agriculture in wetland degrada-
in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome (30%) and tion (Finlayson et al., 2005). Given the duality of interaction
in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands and shrubs biome between agriculture and wetlands, particular emphasis is be-
(10%). This is likely a reflection of the effectiveness of the ing placed on the use of Earth Observation for the provision
listing processes in the countries concerned rather than an of improved information for better management and under-
indication of the areal extent of wetlands within these two standing of agricultural interfaces with the water regimes
biomes. The area of wetlands in Europe has been estimated that characterise specific wetland types. Analysis of the infor-
as between 28 and 36 million hectares or 3e20% of the global mation in the Ramsar sites’ database (as of 11 June 2006 with
total, while the greatest areal wetland extent has been identified 1603 listed sites) shows that more than 78% of listed wetlands
in the Neotropics or Asia and North America (Table 1). In con- support agricultural activities. The distribution of these across
trast the biomes with the greatest area of Ramsar wetland sites the global biomes is shown in Fig. 3; over 50% of the sites in
listed are the tropical and sub-tropical grasslands, savannas and each biome are used for agriculture.
shrublands, and flooded grasslands (Figs. 1 and 2b). Whilst The importance of wetlands for agriculture globally is
a metric for recording the representivity of Ramsar sites, or shown by 80e90% of sites in the forest and savanna biomes
wetland types within biomes, has not been developed, it is containing agriculture; these biomes support a large proportion
evident that the number of Ramsar sites currently listed is of the world’s population. Mangroves are also important for
not representative of the estimated areal extent of wetlands in agriculture. On the whole, however, the database does not
the Ramsar regions, even though these estimates themselves provide further detailed information on these activities, e.g.
differ. The current analysis does, however, provide a basis for specific products or seasonality or area. Earth Observation
considering the proportionate importance of different biomes could usefully be applied to provide some of this further infor-
within the Convention, and can also be used to assess the mation and to record seasonal and longer-term change. At the
uses of wetlands and the key causes of wetland loss or degra- same time, with the exception of the montane biome (No. 10),
dation. This capacity will be enhanced with the placement on more than 50% of wetlands sites in these biomes are threat-
the Internet of the information on wetland distribution and ened by agriculture (Fig. 4). Again, Earth Observation could
areal extent contained in the continental wetland directories be applied to supply further information on, for example, the
undertaken in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The wetland extent and seasonality of these activities and the threats they
directories for the Neotropics (Ducks Unlimited Inc., 2006, pose to the wetlands.

Fig. 1. Distribution of Ramsar sites across WWF Terrestrial Biomes.

2148 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153

Fig. 4. Percentage of Ramsar sites within each WWF Terrestrial Biomes which
are under threat from agricultural activities.

3. Case studies

3.1. Wetland change detection, Sri Lanka

In line with the hierarchical approach to wetland inventory

promoted by the Ramsar Convention and outlined in the Asian
Wetland Inventory (Finlayson et al., 2002) satellite data and
GIS are being used to quantify the condition of a wetland
complex in Sri Lanka. Effective inventory, mapping and mon-
itoring of wetlands along with assessment of the ecosystem
services they provide is being used to improve local under-
standing of the inter-related ecological and socio-economic
Fig. 2. Number and area of Ramsar sites within the WWF Terrestrial Biomes factors that affect the wetlands. They are also helping to
(1: Tropical, subtropical moist broadleaf forest; 2: Tropical, subtropical dry
identify the inter-linkages between the various components
broadleaf forest; 3: Tropical, subtropical coniferous woodland; 4: Temperate
mixed broadleaf forest; 5: Temperate coniferous woodland; 6: Boreal forest/
that comprise the wetland and that support livelihoods.
taiga; 7: Tropical, subtropical grassland savanna and shrubland; 8: Temperate The Muthurajawela Marsh and the adjoining Negombo
grassland savanna and shrubland; 9: Flooded grassland; 10: Montane grass/ Lagoon located along the western coast of Sri Lanka cover
shrubland; 11: Tundra; 12: Mediterranean forest wood/shrubland; 13: Desert a combined area of approximately 12,000 hectares (IUCN
and xeric shrubland; 14: Mangrove).
Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority, 2006).
Muthurajawela is the largest saline coastal peat bog in Sri
Lanka, which together with the Negombo Lagoon forms an
integrated coastal wetland ecosystem. It was listed as one of
12 priority wetlands in Sri Lanka in 1996 and its northern
part was declared a wetland sanctuary due to endemicity and
uniqueness in both marine and terrestrial components. The
surrounding landscape has long been used for agriculture
and in more recent times for aquaculture. In addition as it is
one of the most urbanised and industrialised parts of the coun-
try there is increasing pressure to convert the wetlands for
other uses. The wetland complex is located alongside a rapidly
developing urban area and is being rapidly degraded by
inadequately planned development activities and growing an-
thropogenic pressure. An inventory and assessment has been
undertaken to quantify the extent of biophysical change in
the wetland complex over the past few decades and to investi-
gate some of the socio-economic drivers of change over this
period. This included the identification of ‘indicators of stress’
Fig. 3. Percentage of Ramsar sites which support agricultural activities in each in the wetland and a geospatial analysis of the extent of
of the WWF Terrestrial Biomes. ecological change and future potential threats.
 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153 2149

Fig. 5. Methodological flow of the process involved in linking ecological and socio-economic variables.

In order to detect trends in land uses a geospatial platform and specific change and how this may relate to national and
(Fig. 5) was established to identify and assess the extent of local policy and land use management.
specific areal and ecological change and to analyse gaps in The accuracy of the derived map was checked in the field
the existing management and conservation strategies for the using ground points collected using a differential GPS with
marsh and lagoon. Multi-spectral Landsat satellite imagery 23 ground control points collected during the pre-classification
from 1992 to 2002 was used to spatially capture changes in process and 58 points collected post-classification. The accu-
the land cover and land use observed in the wetlands and racy calculated for the refined supervised classification
adjacent land. The multi-seasonal images were processed approach was 86% although there were ambiguities in classes
and classified with a supervised classifier (Maximum Likeli- such as marshland with shrub patches and open moist area
hood Algorithm). Ground data were used to refine, verify with shrubs.
and validate the changes in land cover and land use. Ancillary Further to the primary analysis of change between the
data (e.g. topographical and land survey maps) were integrated defined time periods, an attempt was made to depict the
with the geospatial analysis to refine the land cover/use types. contribution to overall changes in the marsh by other classes.
Land cover change and future projections were undertaken An analysis of change using different thresholds and defined
using a customised algorithm available in IDRISI-Andes algorithms in IDRISI to capture the gradients of change was
(Land Change Modeller) for ecological sustainability. The used to determine the contribution to net changes in associated
utility of this algorithm for assessing accelerated land conver- wetland types. Contributions to the increase in settlements are
sion in tropical coastal wetlands was tested against the ancil- shown in Fig. 7. These illustrate that the largest conversions to
lary data. Changes in wetland cover between 1992 and 2002 settlements have occurred in marshland, followed by areas of
are shown in Fig. 6. Key changes included a loss of deep water littoral vegetation; infilling and the conversion of marshes to
areas (33%), mangroves (49%) and marsh (40%) due to sedi- settlements are the major cause of shrinkage in areal extent.
mentation, infilling and clearing of vegetation and the expan- In summary, increased urbanisation and industrialisation
sion of human settlements. The areal extent of agricultural have resulted in the loss of marshland.
land was not significantly different. The main activities driving
change in the marsh and lagoon are expanding settlements 3.2. Inland wetlands in southern Africa
along with industrialisation. Industrial, domestic and agricul-
tural discharges over many years have disturbed the pattern At a broader scale wetlands used for agriculture are being
of water flow into the lagoon and increased sedimentation. mapped and assessed through Earth Observation in southern
This increase in sedimentation is assumed to have adversely Africa. This constitutes part of the global inventory project.
affected fish productivity and hence the livelihood patterns It is also part of a project to assess the manner in which local
of the local people. Ground data are being collected to corrob- communities use wetlands for multiple purposes, both now
orate these results in more detail and to identify more localised and in the future, and to put in place or enhance mechanisms
2150 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153

activities have been selected within eight countries in southern

Africa (Fig. 8). Population pressure and increased exploitation
of resources within these wetlands and the surrounding
catchments are leading to serious degradation and loss of bio-
diversity and ecosystem services. Initial analyses have been
undertaken at one of the larger (>2000 km2) sites e Lake
Chilwa in Malawi. The inundation extent and spatial distribu-
tion of wetland types within the Lake Chilwa wetland complex
is being determined from a multi-temporal Earth Observation
data set acquired during the wet and dry seasons. In addition to
validation of the mapping results, the ecological characteris-
tics and the cultivation patterns within and across ecological
zones has been characterized through field investigations.
While remote sensing data sets are available (wet and dry sea-
son Landsat TM, and wet season ASTER), on-ground access
to the site is extremely difficult. Access roads into and around
the site are minimal, and the vegetation is near-impenetrable
even during the dry season. As ground validation to accom-
pany the remote sensing analysis is problematic, air photos
have been acquired in order to assist with image interpretation
and classification. Where possible ground data were also
collected with wetland types across each site classified accord-
ing to the FAO Land Cover Classification System (LCCS; Di
Gregorio and Jansen, 2000) for major land cover categories.
This will provide a comparison with the approach recommen-
ded by the Ramsar Convention to classify wetlands on the
basis of their hydro-geomorphology (Finlayson et al., 1999).
The spatial distribution of the dominant wetland types
across the site was classified from Landsat TM and ASTER
Fig. 6. Land cover change in the Muthurajawela Marsh and the adjoining Ne- data using a decision tree classifier and a series of binary
gombo Lagoon, Sri Lanka.
decision rules. Decision Tree classifiers allow multistage clas-
sifications to be performed, recursively partitioning the input
that minimise the degradation of wetlands in order to optimise data set into increasingly homogenous subsets. A particular
the livelihood benefits that are generated (Darradi et al., 2006). advantage of this approach is that data sets with different
In addition, generic guidelines, tools and methods for sustain- spatial resolutions, as well as ancillary data sets can be used
able and improved land and water management in wetlands together during the classification process. In the absence of
are being generated. As wetlands in sub-Saharan Africa sufficient ground data, but acknowledging the availability of
typically play a vital role in supporting rural populations, the suitable alternate data sources (an ASTER Digital Elevation
sustainable management of these ecosystems is critical. In Model (DEM) and a data set of aerial photographs) which
order to prevent depletion of these resources a balance is may aid in image interpretation in addition to knowledge of
required between environmental and socio-economic needs the area gained during field visits, the use of a decision tree
(Wood, 2006). classifier is considered a more appropriate method than tradi-
Priority wetland sites that are vulnerable to both climatic tional statistical techniques. A set of decision rules have been
variability and agricultural (subsistence and commercial) applied to a data set consisting of a dry season Landsat TM

Fig. 7. Contribution of changes in land cover to the increased area of settlements (km2).
 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153 2151

Fig. 8. Location and size of wetland sites in southern Africa.

image acquired on 18th November 2005, a wet season ASTER partitioned into permanent open water and seasonal flood
image (VNIR, SWIR and TIR subsystems) acquired on 21st plain, and the latter into two wet season classes, open water
May 2006, and a 15 m spatial resolution ASTER DEM and swamp. Based on field data and air photos, the area of
(derived from the nadir and backward VNIR stereoscopic swamp is classified into four composite vegetation classes
pair and calibrated through ground-based GPS measurements). based on the dominant land cover and land use. The spatial
The decision rules were derived through an analysis of the distribution of the wetland classes is shown in Fig. 10. The
remote sensing data sets in conjunction with a subset of the classification had an accuracy of 89%, based on the 45 field
field data (50% of the 90 sites were selected at random) and sites that were not used in the initial analysis.
the georeferenced air photos (Fig. 9). The Lake Chilwa wet- The geospatial analyses involving a combination of satellite
land complex consists of approximately a third open water, imagery, air photographs and ground information relating to
a third swamp and a third floodplain. Initial analysis for the land cover and land use at multiple-scales (Figs. 9 and 10)
first node of the decision tree partitions the image into two are being used to develop tools that can be used to assist man-
classes, terrestrial and wetland, following the definitions agers to make decisions about future land uses in wetlands that
used in the Wetland Classification System for South Africa are intensively used for agriculture and/or fisheries and are an
(Ewart-Smith et al., 2006). The wetland area is subsequently important resource for local communities. The land cover/use

Fig. 9. Lake Chilwa, Malawi (Landsat TM real colour composite, May 2006, ground and air photography sites).
2152 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153

analyses in Sri Lanka and southern Africa, e.g. covering image

interpretation, field survey and land cover assessment, as well
as familiarity with GPS, GIS and spatial modelling software.
The challenge with capacity building though is not to in-
clude suitable exercises in the projects; the challenge is to en-
sure they are effective. We can readily justify capacity
building, but understanding and supporting the wider capacity
needs of local partners may not be as readily achievable even
when working within an integrated or holistic project. Within
the context of the global wetland initiative research that sup-
ports local communities is not an insignificant issue e it is
seen as essential when dealing with sustainability of liveli-
hoods and landscapes. There are many examples though where
this has not been done successfully (Carbonell et al., 2001),
but it is acknowledged as part of the global wetland inventory
project that the establishment of effective relationships with
stakeholders along with the technical analyses is an important
component.
Fig. 10. Vegetation distribution, Lake Chilwa wetland, Malawi.
5. Summary and conclusions
analyses will provide a base for further livelihood assessments
and management interventions across the region. In response to past uncertainties and gaps in wetland inven-
tories, a global wetland inventory is being developed through
4. Capacity building the application of remote sensing and GIS technologies. The
inventory is being promoted through an international partner-
Integrated fully within the above described analyses is the ship centred on the requirements of the Ramsar Convention on
need to develop national and local community capacity to Wetlands for further information on the extent and condition
undertake analyses and interpret the responses in a local oper- of wetlands globally. The inventory is being compiled through
ating environment. This is in line with international emphasis individual projects that consider different spatial and temporal
on developing capacity within countries to undertake wetland scales.
inventory and assessment and to ensure that local communities An analysis of the geographic distribution of wetlands is
are involved at all stages of the analyses and can make use of being undertaken using continental directories largely com-
the outcomes (Fernandez-Prieto et al., 2006). The capacity piled more than a decade ago with the explicit goal of making
building component of the present assignments involves these available through the Internet for further interrogation
a number of stages e involvement of stakeholders, local part- and analysis. In conjunction with this effort the Ramsar sites
ners and/or planners in planning and implementing the project database has been analysed to determine the geographic repre-
and specific components, assisting with interpretation and the sentivity of sites listed in the database. Whilst the site data is
development of models for predictive analyses, and impor- not representative of the areal extent of wetlands globally it
tantly, in the transfer of information and outcomes to the wider does provide a base for considering the proportionate distribu-
community. This is especially important where specific man- tion of wetlands across ecoregions, and is also being used to
agement interventions and/or further monitoring is being assess the regional uses of wetlands (e.g. for agriculture) and
recommended, as in the case of the Sri Lankan and southern the key causes of wetland degradation (e.g. by agriculture).
African cases outlined above. These activities also support In terms of wetland management and the application of inven-
the need to develop dedicated capacity building activities in tory for management purposes a specific example of wetland
order to better transfer Earth Observation technology to a wider change detection is illustrated from Sri Lanka where changes
wetlands’ community (Fernandez-Prieto et al., 2006). in population and land use are contributing to wetland loss and
In all cases stakeholders have been involved in the planning degradation. Through the use of remote sensing and modelling
and development of the projects e this is seen as a critical not of change in land use the particular causes of wetland conver-
just an initial step in capacity building. Where practicable the sion could be identified, in this instance the expansion of
users and data custodians are involved in the analyses, and settlements occurred through the abandonment of paddy fields
where field work is undertaken this is done in conjunction and the loss of littoral vegetation.
with local partners. The former has enhanced knowledge ex- At a broader scale the extent of land cover changes within
change and personal development through mutual on-the-job and around selected wetlands in southern Africa has been
interaction. The latter supports better contact with local land assessed using remote sensing. This is part of a larger project
owners and enhances information exchange, and importantly, considering the sustainability of agriculture in wetlands and
also enables specific on-ground technical training. Specific the maintenance of local livelihoods through targeted man-
training and personal development have featured in the agement interventions. In this respect it illustrates the
 L.-M. Rebelo et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 90 (2009) 2144e2153 2153

connection between wetland condition and human livelihoods Finlayson, C.M., Davidson, N.C., Spiers, A.G., Stevenson, N.J., 1999. Global
and specifically the application of wetland inventory data for wetland inventory e current status and future priorities. Marine and Fresh-
water Research 50 (8), 717e727.
planning and management purposes. Previous analyses of Finlayson, C.M., Begg, G.W., Howes, J., Davies, J., Tagi, K., Lowry, J., 2002.
wetland inventory have highlighted the difficulty of obtaining A Manual for an Inventory of Asian Wetlands (version 1.0). In: Wetlands
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Given the increasing extent of such analyses it is anticipated Finlayson, C.M., D’Cruz, R., 2005. Chapter 20 inland water systems. In:
Hassan, R., Scholes, R., Ash, N. (Eds.), Ecosystems and Human Well-
that the global wetland inventory database can be extended being Volume 1: Current Status and Trends: Findings of the Condition
through combining individual analyses linked with immedi- and Trends Working Group. Island Press, Washington DC, USA.
ately obvious practical outcomes. Finlayson, C.M., D’Cruz, R., Davidson, N.J., 2005. Ecosystem Services and
Integrated fully within these analyses in the development of Human Well-being: Water and Wetlands Synthesis. World Resources
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Holdridge, L.R., 1967. Life Zone Ecology. Tropical Science Centre, San Jose,
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wetlands globally. Wetland Directory of Sri Lanka. The Central Environmental Authority
CEA, The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka.
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