HEAT

THEME 3

This theme analyses heat change in chemical reactions. The study of heat of reaction includes
heat of precipitation, heat of displacement, heat of neutralisation and heat of combustion.
Applications of exothermic and endothermic reactions in daily life is discussed. Knowledge
on fuel value is used in choosing the most suitable daily fuel. Pupils’ creativity and
innovativeness are fostered through product designing activities which involve knowledge
applications on exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Chapter
3
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Key Words
• Endothermic reaction
• Energy level diagram
• Exothermic reaction
• Fuel value
• Heat of combustion
• Heat of displacement
• Heat of neutralisation
• Heat of precipitation
• Heat of reaction
• Thermochemical equation

What will you learn?

3.1 Heat change in reactions
3.2 Heat of reaction
3.3 Application of endothermic and exothermic reactions in daily life

114
Bulletin
“Affordable, ready to drink and on the go”. These are
the important concepts that Datuk Kenneth Warren
Kolb had in mind when he invented Hot Can, a smart
self-heating can that contains beverages and soups.
These self-heating cans allow users to enjoy hot
food or drinks without heating. The can works
through an exothermic reaction between two
chemicals.
There are two chambers surrounding each other.
The outer chamber stores food or drinks while the
interior chamber stores the chemicals that react
when mixed.
Common chemicals used
are aluminium and silica,
calcium oxide and water,
and copper sulphate and zinc.
When both materials
combine, a chemical reaction
generates enough heat to raise
the temperature of the can.

How do you calculate

heat change?

Do all chemical reactions

release heat?
Which is the most suitable
fuel for daily usage?

115
Theme 3 Heat

3.1 HEAT CHANGE IN REACTIONS

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Standards
• Have you ever fried an egg? While frying Pupils are able to:
3.1.1 deduce exothermic and
eggs, heat from the pan is absorbed and
endothermic reactions
causes the egg in liquid form to turn through activities.
solid. Is the change in the egg caused by 3.1.2 interpret energy level
an exothermic or endothermic reaction? diagram.
• There is a change of energy
when a chemical reaction
Form 3 Science:
occurs, and usually involves
Thermochemistry
heat energy. Heat energy is either
released or absorbed during
Photograph 3.1 a chemical reaction.
Frying an egg

Heat released Heat absorbed

Chemical
Exothermic reactions can be Endothermic
reactions classified into reactions

• Chemical reactions that release heat to the • Chemical reactions that absorb heat from the
surroundings. surroundings.
• Heat released to the surroundings causes the • Heat absorbed from the surroundings causes
surrounding temperature to rise. the temperature to drop.
• The container becomes hot. • The container becomes cold.
• Examples: respiration, oxidation of metals, • Examples: photosynthesis, decomposition of
neutralisation reaction, combustion of fuel, metal carbonate when heated, decomposition
production of ammonia, and dissolving of metal nitrates when heated and dissolving
sodium hydroxide in water. ammonium salts in water.

Photograph 3.2 shows the hand feeling cold when

using the hand sanitiser containing alcohol that
evaporates during hand sanitisation. What is this
type of reaction?

Photograph 3.3 shows the hand feeling warm when

detergent powder in the palm of the hand comes into
contact with water. What is this type or reaction?
Photograph 3.2 Hand Photograph 3.3
sanitiser on the hands Detergent on the hands
• Let us conduct the following laboratory activity to identify the exothermic and endothermic
reactions when chemicals are dissolved in water.

116
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

Laboratory Activity 3A Determining Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Learning Science
Aim: To study the types of reactions based on heat change and the PAK 21 Through Inquiry
changes in thermometer readings when substances
dissolve in water. ION
CAUT
Materials: Solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
solid anhydrous calcium chloride, CaCl2, Sodium hydroxide corrodes.
Handle with care.
solid ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3,
solid sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 and
distilled water.
Apparatus: Polystyrene cups with lids, spatula, measuring cylinder and thermometer.
Procedure:
1. Measure 20 cm3 of distilled water and pour it into a polystyrene cup.
2. Put a thermometer in the polystyrene cup and leave it for two minutes. Record the initial
temperature of the distilled water.
3. Add one spatula of solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH into the polystyrene cup.
4. Stir the mixture carefully with the thermometer.
5. Record the highest or the lowest temperature of the mixture.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 by replacing solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH with solid ammonium nitrate,
NH4NO3, solid sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 and solid anhydrous calcium chloride, CaCl2.
Results:
Construct a table to record your observations. Bab 11/3 Video28 B03-117

Endothermic Reaction
http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Video28.html

Discussion:
1. Based on your results, determine: https://bit.ly/kpkt5v28
(a) which reaction absorbs heat.
(b) which reaction releases heat.
2. With reference to 1(a) and 1(b), classify the reactions as endothermic or exothermic reactions.

Prepare a complete report after carrying out this laboratory activity.

Energy Level Diagram

• During a chemical reaction, heat is absorbed or released. This heat is called heat of reaction, and
is given the symbol ΔH. The unit for heat of reaction is kJ mol−1.
• In a chemical reaction, when heat is released to the surroundings, ΔH is given a negative sign.
When heat is absorbed from the surroundings, ΔH is given a positive sign.
• The energy change in a chemical reaction can be represented using an energy level diagram. The
energy level diagram shows the difference in the heat energy content between the reactants and
the products.
The symbol Δ, delta is the fourth letter in the
∆H = H products – H reactants Greek alphabet that denotes difference or change.

Heat of reaction, ΔH is the heat change of one mole of reactant that reacts or one mole of
product that is formed.

117
Theme 3 Heat

• The following thermochemical equation shows an exothermic reaction, while Figure 3.1 shows
the energy level diagram for the reaction.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) ΔH = - 467 kJ mol−1

• The reaction between magnesium, Mg and

Energy sulphuric acid, H2SO4 forming magnesium
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) sulphate, MgSO4 and hydrogen gas, H2 is an
exothermic reaction.
∆H = - 467 kJ mol−1 • When 1 mole of Mg reacts with 1 mole of
H2SO4 to form 1 mole of MgSO4 and 1 mole
MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) of H2 gas, 467 kJ of heat is released to the
surroundings.
• During the reaction, the temperature of the
Figure 3.1 Energy level diagram for
mixture increases.
an exothermic reaction • The total energy content of the products
(MgSO4 and H2) is lower than the total energy
content of the reactants (Mg and H2SO4).
Therefore, ΔH is negative.

• The following thermochemical equation shows an example of an endothermic reaction, while,

Figure 3.2 shows the energy level diagram for the reaction.

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ΔH = +180 kJ mol−1

• The reaction between nitrogen gas, N2 and

Energy oxygen gas, O2 forming nitrogen monoxide
2NO(g)
gas, NO is an endothermic reaction.
• When 1 mole of N2 gas reacts with 1 mole of
∆H = +180 kJ mol−1 O2 gas to form 2 moles of NO gas, 180 kJ heat
N2(g) + O2(g)
energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
• During the reaction, the temperature of the
mixture decreases.
• The total energy content of the product (NO)
Figure 3.2 Energy level diagram for is higher than the total energy content of the
an endothermic reaction reactants (N2 and O2). Therefore, ΔH is positive.

• The following bridge map shows how the energy level diagram is constructed.

Draw an arrow upwards Label “Energy” Draw two energy levels

Draw an arrow from

Write the reactant and the the energy level of the
product of the reaction reactant to the energy
at the correct energy level level of the product Write the value of ΔH

118
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

Energy Change During Breaking and Formation of Bonds

• During a chemical reaction, the chemical bonds in the reactants are broken, and new bonds
are formed in the products. Based on Table 3.1, the change in energy for the reaction between
hydrogen, H2 and chlorine, Cl2 to produce hydrogen chloride, HCl is shown in Figure 3.3.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

Energy H H
Bab 11/3 Video29 B03-119

Breaking and
http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Video29.html

Heat energy is absorbed

Cl Cl
to break the bond Formation of Bonds
(436 kJ + 243 kJ)
https://bit.ly/kpkt5v29
Heat energy is released
Activation during the formation
energy of the bond (2  432 kJ)
H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Table 3.1 Chemical bond energy
H H + Cl Cl
ΔH = - 185 kJ mol−1
Bond Energy
2HCl(g) Bond
(kJ mol-1)
H Cl
H-H 436
H Cl
Cl-Cl 243
Figure 3.3 The energy profile shows the relationship between the H-Cl 432
breaking and formation of bonds in an exothermic reaction

• In an exothermic reaction, the heat energy released during the formation of the bonds in the
products is greater than the heat energy absorbed to break the bonds in the reactants.
• In an endothermic reaction, the heat energy absorbed to break the bonds in the reactants is
greater than the heat energy released during the formation of the bonds in the products.

3.1
1. The thermochemical equation for the decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate, CaCO3 is
as follows:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) ∆H = + 540 kJ mol−1

(a) Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction.

(b) Write three statements that can be obtained from the energy level diagram in (a).
2. The thermochemical equation below shows the formation of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) ∆H = - 50 kJ mol−1

(a) State whether the reaction above is an exothermic or endothermic reaction.

(b) Determine which bond is broken and which bond is formed.
(c) Explain the energy change involved in bond breaking and bond formation.
(c) Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction.

119
Theme 3 Heat

3.2 HEAT OF REACTION

• The heat of reaction is normally named
according to the types of reactions that occur. Standards
Figure 3.4 shows the types of heat of reaction. Pupils are able to:
3.2.1 determine heat of precipitation through activity.
3.2.2 determine heat of displacement through activity.
Heat of Precipitation 3.2.3 compare heat of neutralisation through
experiments for reactions between item:
(a) strong acid and strong alkali,
Heat of Displacement (b) weak acid and strong alkali,
(c) strong acid and weak alkali,
Heat of (d) weak acid and weak alkali.
Reaction Heat of Neutralisation 3.2.4 compare heat of combustion for various types
of alcohol through experiment.

Heat of Combustion

Figure 3.4 Types of heat of reactions The Joule symbol J is the SI issued unit for
energy, work and heat that is used in honour
• The heat of reaction can be determined through
of James Prescott Joule (1818-1889).
experiments by establishing the temperature
change when the reaction occurs. The value of
temperature change obtained is used to calculate
heat of reaction.
• Figure 3.5 shows a flow chart of the steps to Physics Link: Q = mcθ
calculate heat of reaction. θ = change in temperature

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Determine the Calculate the heat Calculate the heat State the heat of
number of moles change in the change for 1 mole of reaction, ∆H with
of the reactants and reaction: Q = mcθ reactant or 1 mole +/- signs and the
products formed, θ = change in of product formed correct units:
n mole temperature in proportion. ∆H = +/-X kJ mol−1

Figure 3.5 General steps to calculate heat of reactions

• The number of moles, n is according to the types of heat of reactions as follows:

Number of moles, n represents

Mole of precipitate Mole of metal Mole of water Mole of fuel

formed for heat of displaced for heat formed for heat burnt for heat
precipitation of displacement of neutralisation of combustion

120
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

• Most chemical reactions carried out to determine the heat of reaction involve aqueous solutions.
Some assumptions are made during calculations:
◆ The density of any aqueous solution is equal to the density of water, 1 g cm−3.
◆ The specific heat capacity of any aqueous solution is equal to the specific heat capacity of
water, which is 4.2 J g−1 °C−1.
◆ No heat is lost to the surroundings.
◆ No heat is absorbed by the apparatus of the experiment.

Heat of Precipitation

Madam, you have to

drink the contrast
media liquid before Why do I have to
taking the X-ray. drink the contrast
media liquid?

The contrast media

liquid contains barium
sulphate. Therefore, the
digestive tract, stomach
and intestines can be
easily seen on the X-ray.

Figure 3.6 Usage of barium sulphate in medicine

Form 4
• Based on the conversation above, do you know that barium Chemistry:
sulphate, BaSO4 is an insoluble salt that is used in the fields Preparation of
of medicine? Try to reflect on the insoluble salts learned in insoluble salts.
form 4. All insoluble salts are precipitates.
• Insoluble salts are formed by a double decomposition reaction that involves heat change, which
is known as heat of precipitation. What is meant by heat of precipitation?

Heat of precipitation is the heat change when 1 mole of

precipitate is formed from their ions in an aqueous solution.

• The thermochemical equation for the formation of barium

sulphate, BaSO4 precipitate is:

Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s) ∆H = - 42 kJ mol−1

• Based on the thermochemical equation, 42 kJ of heat is released when

1 mole of barium sulphate, BaSO4 precipitate is formed. Therefore,
the heat of precipitation of barium sulphate, BaSO4 is -42 kJ mol−1. Photograph 3.4 White
precipitate of barium
sulphate, BaSO4

121
Theme 3 Heat

Example:
100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 solution is added to 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3
of sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 solution. The temperature of the mixture rises from 30.0 °C to 33.0 °C.
Calculate the heat of precipitation of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
[Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 precipitate formed.
Number of moles of lead(II) ions, Pb2+ = Number of moles of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2
100
= 1.0 mol dm−3  dm3 = 0.1 mol MV
1000 Use the formula, n =
1000
Number of moles of sulphate ions, SO42−
n = number of mole
= Number of moles of sodium sulphate, Na2SO4
M = molarity of the solution
100 V = volume of the solution in cm3
= 1.0 mol dm−3  dm3 = 0.1 mol
1000
Pb2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s) Write the ionic equation for the reaction
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
Compare the stoichiometry of the ionic equation

From the ionic equation, 1 mole of lead(II) ions, Pb2+ reacts with 1 mole of sulphate ions, SO42− to
produce 1 mole of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
Therefore, 0.1 mole of lead(II) ions, Pb2+ reacts with 0.1 mole of sulphate ions, SO42− to produce
0.1 mole of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.

Step 2: Calculate the heat change.

Mass of solution, m = Total volume of mixture  density of solution
= (100 + 100) cm3  1 g cm−3
= 200 g
Temperature change of the solution, θ = Highest temperature  initial temperature
= 33.0 °C  30.0 °C = 3.0 °C
Heat released in the reaction, Q = mcθ
= 200 g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1  3.0 °C
= 2520 J
= 2.52 kJ

Step 3 : Calculate the heat change for the formation of 1 mole of precipitate.
Precipitation of 0.1 mole of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 releases 2.52 kJ of heat.
2.52 kJ
Therefore, the precipitation of 1 mole of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 releases of heat, which
is 25.2 kJ mol−1 mol
0.1

Step 4: Write the heat of reaction, ∆H. Negative sign (-) shows
Heat of precipitation of lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 ∆H = - 25.2 kJ mol−1 that this is an exothermic
reaction.
122
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

Laboratory Activity 3B Determining Heat of Precipitation

Learning Science
Aim: To determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl PAK 21 Through Inquiry
and magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.
Materials: 0.5 mol dm−3 of silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution, 0.5 mol dm−3 of sodium chloride, NaCl
solution, 0.5 mol dm−3 of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 solution and 0.5 mol dm−3 of
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 solution.
Apparatus: Two polystyrene cups with lids, measuring cylinder and thermometer.
Operational definition - Heat of Precipitation: when sodium chloride, NaCl solution is added to
silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution to produce 1 mole of silver chloride, AgCl
precipitate, the thermometer reading increases.
Procedure:
1. Measure 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 of silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution and pour it into a
polystyrene cup.
2. Put a thermometer into the solution and leave aside for two minutes.
3. Record the temperature of the solution.
4. Measure 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 of sodium chloride, NaCl solution, and pour it into another
polystyrene cup.
5. Put a thermometer into the solution and leave it aside for two minutes. Record the
temperature of the solution.
6. Pour the sodium chloride, NaCl solution quickly and carefully into the polystyrene cup
containing the silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution. ION
CAUT
Thermometer Stir
110

110

110

Silver nitrate
100

100

100
90

90

90
80

80

80

solution may cause

70

70

70
60

60

60
50

50

50

dark stains on your

40

40

40
30

30

30

Polystyrene skin and clothes.

20

20

20
10

10

10

cups

25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 Mixed solution
of silver nitrate, of sodium chloride,
AgNO3 solution NaCl solution
Figure 3.7

7. Cover the polystyrene cup and stir the mixture using the thermometer as shown in Figure 3.7.
8. Record the highest temperature of the mixture.
9. Repeat steps 1 to 8 by replacing silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution with magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2
solution, and sodium chloride, NaCl solution with sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 solution.
Results:
Construct a suitable table to record your results and observations.
Discussion:
1. State the type of reaction that occurred.
2. Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl and magnesium carbonate, MgCO3
[Use the heat change formula, Q = mcθ]
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]

123
Theme 3 Heat

3. Write the thermochemical equation for the precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl and
magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.
4. Construct the energy level diagram for the precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl and
magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.
5. The theoretical value for the heat of precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl is -65.5 kJ mol−1.
Is this value the same as the value obtained in this experiment? Explain your answer.
Conclusion:
What is the conclusion that can be drawn from this experiment?

Prepare a complete report after carrying out this laboratory activity.

Example:
The following equation shows the precipitation of silver chloride, AgCl.
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq) ∆H = - 65.5 kJ mol−1
If 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 of silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution is added into 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3
of potassium chloride, KCl solution, calculate the rise in temperature of the mixture.
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3 ]

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of silver chloride, AgCl formed.
0.5  20
Number of moles of potassium chloride, KCl = = 0.01 mol
1000

0.5  20
Number of moles of silver nitrate, AgNO3 = = 0.01 mol
1000

From the equation, 1 mole of potassium chloride, KCl reacts with 1 mole of silver nitrate, AgNO3
to produce 1 mole of silver chloride, AgCl.
Therefore, 0.01 mole of potassium chloride, KCl reacts with 0.01 mole of silver nitrate, AgNO3
to produce 0.01 mole of silver chloride, AgCl.

Step 2: Calculate the heat change.

Given ∆H = - 65.5 kJ mol−1
When 1 mole of silver chloride, AgCl is formed, 65.5 kJ of heat is released.
0.01 mol  65.5 kJ
Therefore, 0.01 mole of silver chloride, AgCl is formed, = 0.655 kJ heat is released.
1 mol

Step 3: Calculate the rise in temperature.

Mass of solution = (20 + 20) cm3  1 g cm−3 = 40 g
Heat released, Q = 655 J
40 g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1  θ = 655 J
655 J
Rise in temperature, θ = = 3.9 °C
40 g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1

124
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

Heat of Displacement
Why has a brown deposit
• An experiment was carried out by putting an iron formed on the iron nail?
Why does the blue colour
nail into copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution. solution become pale?
Figure 3.8 shows the result of the experiment.

Redox:
Displacement of
Iron nail metal from its salt
Copper(II) sulphate, solution on page 16.
CuSO4 solution

Figure 3.8 An iron nail is placed into • Recall what you have learned from displacement
the copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution reaction. Can you answer the questions above?
• The brown deposit, which is copper, Cu shows that iron, Fe has displaced copper, Cu from its
salt solution.
• Displacement reactions also involve heat change. What is meant by heat of displacement?
Heat of displacement is the heat change when one mole of a metal is displaced from its
salt solution by a more electropositive metal.

• The following thermochemical equation represents a displacement reaction.

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) ∆H = -250 kJ mol−1

or
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s) ∆H = -250 kJ mol−1

• Based on the thermochemical equation, 250 kJ of heat is released when one mole of copper, Cu is
displaced from copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution by iron, Fe.
• Therefore, the heat of displacement of copper from copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution by iron, Fe
is -250 kJ mol−1.

Example:
An excess of magnesium powder, Mg is added into 50 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm−3 of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4
solution. The temperature of the mixture increases by 4.0 °C. Calculate the heat of displacement
of iron, Fe from its salt solution.
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1, density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
Solution:
Step 1: Write the chemical equation.
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) → Fe(s) + MgSO4(aq)

Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of iron, Fe displaced from iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution.
0.25  50
The number of moles of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution = = 0.0125 mol.
1000
From the equation, 1 mole of iron, Fe is displaced from 1 mole of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution.
Therefore, 0.0125 mole of iron, Fe is displaced from 0.0125 mole of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution.

125
Theme 3 Heat

Step 3: Calculate the heat change.

Mass of solution, m = 50 cm3  1 g cm−3
= 50 g
Heat change, Q = 50 g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1  4.0 °C
= 840 J
= 0.84 kJ
Step 4: Calculate the heat change for 1 mole of iron, Fe displaced.
Displacement of 0.0125 mole of iron, Fe releases 0.840 kJ of heat.
0.840 kJ
Therefore, the displacement of 1 mole of iron, Fe can release = 67.2 kJ of heat.
0.0125
Step 5: Write the heat of displacement, ∆H.
The negative sign (-)
Heat of displacement of iron, Fe by magnesium, Mg ∆H = - 67.2 kJ mol−1 shows that this is an
exothermic reaction.

Laboratory Activity 3C Determining Heat of Displacement

Learning Science
Aim: To determine and compare the heat of displacement of copper from PAK 21 Through Inquiry
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution with zinc metal, Zn and magnesium metal, Mg.
Materials: 0.5 mol dm−3 of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution, magnesium powder, Mg and
zinc powder, Zn.
Apparatus: Polystyrene cups with lids, thermometer, measuring cylinder and spatula.
Procedure:
Stir
1. Based on Figure 3.9, list down
110

110
Metal powder
100

100
90

90
the suggested apparatus and Thermometer
80

80
Lid
70

70
materials, plan the procedure for
60

60
50

50

the experiment and consider any

40

40
30

30

Polystyrene
20

20

precautionary steps that Copper(II)

10

10

sulphate, cups
need to be taken to calculate Precipitate of
CuSO4 solution
the heat of displacement copper, Cu
of copper, Cu. Figure 3.9 Determining the heat of displacement of copper
2. Discuss the planned procedures with your teacher before you proceed.
Results:
Construct a suitable table to record your readings.
Discussion:
1. Based on the experiment:
(a) write the chemical and the ionic equations for both reactions.
(b) calculate the heat of displacement, ∆H of copper, Cu by magnesium, Mg and zinc, Zn.
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution: c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
(c) explain why the value of heat of displacement of copper, Cu by magnesium metal, Mg
and zinc metal, Zn is different.
(d) draw the energy level diagram for both reactions.
2. Why are both metals used in excess in this experiment?
3. Apart from the change in temperature, state other observations that can be found during
the experiment.

126
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

4. What is the operational definition of the heat of displacement in this experiment?

5. Will the heat of displacement, ∆H of copper, Cu be the same if copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
solution is replaced with copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 solution? Explain your answer.
Conclusion:
Write the conclusion for this experiment.

Prepare a complete report after carrying out this laboratory activity.

A ctivity 3A
PAK 21
A student carried out an experiment to determine the heat of displacement for the reaction between
copper, Cu and silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution. In this experiment, excess copper powder, Cu is
added into 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm−3 of silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution.
The heat of displacement in this experiment is -105 kJ mol−1.
[Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
(a) Write the thermochemical equation for this reaction.
(b) Calculate the heat released in this experiment.
(c) Calculate the change in temperature.
(d) Draw the energy level diagram for this reaction.
(e) The experiment is repeated using 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 of silver nitrate, AgNO3 solution
and excess copper powder, Cu. Calculate the change in temperature in this experiment.
Explain why the change in temperature is different from the calculated value in (c).

Heat of Neutralisation

Madam, why does The reaction that takes place

the conical flask feel between acid and alkali is
hot when I titrate exothermic. Heat is released
hydrochloric acid to the surroundings.
into the sodium
hydroxide solution?

Figure 3.10 Experiment of neutralisation

Form 4 Chemistry:
• Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and Neutralisation
an alkali to produce only salt and water.
• Neutralisation reaction is an exothermic reaction.
• Hydrogen ions, H+ from acid reacts with hydroxide ions, OH− from alkali to form water, H2O
molecules. The ionic equation is as follows:
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)

The heat of neutralisation is the heat change when one mole of water is formed from the
reaction between an acid and an alkali.

127
Theme 3 Heat

• The themochemical equation for neutralisation reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl and
sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H= -57 kJ mol−1

• The thermochemical equation shows 57 kJ heat is released when one mole of water, H2O is
formed from the neutralisation reaction between 1 mole of hydrochloric acid, HCl (1 mole of
hydrogen ions, H+) and 1 mole of sodium hydroxide, NaOH (1 mole of hydroxide ions, OH−).
• Neutralisation reactions can occur between acids and alkalis of different strengths as follows:
(a) strong acid and strong alkali (b) weak acid and strong alkali
(c) strong acid and weak alkali (d) weak acid and weak alkali
• What is the effect of using different acids and alkalis on the heat of neutralisation? Conduct
Experiment 3A to find out.

3A Comparing Heat of Neutralisation

Learning Science
Aim: To determine and compare heat of neutralisation between acids and PAK 21 Through Inquiry
alkalis of different strengths.

A. Reactions between a strong acid and a strong alkali, and a weak acid with a strong alkali.
Problem statement: Does the reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali produce
a higher heat of neutralisation when compared to the reaction between
a weak acid and a strong alkali?
Hypothesis: The reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali produces a higher heat of
neutralisation than the reaction between a weak acid and a strong alkali.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated variable : Hydrochloric acid, HCl and ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
(b) Responding variable : Heat of neutralisation
(c) Fixed variable : Volume and concentration of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
Materials: 1.0 mol dm of hydrochloric acid, HCl, 1.0 mol dm−3 of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
−3

and 1.0 mol dm−3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
Apparatus: Polystyrene cups with lids, thermometer and measuring cylinder.
Procedure:
1. Measure and pour 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl into a polystyrene cup.
2. Measure and pour 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution into another
polystyrene cup.
3. Put a thermometer into each solution and record the initial temperature of each solution.
4. Pour 1.0 mol dm−3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl quickly and carefully into the 1.0 mol dm−3 of
sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
5. Stir the mixture using the thermometer.
6. Record the highest temperature.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by replacing hydrochloric acid, HCl Systematic, confident
with ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. and ethical.

128
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

B. Reactions between a strong acid and a weak alkali, and between a weak acid and a weak alkali
Problem statement: Does the reaction between a strong acid and a weak alkali produce a higher
heat of neutralisation compared to the reaction between a weak acid and
a weak alkali?
Hypothesis: Construct a hypothesis that involves the reactions of a strong acid, a weak acid with
a weak alkali and the heat of neutralisation.
Variables: State all variables.
Materials: 1.0 mol dm−3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl, 1.0 mol dm−3 of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
and 1.0 mol dm−3 of ammonia, NH3 solution.
Apparatus: Polystyrene cups with lids, thermometer and measuring cylinder.
Procedure:
Using the materials and apparatus provided, plan and carry out an experiment to investigate the
effects of strengths of acids on the heat of neutralisation with weak alkalis.
Results:
Copy and complete Table 3.2 to record the initial temperature of the acids and alkalis, average
temperature of acids and alkalis, highest temperature and increase in temperature.
Table 3.2
Ethanoic acid,
Hydrochloric acid, Hydrochloric Ethanoic acid,
CH3COOH
HCl and sodium acid, HCl and CH3COOH and
Reacting mixture and sodium
hydroxide, NaOH ammonia, NH3 ammonia, NH3
hydroxide,
solution solution solution
NaOH solution
Initial temperature of
acid (°C)
Initial temperature of
alkali (°C)
Average temperature
of acid and alkali (°C)
Highest temperature
of mixture (°C)
Temperature rise (°C)
Discussion:
1. Write the chemical equation for each neutralisation reaction that takes place.
2. Calculate the heat of neutralisation, ∆H for each reaction.
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution: c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
3. Construct the energy level diagram for each neutralisation reaction.
4. Compare the value of the heat of neutralisation for each neutralisation reaction in this experiment.
5. Explain the reason for the difference in the value of the heat of neutralisation.
6. The theoretical value of the heat of neutralisation between a strong acid and a strong alkali
is -57 kJ mol−1. Compare this value with the heat of neutralisation obtained from this
experiment. Suggest a reason for this difference.
Conclusion:
Can the hypothesis be accepted? What is the conclusion of this experiment?

Prepare a complete report after carrying out this experiment.

129
Theme 3 Heat

• The theoretical value of the heat of neutralisation between a strong acid and a strong alkali is
-57 kJ mol−1.
• Table 3.3 shows the heat of neutralisation of various neutralisation reactions.
Table 3.3 Heat of neutralisaton of various neutralisation reactions
Example Heat of neutralisation, ∆H (kJ mol−1)
Strong acid + Strong Alkali → Salt + Water -57
Weak acid + Strong Alkali → Salt + Water -55
Strong acid + Weak alkali → Salt + Water -52
Weak acid + Weak alkali → Salt + Water -50

• Note that there is an influence of acid and alkali strengths over the heat of neutralisation. The
value of the heat of neutralisation is lower when weak acids or weak alkalis are used. This is
explained in the flow chart of Figure 3.11.

Some of the heat released

Weak acids or weak during neutralisation is
alkalis ionise partially Therefore, the heat
absorbed and used to
in water and some released is lower.
completely ionise the weak
remain as molecules. acid or weak alkali in water.

Figure 3.11 Explanation related to heat of neutralisation that involves weak acids or weak alkalis

• The heat of neutralisation between weak acids and weak alkalis is the lowest:
(a) More heat energy is needed to completely ionise both weak acids and weak alkalis.
(b) Therefore, hydrogen ions, H+ and hydroxide ions, OH− produced can completely react to
form 1 mole of water.

How about the neutralisation

reaction between sulphuric Form 4 Chemistry:
acid, H2SO4, a diprotic acid, 1. Strength of acids and alkalis
with sodium hydroxide, 2. Basicity of acids
NaOH solution?

• Hydrochloric acid, HCl is a monoprotic acid while sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is a diprotic acid.
• Complete neutralisation between a strong diprotic acid and a strong alkali produces twice the
quantity of heat compared to a strong monoprotic acid.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57 kJ mol−1

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) ∆H = -114 kJ

130
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

• One mole of a strong diprotic acid such as sulphuric acid, H2SO4 ionises in water to produce
two moles of hydrogen ions, H+:
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

• Two moles of hydrogen ions, H+ will produce two moles of water, H2O when they react with two
moles of hydroxide ions, OH−. 114 kJ heat is released because two moles of water are formed.
2H+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) ∆H = -114 kJ

• The heat of neutralisation of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 with sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
is still the same, which is -57 kJ, because the meaning of the heat of neutralisation is the heat
released for the formation of one mole of water.
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l) ∆H = -57 kJ mol−1

• Using monoprotic acids such as hydrochloric acid, HCl or nitric acid, HNO3 with a strong
alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH or potassium hydroxide, KOH, will produce one mole
of water.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57 kJ mol−1

HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57 kJ mol−1

Example:
60 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added into 60 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 of
ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. The highest temperature of the mixture is 40.5 °C. The initial temperature
of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is 28.0 °C, and ethanoic acid, CH3COOH solution is 28.0 °C.
Calculate the heat of neutralisaton.
[Specific heat capacity of solution: c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of water, H2O produced.
2.0  60
Number of mole of sodium hydroxide, NaOH = = 0.12 mol
1000

2.0  60
Number of mole of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH = = 0.12 mol
1000
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
From the equation, 1 mole of sodium hydroxide, NaOH reacts with 1 mole of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
to produce 1 mole of water, H2O.
Therefore, 0.12 mole of sodium hydroxide, NaOH reacts with 0.12 mole of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
to produce 0.12 mole of water, H2O.

131
Theme 3 Heat

Step 2: Calculate the heat change.

Heat released in the reaction, Q = mcθ
= (60 + 60) g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1  (40.5 − 28.0) °C
= 6300 J
= 6.3 kJ

Step 3: Calculate the heat change for the formation of 1 mole of water.
Formation of 0.12 mole of water, H2O releases 6.3 kJ of heat.
6.3 kJ
Therefore, the formation of 0.12 mole of water, H2O releases of heat, which is 52.5 kJ mol−1.
0.12 mol

Step 4: Write the heat of neutralisation, ∆H.
Heat of neutralisation, ∆H = -52.5 kJ mol−1

A ctivity 3B
When 100 cm of 2.0 mol dm of dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl is added to 100 cm of 2.0 mol dm−3 of
3 −3 3
PAK 21

sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, the temperature of the reaction increases from 30.0 °C to 43.5 °C.
[Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
(a) Calculate the heat of neutralisation.
(b) Write the thermochemical equation.
(c) Construct an energy level diagram for this reaction.
(d) Predict the temperature change if the hydrochloric acid, HCl is replaced with nitric acid,
HNO3 with the same volume and concentration. Explain your answer.

Heat of Combustion
• Based on the conversation in Figure 3.12, burning of different fuels will produce different
energy value. Combustion of fuel is an exothermic reaction.

Madam, why does cooking

Each substance releases
using wood take a longer time
different heat of combustion.
than cooking using a gas stove?

Figure 3.12 Cooking using wood

132
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

• Consider the complete combustion of methane, CH4 in oxygen, O2.

CH (g) + 2O (g) → CO (g) + 2H O(l) ∆H = -394 kJ mol−1
4 2 2 2

• The thermochemical equation shows that when one mole of methane, CH4 is completely burnt
in oxygen, O2, heat released is 394 kJ.
• The heat released is known as heat of combustion.
The heat of combustion is the heat released when 1 mole of a substance is completely
burnt in excess oxygen, O2.

3B Determining the Heat of Combustion of Various Alcohols.

Learning Science
Aim: To determine the heat of combustion of various alcohols. PAK 21 Through Inquiry
Problem statement: Does the number of carbon atoms per molecule in alcohol affect the
heat of combustion?
Hypothesis: The higher the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alcohol, the higher the heat
of combustion.
Variables: Carbon compound:
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of alcohol Combustion of
alcohol on page 86.
(b) Responding variable : Heat of combustion
(c) Fixed variable : Volume of water
Materials: Methanol, CH3OH, ethanol, C2H5OH, propanol, C3H7OH, butanol, C4H9OH and
water, H2O.
Apparatus: Copper can, tripod stand, pipeclay triangle, thermometer (0 °C − 100 °C), measuring
cylinder, spirit lamp, electronic weighing balance, wind shield and wooden block.
Procedure:
Precautionary steps
Thermometer
110

Make sure the flame from

100
90
80

the spirit lamp touches the

70
60
50

Wind shield Copper can Wind shield bottom of the copper can.
40
30
20

Water
10
0
–10

Pipeclay
ION
triangle CAUT
Spirit lamp
Alcohol Be cautious when
handling alcohols.
Wooden block They are very volatile
and highly flammable.
Figure 3.13 Apparatus to determine the heat of combustion
1. Using a measuring cylinder, measure 200 cm3 of water
and pour it into a copper can.
2. Place the copper can on a tripod stand as shown in Figure 3.13.
3. Measure and record the initial temperature of the water.
4. Fill the spirit lamp with methanol, CH3OH until about three quarter full.
5. Weigh and record the mass of the lamp with its lid and its content.
6. Place the lamp under the copper can and light up the wick of the lamp.

133
Theme 3 Heat

7. Adjust the position of the lamp with a block of wood so that the light of the lamp touches the
part under the copper can.
8. Stir the water in the copper can continuously throughout the experiment with the thermometer.
9. Turn off the flame when the water temperature rises by 30 °C. Record the highest temperature
of the water.
10. Weigh and record the mass of the lamp with its lid and content immediately after combustion.
11. Repeat steps 1 to 10 using ethanol, C2H5OH, propanol, C3H7OH and butanol, C4H9OH to
replace methanol, CH3OH,
Results:
Construct a suitable table to record your readings.
Honest and accurate in
Discussion: recording and validating data.
1. For all alcohols used in this experiment:
(a) determine the heat of combustion, ∆H.
[Given: Specific heat capacity of solution: c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
(b) write the thermochemical equation for the combustion of alcohols.
(c) construct an energy level diagram for the combustion of alcohols.
2. What is the relationship between the number of carbon atoms per molecule in the alcohols
with the value of heat of combustion?
3. State the operational definition for the heat of combustion of alcohols.
4. Why is a copper can used in this experiment?
5. Observe the outer surface of the bottom of the copper can. What do you observe? Name the
substance that is formed and give a reason for the formation of the substance.
6. List out the precautionary steps to be taken to obtain a more accurate result in this experiment.
Conclusion:
Can the hypothesis be accepted? What is the conclusion of this experiment?

Prepare a complete report after carrying out this experiment.

• Alcohol molecules consist of carbon atom, C, hydrogen atom, H and oxygen atom, O. Complete
combustion of alcohols produces carbon dioxide, CO2 and water, H2O. Combustion of alcohol
also releases energy, which is an exothermic reaction. Figure 3.14 shows the graph of heat of
combustion of alcohols against the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alcohols.
Heat of combustion (kJ mol–1) • As the number of carbon atoms per alcohol
3 000 molecule increases, the combustion of alcohol
2 500 produces more carbon dioxide and water
2 000
molecules. Therefore, more heat is released.
1 500
• The increment in the heat of combustion between
1 000
successive members of alcohols is almost the
500
same. This is because each member differs from
1 2 3 4 the following member with one CH2 group.
Number of carbon atoms per molecule of alcohol
Figure 3.14 Graph of heat of combustion of alcohol against
the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alcohol

134
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

Example:
The thermochemical equation for the complete combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH is shown below.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = -1376 kJ mol−1
Calculate the mass of ethanol, C2H5OH needed to burn completely in excess oxygen, O2 in order to raise
the temperature of 200 cm3 of water, H2O by 50.0 °C. (Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings)
[Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3; molar mass of
ethanol = 46 g mol−1]

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the heat released from the combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH.
Heat released, Q = mcθ
= 200 g  4.2 J g−1 °C−1  50.0 °C
= 42000 J
= 42 kJ

Step 2: Calculate the mass of ethanol, C2H5OH.
From the thermochemical equation, 1376 kJ of heat is released from the combustion of 1 mole of
ethanol, C2H5OH.
(42  1) mol
Therefore, 42 kJ of heat is released from of
1376 Bab11/3 Nota38 B03-135

Calculation Activity for

http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Nota38.pdf

ethanol, C2H5OH, which is 0.03 mole of ethanol, C2H5OH.

the Heat of Combustion
https://bit.ly/kpkt5n38
Mass of ethanol, C2H5OH = 0.03 mol  46 g mol−1
= 1.38 g

3.2
Solve the following problems:
Use specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3
1. 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 of calcium chloride, CaCl2 solution is added into 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3
of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 solution. The temperature of the mixture decreases from
27.0 °C to 23.0 °C. Calculate the heat of precipitation of calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
2. In an experiment, excess magnesium powder, Mg is added into 50 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm−3 of
iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 solution at 29.0 °C. The thermochemical equation is as follows:
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s) ΔH = -80.6 kJ mol−1
Calculate the highest temperature reached in this experiment.
3. Table 3.4 shows the value of the heat of neutralisation, ∆H for the reaction between sodium
hydroxide, NaOH solution and two different acids.
Table 3.4
Reactants ΔH (kJ mol−1)
Sodium hydroxide solution and ethanoic acid -57
Sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid -57
Explain the reason for the difference in the value of heat of neutralisation, ∆H.

135
Theme 3 Heat

3.3 APPLICATION OF EXOTHERMIC AND

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS IN DAILY LIFE
• The discovery of how to light a fire is considered as one of the
most important discoveries in human civilisations. Standards
• Energy generated through combustion allows humans to Pupils are able to:
chase away wild animals, cook food and control their own 3.3.1 state a few examples of
light sources and heat. application of exothermic
• Knowledge of exothermic and endothermic reactions enables and endothermic reactions
human life to be more comfortable. in daily life.
3.3.2 analyse fuel value.
• Examples of applications you have learned in Form Three are
the use of cold packs and hot packs.

Examples of Applications of Exothermic Reactions in Everyday Life

Hot Can
Hot food or beverages prepared Termite reaction Combustion of fuel
without external heat. Welding of railway tracks. Used for cooking food.

Examples of Applications of Endothermic Reactions in Everyday Life

Gel pads Self cooling beverages Sorbet

Relieves fever. Beverages in cold cans The tongue feels cold when the
without storing in sorbet is put in the mouth.
refrigerators or using ice.

Sweating causes the body to feel

Mind
Bab 11/3 Video31 B03-136a

Air Bags
http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Video31.html

cold. Is sweating an exothermic or

https://bit.ly/kpkt5v31 Challenge
endothermic reaction? Explain the
reason for your answer.

136
 Thermochemistry Chapter 3

A ctivity 3C
PAK 21

Alex loves camping and he loves his drinks to be cold. How can you help Alex enjoy having
his drinks cold while camping? Based on information from reading sources or websites about
exothermic reaction and endothermic reaction, how can you help Alex?

You are required to solve this problem by designing a cold pack so that Alex can enjoy cold
orange juice. Prepare a complete report by including the materials and apparatus used, cold pack
preparation procedure, data obtained, a sketch of the diagram of the cold pack and the advantages
of the cold pack produced. You are required to creatively present the results of the cold pack design.

What is fuel value?

• Fuels are substances that burn in the air to produce heat energy.
• Each fuel has different heat of combustion
The fuel value of a fuel is the amount of heat energy released when
one gram of fuel is completely burnt in excess oxygen.

• The unit for fuel value is kJ g−1.

• The fuel value can also be determined with the heat of combustion of substances.
heat combustion of substance (kJ mol−1)
Fuel value (kJ g−1) =
molar mass of substance (g mol−1)

• Example of calculation:
The heat of combustion of octane, C8H18 is -5 500 kJ mol−1.
Calculate the fuel value of octane, C8H18.
[Given: Relative atomic mass: H = 1, C = 12]
Malaysian Excellence
Solution:
Bab 11/3 Nota28 B03-138

Sarawak Invented
http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Nota28.html

Molar mass of octane, C8H18 = 8(12) + 18(1) the World's First

= 114 g mol−1 Starch Biogas
https://bit.ly/kpkt5n28
Complete combustion of 114 g of octane, C8H18
releases 5 500 kJ of heat.
Therefore, combustion of 1 g of octane, C8H18
5 500 kJ mol−1
=
114 g mol−1 Fuel for vehicles are known as
RON 95 or RON 97. RON refers
= 48.2 kJ g−1 to Research Octane Number.
Therefore, the fuel value of octane, C8H18 is 48.2 kJ g−1 Fuel with a higher RON is more
difficult to burn. Fuel with a lower
RON will burn easily.

137
Theme 3 Heat

• Octane has a higher fuel value than methane Table 3.5 Fuel values
as shown in Table 3.5, but its combustion Fuel Fuel value (kJ g−1)
will produce more soot. Given a choice, Wood 20
which fuel would you choose to cook with? Methane 27
• The justification for the selection of suitable Charcoal 30
fuels for various usage depends on several
Ethanol 30
factors as listed in Figure 3.15.
Petrol 34
Kerosene 37
Natural Gas 50
Hydrogen 143

Fuel value Cost of fuel

Choice of Fuel
Availability and Effects of the fuels
source of substance on the environment

Figure 3.15 Factors in the selection of fuels

• Let us carry out Activity 3D to further discuss the justification of selection of fuel.

A ctivity 3D
1. Carry out a discussion activity in groups.
PAK 21

2. Using the knowledge of fuel values you have learned, choose suitable fuels used for daily
activities such as frying eggs or making popcorns.
3. Justify your group’s fuel selection and present the results of the discussion in class.

3.3
Table 3.6
1. State the meaning of fuel value. Fuel Fuel value (kJ g−1)
2. Table 3.6 shows the fuel value of a few
types of fuels: Ethanol 30
(a) Based on Table 3.6, choose the most Petrol 34
suitable fuel to replace petrol in vehicles. Natural gas 50
(b) Compare your choice of fuel with petrol
in terms of its effects on the environment. Hydrogen gas 143

138
 Concept
Map Applications
Combustion of fuels, air bags,
lighting of matches, lighting
Applications • Breaking of bonds in reactants of fireworks, hot packs,
absorbs heat hardening of cement,
Cooking food, gel pads,
• Formation of bonds in products termite reaction, Hot Can
gel pillows, self cooling
beverages, sorbet, cold packs releases heat
Symbol
∆H negative

Symbol Endothermic Exothermic

(absorbs heat from the surroundings) (releases heat to the surroundings)
∆H positive Energy level diagram
Energy

Energy level diagram Reactants

THERMOCHEMISTRY ∆H = – y kJ mol–1
Energy
Products
Products

∆H = + x kJ mol–1 Heat change

Reactants Q = Heat released or absorbed
Q = mcθ
m = total mass of substance
θ = temperature change
c = specific heat capacity of water, 4.2 Jg–1 °C–1
Heat of reaction
∆H (kJ mol–1)

Heat of precipitation Heat of displacement Heat of neutralisation Heat of combustion

139
Thermochemistry

Fuel value
Chapter 3
Theme 3 Heat

SELF Reflection
1. Have you mastered the topic of Thermochemistry?
2. What is the content in the topic of Thermochemistry that you want to have a more in-depth
understanding of? Why?
3. How does the topic of Thermochemistry benefit you in daily life?
4. How would you assess your ability to describe the content in the topic of Thermochemistry to
your friends?
5. What can you do to improve your understanding of the topic of Thermochemistry?

Achievement Test
Use the information:
[Specific heat capacity of solution, c = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1; density of solution = 1 g cm−3]
1. In an experiment, 100 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl is mixed with 100 cm3 of sodium
hydroxide, NaOH solution in a polystyrene cup. The concentrations of the acid and alkali are
the same. The temperature of the mixture increases by 7.0 °C.
Calculate the heat released in the experiment.
2. The article below refers to the first tram in the world using hydrogen fuel.
HYDROGEN POWERED TRAMS DEVELOPED IN CHINA
In order to reduce the abundant emissions of dangerous greenhouse
gases in China, a Chinese company SIFANG has invented the first
hydrogen-powered tram in the world. The trams will be operated
entirely by hydrogen fuel cells. When 1 mole of hydrogen is burnt,
the heat released is 282 kJ. The highest speed is only 70 kilometers
per hour and it will operate in urban areas only. Each tram is designed to carry 380 passengers.
(Source: http://www.altemative-energy-news.info/hydrogen-powered-tram)
Based on the article above:
(a) (i) is the reaction endothermic or exothermic? Explain your answer.
(ii) write the thermochemical equation for the combustion of hydrogen.
(iii) construct an energy level diagram for the combustion of hydrogen.
(b) In an experiment, 50 g of hydrogen liquid is burnt in excess oxygen.
[Relative atomic mass: H = 1]
Calculate:
(i) the number of moles of hydrogen used.
Bab 11/3 Nota11 B03-140
http://kubupublication.com.my/Kimia/Tingkatan5/Nota11.pdf

Additional Exercises
(ii) the total energy released when 50 g https://bit.ly/kpkt5n11
of hydrogen is burnt.
(c) Justify the use of hydrogen as a fossil fuel.

The chemical substance used in hot packs are exothermic when it reacts with water. The reaction
of sodium metal with water is also exothermic. In your opinion, can sodium metal be used in the
preparation of hot packs? Give reasons for your answer.

140