Unit 2

Uni
2 2500 B.C.-A.D. 500*
Flowering of
Civilizations
Chapter 4
The Rise of Ancient &h*0 f L As people developed agricultural technology,
Greece
PIOMf nomadic life gave way to living in communities.
Chapter 5
The Height of Greek
Civilization
Emerging cities became centers of trade and commerce, character
ized by highly organized social structures and governments. Com
Chapter 6
Ancient Rome and merce brought wealth that allowed more people time for leisure and
Early Christianity
study. Ancient civilizations contributed much that remains in the
Chapter 7
Flowering of African modern world. China developed a civil service system based on
Civilizations
merit. The city of Alexandria in Egypt had a great library.
Chapter 8
India's Great The Greeks refined geometry to calculate the size of the earth.
Civilization
Architecture, theater, and education all have their roots in ancient
Chapter 9 civilizations.
China's Flourishing
Civilization
* In A.D. 532, a Christian monk started a system of dating events, beginning with
the year he believed Jesus was born. The years before Jesus' birth were called B.C.
(before Christ). The years after this event were called A.D., an abbreviation for anno
Domini, which is Latin for "in the year of the Lord." Today, some publications use
B.C.E. (before the common era) instead of B.C., and C.E. (common era) instead of A.D.
Note that unlike A.D., C.E. follows the year.
A Global Chronology
2000 &jc 1500 &JC 1000 B.C,
Political fclH'I'IM Aryans

cross the Hindu Kush
into South Asia.
Scientific/
Technological Babylonian Empire
adopts Sumerian calendar.
Social/Cultural WH'I'BPI
Vedic Age begins
100 in India.
A gold mask found in the
Portfolio Project royal grave circle at
The Greeks refined Mycenae, National
the study of philosophy—the Archaeological Museum,
seeking of wisdom. They were Athens, Greece
interested in the big questions such as: Jl -*
What is truth? What is an ideal society? Choose a
topic or an issue that you have thought deeply
about and write a two-page essay about what you
believe. Remember to organize your thoughts into
an outline before writing the first draft.
500 b.c. A.D.500
klt&a Octavian WM>WiWM Western

establishes the Pax Romana. Roman Empire falls.
JfflFrTTffl fi H 3 E J l P t o l e m y i B E E E r r h e C h i n e s e
Aristotle advances collects astronomical invent block printing,
the scientific method. information.
■• T ^ ' j r r i Kushite
Confucius Jesus Christ merchants cross the
is born. is crucified. Sahara by camel caravan. 101
Ideas
Systems of Law
aw is a code of conduct Roman Empire
and rights accepted or for
Laying the Foundation
mally recognized by a
society. Law provides social control, order, Sometime around 451-450 B.C., a group of judges posted
and justice. It enables people to know 12 tablets in Rome's main forum, or marketplace. According to
their rights and responsibilities. Law also legend, the common people of Rome had demanded that the
forms the cornerstone of constitutional laws be written down for all to see. People would then know
government. A constitutional government their rights. The tablets listed the unwritten laws that guided
based upon law helps ensure justice, or judges. They also included penalties imposed on people who
the fair treatment of all citizens. "Wliere broke the law.
law ends, tyranny begins," said William Although a group of invaders smashed the so-called
Pitt, an English leader, in A.D. 1770. Twelve Tables in 390 B.C., the basic code of law remained in
effect for almost 1,000 years. When Roman armies marched
out to conquer a huge empire, they carried their belief in law
with them. By A.D. 120 Roman law governed the entire
Mediterranean world and much of western Europe.
In theory, Roman law applied to all people, regardless of
wealth or power. Not everyone honored Roman legal ideals.
Nonetheless, the Romans developed an important democratic
principle. They believed people should be ruled by law rather
than by the whims of leaders. In A.D. 533-534 the Byzantine
emperor Justinian consolidated all Roman law into a single
written code. The Justinian Code became the foundation of
the present civil law system. Civil law and common law,
which originated in England, are two of the major legal
systems in the world today.
The United States
A Model for Constitutional Government
The Founders of the United States knew about and admired the
Romans. They understood what the Roman orator Cicero meant
when he spoke of the need to limit the power of government. When
it came time to draw up a plan of government, they wrote a constitu
tion that balanced the powers of government among three branches.
To ensure that rulers did not place themselves above the law, the
Framers included a provision that made the Constitution "the
supreme law of the land." The Framers used the example of Rome
to defend the Constitution. "The Roman republic attained ... the
utmost height of human greatness," declared Alexander Hamilton.
He then explained how government under the Constitution would
do the same.
A second system of legal justice, common law, evolved in
England. Trial by jury, the right to petition the government, and
many other rules governing trials originated in this system.
Common law is not a written code but rather is based on written
Independence Hall,
Philadelphia judicial decisions. Common law was established in the American
colonies and continued to develop when the colonies became states
of the United States.
France
Unifying the Law
In A.D. 1799 a French general named Napoleon Bonaparte set out to build
an empire even larger than Rome's. By A.D. 1802 he had conquered much of
Europe. Napoleon then tried to extend his reach into the Americas.
In seeking to rule this empire, Napoleon followed the Roman example.
He took part in a commission to draw up a uniform code of laws. This code,
known as the Napoleonic Code, was completed in A.D. 1804.
Although Napoleon ruled as emperor, the code named in his honor reaf
firmed the principle that the same laws should be used to govern all people.
In drafting these laws, Napoleon drew upon many of the legal precedents
first introduced by the Romans. Under Napoleon, this code became applied
in lands as far-flung as present-day Belgium, Quebec, Spain, and some Latin
American nations.
Assemblee Nationale, Paris
nm\iiAm\.\u*
1. What important democratic principle did
the Romans develop?
Critical Thinking
2. How did the United States hope to ensure
that rulers would not place themselves
above the law?
Unit 2 Flowering of Civilizations 103

Chapter
4 2500-350 B.C.
The Rise of
Ancient Greece
vXtoryteller
An eager crowd gathered in the sun-drenched sports arena
just outside King Minos's palace at Knossos on the Aegean
island of Crete. According to legend, Minos ruled over the
Minoan civilization in the 2000s B.C. The Minoans'favorite
Chapter Themes event—bull leaping—was about to begin. The crowd gasped as
▶ Relation to Environment Close
a raging bull, representing the earthquakes that shook Crete,
ness to the sea helps make the early
Greeks seafarers. Section 1 charged a young male gymnast who stood motionless. Just
▶ Movement The Greeks establish
colonies throughout the area of the before the collision, the gymnast grabbed the bull's horns and
Mediterranean and Black Seas. somersaulted onto the bull's back. Then his body arched into the
Section 2
▶ Regionalism Two leading Greek air, and he completed a back flip, landing in the arms of his
city-states—Athens and Sparta— female partner waiting nearby. The crowd cheered at the end of
differ greatly from each other in
this spectacle, part sport and part religious ritual. By leaping
their values, cultures, and achieve
ments. Section 3 over the bull, the gymnast had shown that no matter how much
▶ Conflict Greek city-states together
the earth trembled, the Minoans would stay on Crete.
fight the Persians; then the city-
states, led by rivals Athens and
Sparta, fight each other. Section 4
H i s t o r i c a l S i g n i fi c a n c e
What kinds of governments and societies developed in

ancient Greece? How have Greek political ideas shaped the
development of Western civilization?
1600 B.C 1200 b.c. 800B.C. 400 b.c.
Golden Age
g*M'U:M Minoan of Athens begins.
civilization reaches its peak. Dorians invade Greece. mm*
Greeks found
colonies in the
Mediterranean area.
104
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yjH*M'I.E31 Mycenaean ng.-H'1-IJl Mycenaeans
civilization begins. control the Aegean area. composes epics.
Section 1
Beginnings
Setting the Scene / \ ^^ he ancient Greeks became the people
▶ Terms to Define ^^T who set their stamp on the
t_^X Mediterranean region and who also
labyrinth, bard contributed greatly to the way we live today. Every
▶ People to Meet time you go to the theater or watch the Olympic
Sir Arthur Evans, the Minoans, the Games on television, you enjoy an activity that has
vlycenaeans, Homer, Heinrich Schliemann its roots in ancient Greece. Modern public buildings
▶ Places to Locate often reflect Greek architectural styles. Above all,
the ancient Greeks developed the Western concept
Crete, Mycenae
of democracy.
JpfiEEESM Where and how did the early

civilizations of Greece develop?
The Aegean Area
Ancient Greece included the southern part of
^storyteller Europe's Balkan Peninsula and a group of small,
The hero Sarpedon was a son of Zeus, but des rocky islands, most of which dot the Aegean (ill
•JEE»uhn) Sea near Asia Minor. Low-lying, rugged
tined to die in the Trojan War. He held before him the mountains make up about three-fourths of the
perfect circle of his shield, a lovely thing of beaten Greek mainland. Between the mountain ranges and
bronze, which the bronze-smith had hammered out along the coast lie fertile plains suitable for farming.
for him. On its imvard side were stitched ox-hides Short, swift rivers flow from the interior to the sea,
in close folds with golden staples all around the and the long, indented coastline provides many
circle.... And now Sarpedon spoke to Glaukos, son fine harbors. The climate is mild, with rainy win
of Hippolochos: "Glaukos, why are we honored ters. Afternoon breezes carrying cooler air from the
before others with the best sea offset the hot, dry summers.
seats, choice cuts of meat, The mountains both protected and isolated
Greeks on the mainland. Besides making attacks by
brimming wine cups, and the
■ :>- best plots of land? Because foreigners difficult, the mountains limited travel
we stand in the front line of and communication between communities. The
Greek people, therefore, never united under one
blazing battle. Friend, if we
could escape, and live forever government, although they spoke one language
and practiced the same religion.
ageless and immortal, I would Because of the numerous harbors and since no
not go on fighting, or encourage
place in Greece is more than 50 miles (80 km) from the
you to fight. But now, since the coast, many Greeks turned to the sea to earn their liv
spirits of death stand close by ing. They became fishers, traders, and even pirates.
us, let us go win glory for our In addition, the mild climate allowed the
selves, or yield it to others." ancient Greeks to spend much of their time out
Entrance to the ancient —adapted from The Iliad of doors. People assembled for meetings in the public
silver mines at Siphnos, Homer, translated by square, teachers met their students in public gardens,
Greece Richmond Lattimore, 1951 and actors performed plays in open-air theaters.
106 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

against outside attack, which explains why the
Minoans did not build walls around their cities.
Minoan civilization reached its peak around
1600 B.C. About 250 years later it collapsed. Some
historians think its cities were destroyed by huge
tidal waves resulting from an undersea earthquake.
Others think that a people from the Greek
mainland, the Mycenaeans (MY«suh»NEE«uhnz),
succeeded in invading Crete.
The Mycenaeans
Visualizing Chalices such The Mycenaeans originated among the Indo-
Histo as these are European peoples of central Asia. About 2000 B.C.,
evidence that Mycenaean as a result of the rapid growth of their population,
kings were rich and powerful. the Mycenaeans began moving out from their
What evidence suggests that these kings were meticulous homeland. Upon entering the Balkan Peninsula,
about collecting taxes? they gradually intermarried with the local people—
—known as Hellenes (HEH»leenz)—and set up a
group of kingdoms.
Each Mycenaean kingdom centered around a
Aegean Civilizations hilltop on which was built a royal fortress. Stone
Greek myths referred to an early civilization on walls circled the fortress, providing a shelter for the
the island of Crete, southeast of the Greek main people in time of danger. Nobles lived on their
land, but for a long time historians disputed this estates outside the walls. They would turn out in
claim. Then, about A.D. 1900, British archaeologist armor when the king needed them to supply horse-
Sir Arthur Evans unearthed remains of the Minoan drawn chariots. The slaves and tenants who farmed
civilization, which flourished from about 2500 B.C. the land lived in villages on these estates.
to 1450 B.C.
The Minoans
At Knossos (NAH«suhs) on Crete, Evans Aegean Civilizations 1400 B.c
uncovered the palace of legendary King Minos.
Throughout the palace, passageways twist and turn
in all directions to form a labyrinth, or maze.
Brightly colored murals that decorate palace walls
show that the Minoans—both men and women—
curled their hair, bedecked themselves with gold
jewelry, and set off their narrow waists with wide
metal belts. The murals also show that they were
fond of dancing and sporting events, such as box
ing matches.
Minoan women apparently enjoyed a higher
status than women in other early civilizations. For
example, Minoan religion had more goddesses than
gods. The chief deity of Crete was the Great
Goddess, or Earth Mother, whom the Minoans
believed caused the birth and growth of all living The Greek civilization grew out of
things. _ the Minoan and Mycenaean
The Minoans earned their living from sea trade. ' civilizations that thrived in the
Crete's oak and cedar forests provided wood for Aegean area from about 2500 B.C. to 1100 B.C.
ships. In addition, the island's location enabled 1. Location The remains of the Minoan
Minoan traders to reach Egypt and Mesopotamia. civilization were discovered on what island?
By 2000 B.C., Minoan fleets dominated the eastern 2. Location Where did the Mycenaeans
Mediterranean, carrying goods and keeping the originate before settling in the Aegean area?
seas free from pirates. The ships also guarded Crete
Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 107

By the mid-1400s B.C., the Mycenaeans had
conquered the Minoans and controlled the Aegean
area. By 1100 B.C., however, fighting among the
Mycenaeans had destroyed the great hilltop
fortresses. Soon after, a new wave of invaders, the
Greek-speaking Dorians, entered Greece from the
north. Armed with iron weapons, the Dorians easi
ly overran the mainland.
Historians call the next 300 years of Greek his
tory a "dark age." During this period, overseas trade
stopped, poverty increased, and people lost skills
such as writing and craft making. Thousands of
refugees fled the mainland and settled in Ionia—the
west coast of Asia Minor and its adjoining islands.
By 750 B.C. the Ionians had reintroduced culture,
crafts, and skills to their homeland, including the
alphabet used by Phoenician traders. The "dark
age" of the Dorians ended, and a new Greek civi
lization with Mycenaean elements emerged. The
new civilization—called Hellenic, after the original
people of Greece—flourished from about the 700s
B.C. until 336 B.C.
Poets and Heroes

During the "dark age," bards, or singing story
tellers, had kept alive Mycenaean traditions. With
their new ability to write, the Greeks began to record
the epic poems that the bards had passed from gen
eration to generation.
Visualizing Heinrich Schliemann discovered six
Histo tombs at the royal grave circle near The Iliad and the Odyssey
the lion gate at Mycenae. They contained 16 skele According to tradition, a blind poet named
tons and a large hoard of gold. What events ended Homer who lived during the 700s B.C. composed
Mycenaean civilization? the two most famous Greek epics—the Iliad and
the Odyssey. Homer set the Iliad and the Odyssey
during and after the legendary Trojan War. The
The palaces in the city of Mycenae served as Mycenaeans had supposedly fought the people of
centers of both government administration and Troy in the mid-1200s B.C. In A.D. 1870 Heinrich
Schliemann, a German archaeologist, claimed that
production. Inside, artisans tanned leather, sewed
clothes, fashioned jars for storing wine and olive Troy actually existed and was a major trading city
oil, and made bronze swords and ox-hide shields. in Asia Minor.
To help in collecting taxes, government officials The Iliad begins when a Trojan prince named
Paris falls in love with Helen, the wife of a
kept records of the wealth of every person in the
kingdom. They collected taxes in the form of wheat, Mycenaean king, and takes her with him to Troy. To
livestock, and honey, which were stored in the avenge Helen's kidnapping, the Mycenaeans lay
palace. siege to Troy for 10 years, but they cannot capture
Minoan traders visited the Greek mainland the city. Finally, they trick the Trojans by building a
soon after the Mycenaeans set up their kingdom. huge, hollow wooden horse. The best Mycenaean
Gradually, the Mycenaeans adopted many ele soldiers hide inside the horse, while the rest board
ments of Minoan culture—metalworking and ship their ships and pretend to sail away. The joyful
building techniques and navigation by the sun and Trojans, thinking themselves victorious, bring the
stars. The Mycenaeans worshiped the Minoan gift horse into the city. That night, the Greeks creep
Earth Mother as well. out of the horse, slaughter the Trojan men, enslave

NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC PICTURING HISTORY
Trojan Horse
their way into Troy, the Greek soldiers leapt out of the
Trojan horse of myth and epic stands tall. horse and conquered their foe.
According to the Greek poet Homer—who While time has blurred the line between historic fact
On this described
Greek vase the Trojan
from War
the in his epic
600s B.C.poem
the and Homeric epic (written centuries after the struggle),
the Iliad—for ten long years the Mycenaeans of Greece an important war did take place in which a loose feder
battled their enemies who lived within the walls of the ation of Greek kings set out to conquer the city-state of
Turkish city of Troy. The two sides were so well Troy. Homer's epic reveals that piracy and plunder were
matched that only a clever strategy of war could pro part of that era's commerce. Archaeologists have
duce victory. So the Greeks came up with one: They uncovered the ruins of a mighty Turkish fortress that
built a great wooden horse, so large that a cargo of sol once commanded the narrows of the Hellespont.
diers could hide in its belly. Then they set the horse on Modern opinions, however, differ as to whether or not
wheels and gave it to Troy as a "gift." Having tricked this was the site of Homer's Troy. @

the women and children, and burn the city to the importance on the worth of the individual. Because
ground. they believed in their own value, the Greeks had a
The Odyssey describes the homeward wander great deal of self-respect. This allowed them to
ings of the Mycenaean king Odysseus after the fall approach their gods with dignity.
of Troy. Because it took him 10 years to return to Much more than other civilizations did, the
Greece, people refer to any long, adventure-filled Greeks humanized their deities. Unlike the half-
animal gods and goddesses of Egypt, Greek deities
journey as an odyssey.
had totally human forms. They behaved like
Teaching Greek Values humans, too—marrying, having children, lying,
and murdering. Frequently jealous of one another,
Eventually, schools in ancient Greece used the
Iliad and the Odyssey to present to students many of the Greek deities quarreled and sometimes played
the values of Hellenic civilization. For example, in tricks on one another. They also possessed super
an exciting description of men marching to war, the human powers. Since the Greeks saw their deities
Iliad taught students to be proud of their Greek her as sources of power, both physical and mental, they
itage and their heroic ancestors: tried to be like them by doing everything to the best
of their ability.
CC As a ravening fire blazes over a vast forest
and the mountains, and its light is seen Gods and Goddesses
afar, so while they marched the sheen from The gods and goddesses of ancient Greece com
their forest of bronze [spears] went up bined features of both Minoan and Mycenaean
dazzling into high heaven. deities. For example, different Greek goddesses
As flocks of wildfowl on the wing, took over different aspects of the Earth Mother.
geese or cranes or long-necked swans fly Athena became the goddess of wisdom and art,
this way and that way over the Asian Demeter became the goddess of agriculture, and
meadows, proud of the power of their Aphrodite became the goddess of love and beauty.
wings, and they settle on and on honking Each community chose a particular god or goddess
as they go until they fill the meadow with as its patron and protector, but all Greeks worshiped
sound: so flocks of men poured out of as their chief deity the Mycenaean god Zeus.
their camp onwards over the Scamandrian
plain, and the ground thundered terribly
under the tramp of horses and of men. J^
Visualizing | The Greek poet Homer (below)
—Homer, from the Iliad, mid-700s B.C. History wrote of the ancient Mycenaean
The Iliad and the Odyssey also represented other king Agamemnon. Nineteenth-
values of Hellenic civilization, such as a love for century discoveries raised
Homer's work from
nature, the importance of husband-wife relation the rank of myth to
ships and tender feelings, and loyalty between that of history.
friends. Hellenic schools also used the two epics to
Who was Helen
teach students to always strive for excellence and to
meet with dignity whatever fate had in store. of Troy?
A Family of Deities
In Greek religion, the activities of gods and god
desses explained why people behaved the way they
did and why their lives took one direction rather
than another. The Greeks also believed that their
powerful deities caused the events of the physical
world to occur—such as the coming of spring or
violent storms with thunder and lightning.
Most ancient peoples feared their deities. They
believed that people were put on the earth only to
obey and serve the gods and goddesses. The Greeks
were the first people to feel differently. They placed

Visualizing Dionysus shown riding
Histo a leopard. Greek tragedy
was developed from the odes sung by
choruses in honor of the god Dionysus.
Where were Greek dramas performed?
Greeks believed that the 12 most important Festivals

Greek deities lived on high Mount Olympus, an As Hellenic civilization developed, certain reli
actual mountain in Greece. Each of the deities con gious festivals became an important part of Greek
trolled a specific part of the natural world. For life. Every four years the Greeks held a series of
example, Zeus, the chief god, was thought to rule athletic contests "for the greater glory of Zeus."
the sky, weather, and thunderstorms. His brother Because these contests were held at the city of
Pluto was thought to rule the underworld, where the Olympia, they were called the Olympic Games. The
dead spent eternity. Greeks also originated the play—a celebration in
Zeus's son Apollo, the god of light, drove the honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. At
sun across the sky every day in his chariot. Because these events, the audience sat on a hillside around
the Greeks also considered Apollo to be the god of an open space, where a chorus chanted a story
prophecy, they would bring gifts to the oracle at about Dionysus and danced to the sound of a flute.
Delphi—a holy place to honor Apollo—and ask to As the years passed, cities began building perma
have hidden knowledge revealed. Like the Shang in nent theaters, carving a hillside into a semicircle,
ancient China, the Greeks believed that oracles adding rows of stone seats, and paving the stage area.
could predict the future. At the Delphic oracle, they Actors began to recite poems explaining the songs
would ask questions, and the priests and priestesses and dances of the chorus. The words they recited
would interpret Apollo's replies. eventually evolved into dialogue.
SECTION I REVIEW
Recall reach Troy and Knossos from

Understanding Themes
1. Define labyrinth, bard. their home city of Mycenae. 5. Relation to Environment
2. Identify Sir Arthur Evans, the Critical Thinking How did the geography and cli
Minoans, the Mycenaeans, 4. Applying Information Using mate of Greece and the Aegean
Homer, Heinrich Schliemann. Zeus, Athena, and Apollo, illus islands affect the development
3. Describe the routes the Myce trate how the Greeks viewed of the Minoan and Mycenaean
naeans would have taken to their gods and goddesses. civilizations?

700 B.C. 600 h.c. =mn » n
T*b\*n&M Greek kings ■JIHtliU:!^ Greeks learn

lose power to aristocrats. coinage from the Lydians. The rule of
tyrants in Greek
city-states ends.
Section 2
The Polis
Setting the Scene / \ f he English language offers evidence of
▶ Terms to Define ^f how ancient Greeks have influenced
%__J modern life. Words such as police and
polis, citizen, aristocrat, phalanx, tyrant,
politics, for example, derive from the Greek word
oligarchy, democracy
polis. The polis, or city-state, was the basic political
▶ Places to Locate unit of Hellenic civilization. Each polis developed
Athens, Sparta its own pattern of life independently but shared
certain features with other city-states.
pTTPflTf I How did economic prosperity bring
significant political and social changes to the
Greek city-states? The Typical Polis
A typical polis included a city and the sur
rounding villages, fields, and orchards. At the center
Storyteller of the city on the top of an acropolis (uh«KRAH»puh
An Athenian ruler had to be careful of plots •luhs), or fortified hill, stood the temple of the local
hatched by jealous nobles. The tyrant Hippias, the deity. At the foot of the acropolis the agora, or pub
once-mild ruler of Athens, learned this lesson. He lic square, served as the political center of the polis.
was with his bodyguard, arranging a citywide Citizens—those who took part in government—
parade, when two gathered in the agora to carry out public affairs,
choose their officials, and pass their laws. Artisans
assassins approached.
and merchants also conducted business in the agora.
Pretending to take The citizens of a polis had both rights and respon
part in the proces sibilities. They could vote, hold public office, own
sion, they had dag
property, and speak for themselves in court. In return,
gers ready, hidden the polis expected them to serve in government and
behind their shields. to defend the polis in time of war.
Suddenly, seeing one Citizens, however, made up only a minority of the
of their accomplices residents of a polis. In Athens, slaves and those who
casually talking with were foreign-born were excluded from citizenship,
The Parthenon on the Acropolis Hippias, they halted, and before 500 B.C. so were men who did not own
thinking that he had land. Greek women had no political or legal rights.
betrayed the plot to the tyrant. Turning, they
rushed within the gates, met Hippias's brother,
and killed him. Afterward, Athenians found Greek Colonies and Trade
Hippias harsher, ever fearful of revolt.
The return of prosperity after the "dark age"
—adapted from The Peloponnesian led to an increase in Greece's population. By 700
War, Thucydides, Crawley transla B.C. Greek farmers no longer grew enough grain to
tion revised by T.E. Wick, 1892 feed everyone. As a result, each polis sent out
groups of people to establish colonies in coastal
areas around the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

Colonies the earliest Greek pottery to be exported. Ionian pot
Each colony kept close ties with its metropolis, tery styles were based on Mycenaean and Middle
or "parent city." A colony supplied its metropolis Eastern influences. The artists who made and deco
with grain—wheat and barley. Farmers on the Greek rated the vases painted figures of birds and humans
mainland produced wine, olive oil, and other cash interspersed with line or geometric decorations.
crops for export. Because vineyards and olive groves
needed fewer workers than did grain fields, many
farmers moved to the cities, where they learned
crafts. With more goods to sell, Greek merchants
Political and Social Change
began trading throughout the Mediterranean region. Economic growth changed Greek political life.
Greek communities at first were ruled by kings. By
Economic Growth the 700s B.C., however, the kings had lost power to
During the 600s B.C. the Greeks replaced their landholding aristocrats, or nobles, who as members
barter system with a money economy, and their of the upper class provided cavalry for the king's
overseas trade expanded further. Merchants issued military ventures.
their own coins, but eventually individual city- By 650 B.C. disputes arose between the aristo
states took over this responsibility. crats and the common people. Farmers often need
The cities of Ionia in Asia Minor assumed lead ed credit until harvest time. To obtain loans from the
ership in a growing textile industry. Sheep in the wealthy aristocrats, they had to pledge their fields
interior of Asia Minor furnished the raw material. as security. When they could not repay the loans,
Purple dye obtained from mollusks, a type of shell many farmers lost their land to the aristocrats and
fish, gave the woven materials color. became either sharecroppers or day laborers in the
Pottery developed as a local industry wherever cities. Some even had to sell themselves into slavery.
sufficient clay was found. Pottery made in Ionia was In protest, farmers demanded political reforms.
B M £
The typical Greek freighter was broad—
8 GeosraPhy about 25 feet (7.5 m) wide compared to a
length of 80 feet (24 m). Rigged with a large
square sail, this sturdy ship averaged only
about 5 knots with the wind. Merchant
Sailing the Aegean
ships usually sailed in fleets escorted by war
Because of their many natural harbors, ships—galleys propelled by oarsmen.
the Greeks transported most goods by sea. Compare the ancient ships with today's
Sea travel made good sense, given the diesel-driven giants. A container ship makes
rugged mountains of the Greek mainland. the round-trip between the United States
Besides, pack animals could carry only and Europe in 21 days. It holds cargo in
small loads short distances. Merchants 1,000 containers—four of which are the size
found sea transport of bulky cargo- of one Greek freighter. Some things have
grain, timber, and even jugs of not changed, however. The Greek merchant
olive oil—to be practical and inex fleet of today ranks among the largest in the
pensive. world.
Greek sailors could sail
easily only when the wind inking Past ACTIVITY
was behind them. The pre ■/wPrcsent
vailing northerly winds made Explain why the ancient Greeks
the voyage from Athens to the Black relied on the sea for the transport of
Sea slow and difficult, but the return goods. In what kind of vessels did they
trip was quick and easy. Likewise, Greek sail? How has cargo transport changed
ships could coast to Egypt, but they had to since ancient times?
Pottery jar showing a
merchant ship struggle to get home. Most ships managed
only one round-trip per year.

Map Greek colonies supplied the Greek mainland with grain to help feed the
Study overcrowded city-states.
Place With the increases in grain from the Greek colonies, what cash crops did
the farmers on the Greek mainland grow?
The farmers, who were foot soldiers, were tyranny was created when one man, called a tyrant,
becoming more valuable to Greek armies than the seized power and ruled the polis single-handedly.
aristocrats, who were cavalry. As Greek armies Although most tyrants ruled fairly, the harshness of
came to rely on the phalanx—rows of foot soldiers a few gave tyranny its present meaning—rule by a
closely arrayed with their shields forming a solid cruel and unjust person.
wall—aristocrats began to lose influence. Middle- Tyrants ruled various Greek city-states until
class, non-landowning merchants and artisans, about 500 B.C. From then until 336 B.C., most city-
thus far excluded from citizenship, wanted a voice states became either oligarchies or democracies. In
in the government and joined the farmers in their an oligarchy, a few wealthy people hold power
demands. Merchants and artisans also wanted the over the larger group of citizens. In a democracy, or
polis to advance their interests by encouraging government by the people, power lies in the hands
industry and by protecting profitable overseas of all the citizens. The democracy of Athens and the
trade routes. oligarchy of Sparta became the most famous of the
As a result of the unrest, tyrannies arose. A Greek city-states.
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Recall cal functions of an acropolis against changing citizenship?

1. Define polis, citizen, aristocrat, and an agora in a Greek polis. Understanding Themes
phalanx, tyrant, oligarchy, Critical Thinking 5. Movement What kind of rela
democracy. 4. Synthesizing Information tionship existed between a
2. Identify Athens, Sparta. What arguments might a citi Greek colony and its metropo
3. Describe the social and politi- zen of a polis present for or lis on the Greek mainland?

IfTrTH* tenm Solon becomes
leader of Athens.
Slaves revolt Draco enacts code Athens becomes
in Sparta. of laws in Athens. a democracy.
Section 3
Rivals
Setting the Scene / \ ^^ he two leading city-states in ancient
▶ Terms to Define f Greece—Sparta and Athens—stood in
^__S sharp contrast to each other. Though
constitution, rhetoric
citizens of both Sparta and Athens participated in
▶ People to Meet polis government, the two city-states differed greatly
Draco, Solon, Peisistratus, Cleisthenes from each other in their values, cultures, and accom
▶ Places to Locate plishments.
Peloponnesus, Attica
What different Greek values did

Sparta
Athens and Sparta each represent? The descendants of the Dorian invaders of the
dark age founded Sparta. It was located in the
Peloponnesus (peh»luh«puh«NEE«suhs), a peninsu
la of southern Greece. Like other city-states, Sparta
Storyteller based its economy on agriculture.
Pausanias darted among the bushes to avoid Instead of founding overseas colonies, the
the moonlight. Finally, stumbling, he plunged Spartans invaded neighboring city-states and
enslaved the local people. The polis of Sparta owned
behind a large rock, his lungs heaving. Having
many slaves, known as helots (HEH»luhts), who
managed to steal just one loaf of fresh bread, he farmed the estates of individual Spartans. In addi
knew that he must ration it out for at least two
tion, a group of free individuals called perioeci
days. The ephors had declared that those caught (peh»REE»ee»sy)—artisans and merchants from the
with stolen food would be beaten severely. But, if
conquered territories—worked for the Spartans.
he could just survive for two more days, he Helots and perioeci together outnumbered Spartans
would finish the initiation and join the
by about 200,000 to 10,000.
other young men in the barracks. He Around 650 B.C., the helots revolted against their
shivered quietly, trying to imagine Spartan masters. It took 30 years, but the Spartans
where he might spend the next two managed to suppress the revolt. They then decided
cold nights. that the only way they could maintain power was to
establish a military society.
—adapted from The Ancient
World, edited by Esmond A Military Society
Wright, 1979 All life in Sparta revolved around the army.
Spartan men strove to become first-rate soldiers, and
Spartan women aspired to become mothers of sol
diers. Spartans despised the other Greeks who lived
behind city walls, believing that a city defended by
Spartan soldiers did not need walls.
Spartan female athlete In Sparta, government officials examined new
born infants to see if they were healthy. If not, an offi
cial left the sickly infant on a hillside to die. At the age
of 7, Spartan boys were taken away from their homes

and placed in military barracks. Their training Spartan women could go shopping in the market
included learning to read, write, and use weapons. place, attend dinners at which nonfamily members
At age 20, Spartan men became soldiers and were present, own property, and express opinions
were sent to frontier areas. At age 30, they were on public issues. They could not, however, take part
expected to marry. But Spartan men could not in government.
closely supervise their family affairs. Instead, they
spent their days in military drill until age 60, when Sparta's Government
they could retire from the army. According to tradition, Sparta's government
was set up by a lawmaker named Lycurgus during
The Role of Women the 800s B.C. Two kings, who ruled jointly, officially
The Spartans brought up women to be, like the governed Sparta. Except for leading the army and
Spartan men, as healthy and strong as possible. conducting religious services, however, Spartan
Female infants received as much food as their kings had little power. The Assembly, made up of
brothers, which was not the case elsewhere in all male citizens over the age of 30, passed laws and
Greece. Young Spartan girls trained in gymnastics, made decisions concerning war and peace. Each
wrestling, and boxing. The women in Sparta mar year the Assembly elected five overseers, or ephors
ried at age 19 rather than at 14—the average mar (EH»fuhrs), to administer public affairs. The ephors
rying age in most of Greece—which increased the could also veto legislation. A Council of Elders,
likelihood that their children would be healthy. consisting of 28 men over the age of 60, proposed
Sparta gave its women more personal freedoms laws to the Assembly and served as a supreme
than the women of other Greek city-states received. court.
Images
°fthe Times
The Glory of Greece
Archaeological treasures and architectural
remains remind the world of the achievements of
Greek civilization.
The Parthenon crowns

the Acropolis at Athens.
Greek sculptors in the

classical period depicted
living and moving people in
natural poses.
Results of Militarism Athena. Like the early rulers of the other city-states,
The Spartans succeeded in maintaining control Athenian kings and aristocrats in the 600s B.C. faced
over their subject peoples for nearly 250 years. They demands by small farmers, merchants, and artisans
paid a price, however. Suspicious of any new ideas for economic and political reforms.
that might bring change, the Spartans lagged far Around this time, the governing methods of
behind other Greek city-states in economic devel Athens and Sparta diverged. Athens gradually
opment. For example, Sparta used heavy iron bars expanded its definition of citizenship to encompass
instead of coins as currency. In this way, it hoped to more people. Initially, only a man whose father and
discourage trade and to remain self-reliant. The maternal grandfather had been citizens could be a
Spartans also shunned philosophy, science, and the citizen; however, non-landowning citizens could
arts, while Athens and other city-states advanced in not participate in Athens's Assembly. Athenians
these fields. The Spartans, however, were excep called the many free (non-enslaved) foreigners who
tional Olympic athletes, and their soldiers played lived in Athens metics. These people could not own
key roles in defending Greece against invaders. land or participate in government. By 507 B.C.,
however, the constitution, or plan of government,
of Athens stated that all free, Athenian-born men
were citizens regardless of what class they
Athens
belonged to, and that they could participate in the
Northeast of the Peloponnesus—on a peninsula Assembly regardless of whether they owned land.
of central Greece named Attica—people descended This political change reduced much of the friction
from the Mycenaeans established the city-state of between social classes and enabled Athens to forge
Athens. They named their polis after the goddess ahead.
The goddess Athena,

according to Greek tra
dition, won the contest
for control of Athens
over the sea god
Poseidon.
1. What innovation did Greek sculptors introduce

in the classical period?
2. Why was Athena's name rather than Poseidon's
given to the city of Athens?
117
Draco than had Solon. He divided large estates among land
Four successive leaders brought most of the less farmers and extended citizenship to men who
changes in Athenian government. Draco, the first of did not own land. Peisistratus provided the poor
these leaders, issued an improved code of laws in 621 with loans and put many of them to work building
B.C. The penalties given to offenders were extremely temples and other public works.
harsh. Even minor offenses, like stealing a cabbage,
were punishable by death.
Over time, the word draconian has come to
describe something that is very cruel and severe. On c= POINT
the other hand, because Draco's laws were written
down, everyone knew exactly what the laws were.
Aristocrats could no longer dictate what was legal
Athenian Democracy
and what was not. Cleisthenes (KLYS»thuh«NEEZ), the fourth
leader to help reform Athens, came to power in 508
Solon B.C. The following year he introduced a series of
The next series of reforms took place under the laws that established democracy for Athens.
poet-lawmaker Solon, who became the leader of Through his reforms, Cleisthenes sought to end local
Athens in 594 B.C. To improve economic conditions, rivalries, break the power of the aristocracy, and
Solon canceled all land debts and freed debtors from reorganize the structure of Athenian government.
slavery. He also placed limits on the amount of land Under Cleisthenes' constitution, the Assembly
any one individual could own. By urging farmers to won increased powers and fully emerged as the
grow cash crops rather than grain, Solon promoted major political body. All citizens could belong to the
trade. He also promoted industry by ordering fathers Assembly, in which they were considered equal
to teach their sons a skill and by extending citizen before the law and guaranteed freedom of speech. In
ship to foreigners who would settle in Athens as addition to passing laws, the Assembly served as a
skilled artisans. supreme court and appointed generals to run the
Next, Solon introduced political reforms that military. A Council of 500, whose membership was
moved Athens toward democracy while preserving open to any citizen, carried out daily government
some aristocratic control. He allowed citizens of all business.
classes to participate in the Assembly and public law Each year in a lottery, Athenian citizens chose
courts. An aristocratic Council of 400 was also estab members of the Council. They favored a lottery over
lished to draft measures that then went to the a ballot, believing that all citizens were capable of
Assembly for approval. holding public office. Elections, in their view, would
unfairly favor the rich, who had the advantage of
Peisistratus fame and training in public speaking. Besides, all cit
In 546 B.C. Peisistratus (pm«SIHS»truh»tuhs) izens were supposed to take part in government.
took over the government of Athens. Peisistratus Athenian democracy included a jury system to
pushed reforms in an even more radical direction decide court cases. Juries contained from 201 to
Visualizing A juror's token is shown above. Athenian courts demonstrated

Histo faith in the ordinary man's ability. Groups of hundreds of citi
zens sat on panels called dicasteries and decided cases by majority vote. Why were
juries so large?

1,001 members, with a majority vote needed to
reach a verdict. The Athenians reasoned that the ll^J^j ZapotecTemple
large size of their juries would keep jurors from Complex at Monte
being influenced by threats and bribes. Alban
Athenian democracy also included a system
Mexico, c. 500 B.C.
called ostracism. Each year, citizens could write the
Monte Alban in the valley of Oaxaca in southern
name of an undesirable politician on a piece of
Mexico became an important center of Zapotec
baked clay called an ostracon. If a person's name culture. The Zapotecs flattened the mountaintop
appeared on 6,000 ostraca, he could be exiled. to create a large plaza, around which they designed
Cleisthenes' democracy transformed Athens,
a temple complex. They carved the slopes of the
but it affected only those 20 percent of Athenians
mountain into terraces for agriculture and housing.
who were citizens. Non-citizens—women, foreign- An estimated 5,000 people, or about 50 percent
born males, and slaves—were still excluded from
of the valley's population,
political life. In spite of these limitations, ancient lived at Monte Alban.
Athens nevertheless laid the foundation for the
Western concept of democratic government. ^^m
Athenian Education
The training an Athenian received depended
on social and economic status. About a week after
being born, a male child received a name and was
enrolled as a citizen. Because Athens expected
every citizen to hold public office at some time in participants in a court case, an Athenian needed
his life, it required Athenian citizens to educate to be accomplished in rhetoric to argue his own
their sons. With few exceptions, Athenian girls— position.
who would not participate in governing the democ When young Athenian men reached 18, they
racy of Athens—did not receive a formal education. left for two years of military service. Before enter
Instead, a girl learned household duties, such as ing the army, however, they went with their fathers
weaving and baking, from her mother. to the temple of Zeus, where they swore the
Private tutors educated the boys from wealthy following oath:
upper-class families, while other students paid a
small fee to attend a private school. Much of their CC I will n°t bring dishonor upon my
education was picked up in the agora, through weapons nor desert the comrade by my
daily conversations and debates in the Assembly. side. I will strive to hand on my fatherland
Athenian boys entered school at age 7 and greater and better than I found it. I will not
graduated at age 18. Their main textbooks were the consent to anyone's disobeying or destroy
Iliad and the Odyssey, and students learned each ing the constitution but will prevent him,
epic by heart. They studied arithmetic, geometry, whether I am with others or alone. I will
drawing, and music in the morning and gymnastics honor the temples and the religion my
in the afternoon. When boys reached their teens, forefathers established. }}
they added rhetoric, or the art of public speaking, —oath of enrollment in Epheboi corps,
to their studies. Because lawyers did not represent early 400s B.C.
SECTION 3 REVIEW
Rec Critical Thinking propose if you were an Athen

1. Define constitution, rhetoric. 4. Evaluating Information ian reformer?
2. Identify Draco, Solon, Peisis Do you think the reasons the Understanding Themes
tratus, Cleisthenes. Athenians gave for choosing 5. Regionalism Contrast Athens
3. Locate Athens and Sparta on government officials by lottery and Sparta in their idea of citi
the map on page 121. In which were good reasons? What zenship, type of education, and
peninsula was each located? other method would you position of women.

Persian armies and Persians fight Peloponnesian
begins rebuilding War begins.
conquer Ionia. the Battle of Marathon. of Athens.
Section 4
War, Glory,
and Decline
Setting the Scene /f s the 400s B.C. opened, the Persian
▶ Terms to Define ~j^") Empire—then the strongest military
\_y power in the ancient world—stood
symposium, mercenary
poised to extend its influence into Europe.
▶ People to Meet Surprisingly, the Greek city-states not only cooper
Darius I, Xerxes, Themistocles, Leonidas, ated with each other in resisting the Persian attack,
Pericles, Aspasia but they also succeeded in throwing Persia's armed
forces back into Asia.
▶ Places to Locate
After their victory against Persia, the Greeks—
Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Delos
especially the Athenians—enjoyed a "golden age"
of remarkable cultural achievements. Then, the
How did the Persian Wars and the Greek city-states began to fight among themselves.
Peloponnesian War affect democracy in the This bitter and devastating war lasted for more
Greek city-states? than 27 years.
Storyteller The Persian Wars

The Greek historian Herodotus reported that In 546 B.C. the Persian armies, led by Cyrus II,
during the Persian Wars, some Greek deserters conquered the Greek city-states of Ionia, in Asia
approached the Persian king Xerxes. Questioned Minor. Despite the mildness of Persian rule, the
about what the Greeks were about to do, they told Ionians disliked the conquerors. The Ionians con
him the truth: The Olympic Games were being held. sidered the non-Greek-speaking Persians to be bar
They were going to watch the athletic competitions barians. In addition, an all-powerful king ruled the
and chariot races. When asked what the prize Persian Empire, whereas the Greek population of
was for such contests, they responded that the Ionia believed that citizens should choose their own
Olympic prize was an olive wreath. Upon government.
hearing this, a Persian noble cried out Finally, in 499 B.C., the Ionians revolted against
in fear: "What kind of men are the Persians. Even though Athens and another
these? How can we be expected to mainland polis sent some warships to help the
Ionians, Darius I of Persia soon defeated the
fight against men who compete
Ionians. Darius then decided to punish the main
with each other for no material
land Greeks for helping the rebels.
reward, but only for honor!"
—adapted from The Histories, Marathon

Herodotus, translated by Darius first tried to send an army around the
Aubrey de Selincourt northern coast of the Aegean Sea. However, a storm
destroyed his supply ships, forcing him to turn
Themistocles back. Two years later, in 490 B.C., Darius tried again.
This time he sent his fleet
directly across the Aegean
to the coastal plain of
Marathon, about 25 miles
(40 km) north of Athens.
For several days the Pers
ians awaited the Athenians.
However, the Athenians,
outnumbered 20,000 to
10,000, did nothing. Fin
ally, the Persians decided
to attack Athens directly.
They loaded their ships
with the cavalry—the
strongest part of their
army—and then began
loading the infantry.
Not waiting for the
Persians to take the offen
sive, the Athenians struck.
The Athenian general
ordered his well-disci
plined foot soldiers to
charge down the hills
above Marathon at the
Persian infantry, which
stood in shallow water
waiting to board the ships.
This tactic astounded the
Persians, who believed that
infantrymen would fight
only with the support of horsemen and archers. pass north of Athens. There, 7,000 Greeks led by
Marathon was a terrible defeat for the Persians, King Leonidas of Sparta stood firm against the
who reportedly lost 6,400 men compared to only Persians for three days. Then a Greek traitor
192 Greek casualties. showed the enemy a trail over which they could
attack the Greeks from the rear. Realizing that he
Salamis would soon be surrounded, Leonidas sent off most
After Marathon, the Persians withdrew to Asia of his troops. But he and 300 fellow Spartans
Minor, but they returned 10 years later. In 480 B.C. remained obedient to the law of their polis—never
Darius's son and successor, Xerxes, invaded Greece
from the north, this time with 200,000 soldiers.
Because so huge an army could not live off the land,
Marathon
offshore supply ships accompanied them. Footnotes
Once again the Greeks, this time under the According to legend, a
istory
leadership of Sparta, faced the Persians. A few messenger named
years before, the oracle at Delphi had said that Pheidippides (fy«DIH«puh»DEEZ) carried the
Greece would be safe behind a "wooden wall." The news of the victory at Marathon back to Athens.
Athenian general Themistocles (thuh»MIHS»tuh Because Pheidippides had previously run 280
• KLEEZ) tried to convince his Greek allies that a
miles (448 km) in four days, he barely managed
"wooden wall" meant a fleet of ships and that the
to reach the city and deliver his message before
way to defeat the Persians was to challenge them at
sea. he fell to the ground, dead from exhaustion. Ever
To do this, the Greek army had to set up a since, people have used the word marathon to
delaying action on land. They chose Thermopylae describe a long-distance race.
(thuhr«MAH»puh«lee) as the place—a mountain

surrender on the battlefield, but fight until victory B.C. to 429 B.C. as the Golden Age of Athens because
or death. most Greek achievements in the arts and sciences
took place in Athens during this time.
CC They [the Spartans] defended themselves
to the last, such as still had swords using Pericles in Charge
them, and the others resisting with their The Athenian general Pericles, beginning in the
hand and teeth; till the barbarians 450s B.C., led Athens through its Golden Age. The
[Persians] ... overwhelmed and buried the Persians had burned Athens during the Persian
remnant left beneath showers of missile Wars, but beginning in 447 B.C., Pericles was deter
weapons. 55 mined to rebuild the city. When the rebuilt temples
—Herodotus, from History, 400s B.C. and palaces crowned its acropolis, Athens became
the most beautiful city in Greece. The most famous
The heroic stand of Leonidas and the Spartans structure built under Pericles, the Parthenon (the
gave Themistocles time to carry out his plan. He temple of Athena), still stands.
drew the Persian fleet into the strait of Salamis, a nar Pericles wanted the polis of Athens to stand for
row body of water between Athens and the island of all that was best in Greek civilization. A persuasive
Salamis. Themistocles reasoned that the heavy speaker, he expressed his ideas in a famous funeral
Persian ships would crowd together in the strait and oration quoted by the Greek historian Thucydides
make easy targets for the lighter but faster and more (thoo«SIH«duh-DEEZ):
maneuverable Greek ships. The plan worked, and
the outnumbered ships of the Greek navy destroyed CC We are called a democracy [because
almost the entire Persian fleet. power] is in the hands of the many and
After the battle at Salamis, the Greeks gained the not the few.... When it is a question of
upper hand. By 479 B.C., the Persians had once again putting one person before another in posi
retreated to Asia Minor, this time for good. With the tions of public responsibility, what counts
end of the Persian Wars, Athens emerged as a pow is not membership of a particular class, but
erful and self-confident city-state, ready to embark on the actual ability which the man possess
a new age of expansion. es.... We are prevented from doing wrong
by respect ... for the laws.... We are lovers
of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes,
The Golden Age of Athens and we cultivate the mind without loss of
manliness.... To avow poverty with us is
Greek culture reached its peak after the Persian no disgrace; the true disgrace is in doing
Wars. Most historians refer to the period from 461 nothing to avoid it.... Athens is the school
of Hellas [Greece]. 55
Athenian Daily Life

Athenians lavished money on public buildings,
but they kept their individual homes simple. The
typical Athenian house contained two main rooms
and several smaller ones built around a central
courtyard. In one main room, the dining room, the
men entertained guests and ate while reclining on
Visualizing Pericles
Histo couches. An Athenian woman joined her husband
held virtual
for dinner only if company was not invited. In the
control over Athenian
other main room, the wool room, the women sptm
affairs for the last 15 years
and wove cloth. In the courtyard stood an altar, a
of his life, being elected
wash basin, and sometimes a well. The courtyard
each year as one of the 10
also contained the family's chickens and goats.
city generals. How did Pericles Athenian men usually worked in the morning
identify his faith in democracy? as farmers, artisans, and merchants. Then they
spent the afternoon attending the Assembly or
exercising in the gymnasium. Slaves—who were
mostly foreigners and prisoners of war and who
made up one-third of the population—did most of
the heavy work in craft production and mining.
Many slaves also worked as teachers and house
hold servants. Most Athenian women spent their
time at home, cooking and making wool cloth, but
poor women worked in the open-air markets as
food sellers and cloth weavers.
Upper-class Athenian men—as well as citizens
from other city-states—enjoyed the symposium as a
form of recreation. Wives were excluded from a
symposium, which was a drinking session follow
ing a banquet. The men at a symposium were enter
tained by female dancers and singers as well as by
acrobats and magicians. The guests also spent
much of the evening entertaining each other, telling
riddles and discussing literature, philosophy, and
public issues.
Athenian Women
In spite of restrictions, many Athenian women
were able to participate in public life—especially in
city festivals—and learned to read and write. Public
opinion allowed greater freedom to women of the
metic class than to those of other groups. The most
famous of metic women was Aspasia, who was Visualizing _ A Spartan soldier poised for battle.
known for her intelligence and personal charm. To History The Spartans developed a chain of
her house came many of the women of Athens, and orders to be shouted above the din of battle. How did
she apparently gave advice on home life while Sparta attain a navy?
attempting to gain more education and greater
freedom for Athenian women. Her views aroused
great opposition among some Athenians of both He insisted that criminal cases be tried only in
sexes, and she was prosecuted on a charge of "impi Athens and that other city-states adopt the
ety," or disloyalty to the gods. Aspasia was finally Athenian coinage system. He also sent Athenian
acquitted after an impassioned plea to the jury by troops to support revolts by commoners against
Pericles himself. aristocrats in other city-states. In short, the policies
of Pericles more or less transformed the Delian
League from what had been an anti-Persian defense
The Peloponnesian War league into an Athenian empire.
As Athens's trade and political influence grew,
Even after the Persian Wars ended, the Persian several city-states reacted by forming an alliance
threat remained. Athens persuaded most of the opposed to Athens. Sparta, a long-standing
city-states—but not Sparta—to ally against the Athenian rival, became the leader of the anti-
enemy. This alliance became known as the Delian Athens alliance. Since Sparta was located in the
League because the treasury was kept on the sacred Peloponnesus, historians have called the war
island of Delos. Athens provided the principal against Athens and its allies the Peloponnesian War.
naval and land forces, while the other city-states
furnished money and ships. Over the next several The Conflict
decades, the Delian League succeeded in freeing The Peloponnesian War lasted from 431 B.C. to
Ionia from Persian rule and sweeping the Aegean 404 B.C., excluding one brief period of peace. At first
free of pirates. Overseas trade expanded, and it seemed as if Athens could hold out indefinitely,
Greece grew richer. since Sparta had no navy. Sparta's fear and jealousy
of Athens, however, were so strong that the Spartans
The Athenian Empire made a deal with the Persians to return Ionia to
Athens gradually began to dominate the other Persian control. In exchange, Sparta received gold to
city-states. Pericles, for example, used part of the build its own fleet. Then, in 430 B.C., a disastrous
Delian League's treasury to build the Parthenon. plague—probably typhus—weakened Athens. More

fleet. After the Spartans laid
P e l o p o n n e s i a n Wa r siege to Athens itself, the
Athenians finally surren
dered in 404 B.C.
Effects of the War

The Peloponnesian
War brought disaster to
the Greek city-states, both
victors and vanquished.
Many city-states declined
in population. Fighting had
destroyed many fields and
orchards. Unemployment
became so widespread that
thousands of young men
emigrated and became
mercenaries, or hired sol
diers, in the Persian army.
Worst of all, the
Greeks lost their ability to
govern themselves. The
length and cost of the war
made people forget about
Athens and its allied city-states originally formed the Delian the common good of their
Map League as protection against the Persian Empire.
Study polis and think only about
1. Region Why did Sparta and its allies, known as the
making money. Feelings
Peloponnesian League, decide to attack the between aristocrats and
Athenian Empire? commoners grew increas
2. Location What area did Sparta promise the Persian Empire
ingly bitter. Many Greeks,
in return for gold?
losing faith in democracy,
even came to look down
on free political discussion
and began to believe that
than a third of its population died, including might makes right.
Pericles. For a time, Sparta tried to rule the other city-
After Pericles died in 429 B.C., some Athenians states. Then, in 371 B.C., a new alliance of city-states
wanted to make peace with Sparta and its allies, led by Thebes overthrew the harsh, incompetent
while other Athenians wanted to keep on fighting. Spartan rulers. The Thebans, however, also made
No decision was made, and the war continued poor rulers and were also overthrown. As a result
deadlocked for many more years. Eventually, sev of almost continual fighting, the city-states became
eral allies of Athens switched sides and joined the weaker than ever. When a new invader, the
Spartan-led alliance. Then, with their Persian- Macedonians, threatened Greece in the 350s B.C.,
financed navy, the Spartans destroyed the Athenian the city-states were unable to resist.
SECTION 4 REVIEW
Re Critical Thinking was a "golden age" for Athens.

1. Define symposium, mercenary. 3. Compare the daily activities of Support your answer.
2. Identify Ionia, Darius I, an Athenian husband with Understanding Themes
Marathon, Xerxes, Themisto those of an Athenian wife. 5. Conflict What was the
cles, Thermopylae, Leonidas, 4. Evaluating Information significance of the outcome of
Salamis, Pericles, Aspasia. Judge whether Pericles' rule the Persian Wars?

Critical Thinking
mams
Making Comparisons
second, our general and unvarying obe
rowed your selection to two pairs. Which pair dience in the execution of orders. The
In shopping forbuy?
should you athletic shoes,this
To decide you have nar
question, you naval strength which they [Athens] pos
must make a comparison. sess shall be raised by us from ... the
monies at Olympia and Delphi. A loan
from these enables us to seduce their for
Learning the Skill eign sailors by the offer of higher pay....
Making comparisons means finding similari A single defeat at sea is in all likelihood
ties and differences. In the above example, you their ruin. 55
might first notice the similarities between the —Thucydides, account of a Corinthian
shoes. Both pairs are the same price and the same envoy to the Congress at Sparta, 432 B.C.
color. Then, you would look for differences. One
pair extends above the ankle, the other pair does
not. One pair is designed for jogging, the other CC Personally engaged in the cultivation of
for aerobics. Once you have compared the shoes, their land, without funds either private
you can draw a conclusion about which pair will or public, the Peloponnesians [Spartans]
best suit your needs. are also without experience in long wars
Apply the same method in comparing any across the sea.... Our naval skill is of
two objects, groups, or concepts. First, determine more use to us for service on land, than
the purpose of your comparison. What question their military skill for service at sea.
do you want to answer? Then determine the Even if they were to ... try to seduce our
bases for comparison. In the shoe example, we foreign sailors by the temptation of high
compared on the bases of price, color, style, and er pay ... none of our foreign sailors
athletic function. Then identify similarities and would consent to become an outlaw
differences in each of these categories. Finally, use from his own country, and to take ser
the comparison to draw conclusions or to answer vice with them. 55
your question. —Pericles, account to
Athenian Ecclesia, 432 B.C.
Practicing the Skill

The excerpts on this page discuss the military
strength of Sparta and Athens. Read the excerpts Applying the Skill
and answer the questions below. Choose a topic or activity that interests you,
1. Identify three bases for comparing the mili such as baseball, rock music, politics, etc.
tary strength of Athens and Sparta. Research and compare two individuals, groups,
2. Do both city-states have armies and navies? or organizations involved in this activity. Write a
3. What are two differences in the military short essay or make a chart outlining at least five
strength of Athens and Sparta? similarities and five differences.
4. Based on this comparison, which city-state
has greater military strength? Why?
For More Practice
CC We [Spartans] have many reasons to Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
expect success,—first, superiority in Review on page 127 for more practice in making
numbers and in military experience, and comparisons.

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
Connections Across Time

Historical Significance Ancient tion by all citizens, Athens can be a representative democracy. In
Greece provided the world with described as a direct democracy. contrast to citizenship in ancient
its first example of democratic In the United States today, where Greece, United States citizenship
government. Because the limited we elect senators and representa has broadened to include women
number of citizens in a Greek tives who are responsible to us, and people of all races, as well as
polis permitted direct participa the form of government is called naturalized foreign-born citizens.
Using Key Terms

Write the key term that completes each sentence. Then Using Your History Journal
write a sentence for each term not chosen.
Democracy is not easy to achieve or to
a. aristocrats h. tyrant maintain. Make a list of the issues that
b. citizen i. symposiums challenge democracy in America. Write
c. democracy j. labyrinth a paragraph entitled "Maintaining
d. oligarchy k. phalanx Democracy33 or "Achieving Democracy33
e. mercenary 1. bards that respotuis to this issue.
f. polis m. constitution
g. rhetoric
T h e . t h e b a s i c oolitical unit of
Greece, included a city and the surrounding
villages, fields, and orchards. Reviewing Facts
2. A woman in ancient Greece was not considered 1. Culture List the elements of Minoan culture that
to be a full with the right to take part in were adopted by the Mycenaeans.
political affairs. 2. Culture State the values of the Iliad and the
3. By the 700s B.C., kings in Greece had lost power
Odyssey.
to landholding members of the upper class 3. Culture Explain how Greek attitudes toward
known as . their deities differ from those of the Egyptians.
4. Athenian men entertained each other at , 4. History Explain how Sparta's response to the
telling riddles and discussing literature, problems of increased population and a short
philosophy, and public issues. age of arable land differed from the response of
5. , or singing storytellers, kept alive most other Greek city-states.
Mycenaean literary traditions during Greece's 5. Citizenship Trace the development of democra
"dark age." cy in Athens, and describe citizens' rights and
responsibilities. What groups were excluded
from citizenship?
Technology Activity
Using a Spreadsheet Search the
Internet or your local library Critical Thinking
for additional information about 1. Apply How did Sparta's values affect its educa
Greek gods and goddesses. Organize your find tional system?
ings by creating a spreadsheet. Include headings 2. Analyze How did the reforms of Cleisthenes in
such as name of god or goddess, purpose of
Athens affect the future development of govern
their existence, types of powers, and relation ment in the Western world?
ships to other gods or goddesses. Research fur 3. Synthesize What might have been the outcome
ther to find out and list the corresponding of the Persian Wars if Themistocles had not con
Roman names for Greek gods and goddesses. vinced the Greeks to build a fleet of ships?

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
4. Analyze Shown below, the south porch of the Skill Practice

Erechtheum near the Parthenon has figures of
maidens in place of conventional columns. The Reread Section 3 and compare the two leading city-
buildings on the Acropolis are examples of early states in ancient Greece.
classical architecture and sculpture. What might
these figures suggest about the role of women in 1. What are two similarities in the education of
Athenian life? young people in Athens and Sparta?
2. What are two differences in their educations in
these two city-states?
3. What are two similarities in the political struc
ture of Athens and Sparta?
4. What are two differences that can be identified
in the political structure of these two Greek city-
states?
5. What are two differences in the roles of women
in Athens and Sparta?
6. What are two similarities in women's roles in
these two city-states?
Geography in History
1. Place Although it is a small island without
much land area, Crete contains what two dis
tinct, but neighboring, landforms?
2. Location Refer to the map on page 124. What is
the relative location of Crete? What is Crete's
absolute location?
Understanding Themes 3. Location Where was the palace of the leg
1. Relation to Environment What aspects of endary king Minos?
Crete's environment enabled the Minoans to 4. Human/Environment Interaction Geography
become skilled seafarers? has an impact on how people live from day to
2. Movement What role did trade play in the day. How did the early people of Crete earn
development of Greek civilization? their living?
3. Regionalism What effect did Sparta's emphasis
on military values have on its development as a Ancient Crete
city-state?
4. Conflict How did the Peloponnesian War affect
Athens, Sparta, and the other Greek city-states? MOT
Mount ™ Mallia
Ida •
inking Past Arkhanes ' Dictatan • Palaloka:
^^^—' €U
-* j Present Idaean Cave■ Cave U^Pselra f
Phaestos
1. Why did tyrants seize power in ancient • Cretan settlement
Athens during times of unrest? Do you fi Location of Cretan palace
think a tyrant could establish a dictatorship

today in the United States in a time of cri
sis? Explain your answer.
2. Why might students at the United States
Naval Academy study the Persian Wars?

Chapter
5
750-150 B.C.
The Height of
Greek Civilization
■F ^ w r j w i *
m w^.- m iM
vXtorvteller
mnpm L . "**am
put 1I i am?*m An outwardly unimpressive man, Socrates was nonetheless
an intellectual giant in the Athens of the late 400s B.C. One of
f mmm^
SSSBBlM ■
B ^ ^ l his devoted followers described Socrates' day: "At early morning
he was to be seen betaking himself to one of the promenades or
Chapter Themes
▶ Innovation The ancient Greeks
wrestling grounds; at noon he would appear with the gathering
crowds in the marketplace; and as day declined, wherever the
develop a culture that becomes one
of the foundations of Western civi largest throng might be encountered, there was he to be found,
lization. Section 1
▶ Innovation Ancient Greek talking for the most part, while anyone who chose might stop
thinkers believe in reason and the and listen." Socrates was a supreme questioner who succeeded
importance of the individual.
Section 2 in getting people to analyze their own behavior. Today, Socrates'
▶ Cultural Diffusion Alexander's
reputation lives on as one of the greatest teachers of all time.
empire brings about a mix of Greek
and Middle Eastern cultures.
Section 3 Historical Significance
What were the principal beliefs and values of the
ancient Greeks? How did their achievements in art,
philosophy, history, and science shape the growth of Western
civilization?
800 B.C. 600 b.o. 400B.C. 200 B.c.
fczzza IWF-irH
Greeks hold first Euripides writes
Olympic Games. ^^^^^^ The Trojan Women.
Eaaâi Alexander becomes
Thales, first Greek king of Macedonia.
scientist, studies
astronomy.
128
History Plato's School, a mosaic from the
Hellenistic period. National Your History Journal
Museum Naples, Italy
The ward thespian, meaning
"actor,33 derives from the Greek drama
tist Thespis. Matty Greek innovations in
staging productiotts are still used today.
Research the history of early Greek
drama. Write a comparison with modern
theater.
Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization 129

Us»-yj:*w Aeschylus
Greeks perform finish building the
writes the Oresteia.
the earliest plays. Parthenon.
Section 1
Quest for
Beauty and Meaning
Setting the Scene uring the mid-400s B.C., Greek civiliza
tion reached its cultural peak, particular
▶ Terms to Define
ly in the city-state of Athens. This period
classical, sanctuary, perspective, amphora, of brilliant cultural achievement has been called
tragedy, comedy ancient Greece's Golden Age. Artists of the Golden
▶ People to Meet Age excelled in architecture, sculpture, and paint
Myron, Phidias, Praxiteles, Aeschylus, ing. They created works characterized by beautiful
Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes simplicity and graceful balance, an artistic style
now called classical.
Classical Greek art, copied soon after in Roman
Olympia artistic styles, set lasting standards of beauty still
admired today. The writers and thinkers of ancient
ind Out How did the Greeks express their
Greece also made enduring achievements in litera
love of beauty and meaning? ture and drama, creating works read through the
centuries and still considered classics today. Many
cultural traditions of Western civilization—the civi
Storyteller lization of Europe and those parts of the world
influenced by Europeans—began with Greece's
An early Greek actor remembers performing in Golden Age.
his first tragedy: "I put on the robe of Zeus for the
prologue, a lovely thing, purple worked with golden
oak leaves.... The next thing I remember is sitting
enthroned down center on the god-walk, eagle on Building for the Gods
left fist, scepter in right hand ... and all the eyes of The Greeks, wrote the Athenian leader Pericles,
Athens skinning me to the bone." The actor felt as were "lovers of the beautiful." Each Greek city-state
though he had sleepwalked into the scene. Gripped tried to turn its acropolis into an architectural treasure.
The Parthenon—the temple to Athena built on
by fear, he tried to remember his lines: "My father
would die of the summit of the Acropolis in Athens—best exem
Vase depicting j^SS^ shame.... He was plified classical Greek architecture. It was begun in
actors preparing igigS|fl>| twice the artist 1 447 B.C. and finished in 432 B.C., under the rule of
Pericles. Because the Greeks worshiped either in
for a play am. At once my
their homes or at outdoor altars, they did not need
lines came back
to me. I started large sanctuaries, or places of worship. Instead,
they built temples as places where their deities
my speech...." would live.
—adapted from The Parthenon has an ingeniously simple
The Mask of design. It is a rectangle surrounded by 46 fluted
Apollo, Mary columns. At the same time, the Parthenon is
Renault, 1974 extremely beautiful. In the right light, because of
Visualizing _ An ancient Greek
H i s t o r y krater (vase)
illustrates a scene from Odysseus
and the Sirens. What kinds of vases
did the Greeks decorate with scenes
from mythology?
iron in its white marble, the Parthenon gleams a two-handled vase—a wide mouth in which it was
soft gold against the blue sky. easy to mix wine with water. On the other hand,
The Parthenon's graceful proportions perfectly they gave the leythos a narrow neck so that oil could
balance width, length, and height. To the Greeks be poured out slowly and in small quantities.
the Parthenon represented the ideal of "nothing to Most pottery remaining from ancient Greece is
excess," an ideal sometimes called the "golden either red on a black background or black on a red
mean," or the midpoint between two extremes. background. The varied subjects of the paintings
The architects of the Parthenon also under depended on the size and use of the vase. Potters
stood optical illusions and perspective, or the artis usually decorated an amphora—a large vase for
tic showing of distances between objects as they storing oil and other bulk supplies—with scenes
appear to the eye. Thus, they made the temple's from mythology. In contrast, a kylix—a wide, shal
columns thicker in the middle and thinner at the low two-handled drinking cup—showed scenes of
top so that the columns appeared straight when everyday life: children attending school, shoemak
viewed from a distance. The steps leading up to the ers and carpenters plying their trades, a farmer
Parthenon, actually lower in the center than at guiding the plow behind a team of oxen, a mer
either end, likewise appear straight. The Athenians chant ship braving the winds. Greek potters skill
wanted to create the impression of perfection—and fully adapted their designs and decorations to the
they succeeded. curves and shape of the vase.
Sculpting the Human Body

Greek Arts Greek sculpture, like Greek architecture,
reached its height in Athens during the time of
The Greek love of beauty was expressed in the Pericles. Myron, one of the greatest sculptors of
fine arts as well as in architecture. In both painting Greece's Golden Age, portrayed in his statues ide
and sculpture, the Greeks—because they empha alized views of what people should look like rather
sized the individual—excelled at portraying the than actual persons. When Myron sculpted his
human form. Discus Thrower poised to hurl the discus, he carved
the lines of the body to indicate an athlete's excel
Painting on Vases lent physical condition as well as his mental control
Although the Greeks painted murals, as had over what he was doing.
the Minoans, no originals have survived. We know The great sculptor Phidias (FIH«dee»uhs) was
of Greek murals only from written descriptions or in charge of the Parthenon's sculptures. Phidias
Roman copies. But today we can still see examples himself carved the towering statue of Athena that
of their work in the paintings on Greek vases. was placed inside the Parthenon. The statue, made
The Greeks designed their pottery with differ of gold and ivory plates attached to a wooden
ent shapes that were suited for different functions. framework, showed the goddess in her warlike
For example, Greek potters gave the krater—a small aspect, carrying a shield, spear, and helmet.

related theme—and is famous for the grandeur of
wmM Palace of
Persepolis
its language.
The Oresteia shows how the consequences of
one's deeds are carried down from generation to
Mesopotamia, mid-400s B.C.
generation. The first play in the trilogy tells about
The Persians completed a notable palace complex
the return of King Agamemnon from the Trojan
in their religious capital of Persepolis. Because War and his murder by his wife Clytemnestra in
Zoroastrianism did not require temples, the
revenge for Agamemnon's sacrifice of their daugh
Persians built a group of adjoining buildings that
ter Iphigenia before the Greeks sailed for Troy. The
included palaces, halls, chambers, and courtyards. second play describes how Agamemnon's son
Persian kings used a huge room, called the Hall of Orestes in turn avenges his father's death by killing
One Hundred Columns, as a reception area for his mother. The third play has Orestes standing trial
visitors. The room in Athens for his bloody deed. When the jury splits
was 250 feet (76 six to six, the goddess Athena intervenes and casts
meters) square, its the deciding vote in favor of mercy. The moral of
vast beamed ceiling
the trilogy is that the law of the community, not
was supported by
personal revenge, should decide punishment.
columns 60 feet (18
meters) high. Sophocles
The next great tragedian, Sophocles (SAH«fuh
•KLEEZ), had served as a general in the Athenian
army and had lived through most of the
A hundred years after the Golden Age of Peloponnesian War. Sophocles accepted human
Athens, the work of another famous Greek suffering as an unavoidable part of life. At the same
sculptor—Praxiteles (prak• SIH• tuhl • EEZ)—reflect time, he stressed human courage and compassion.
ed the changes that had occurred in Greek life. The In one of his most famous plays, Oedipus Rex,
sculptures of Myron and Phidias had been full of Sophocles deals with the plight of Oedipus, a king
power and striving for perfection, as befitted a peo who is doomed by the deities to kill his father and
ple who had defeated the mighty Persian Empire. marry his mother. Despite Oedipus's efforts to
By the time of Praxiteles, the Greeks had suffered avoid his fate, the deities' decree comes true. When
through the Peloponnesian War and had lost their Oedipus discovers what he has done, he blinds
self-confidence. Accordingly, Praxiteles and his col himself in despair and goes into exile.
leagues favored life-sized statues rather than mas
sive works. They emphasized grace rather than Euripides
power. The sculptors of the Golden Age had carved The last of the three great Greek tragedians—
only deities and heroes, but the sculptors of the Euripides (yu»RIH»puh»DEEZ)—rarely dealt with
300s B.C. carved ordinary people too. the influence of the gods and goddesses on human
lives. Instead, he focused on the qualities human
beings possess that bring disaster on themselves.
Drama and Theater Euripides also hated war, and many of his 19
surviving plays show the misery war brings. In The
The Greeks also explored the human condition Trojan Women, the Trojan princess Cassandra
through theatrical dramas. They were the first peo explains why the Greeks, despite their victory, are
ple to write and perform plays, which they present not better off than the Trojans:
ed twice a year at festivals to honor Dionysus, the
god of wine and fertility. CC And when [the Greeks] came to the banks
of the Scamander those thousands died.
Aeschylus And why?
The earliest Greek plays were tragedies. In a No man has moved their landmarks or
tragedy, the lead character struggles against fate laid siege to their high-walled towns.
only to be doomed—after much suffering—to an But those whom war took never saw their
unhappy, or tragic, ending. Aeschylus (EHS»kuh children.
• luhs), the first of the great writers of tragedies in No wife with gentle hands shrouded them
the 400s B.C., wrote 90 plays. Seven have survived. for their grave.
His Oresteia is a trilogy—a set of three plays with a They lie in a strange land. And in their
132 Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization

NATIONAL
Greek Soldier
The Greeks began casting statues in bronze in the
the world with a determined stare. For more mid-500s B.C. Within a century ancient Greek civiliza
than 1,500 years, the soldier rested under the tion entered its Golden Age, the era in which Plato
A Greek waters
warrior,of sculpted
the Mediterranean
in bronze,Sea.gazes
Then atin (427-347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) laid the
1972 an Italian chemist from Rome, diving off the coast foundations of Western philosophy,- Sophocles
of southern Italy, found this statue and a companion (495-405 B.C.) wrote tragedies; Thucydides (471-c. 400
bronze of an older Greek soldier. The statues were B.C.) recorded Greek history,- and Phidias of Athens
probably lost at sea en route to Rome—perhaps thrown (500^4-31 B.C.) created statues—perhaps even these rare
overboard to lighten a storm-tossed ship. Rescued by examples. It was an age in which sculptors created new
divers (upper left) and carefully restored, the statues modes of artistic expression and began to depict the
now stand guard in an Italian museum. human body with precision. ®

about issues of his day. In his play The Clouds,
Aristophanes had a character named Strepsiades
ask where Athens was on a map. When the polis's
location was pointed out to him, Strepsiades
replied: "Don't be ridiculous, that can't be Athens,
for I can't see even a single law court in session."
The Olympic Games

Visualizing The Greek
Histo- Believing that healthy bodies made the best use
sculptor of nature's gifts, the ancient Greeks stressed athlet
Myron honored the ics in their school curriculum. Greek men who
Olympic discus thrower, could afford the leisure time usually spent all or
shown here in a Roman
part of their afternoons practicing sports in their
marble copy. How did the
polis's gymnasiums.
Greeks honor winners of the The ancient Greeks held the Olympic Games—
Olympic Games? their best-known sporting event—in Olympia
every four years. Because the Olympic Games were
a religious festival in honor of Zeus, trading and
fighting stopped while they were going on. The
Greek calendar began with the supposed date of
the first Olympic Games: 776 B.C.
Athletes came from all over the Greek-speaking
world to compete in the Olympics. Only male ath
homes are sorrows, too, the very same. letes, however, were allowed to take part, and
Lonely women who died, old men who women were not permitted even as spectators.
waited for sons that never came—no Games that honored the goddess Hera were held at
son left to them to make the offering at a different location than Olympia and gave Greek
their graves. women an opportunity to participate in races.
That was the glorious victory they won. 55 In line with the Greek emphasis on the individ
Euripides, from his tragedy ual, Olympic competition took the form of individual
The Trojan Women, c. 415 B.C. rather than team events. These consisted at first of
only a footrace. Later other events—the broad jump,
the discus throw, boxing, and wrestling—were added.
A C o m e d y To n i g h t An activity called the pentathlon (pehn«TATH»luhn)
Eventually the Greeks also wrote comedies, combined running, jumping, throwing the discus,
plays with humorous themes and happy endings. wrestling, and hurling the javelin.
Aristophanes (ar»uh»STAH»fuh»NEEZ), the most The Greeks crowned Olympic winners with
famous writer of comedies, created imaginative wreaths of olive leaves and held parades in their
social satire. In his works he made witty comments honor. Some city-states even excused outstanding
about leading figures—such as Euripides—and athletes from paying taxes.
SECTION 1 REVIEW
Re Greek deities influenced archi Understanding Themes

1. Define classical, sanctuary, tecture, art, and athletics. 5. Innovation How was
perspective, amphora, tragedy, Critical Thinking the ancient Greeks' emphasis
comedy. 4. Applying Information Show on reason and individuality
2. Identify Myron, Phidias, how the Greek emphasis on revealed in their arts?
Praxiteles, Aeschylus, Sopho the individual was demonstrat Cite examples from
cles, Euripides, Aristophanes. ed both in the Olympic Games architecture, sculpture, and
3. Describe how worship of and in the fine arts. drama.

mwrm JFTTT^
Pythagoras develops Herodotus Athenians try Aristotle opens
mathematical theories writes history of Socrates for the Lyceum in
the Persian Wars. treason. Athens.
Section 2
The Greek Mind

Setting the Scene /j S^ he Greeks believed the human mind
▶ Terms to Define f capable of understanding everything.
%~Jr As a result, the philosophers, or
philosopher, logic, hygiene
thinkers, of ancient Greece produced some of the
▶ People to Meet most remarkable ideas the world has ever known.
Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus, Through philosophy—which means "the seeking of
Thucydides, Thales, Pythagoras, wisdom"—they laid the foundations for such disci
Hippocrates plines as history, political science, biology, and
logic, or the science of reasoning.
What did the ancient Greeks
achieve in philosophy, history, and science?
The Sophists
In the 400s B.C. higher education was provided
vXtoryteller
by professional teachers known as Sophists.
Socrates was on trial for his life, for crimes Although Sophists traveled from polis to polis,
against religion and for corrupting the youth of many gathered in Athens, possibly for the freedom
Athens. He spoke in his own defense: "I have done of speech allowed there. Sophists, meaning "know-
nothing but try to persuade you all, young and ers," claimed that they could find the answers to all
old, not to be concerned with body or property questions.
first, but to care chiefly about improvement of the Many Sophists rejected the belief that the gods
and goddesses influenced human behavior. They
soul. I tell you that virtue does not come from
also did not believe in absolute moral and legal
money, but that money comes from virtue, as does standards. Instead, they asserted that "man is the
every other good of man, public and private. This measure of all things" and that truth is different for
is my teaching, and if this corrupts the youth,
each individual.
then I am a mischievous person. O men of Not only did Sophists challenge certain tradi
Athens, either acquit me or convict me; but tional Greek beliefs, they also took money for their
whichever you do, understand that I shall never teaching. Many of them seemed most intent on
alter my ways, not even if I have to die many teaching young men how to win a political argu
times." ment and get ahead in the world. Many Greeks,
—adapted from including two of Greece's greatest philosophers—

Socrates (SAH»kruh«TEEZ) and his pupil Plato-
The Apology of
criticized the Sophists severely.
Socrates, Plato
Socrates
Socrates was born to a poor Athenian family in
470 B.C. A though a sculptor by trade, he spent most
Socrates of his time teaching. Unlike the Sophists, Socrates
believed in absolute rather than relative truth. His

main interest did not lie in teaching rhetoric or in Plato
imparting information. Rather, Socrates was
attracted to the process by which people learned Born an Athenian aristocrat, Plato thought at
how to think for themselves. first of entering politics. However, after Socrates'
To encourage his students to clear away mis death, Plato—at age 40—became a teacher and
taken ideas and discover the truth, Socrates devel opened his Academy, a school that remained in
oped a teaching technique known as the Socratic existence until A.D. 529.
method. He would ask students pointed questions From memory Plato recorded dialogues, or
without giving them answers and then oppose the conversations, between Socrates and fellow
students' answers with clear logical arguments. Athenians, and he also wrote the earliest book on
Through this method, he forced his students to political science, The Republic. In this book, he pre
defend their statements and to clarify their think sented a plan for what he considered would be the
ing. For example, in discussing the topic of justice, ideal society and government.
Socrates proceeded as follows: Plato disliked Athenian democracy and pre
ferred the government of Sparta. He gave more
CC Socrates: Does falsehood then exist among importance to the state than to the individual. Like
mankind? the Spartans, he believed that each person should
Euthydemus: It does assuredly. place service to the community above strictly per
Socrates: Under which head [justice or sonal goals. Plato also believed that the result of
injustice] shall we place it? people having too much freedom is social disorder.
Euthydemus: Under injustice, certainly. He distrusted the lower classes and wanted only
Socrates: Well then ... if a father, when his the most intelligent and best-educated citizens to
son requires medicine, and refuses to participate in government. As he explained in The
take it, should deceive him, and give Republic:
him the medicine as ordinary food, and,
by adopting such deception, should CC Until philosophers are kings, or the kings
restore him to health, under which head and princes of this world have the spirit
must we place such an act of deceit? and power of philosophy, and political
Euthydemus: It appears to me that we greatness and wisdom meet in one, and
must place it under [justice].... I retract those commoner natures who pursue
what I said before. 55 either to the exclusion of the other are
—Xenophon, from Memorabilia, compelled to stand aside, cities will never
have rest from their evils, no, nor the
early 300s B.C.
human race. 55
Some prominent Athenians viewed Socrates'
teachings as a threat to the polis. In 399 B.C. they
accused him of "corrupting the young" and of "not
worshiping the gods worshiped by the state" and
had him brought to trial.
Socrates argued in his own defense that a per
son who knew what was right would always do Visualizing _
what was right and that the intellectual search for History
truth was the most important thing in the world. Plato asked: What
"A man who is good for anything ought not to cal type of society is
culate the chance of living or dying; he ought only most likely to
to consider whether ... he is doing right or wrong." promote justice? In
Despite Socrates' eloquence, a jury of citizens so doing, he helped
found him guilty and sentenced him to death. to direct philosophy
Although Socrates had the right to ask for a lesser into the study of
penalty, such as exile, he refused to do so. He had political science.
lived his life under the laws of his polis, and he What did Plato believe
would not avoid obeying them now. would result from too
Socrates carried out the sentence of his fellow much freedom?
citizens himself. He drank poisonous hemlock juice
and died quietly among his grieving followers.

Plato's political views were part of an all- Writers of History
embracing philosophy by which he tried to search
for "truth." Plato rejected the senses—seeing, hear The Greeks also used their intellectual skills in
ing, touch, smell, and taste—as a source of truth, writing history. Until the 400s B.C. the Greeks had
believing that the many things that could be per considered literary legends as history. Herodotus
ceived by these senses were only "appearance." (hill*RAH'duh'tus), the first Greek historian,
Reality, the "real" world, was constructed from decided to separate fact from legend. Historians
ideas, or ideal "forms," which could be understood still consider him "the father of history."
through logical thought and reasoning.
Herodotus
Herodotus chose as his subject the Persian
Wars and called his work the Historia, or "investi
Aristotle gation." Herodotus traveled throughout the
Persian Empire and also visited many Greek
The third great philosopher of ancient Greece
colonies. Everywhere he went, he asked questions,
was Aristotle (AR»uh»STAH«tuhl), who wrote
recorded answers, and checked the reliability of
more than 200 books on topics ranging from astron
his sources. However, he accepted some state
omy to political science. At his Athenian school ments that were not true, especially exaggerated
known as the Lyceum, Aristotle taught the golden
numbers—such as how many Persians died at
mean, an ethical principle that affirmed living mod Marathon. He also sometimes offered supernatur
erately and avoiding extremes in one's actions. al explanations of events.
Aristotle influenced later philosophers with his
Herodotus did not limit himself to describing
work on logic. He developed the syllogism, a means
for presenting an argument in such a way that one military and political events. He also wrote about
can determine whether or not the conclusion follows outstanding individuals, social customs, and reli
gious beliefs and practices. Later historians have
logically from the premises, or basic statements. learned a great deal from the Historia about the
culture of the period and about the civilizations
Aristotle and Science that Herodotus visited.
Aristotle also influenced scientific work. Unlike
Plato, he stressed the value of knowledge gained Thucydides
through the senses. In his work Physics, Aristotle The second noted historian of ancient Greece,
stated that the physical world's most striking fea
Thucydides (thoo*SIH«duh«DEEZ), wrote about
ture is change, and that change basically consists of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides is regarded as
the same matter taking on new form. He was also the first scientific historian because he completely
the first person to observe facts, then classify them
rejected the idea that the deities played a part in
according to their similarities and their differences, human history. Only human beings make history,
and finally develop generalizations from his data.
Thucydides said. He also was as accurate and
Some of his specific beliefs—notably, that Earth is
impartial as possible. He visited battle sites, care
the center of our solar system—were incorrect.
fully examined documents, and accepted only the
Aristotle's views and his method of inquiry, how evidence of actual eyewitnesses to events.
ever, would continue to dominate European scien
tific thinking for centuries.
Aristotle and Government The Atom

Footnotes The Greek thinker
Many of Aristotle's writings focused on political
science. Unlike Plato, he did not theorize about ide istory Democritus came up with
alized principles of government. Instead, he exam the idea of a solid particle of matter so small that
ined the political structure of various city-states, it was both invisible and not divisible. He named
analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. this particle atom, meaning "indivisible." Today
Only then did he spell out his conclusions in a book
called Politics. Aristotle believed that the ideal form scientists know that atoms are in fact divisible
of government balanced monarchy, aristocracy, and and include many separate and smaller types of
democracy in one system. He preferred, however, to matter. But the basic idea of atomic physics can
have power rest with the middle class, because they be traced back to Democritus.
knew both how to command and obey.

guish mathematics as a pure science apart from
everyday practical uses. They constructed system
atic methods of reasoning to prove the truth of
mathematical statements. Through the study of
mathematics, Greek thinkers believed that they
could find absolutely certain and eternal knowledge.
The first prominent Greek scientist was Thales
(THAY«leez) of Miletus, a Greek city-state in Ionia.
Born in the mid-600s B.C., Thales studied astronomy
at Babylon and mathematics in Egypt and could
foretell a solar eclipse. He also formulated a theory
that water was the basic substance of which every
thing in the world is made.
During the 500s B.C., Pythagoras (puh
•THA»guh«ruhs) tried to explain everything in
mathematical terms. He explored the nature of
numbers, especially whole numbers and their
ratios. Students of geometry still learn the
Visualizing _ Greek physicians observed the many Pythagorean theorem about the relationship of
sides of a right-angled triangle. Pythagoras also
H i s t o r y symptoms of disease and concluded
that illnesses are not caused by evil spirits, but have taught that the world was round and revolved
around a fixed point.
natural causes. What three prescriptions for health did
Hippocrates suggest? Greek Medicine
Greek scientists also contributed to the field of
Thucydides did not simply recite facts, however. medicine. Called "the father of medicine," the
He also offered explanations for why events took place physician Hippocrates (hih«PAH»kruh«TEEZ)
and what motivated political leaders. He believed believed that diseases had natural, not supernatur
that future generations could learn from the past. al, causes and that the body could heal itself. He
was the first doctor to view medicine as a science
separate from religious beliefs or mythological
The First Scientists explanations.
Basing his work in the late 400s B.C. on obser
The ancient Greeks passed on a great scientific vation, he traveled all over Greece diagnosing ill
heritage. They believed that the world is ruled by nesses and treating sick people. He urged fellow
natural laws and that human beings can discover doctors to keep records of their cases and to
these laws by using reason. Lacking scientific exchange information with one another. He strong
equipment, the Greek scientists made most of their ly advocated proper hygiene, or health care, a
discoveries by observation and thought. They then sound diet, and plenty of rest.
went on to develop general theories or statements According to tradition, Hippocrates drafted a
about the workings of nature. code for ethical medical conduct that has guided
the practice of medicine for more than 2,000 years.
Greek Mathematicians Many doctors today recite the Hippocratic oath
The Greeks became the first people to distin when they receive their medical degree.
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Re call 3. Explain how Plato, Socrates, attitudes regarding observa

1. Define philosopher, logic, and Aristotle were related as tions made through the senses.
hygiene. philosophers. Understanding Themes
2. Identify Sophists, Socrates , C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g 5. Innovation How did Socrates
Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus , 4 . M a k i n g C o m p a r i s o n s and Hippocrates each con
Thucydides, Thales, Pythag oras, Compare the political views of tribute to the intellectual life of
Hippocrates. Plato and Aristotle and their ancient Greece?

Social Studies
SE2Efi8
Finding Exact Location on a Map
In giving directions, she says, "I live at Practicing the Skill
Your new the northwest
friend invites
corneryou
of Vine
to her
Street
house.
and Use the map below to answer the following
Oak Avenue." She has pinpointed her exact loca questions:
tion. We use a similar system to identify the exact 1. What is the approximate grid address of
location of any place on Earth. Babylon?
2. What city is located at approximately 30° N,
31° E?
Learning the Skill 3. What is the approximate grid address of
Over many centuries, cartographers devel Nineveh?
4. What is the approximate grid address of Tyre?
oped a grid system of imaginary lines—the lines
of latitude and lines of longitude. Lines of lati
tude run east and west around the earth. Because
Cities of the Middle East
they always remain the same distance from each
other, they are also called parallels. The parallel
lines of latitude measure distance north and
south of the Equator, located at 0° latitude. Each
line of latitude is one degree, or 69 miles (110
km), from the next. There are 90 latitude lines
between the Equator and each Pole. For example,
New York City lies 41° north of the Equator, or
41° N.
Lines of longitude, or meridians, run north
and south from Pole to Pole. Unlike lines of lati
tude, lines of longitude are not always the same Persian
distance from each other. Lines of longitude are Gulf
farthest apart at the Equator and intersect at each 200 | 400 mi.
Pole. Longitude measures distance east and west -20D 4i50km
Lambert Conic Conformal Projectioi
of the Prime Meridian, located at 0° longitude.
That line runs through Greenwich, England, in
western Europe and through western Africa.
Longitude lines increase east and west of the Applying the Skill
Prime Meridian to 180°. This meridian runs Create a travel itinerary for a tour of the ruins
through the Pacific Ocean. New York City, for of ancient Egypt, Greece, or the Middle East.
example, lies 74° west of the Prime Meridian, Choose at least 10 locations you would like to
or 74° W. visit. Draw a map of the region, including grid
With this system, we can pinpoint the "grid lines. On the map, identify the approximate grid
address" of any place on Earth. On a map, find location of each place.
the nearest line of latitude to the designated
place. Then follow along this line until it crosses
the nearest line of longitude. The point where the For More Practice
lines intersect is the grid address. For example, Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
New York City has this grid address: 41° N, Review on page 151 for more practice in finding
74° W. exact location on a map.

300 b.c. 7.00 nr. 100 R_C
400 B.c.
Alexander
trTPTM the Great defeats the Jewish scholars Rome conquers
Philip II becomes Persians in the battle translate the Hebrew Greece.
king of Macedonia. of Gaugamela. Bible into Greek.
Section 3
Alexander's Empire
Setting the Scene / jyn the early 400s B.C., the Persians under
^£ Darius I, and then under his son Xerxes,
▶ Terms to Define
f_^X had tried to conquer the Greek city-states
domain
but failed. Some 150 years later the Macedonians,
▶ People to Meet a people who lived north of Greece in the Balkan
Philip II, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Peninsula, made a similar attempt—and succeeded.
Zeno, Menander, Eratosthenes, Euclid,
Archimedes
▶ Places to Locate Rise of Macedonia
Macedonia, Alexandria
The Macedonians, like the Spartans, were
descended from the Dorians, and the Macedonian
ynTFI'JTM | What were Alexander's goals language incorporated many Greek words. The
for his empire, and how successful was he
Greeks, however, looked down on the Macedonians
in achieving them? as backward mountaineers.
In 359 B.C. Philip II became king of Macedonia.
During his youth he had been a hostage for three
Storyteller years in the Greek city-state of Thebes. There he
had learned to admire both Greek culture and mili
Hellenistic poets who lived in bustling cities
tary organization. As king, Philip determined to do
loved to tell simple fables about love in a country three things: create a strong standing army, unify
side setting: the quarreling Greek city-states under Macedonian
A bee once stung the god of love [Cupid] rule, and destroy the Persian Empire.
as he was stealing honey. Philip increased his army's righting power by
His fingertips began to smart, organizing his infantry into Greek-style phalanxes.
and he blew upon his hand, Arrayed in close formation 16 rows deep, Philip's
stamped and danced. lance-bearing foot soldiers fought as a single unit.
When he showed his wound to his mother, For the next 23 years, Philip pursued his ambi
she laughed. "Aren't you just like the bee, tion. Sometimes he conquered a polis or bribed a
so small, yet inflict polis's leaders to surrender. Sometimes he allied a
ing great pain?" polis through marriage; Philip had a total of six or
seven wives.
—adapted from The The Greek city-states, weakened by the
Idylls of Theocritus, Peloponnesian War, would not cooperate in resist
(no. 19, "The Honey- ing Philip. The great Athenian orator Demosthenes
Thief"), in Greek (dih«MAHS«thuh»NEEZ) appealed to his fellow cit
Pastoral Poetry, izens to fight for their liberty. But Demosthenes'
Anthony Holden, words were to no avail. By 338 B.C. Philip had con
1974
quered all of Greece except Sparta.
Philip then announced that he would lead the
Cupid, wall painting, Greeks and Macedonians in a war against Persia.
Pompeii, Italy But in 336 B.C., just as he was ready to carry out his

Alexander's Empire 336-323 B.c
and Persians took place in
333 B.C. at Issus, Syria.
Once again, Alexander's
superb tactics resulted in
victory, forcing the Persian
king Darius III to flee.
Instead of pursuing
Darius, Alexander and his
troops moved south along
the Mediterranean coast.
First they captured the sea
ports of Phoenicia and cut
off the Persian fleet from
its main supply bases. The
fleet soon surrendered.
0 200 400 km
Mercator Projection
Next, turning west, they
invaded Egypt where the
people, discontented under
Alexander the Great united the Greeks and conquered an Persian rule, welcomed
Map area stretching from Egypt to India. them and declared Alex
Study 1. Movement After freeing the Ionian city-states, in which ander a pharaoh. In Egypt,
direction did Alexander and his forces travel? Alexander established a
2. Location What key cities in the Persian Empire did new city and named it
Alexander conquer? Alexandria after himself.
Final Campaigns
In 331 B.C. Alexander
plans, Philip was murdered—either by a Persian again turned his attention eastward. He invaded
agent or by an assassin hired by his first wife, Mesopotamia and smashed Darius's main army in
Olympias. Olympias' son Alexander, later known as the battle of Gaugamela near the Tigris River. He
Alexander the Great, became king.
J^Bi
> POINT
Alexander's Conquests
Alexander was only 20 when he became the
ruler of Macedonia and Greece. A commander in
the Macedonian army since he was 16, Alexander
was highly respected by his soldiers for his courage
and military skill. He was also extremely well edu
cated, for his father had him tutored by Aristotle.
C o n fl i c t W i t h P e r s i a
In 334 B.C. Alexander led 30,000 soldiers and
5,000 cavalry into Asia to open his campaign of
"West against East." The first major encounter with
the Persians took place at the Granicus River in
western Asia Minor. Alexander's forces won, and
he sent 300 suits of Persian armor to Athens as an
offering to the goddess Athena. He then marched
along the coast of Asia Minor, freeing the Ionian
city-states from Persian rule. Alexander
The second major battle between the Greeks the Great
went on to capture the key cities of the Persian best of Greek and Persian cultures.
Empire: Babylon, Persepolis, and Susa. When Darius Alexander tried to promote this goal by example.
was killed by one of his own generals, Alexander He wore Persian dress and imitated the court life of
declared himself ruler of the Persian Empire. Persian kings. He married a daughter of Darius III
Even this success was not enough for the young and encouraged 10,000 of his soldiers to marry
conqueror. In 327 B.C. he led his soldiers into India, Persian women. He enrolled 30,000 Persians in his
and after three years they reached the Indus River army. He also founded about 70 cities that served
valley. Alexander hoped to go farther yet, but his both as military outposts and as centers for spreading
Macedonian veterans refused. Alexander therefore the Greek language and culture throughout his
reluctantly turned around and went to Babylon, empire. (^^m
which he had made the capital of his empire. But the
hardships of the journey had undermined his health,
and he fell ill with a fever, probably malaria. In 323 Divided Domain
B.C. Alexander the Great died at the age of 33.
Following Alexander's death, three of his gen
Imperial Goals erals—Ptolemy (TAH«luh»mee), Seleucus (suh
When Alexander first set out with his army, his •LOO'kuhs), and Antigonus (an«TIH«guh
goal was to punish Persia for its invasion of Greece •nuns)—eventually divided his vast empire into
150 years earlier. But as more and more territory separate domains, or territories. Ptolemy and his
came under his control, Alexander's views descendants ruled Egypt, Libya, and part of Syria.
changed. His new vision was to create an empire The most famous Ptolemaic ruler was Cleopatra
that would unite Europe and Asia and combine the VII, who lost her kingdom to the Romans in 31 B.C.
Images
°fthe Times The Greeks retold tales
of mythological figures
on pottery. This scene
The Hellenistic Age shows the god of wine,

Dionysus, in a boat.
Hellenistic cidture blended
mythology with real live heroes.
Bronze statuette of
Hellenistic dancer, said
to be from Alexandria.
This Pompeiian mosaic

honors Alexander the Great,
who extended his empire to
the Indus River valley.
142
Seleucus and his descendants—the Seleucids
(sulTLOO'Suhds)—at first controlled the rest of
Hellenistic Culture
Syria, as well as Mesopotamia, Iran, and The political unity of Alexander's empire dis
Afghanistan. After a while, however, they were appeared with his death, but the Greek language
forced to give up their eastern territory and with and culture continued to spread and flourish in the
draw to Syria. In 167 B.C. Jewish guerrillas led by lands he had conquered. There, Hellenic ways of
Judah Maccabee challenged the Seleucid control of life mixed with elements of Middle Eastern culture
Palestine. The Seleucid Antiochus IV had ordered to form a new culture, called Hellenistic.
the Jews to worship the Greek deities, but many
Jews refused to abandon their religion. In 165 B.C. City Life
Judah Maccabee succeeded in reoccupying Hellenistic culture was concentrated in cities.
Jerusalem and rededicating the Temple, an event The largest and wealthiest of these was Alexandria
commemorated by the Jewish festival of Hanukkah. in Egypt. Alexandria's straight streets intersected
The kingdom of Judah would remain independent each other at right angles, in contrast to the crooked
until its defeat by Rome in 63 B.C. The Seleucids streets of older cities. Its white stucco stone palaces
likewise ruled in Syria until the Romans came. and temples gleamed brilliantly in the sun.
The domain of Antigonus and his heirs consist The city's economic position benefited from a
ed at first of Macedonia and Greece. But the Greek double harbor that could hold 1,200 ships at a time.
city-states soon declared their independence and Another asset to trade was the city's lighthouse,
once again began fighting with each other. In the which was visible from 35 miles (56 km) out at sea.
100s B.C., the growing Roman Empire would con Alexandria also was a major intellectual center.
quer Macedonia and Greece. Its museum was the first ever and included a
Woman and servant, a

Hellenistic funerary stela
from Kerameikos cemetery.
The Winged Victory of

Samothrace, c. 200-100
B.C., was carved from a
solid eight-foot block of
marble.
REFLECTING ON THE TIMES
1. How did Greek pottery promote popular myths?

2. How are humans portrayed in Hellenistic art?
143
Hellenistic Philosophers
library of nearly a million volumes, an institute for
scientific research, a zoo, and a botanical garden. Hellenistic philosophers focused on personal
Scientists came from all over the Hellenistic world. behavior, especially the question of how to achieve
Around 250 B.C. Jewish scholars in Alexandria peace of mind. Three systems of thought attracted
translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek. This trans most Hellenistic intellectuals: Cynicism, Epicureanism
lation, known as the Septuagint (sehp-TOO (EH»pih«kyu»REE-uh«NIH»zuhm), and Stoicism.
•uh«juhnt), was later used by the apostle Paul and The best known Cynic was Diogenes (dyAH
is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church. •juItNEEZ). He criticized materialism and asserted
During Hellenic times, the Greeks had been that people would be happy if they gave up luxuries
intensely involved with their particular polis. In and lived simply, in accord with nature. The scholar
Hellenistic society, however, the Greeks formed the Epicurus started the philosophy of Epicureanism.
He argued that people should avoid both joy and pain
upper class of Alexandria and other cities in the
Middle East and Asia Minor that were ruled by by accepting the world as it was, ignoring politics,
kings. Rather than being loyal to their king or king and living simply and quietly with a few close friends.
dom, professional Greek soldiers and bureaucrats Zeno founded Stoicism. The name Stoicism
moved from place to place, wherever job opportu comes from the Stoa Poikile, or "painted porch," in
nities were best. which Zeno lectured. The Stoics believed that what
In Alexandria and other Hellenistic cities, the social happened to people was governed by natural laws.
status of upper-class Greek women improved over Accordingly, people could gain happiness by ignor
their traditional status in Athens. No longer secluded, ing their emotions, and instead following their rea
women could move about freely. They learned how to son, hi this way, they were able to accept even the
read and write and entered such occupations as real most difficult circumstances of life and do
estate, banking, and government. Such opportunities their duty. Stoicism later affected both Roman
were not, however, available to commoners. intellectuals and early Christian thinkers.
An Economic Region
Geographers, historians, and economists instead of hugging the coast. As a result, luxu
often divide the world into regions based on ry items from India and Arabia became com
economic factors, such as trade routes and mon in Mediterranean cities. As in ancient
uniform currency. The empire of Alexander times, the world today is made up of many
the Great came to be one economic different economic regions. For example, the
region. American Midwest can be classified as an
Alexander and his successors used economic region because one of its economic
vast sums of gold and silver characteristics is the production of corn,
captured in Persia to finance hogs, and cattle. Another example of an eco
public works projects, road nomic region is a large metropolitan area-
construction, and harbor such as that of Johannesburg, South
development. Extensive Africa-in which a central urban area is joined
land routes helped main to surrounding areas by transportation links,
tain close economic links or by people's wants and needs, such as jobs,
among the cities built by shopping, or entertainment.
Alexander. A uniform curren
cy also developed that held the I inking Past
J™*Prcsent
ACTIVITY
empire together economically.
International sea trade expanded List three economic characteristics
of Alexander's empire. Then, identify
greatly under Alexander's empire and its
Coin bearing the an economic region in which you live
successor domains. Hellenistic sailors used
face of Alexander monsoon winds to sail directly across the and list its characteristics.
the Great
Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia

History, Actors preparing for a
[&Art performance, a mosaic
from the House of the Tragic Poet,
Pompeii. National Museum, Naples,
Italy Why might people have had a work
like this in their home?
Hellenistic Art and Literature

During the Hellenistic era, artists
departed from Hellenic styles. Instead
of carving idealized individuals,
Hellenistic sculptors showed people
in the grip of powerful emotions. They
also carved portrait heads, because art
had become a business.
Hellenistic playwrights usually
wrote comedies rather than tragedies.
Like Hellenistic philosophers, they
ignored the problems of the outside
world as much as possible. Menander,
the most renowned Hellenistic play
wright, specialized in comedies about
everyday life. Well-known lines from
his works include "Whom the gods
love die young" and "We live not as
we will, but as we can."
Science, Medicine, and Mathematics body's nervous system, studied the brain and the
Although limited by their simple instruments, liver, and learned how to use drugs to relieve pain.
Hellenistic scientists performed many experiments The Hellenistic period also saw great develop
and developed new theories. Aristarchus (ARuilv ments and breakthroughs in mathematics and
STAHR«kuhs) of Samos concluded that the sun is physics. Euclid of Alexandria wrote The Elements of
larger than the earth, that the earth revolves around Geometry, a book that organized all information about
the sun, and that the stars lie at immense distances geometry. Archimedes (AHR»kuh«MEE»deez) in
from both heavenly bodies. Eratosthenes (EHR»uh» vented the compound pulley, which moves heavy
TAHS«thuh«NEEZ) estimated the earth's circum objects easily, and the cylinder-screw, which is still
ference to within 1 percent of the correct figure. used to lift water for irrigation. He also discovered
Hellenistic doctors dissected corpses in order to learn the principle of buoyancy and demonstrated the prin
more about human anatomy. They discovered the ciple of the lever.
SECTION 3 REVIEW
Rec Alexandria on the map on page the goal he finally chose for his
1. Define domain. 141. What does Alexandria owe empire. Why did his goals
2. Identify Philip II, Demos to the Macedonians? change?
thenes, Alexander the Great, Critical Thinking Understanding Themes
Zeno, Menander, Eratosthenes, 4. Making Comparisons Com 5. Cultural Diffusion Explain
Euclid, Archimedes. pare and contrast Alexander how and why Hellenistic arts
3. Locate Macedonia and the Great's original goal and differed from Hellenic arts.

LrihTTIJ/mAÎ
from
Antigone
by Sophocles
Creon [slowly, dangerously]. And you, Antigone,
You with your head hanging—do you confess
he Greek playwright this thing?
Sophocles, who lived Antigone. I do. I deny nothing.
from about 495-405 Creon [to SENTRY]. You may go.
B.C., wrote about the conflict between [Exit SENTRY] [To ANTIGONE] Tell me, tell
conscience and authority in his play me briefly:
Had you heard my proclamation touching this
Antigone. After Antigone's two broth matter?
ers died battling each other for the
throne of Thebes, her uncle, Creon, Antigone. It was public. Could I help hearing it?
became king. Creon allowed one broth Creon. And yet you dared defy the law.
er, Eteocles, an honorable burial. He Antigone. I dared.
It was not God's proclamation. That final justice
declared, however, that the other broth
That rules the world below makes no such laws.
er, Polyneices, was a traitor whose body Your edict, King, was strong,
should be left for the "birds and scav But all your strength is weakness itself against
The immortal unrecorded laws of God.
enging dogs." Anyone attempting to
They are not merely now: they were, and shall be,
bury Polyneices, he warned, would be Operative forever, beyond man utterly.
stoned to death. Antigone's sister,
I knew I must die, even without your decree:
Ismene, obeys Creon. Antigone, howev I am only mortal. And if I must die
er, out of respect for her brother, buries Now, before it is my time to die,
him. Surely this is no hardship: can anyone
Living, as I live, with evil all about me,
Think death less than a friend? This death of
mine
Is of no importance; but if I had left my brother
Lying in death unburied, I should have suffered.
Now I do not.
You smile at me. Ah Creon.

Think me a fool, if you like; but it may well be
That a fool convicts me of folly....
Creon, what more do you want than my death?
Creon. Nothing.
That gives me eveiything.
Antigone. Then I beg you: kill me.

This talking is a great weariness: your words
Are distasteful to me, and I am sure that mine
Seem so to you. And yet they should not seem so:
I should have praise and honor for what I have done.
All these men here would praise me
Were their lips not frozen shut with fear of you.
[Bitterly] Ah the good fortune of kings,
Licensed to say and do whatever they please!
Creon. You are alone here in that opinion.
Antigone. No, they are with me. But they keep their tongues
in leash.
Creon. Maybe. But you are guilty,
and they are not.
Antigone. There is no guilt in rever

ence for the dead.
Creon. But Eteocles—was he not
your brother too?
Antigone. My brother too.
Creon. And you
insult his memory?
Antigone [softly]. The dead man

would not say that I insult it.
Creon. He would: for you honor a
traitor as much as him.
Antigone. His own brother, traitor or

not, and equal in blood. History Actors preparing for a performance
(detail), the House of the Tragic Poet,
Creon. He made war on his country.
Pompeii. National Museum, Naples, Italy
Eteocles defended it. What is the theme of Antigone?
Antigone. Nevertheless, there are
honors due all the dead.
^ ^ —
Chapters The Height of Greek Civilization 147

inmim „ vm^jkâ .i/m^hAir
History Wall painting of a Greek woman with

r&Art flowers. National Museum, Naples, Italy
The Greeks admired beauty and virtue. Does Ismene
regain virtue by confessing a share in the crime?
Creon. But not the same for the wicked as for the just.
Antigone. Ah Creon, Creon.

Which of us can say what the gods hold wicked?
Creon. An enemy is an enemy, even dead.
Antigone. It is my nature to join in love, not hate.

Creon [finally losing patience]. Go join them, then; if you must
have your love,
Find it in hell!
Choragos [leader of a group of 15 citizens]. But see, Ismene

comes:
[Enter Ismene, guarded.] Those tears are sisterly, the cloud
That shadows her eyes rains down gentle sorrow.
Creon. You too, Ismene,
o n ^ i

s«fc nj .jgBJUktu ^raihn,ritf?af m^stf , n i J « * . % t f ■■
Snake in my ordered house, sucking my blood

Stealthily—and all the time I never knew
That these two sisters were aiming at my throne!
Ismene,
Do you confess your share in this crime, or deny it?
Answer me.
Ismene. Yes, if she will let me say so. I am guilty.
Antigone [coldly]. No, Ismene. You have no right to say so.

You would not help me, and I will not have you help me.
Ismene. But now I know what you meant; and I am here
To join you, to take my share of punishment.
Antigone. The dead man and the gods who rule the dead
Know whose act this was. Words are not friends.
Ismene. Do you refuse me, Antigone? I want to die with you:
I too have a duty that I must discharge to the dead.
Antigone. You shall not lessen my death by sharing it.

Ismene. What do I care for life when you are dead?
Antigone. Ask Creon. You're always hanging on his opinions.

Ismene. You are laughing at me. Why, Antigone?
Antigone. It's a joyless laughter, Ismene.

Ismene. But can I do nothing?
Antigone. Yes. Save yourself. I shall not envy you.

There are those who will praise you; I shall have honor, too.
Ismene. But we are equally guilty!
Antigone. No more, Ismene.

You are alive, but I belong to death.
RESPONDING TO LITERATURE
1. Explain what Antigone means when she says 3. Explain whether you would like to live in a
to Creon, "But all your strength is weakness society in which individuals followed only
itself against the immortal unrecorded laws of their consciences.
God." 4. Making Inferences Predict whether Creon
2. Quote a passage that demonstrates actually would have Antigone stoned to
Antigone's bravery. death.

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW

Historical Significance Greek cul ers also laid the foundation for the individual. The Founders'
ture has influenced Western civi the disciplines of history, politi belief in a democratic form of
lization in many ways. The cal science, and logic. government—as the one best
ancient Greeks developed clas The Founders of the United suited to enabling people to
sical models on which later States took inspiration from an enhance their abilities—also has
architects, artists, and play cient Greek ideals, such as belief its roots in ancient Greece.
wrights have relied. Their think in the worth and importance of
Using Key Terms

write a sentence for each term not chosen. The Greelzs liked to relive historic
a. classical f. domains events throttgh drama. Each actor would
b. comedies g. hygiene wear a large mask to show the age, sex,
c. logic h. sanctuaries attd mood of each character. Write a
d. philosophers i. amphora short scene for a drama depicting an
e. tragedies j. perspective event from the chapter.
1. The architects of the Parthenon in Athens

understood , the artistic representa
tion of distances between objects as they
Reviewing Facts
appear to the eye.
2. Greek potters usually decorated an 1. Geography Locate where the Parthenon was
a large vase for storing bulk supplies—with built and explain for what purpose.
scenes from their mythology and legends. 2. Culture Describe the main philosophical differ
3. Greek artists and architects created works char ences between the Sophists and Socrates.
acterized by a style known for its 3. Science Name the main steps in the scientific
beautiful simplicity and graceful balance. method of inquiry developed by Aristotle.
4. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., his large 4. History/Culture Explain why Thucydides is
multicultural empire was divided into several considered the first scientific historian.
5. History Discuss the ways in which
5. Greek thinkers, or j developed the Alexander's conquests changed Greek life.
foundations for disciplines such as history, 6. Culture Identify the two major cultural areas
political science, and logic. that contributed to Hellenistic civilization.
7. Science State the contributions of Pythagorus,
Archimedes, and Eratosthenes.
Technology Activity
Building a Database Search the
Critical Thinking
Internet or your local library 1. Apply How did the Peloponnesian War affect
for additional information
Greek drama and philosophy?
about the Olympic Games. Build a
2. Evaluate Whose political ideas does the
database by collecting information about recent
United States government more closely follow,
Olympic Game results of both summer and those of Plato or those of Aristotle?
winter sporting events. Include headings such
as name of the event, when it first became an 3. Analyze Why did conflicts develop in
Alexander's empire after his death? Could
event, if participated in by both sexes, and the
number of medals each country obtained. they have been resolved peacefully? Why or
why not?

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
Geography in History Understanding Themes

1. Place Refer to the map "Alexander's Empire 1. Innovation What might contemporary theater
Divided." Who controlled the area of be like if such great Hellenistic playwrights as
Macedonia? Aristophanes and Menander had not lived and
2. Location What present-day countries make up written about Greek society?
the part of Alexander's empire ruled by 2. Innovation Do you think Herodotus deserves
Ptolemy? to be called the "father of history"? Explain your
3. Place Which of the Hellenistic lands do you answer.
think was the most difficult to govern, based on 3. Cultural Diffusion How did Alexander the
geographic factors? Explain. Great's founding of cities throughout his empire
help spread Greek culture?
Alexander's Empire Divided
Pella
MACEDONIAc Skill Practice
GREECE ^Pergamum
■•■ Use the map "Greece and Persia" to answer the fol
■, \ • r:-
o lowing questions.
"'/,
7v?ete
""ncan 1. What is the approximate location of Athens with
exandria
regard to latitude and longitude?
2. Which body of water lies entirely north of 40° N
latitude?
3. What is the approximate location of Sparta with
regard to latitude and longitude?
4. What is the approximate location of Sardis with
regard to longitude and latitude?
5. What is the relative location of Sardis?
6. What Mediterranean island lies along the 35th
parallel?
-'inking Past
j Present
Greece and Persia
1. The Olympic Games were revived in 1896.
In what ways do the modern Olympic
Games resemble those of ancient Greece? In
what ways do they differ?
2. The inclusion of diverse territories in
Alexander the Great's empire led to wide
spread cultural diffusion. Besides military
conquests, what factors promote cultural
diffusion today?
3. Ideas of Greek civilization have affected
much of American culture. Choose one area
such as medicine, philosophy, politics, art,
or architecture. Reread information about
that area in your chapter. Then list as many
examples of influences on American culture
as you can. Ask friends, parents, or other
family members to help complete the list.

Chapter
6 750 B.C.-A.D. 500
Ancient Rome and

Early Christianity
vXtoryteller
War trumpets rang over the cheers of the people of Rome
who gathered to view the triumphal grand parade. Then sweat
ing horses jerking at their harnesses rattled the victor's chariot
over the paving stones, and the people's cries became louder. On
Chapter Themes this day in 146 B.C., the Romans were celebrating their conquest
▶ Change The Roman political sys
tem evolves as Rome allows more of the last of the free Greek city-states.
of its people to participate in gov Ironically, however, over the next several centuries Greek
ernment. Section 1
▶ Conflict Roman armies conquer culture would come to form the base of Roman culture and
most of the Mediterranean world. society. Texts written by Greeks would shape Roman knowledge
Section 2
▶ Cultural Diffusion The Romans in many areas of study. Even after years of Roman rule, the
build an empire and spread Latin eastern Mediterranean world would retain Greek as its primary
culture. Section 3
▶ Innovation Christianity becomes language.
the dominant religion in the West.
Section 4
▶ Change Germanic invasions and Historical Significance
cultural weaknesses destroy the
Roman Empire. Section 5 How did the small city-state of Rome become the center
of a vast, diverse empire that spanned the Mediterranean
world? What were Rome's last legacies to Europe, Africa, the
Middle East, and other parts of the world?
Itiwtî
Pax Romana ends.
M'klM EITTF1
Rome becomes Hill-I Punic Wars begin. EBEB1 Constantine
a republic. Jesus dies in begins rule.
lerusalem.
152
History, Woman playing the cithera, painted on the east wall of a room in
[&Art the villa of Publius Fannius Synistor, Pompeii, Italy
Your History Journal

The European cities of Bonn, Viettna,
Lottdon, and Paris were each founded by
the Romans. Research the early history of
one of these cities and describe the Roman
influence ott its early architecture and
lifestyle.
Chapter 6 Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 153

Romulus Etruscans The patricians of The plebeians
founds Rome. gain control Rome enact the begin to make
of Rome. Twelve Tables. laws for Rome.
Section 1
The Roman Republic

Setting the Scene /j f^ he peoples of Italy first came into con-
▶ Terms to Define f tact with the Greeks around 900 B.C.,
t_>^ when Greek traders sailed up both the
patrician, republic, plebeian, consul, dictator,
tribune east and west coasts of the Italian Peninsula. From
about 750 B.C. to 500 B.C., the Greeks set up farming
▶ People to Meet communities in southern Italy and in Sicily, an
the Etruscans, the Latins, Romulus, the island southwest of the Italian Peninsula. These
Tarquins Greek colonists planted olive trees for the oil yield
▶ Places to Locate ed and grapevines from which they could produce
wine, thus introducing these two major products to
Italy, Sicily, Rome
Italy. The Greeks also introduced the Greek alpha
bet to the Italians.
How was Rome governed as a
republic? How did the Roman Republic change
over the years?
The Italian Peninsula
The Greeks were interested in colonizing Italy
storyteller for several reasons, one of which was Italy's central
location in the Mediterranean. A narrow, boot-
The city of Rome was besieged by Lars
shaped peninsula, Italy extends from Europe
Porsena, king ofClusium, and the time had come toward the shores of Africa, dividing the
for decisive action. One Mediterranean almost in half. Thus, Italy was ide
young Roman hoped to ally situated to be the center of trade among three
break the siege by killing continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. Italy's rich soil
Porsena. After laying his and mild, moist climate also attracted the Greek
plan before the Senate, he colonists. Beyond the mountains and foothills that
set out alone toiuard covered three-quarters of the peninsula lay plains
enemy lines. However, he with soil enriched by the silt deposits of mountain
was seized as a spy and streams.
dragged by guards before However, the silt washing down Italy's short
the very man he had and shallow rivers blocked the mouths of many
hoped to kill—Porsena. rivers, creating mosquito-infested swamps. The
The Forum He spoke boldly: "I am a people of Italy suffered recurrent epidemics of
malaria and other diseases carried by mosquitoes.
Roman, my name is
Because of Italy's mountains, the early inhabi
Gains Mucius. I came here to kill you—my
tants of the peninsula generally traded among
enemy. I have as much courage to die as to kill. It themselves. Italy's only land connection—to the
is our Roman way to do and to suffer bravely."
north—was cut off by the Alps. Furthermore, Italy's
—adapted from Early History of rocky and marshy coastline lacked good harbors.
Rome, Titus Livy, in The Global To increase trade, the Italians eventually turned to
Experience, Readings in World the sea, but until that time came, they remained
History to 1500, 1987 attached to the land.
154 Chapter 6 Ancient Rome and Early Christianity

origins, although the Etruscans did not speak an
Early Peoples Indo-European language as did many of the
Archaeological evidence suggests that people peninsula's other inhabitants. The Etruscan
lived in Italy long before the Greeks arrived or alphabet came from the Greeks, but modern
Roman civilization began. The remains of human scholars have been able to decipher only a few
settlements reveal that Neolithic cultures may have Etruscan words.
begun to form in Italy as early as about 5000 B.C. Although Etruscan writings still baffle our
Early peoples in the Italian Peninsula built villages understanding, Etruscan art is expressive, need
and farms, moving on whenever they had exhaust ing no translation. In wall paintings, Etruscan fig
ed the land around their settlements. ures dance and play music, enjoying a rich and
pleasant life. In Etruscan sculpture, men and
Indo-Europeans women feast and converse, triumphant soldiers
Between 2000 B.C. and 1000 B.C., waves of Indo- revel in their victories, and hauntingly beautiful
European immigrants arrived and overwhelmed deities smile and gesture.
these Neolithic peoples. By the time Greek colonists Such sculptures ornamented the homes of the
came to Italy, many peoples inhabited the peninsu Etruscan upper classes. Historians believe that
la—including Umbrians in the north, Latins in the Etruscan society probably consisted of wealthy
central plain called Latium (LAY«shee«uhm), and overlords, aristocratic priests, and a slave labor
Oscans in the south. Like the Greeks, most of these force made up of conquered peoples. Wealthy
people spoke Indo-European languages. overlords enslaved these peoples to provide
themselves with comforts, and aristocratic priests
The Etruscans sacrificed prisoners of war or forced them to duel
From about 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., one of these to the death to appease angry gods.
peoples, the Etruscans, ruled northern Italy from After repeated revolts, the Etruscan lower
the plains of Etruria. Little is known about their classes and the other Italian peoples under
striking murals in cities from Sydney, Aus

Murals: Etruscan and Modern tralia, to Caracas, Venezuela. The boldly col
ored works appear on office, apartment, and
Although archaeologists have
unearthed the remains of some Etruscan supermarket walls. They usually are spon
sored by municipal officials or businesses,
cities, these tell little about Etruscan culture.
and the artists employed draw inspiration
Murals unearthed in burial chambers, how
from sources as varied as fashion magazines,
ever, have provided significant clues about
the Etruscans. cartoons, and modern art. Among their sub
Etruscan mural The murals show colorful and lively jects are movie, TV, and sports celebrities as
well as ordinary people involved in daily
scenes of Etruscan
activities, such as shopping on a busy street
daily life. Particu or playing basketball at a neighborhood
larly popular sub
jects are scenes of playground.
wrestling matches, inking Past
-'.-i Present ACTIVITY
religious cere
monies, and peo What subjects are popularly
ple enjoying music shown in Etruscan murals? Modern
and feasts.
urban murals? What do Etruscan
Today, the murals reveal about Etruscan life?
desire to beautify
What do urban murals today reveal
urban areas has
about modern life?
produced many

Etruscan rule finally freed themselves from
domination by these wealthy overlords and priests. Italy 500 B.C.
Chief among those who overthrew the Etruscans
were the Latins, whose center was the city of Rome
in the central plain of Latium.
The Rise of Rome

According to legend, in 753 B.C., a stocky man
named Romulus was building the wall of a city
on a hill overlooking the Tiber River. His twin brother,
Remus, came over from the hillside opposite, where
he too had been laying the foundations for a city. The
Roman historian Livy tells what happened next:
CC Remus, by way of jeering at his brother,

jumped over the half-built walls of the
new settlement, whereupon Romulus
killed him in a fit of rage, adding the
threat, 'So perish whoever else shall over
leap my battlements.' 55
—Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 29 B.C.
Setting more stone on the stains of his

brother's blood, Romulus is said to have continued
his building. In time, his namesake city—Rome—
grew to include his brother's hill and the other
nearby hills. Romulus was so effective a military __ Notice on the map that Latium
ruler, the myth tells us, that Rome became the great »+ j divides the Etruscan territory.
est city in that part of the peninsula. 0' Region What advantage might
In fact, the origins of Rome were probably this location have provided the Latins when
much less violent. At some time between 800 B.C. they set out to conquer the Etruscans?
and 700 B.C., the Latins huddled in straw-roofed
huts in the villages on the seven hills apparently
agreed to join and form one community. It was this
community that came to be called Rome. Social Groups
Under Etruscan rule, a new wealthy aristocratic
Etruscan Rule class had come into being in Rome—Latin nobles
About 620 B.C. the Etruscans gained control of called patricians. Once the Etruscan rulers were
Rome. A wealthy Etruscan family, the Tarquins, pro driven out, the patricians declared Rome a republic,
vided kings to rule over the Romans. The Tarquins a community in which the people elect their leaders.
taught the Latins to build with brick and to roof their Most of Rome's inhabitants, however, were
houses with tile. They drained the marshy lowlands plebeians (plih«BEE«uhns), who included wealthy,
around Rome and laid out city streets. At the center nonaristocratic townspeople and landowners as
of the city they created a square called the Forum, well as merchants, shopkeepers, small farmers, and
which became the seat of Roman government. The laborers. As citizens, both the plebeians and the
Tarquins also built temples, taught the Romans many patricians had rights, such as the right to vote, and
of the Etruscans' religious rituals, and elevated Rome responsibilities, such as paying taxes and serving in
to a position among the wealthiest cities in Italy. the military. Plebeians, however, could not hold
Then in 534 B.C. Tarquin the Proud came to the public office as patricians could.
throne. This king's cruelties so angered the Romans
that in 509 B.C. they drove the Tarquins out. Skilled The Roman Republic
Etruscan artisans stayed on in Rome, however, The patricians organized Rome's government
helping the city continue to prosper. into executive and legislative branches. The

Roman legislative branch at first consisted of the In addition to political rights, the plebeians
Assembly of Centuries and the Senate, both under improved their social standing. Enslavement for
patrician control. Members of the Assembly of debt was ended, and marriage between patricians
Centuries (named for a military formation of 100 and plebeians was allowed. In spite of these ben
soldiers) elected officials of the executive branch. efits for the common people, the republic's social
However, the power of the Senate—a group of 300 structure was still dominated by a small group of
patrician men who served for life—outweighed the powerful and wealthy citizens. However, through
Assembly of Centuries. The senators advised the their struggles, the plebeians slowly moved Rome
consuls, debated foreign policy, proposed laws, and closer to democracy.
approved contracts for constructing roads, temples,
and defenses. The Twelve Tables
The executive branch was headed by two patri The most significant plebeian victory was the
cian officials elected for one-year terms. These offi creation of a written law code. Roman law rested
cials were called consuls because they had to con largely on unwritten traditions that patrician
sult each other before acting. They understood that judges often interpreted to favor their class. To
either consul could veto the other's decisions. The make sure that the judges applied the laws fairly,
word veto is Latin for "I forbid." The consuls over the plebeians insisted that the government write
saw other executive officials, such as praetors, or down the laws.
judges, and censors, or keepers of tax and popula In 451 B.C. the patricians finally engraved the
tion records. Only a dictator, a leader whose word laws on 12 bronze tablets and set them in the Forum
was law, could overrule the consuls. But dictators for all to see. The Twelve Tables, as these tablets
were temporarily appointed to lead the Romans were called, became the basis for all future Roman
only in time of crisis. law. Although sometimes harsh, the Twelve Tables
The most admired Roman dictator was the leg established the principle that all free citizens had a
endary hero Cincinnatus (SIHN»suh«NA»tuhs). In right to the law's protection.
458 B.C., a powerful rival threatened Rome, and the
Senate sent messengers to tell Cincinnatus that he
had been named dictator to meet this emergency.
The messengers found him plowing his fields. Religion
Always loyal to Rome, Cincinnatus immediately Early Romans worshiped nature spirits. Under
joined the army and led his forces into battle. He Etruscan influence, they came to think of these spir
defeated the enemy, marched his army back to its as gods and goddesses. They also adopted the
Rome, and then resigned as dictator. He returned to practice of foretelling the future. Priests known as
his plowing 16 days after taking command. soothsayers believed that they could gain knowl
edge of future events by observing the flight of
birds or the intestines of animals.
Plebeians Against Patricians For almost 500 years, Rome thrived as a repub
lic. During this time, the Romans were influenced
The plebeians resented their lack of power in by Greek culture. They borrowed Greek deities,
the new republic—especially because they knew giving them Roman names. Aphrodite, the Greek
that the patricians could not maintain the republic
without them. In 494 B.C., many plebeians refused
to fight in the Roman army unless the patricians
A Roman Dinner Party
yielded to their demands for change. Footnotes In ancient Rome, dinner
Plebeian Victories guests of wealthy Romans
Frightened at the loss of their military forces, would recline on couches while slaves served
the patricians finally agreed to reforms. They rec them delicacies. Main course dishes might include
ognized the plebeians' chosen representatives, the boiled stingray garnished with hot raisins; boiled
tribunes, granting them legal protections and the
crane with turnips; roast hare in white sauce; leg
right to veto government decisions. The patricians
also recognized the Assembly of Tribes, the body of of boar; wood pigeon baked in a pie; or roast
plebeians who elected the tribunes. Eventually, the flamingo cooked with dates, onions, honey, and
Assembly of Tribes even won the right to make wine.
laws.

Visualizing An Etruscan farmer and his animals,
Histo c. 300 B.C. Etruscan literature, music,
painting, metalwork, and jewelry were
admired by the Romans. Why did the
Romans drive the wealthy Etruscan family,
the Tarquins, from the city?
goddess of love, became the Roman goddess

Venus. Ares, the Greek god of war, became Mars.
They also made their old gods look Greek, giving
the Etruscan god Jupiter the characteristics of the Roman wives had few legal rights, but they
Greek Zeus. had more freedom than Greek women. They acted
Roman life remained distinctly Roman, howev as hostesses for parties, did their marketing, and
er. Families privately worshiped their ancestral ran their households with little or no interference.
spirits and their storeroom guardians, as well as Occasionally, however, they did acquire their own
Vesta, goddess of the hearth. property and businesses. Wealthy women, with
slaves to do their work, could study Greek litera
ture, arts, and fashions. Lower-class women spent
their time at household tasks and in family-run
Family shops.
The family was the basic unit of Roman society. Roman children grew up with firm discipline
Roman households were large and close-knit. They and had to give complete loyalty to their family. In
included all unmarried children, married sons and early Rome, parents taught their children reading,
their families, all dependent relatives, and house writing, and moral standards. Boys were trained by
hold slaves. their fathers to be good farmers and soldiers.
In Roman families the father was absolute head Mothers taught their daughters how to run house
of the household. He conducted the religious cere holds.
monies, controlled property, and supervised the Rich or poor, most Romans held the same val
education of his sons. He also had the power to sell ues: thrift, discipline, self-sacrifice, and devotion to
family members into slavery, or even kill them. the family and the republic. Long after the Roman
However, fathers also felt a deep sense of responsi Republic ended, nostalgic reformers saw these as
bility for the welfare of all family members. traditional Roman values.
^ ■ SECTION 1 REVIEW l_-
Recall 3. Locate Etruria, Latium, and and plebeians strengthen or

1. Define patrician, republic, Rome on the map on page 156. weaken Rome? Give examples
plebeian, consul, dictator, How were the people of these to support your case.
tribune. three places connected? Understanding Themes
2. Identify the Etruscans, the Critical Thinking 5. Change Why did political
Latins, Romulus, the 4. Evaluating Information Did change occur in the Roman
Tarquins. the struggle between patricians Republic?

Roman forces Tiberius Gracchus Group of senators
entire Italian Peninsula.
defeat Carthage at becomes tribune. assassinate
the battle of Zama. Julius Caesar.
Section 2
Expansion
and Crisis
Setting the Scene / \ f rom about 500 B.C. to 300 B.C., Rome
▶ Terms to Define sff^ faced threats from its many neighbors

^S in Italy. To protect their republic, the
indemnity, triumvirate Romans either conquered these opponents or
▶ People to Meet forced them to ally with Rome. In this way the
Hannibal, Scipio, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Romans subdued one rival after another, until by
Gracchus, Marius, Sulla, Julius Caesar, 264 B.C. Rome ruled the entire peninsula.
Octavian, Marc Antony Roman forces, however, had faced a tough
▶ Places to Locate challenge from the Greek colonies in southern Italy.
In 282 B.C. the Greek colonists received help from
Carthage
Pyrrhus (PIHR«uhs), a ruler in western Greece.
Twice Pyrrhus's armies threw back the Romans, but
How did economic and social each time suffered terrible losses. In 275 B.C. Roman
problems bring down the Roman Republic? forces finally pushed Pyrrhus's exhausted troops
back to Greece. Since then, a victory won at too
great a cost has been called a "Pyrrhic victory."
Storyteller
The government of Rome had become cumber
some and corrupt. Maecenas, the richest man in
Roman Legions
Rome, was about to propose a radical change. Rome's success in war was due to its strong
Called before Mark Anthony, army. In the early days of the republic, every male
Marcus Lepidus, and Octavian, the citizen had to serve in the military when needed.
most powerful men in Rome, he Early Roman armies also used the tactics of Greek
spoke persuasively. "Ever since we phalanx warfare. Roman generals, however,
were led outside the peninsula, fill learned that phalanxes were too large and slow to
be effective. They reorganized their troops into
ing the whole earth with our power,
nothing good has been our lot. Our legions of 6,000 men and divided these further into
small, mobile units of 60 to 120 soldiers. With this
city, like a great ship manned with a new organization, the Romans could shatter the
crew of every race and lacking a
phalanxes of their enemies.
pilot, has been rolling and plunging Roman soldiers—called legionaries—were well
as it has drifted in a heavy sea."
trained, and deserters were punished by death.
Maecenas looked at his hearers. One With such iron discipline, the legionaries would
of them must assume all authority. conquer an empire, hi a time when victors routine
Rome had to cease being a republic.
Marc Antony ly slaughtered or enslaved whole cities, Rome treat
—from Roman History, Dio Cassius, ed conquered foes remarkably well. Some con
in Readings in Ancient History from quered peoples were allowed to keep their own
Gilgamesh to Diocletian, 1969 governments if they helped fight Rome's wars.

Strait of Messina, a narrow passage between Sicily
and Italy. When the Romans sent a force to secure
the strategic waterway, a full-scale war erupted.
The Romans' strong army conquered most of
Carthage's colonies in Sicily. However, the
Carthaginians lashed out at the Romans with their
huge and powerful fleet. For a time this naval supe
riority gave Carthage the advantage.
Undaunted, the Romans built a larger fleet. In a
battle off the African coast, they stunned the
Carthaginians with a new tactic. They snared the
enemy's ships with grappling hooks, boarded
them, and defeated the enemy in hand-to-hand
combat. This enabled the Romans to fight on sea as
well as they did on land. Thus, they were able to
force the Carthaginians to retreat.
The war raged on until 241 B.C., but the
Carthaginians never regained control of Sicily or
the sea. Threatened with invasion of their home
land, they agreed to hand the Romans a huge
indemnity, or payment for damages.
The Second Punic War

In 221 B.C. a young soldier named Hannibal
became general of the Carthaginian army in Spain.
In 219 B.C. Hannibal grabbed one of Rome's allied
cities in Spain. His next move was even more auda
Visualizing Roman legionaries are shown in a cious—to take the war into Italy itself. Leading
Histo 40,000 soldiers and about 40 elephants, he marched
mosaic, or picture made from bits of
stone. Why were legionaries so successful in their conquests? out of Spain, crossed southern Gaul, and started up
the Alps. His soldiers, however, were terrified by
the sight of those chilly heights, and their fears
Rome gave other peoples partial rights, and to were well-founded. Before they reached Italy, cold,
some peoples even granted citizenship. snow, hunger, sickness, and attacks by mountain
The Romans set up permanent military settle peoples killed half of Hannibal's army and most of
ments—called coloniae—throughout Italy to defend the elephants.
strategic heights and river crossings. To link these Although outnumbered, Hannibal's troops
coloniae, the legions forged a chain of roads up and defeated the Roman armies sent against them. By
down the Italian Peninsula. As war yielded gradu 216 B.C., in a battle at Cannae in southeastern Italy,
ally to peace, some of these roads became major Hannibal's soldiers had nearly destroyed the
trade routes. Roman army. But the Romans rallied, refusing to
admit defeat, and raised dozens of new volunteer
legions. Their general, Scipio (SIH«pee»OH),
Rome Against Carthage attacked Carthage and forced Hannibal's recall to
Africa.
In Chapter 3 you read how Carthage became In 202 B.C. Scipio's forces defeated Hannibal's
the Mediterranean area's wealthiest city. To expand army at Zama, near Carthage. At Scipio's demand,
their commerce, the Carthaginians had then gone the Carthaginians gave up their lands in Spain,
on to conquer the Spanish coast and most of Sicily handed over most of their warships, and agreed to
by about 300 B.C. The Romans decided to check the another indemnity.
expansion of the Carthaginians—the Punici, as the
Romans called them. The Third Punic War
After 50 years of peace, Carthage regained its
The First Punic War
prosperity but posed no threat to Rome. The
In 264 B.C. Carthage threatened to seize the Romans, however, decided to force war on

Carthage. The most vindictive foe of Carthage was farms, homes, and villages. Turning agriculture
the Roman senator Cato, who always ended his into a profitable business, these landowners created
speeches with the statement: "Carthago delenda est" large estates called latifundia (LA»tuh»FUHN»dee
(Carthage must be destroyed). In 146 B.C. the •uli) that provided grain, sheep, olives, and fruits
Romans burned Carthage, and sold its surviving for urban markets. Labor for the latifundia was
population into slavery. Legend states that they cheap because Rome's conquests brought thou
even sowed salt in Cartilage's soil so that no crops sands of captives and prisoners of war to work as
would grow. This victory gave Rome complete con slaves. By 100 B.C., slaves formed about 30 percent
trol of the western Mediterranean. of Rome's people.
As slave labor replaced paid labor, thousands
of small farmers and rural workers poured into the
The Republic hi Crisis cities seeking employment. Jobs, however, were not
readily available, and the new arrivals gradually
While Rome was fighting the Punic Wars in the formed into a class of urban, landless poor. Angry
west, its forces were also engaged in the east. and without hope, the urban poor eked out a mea
Between 230 B.C. and 130 B.C., Rome brought the ger living and supported any politician who
entire eastern Mediterranean area under its influ promised "bread and circuses," cheap food and free
ence. As a result of this conquest, Romans began amusements.
referring to the Mediterranean as mare nostrum— As the gap between rich and poor steadily
"our sea." widened, upper-class Romans lived with the con
stant danger of revolts. To quell mounting unrest,
Rich, Poor, and Slavery Rome stationed legions in most provinces. Even
Although the Romans had triumphed militari Italy was not safe from uprisings. From 73 B.C. to 71
ly, they faced growing social discontent in their B.C., an army of 70,000 slaves led by the slave
new empire. The conquered provinces, which paid Spartacus plundered the Italian countryside in an
tribute to Rome, complained of corrupt Roman effort to win freedom. With great difficulty, the
officials stealing provincial wealth for personal Romans finally crushed the uprising and killed
gain. In Italy and throughout the empire, wealthy about 6,000 of Spartacus's followers. Putting down
Romans acquired or seized land from war-ravaged revolts cost Rome troops and money and placed a
small farmers who found it difficult to rebuild their strain on its resources.
Visualizing Rome's legions put down revolts in the provinces, but not
f fi s t o without cost. Here, women funeral dancers mourn losses. Why
were the provinces not an endless source of wealth to Rome?

Reformers and Generals needed military victories to advance his political
career. In 59 B.C. he took a military command in
Feuding among Rome's leading families also
weakened the republic. As violence increased, some Gaul, which was inhabited by Indo-Europeans
Romans proposed reforms to narrow the social gap known as Celts (KEHLTS). Caesar conquered the
and to stabilize society. In 133 B.C. the tribune Celts and brought them under Roman rule. He also
Tiberius Gracchus proposed limiting the size of the crossed the Rhine River to fight Germanic tribes
latifundia and distributing land to the poor. But the and twice invaded Britain.
Senate, made up of the wealthiest Romans, As a result of his victories, Caesar was hailed as
a military hero by Rome's lower classes. But sena
opposed him, and Tiberius was killed in street
tors, alarmed at Caesar's growing popularity,
fighting. Ten years later, his brother Gaius Gracchus
proposed the same reforms and was also murdered. regarded him as a political threat. By 50 B.C. the tri
umvirate itself had fallen apart: Crassus was dead,
Crowding the Cities killed in battle while leading Roman forces in Asia,
After the death of the Gracchi, army leaders and Pompey had become Caesar's political rival.
came to power in Rome. The first, the general In 49 B.C. the Senate, with Pompey's backing,
ordered Caesar to give up his army and return to
Marius, became a consul in 107 B.C. after saving
Rome from attack by Germanic tribes. Because the Rome. Caesar, however, had no intention of turning
himself over to his enemies. He assembled 5,000
dwindling number of small farmers had made a cit
izen army obsolete, Marius turned to the unem loyal troops and crossed the Rubicon, a stream that
ployed urban poor to build a new army. Unlike the
citizen soldiers, Marius's recruits were paid, given
uniforms and equipment, and promised land when Visualizing Political strife following the murders
Histo of the Gracchi aided the rise of the
they were discharged. As a result of Marius's action,
Rome for the first time had a professional army in young Julius Caesar, sculpted here in a heroic pose.
which soldiers owed allegiance to their commander, How do you think Roman sculpture differed from the Greek
not to the republic. models on which it was based?
To advance their political ambitions, rival mili
tary and political leaders formed their own separate
armies and used them against each other. From 88
B.C. to 82 B.C., Marius and a rival general named
Sulla fought for control of Rome. Sulla finally drove
Marius into exile and had himself appointed dicta
tor. This practice of using the army to gain political
power was copied by a rising young politician
named Julius Caesar.
Julius Caesar
Born in Rome in about 100 B.C. of an aristocrat
ic family, Julius Caesar became one of Rome's
greatest generals and political leaders. Skillfully
maneuvering himself through Rome's tumultuous
game of politics, Caesar gradually rose to power. In
60 B.C. the ambitious aristocrat allied himself with
the general Pompey and the politician Crassus. A
year later, with their help he was elected consul. For
the next decade, the three men ruled Rome as a tri
umvirate, or group of three persons with equal
power. Through force and bribery, the triumvirate
silenced government critics, bending senators and
tribunes alike to its will.
Caesar's Military Campaigns

While serving as consul, Caesar realized he

divided his military provinces from Roman Italy. named Julian in honor of him, was used in western
According to legend, Caesar had seen a vision that Europe until early modern times.
encouraged him to cross, and exclaimed to his
troops, "Let us accept this as a sign from the gods, Caesar's Death
and follow where they beckon, in vengeance on our Many Romans believed that Caesar was a wise
double-dealing enemies. The die is cast." By defy ruler who had brought order and peace to Rome.
ing the Senate's order, Caesar realized there was no Others, however, considered him to be a tyrant who
turning back; and a civil war was unavoidable. meant to make himself a king. According to ancient
Ever since, "crossing the Rubicon" has meant mak Roman law, anyone who plotted to become king
ing a decision that cannot be undone. could be killed without trial. Acting on this law, a
Caesar's army swiftly captured all of Italy and group of senators, led by the chief conspirators
drove Pompey and his allies out of the country. The Brutus and Cassius, stabbed Caesar to death as he
fighting eventually spread eastward, with Caesar's entered the Senate on March 15, 44 B.C.
troops finally defeating Pompey's forces at
Pharsalus, Greece, in 48 B.C.
Caesar in Power End of the Republic

In 45 B.C. Caesar took over the government as After the death of Julius Caesar, his 18-year-old
dictator for life, to rule very much like a monarch. grandnephew Octavian joined forces with Marc
As absolute ruler, Caesar granted Roman citizen Antony and Marcus Lepidus, two of Caesar's top
ship to many people in the provinces outside of government officers. Together this second triumvi
Italy. He added to the Senate representatives from rate defeated Caesar's assassins in 42 B.C. Then,
the provinces who were loyal to him. In making while keeping up the appearance of republican
these reforms, Caesar not only made the central government, these three generals divided the
government more responsive to Rome's newly con Roman world among themselves. Octavian took
quered territories, he also strengthened his own command in Italy and the west, Antony ruled in
power at the expense of the old patricians. Greece and the east, and Lepidus took charge of
Caesar also carried out social reforms aimed to North Africa.
benefit the poor. To provide jobs for the unem The second triumvirate did not last long, how
ployed, he set up public works programs and ever. Octavian forced Lepidus to retire from politi
ordered slave-owning landowners to hire more free cal life. When Antony married Cleopatra, the queen
laborers. Colonies were founded throughout of Egypt, Octavian persuaded the Romans that
Rome's territories to provide land for the city's Antony intended to rule them with his foreign
landless poor. Under Caesar, the government also queen by his side, and so Octavian declared war on
continued its long-standing practice of distributing Antony in Rome's name. In 31 B.C. Octavian scat
free grain but reduced the number of people eligi tered the forces of his enemies in a critical naval
ble for it. battle at Actium in Greece. A year later, to evade
Caesar's most lasting reform was a new calen capture by Octavian, Antony and Cleopatra com
dar based on the work of scholars in Alexandria. mitted suicide in Egypt. With Antony dead,
Replacing the old Roman lunar calendar, this new Octavian became the undisputed ruler of Rome.
solar calendar counted 365 days in a year and 1 Octavian's period of rule would mark the begin
extra day every fourth year. Caesar's calendar, later ning of the Roman Empire.
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Rec all the map on page 165. What the Rubicon help destroy the
1. Define indemnity, triumvirate. was the importance of each Roman Republic and create a
2. Identify Hannibal, Scipio, place in the military history of dictatorship?
Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius the Roman Republic? Understanding Themes
Gracchus, Marius, Sulla, Julius Critical Thinking 5. Conflict Explain how Roman
Caesar, Octavian, Marc Antony. 4. Analyzing Information How conquests overseas affected
3. Locate Carthage and Gaul on did Julius Caesar's crossing of Rome's development.

I Rule of the
WSSZM hjns£M Good Emperors begins. taxn-i
Augustus Caesar dies. Volcanic eruption Pax Romana ends.
destroys Pompeii.
Section 3
The Roman Empire

Setting the Scene
▶ Terms to Define
aqueduct
▶ People to Meet
Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Marcus
<u nder the Roman Republic, laws had
proven too weak to control social
changes, while generals had taken
power away from elected officials. Thus, Octavian
believed that Rome needed one strong leader. The
Senate agreed and appointed Octavian consul, tri
Aurelius, Galen, Ptolemy, Virgil, Livy bune, and commander in chief for life in 27 B.C.
▶ Places to Locate Octavian gave himself the title Augustus, or
Appian Way "Majestic One."
What was life like in the Roman

Empire during the Pax Romana? The First Emperors
Augustus claimed to support the republic, but
he actually laid the foundation for a new state
Storyteller called the Roman Empire. In practice, he became
Rome's first emperor, or absolute ruler.
The visitor, Aelius Aristides, an educated and
well-travelled man, had never seen anything to
Augustus Caesar
rival Rome. And it was not just the city—it was In the 40 years of his reign—from 27 B.C. to A.D.
everything that Rome represented: military might, 14—Augustus rebuilt the city of Rome and became
sensible government, and an elegant lifestyle. a great patron of the arts. He also introduced many
Who could help but admire an empire that com reforms to the empire. Proconsuls could no longer
manded vast territories and diverse peoples, a mil exploit the provinces. Publican tax collectors were
itary that conquered both armed forces and selfish replaced with permanent government employees.
ambition, a government where officials ruled not Grain was imported from North Africa so that all in
through arbitrary power but by law. Romans Rome would be fed. New roads were built and old
"measured out the world, bridged rivers, cut ones repaired. Magnificent public buildings were
roads through mountains, filled the wastes with constructed throughout the empire. Augustus
boasted that he had "found Rome a city of brick
posting stations, introduced orderly and refined
modes of life." They and left it a city of marble."
AuSustus were, he declared, In 31 B.C. there began the Pax Romana, or
natural rulers. Roman Peace, which lasted about 200 years. The
only major disturbances during those years
—adapted from occurred when new emperors came to power. For,
Oration on the Pax although Augustus chose his own successor care
Romana, Aelius fully, he failed to devise any law for the selection of
Aristides, reprinted later emperors.
in Sources of the
Western Tradition, The Julio-Claudian Emperors
Marvin Perry, 1991 Historians call the four emperors who ruled
from A.D. 14 to A.D. 68 the Julio-Claudians because
'&N.
I | EndofPunicWars,146B.c.
I | At Caesar's death, 44 B.C.
I I At Augustus's death, ad. 14
I I Greatest extent of empire, A.D. 130
■A t B a t t l e s i t e 0 200 400 km\

Umtxrt'Conic Confoimal Projenio
Most of the Roman Empire bordered the Mediterranean Sea, allowing Rome
Map to have a stronghold on the Mediterranean region.
Study Region Why would control of the Mediterranean region be an advantage for
Rome's economy?
each was a member of Augustus's family, known as The Good Emperors

the Julio-Claudians. Each showed promise when he For 28 years following Nero's death, Rome was
became emperor, but later revealed great faults. governed by a number of emperors who were
Augustus's adopted son Tiberius, who suc backed by the army. Then, in A.D. 96 the Senate
ceeded Augustus Caesar as emperor, spoiled his chose its own candidate for emperor: Nerva.
able leadership by accusing many innocent people Historians consider Nerva the first of the so-called
of treason against him. Caligula, Tiberius's grand- Good Emperors; the others were Trajan, Hadrian,
nephew and successor in A.D. 37, became mentally Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius (aw • REE
disturbed and was killed by a palace guard in A.D. • lee»uhs). The Good Emperors were known for
41. Caligula's uncle, Claudius, was a renowned their skills as effective administrators and their
scholar, but as he grew older he had difficulty support of large building projects.
focusing on affairs of state. The Emperor Trajan increased the empire to its
Nero, Claudius's stepson, who became emper greatest size. Hadrian then strengthened Rome's
or in A.D. 54, was cruel and probably insane. Nero frontiers, building Hadrian's Wall in Britain and
was willing to bankrupt Rome to pay for his twin other defense positions. Antoninus Pius succeeded
pleasures—horse racing and music. Suspecting him, maintaining the empire's prosperity. The
others of plotting against him, he killed his wife philosopher-ruler Marcus Aurelius brought the
and his mother and executed many senators. In empire to the height of its economic prosperity. All of
A.D. 68 the Senate sentenced Nero to death for trea these Good Emperors lived by the principle of Stoic
son. Before he committed suicide, reportedly he philosophy best expressed by Marcus Aurelius in
cried, "What a loss I shall be to the arts!" Meditations: "Every moment think steadily as a

Roman and a human being how to do what you serving as pontifex maximus, or chief priest of Rome.
have in hand with perfect and simple dignity." Thus he and each later emperor became the head of
a national, unifying religion.
The Law
Roman Rule As the Romans won more provinces, they
By the time Augustus had come to power in found that they needed a new kind of law that
27 B.C., between 70 and 100 million people were liv would apply to noncitizens. They therefore created
ing in the Roman Empire. To rule so many people the jus gentium, or law that dealt with noncitizens,
effectively, Augustus had to make many changes in as opposed to the jus civile, or citizen law. By the
government. early A.D. 200s, however, emperors had granted cit
izenship to the peoples of so many nearby
Imperial Government provinces that all free males in the empire had been
Augustus improved the working of the empire made full citizens of Rome, and the two laws
by carefully choosing professional governors rather became one.
than letting the Senate appoint inexperienced pro In their laws Romans generally stressed the
consuls every year. In some provinces, such as authority of the state over the individual. They also
Judea, he left local kings in charge under his com accorded people definite legal rights, one of which
mand. Augustus ordered new roads built so that he was that an accused person should be considered
could keep in touch with all parts of the empire, and innocent until proven guilty. The Roman system of
he personally inspected the provinces frequently. law has formed the basis for the legal systems of
Augustus also dignified his own position by many Western nations and of the Christian Church.
Images
of ê Times
Pompeii, A.D. 79
On August 23-25, A.D. 79, the volcano Vesuvius
erupted in southern Italy. The city of Pompeii was buried in
a single day.
A detail from the Villa of the

Mysteries shows that life for
many in Pompeii offered many
comforts and pleasures.
166
An Imperial Army CC Everywhere roads are built, every district
Augustus and later emperors maintained the is known, every country is open to com
professional army. As conditions became more merce ... the [fields] are planted; the
peaceful, however, Augustus reduced the number marshes drained. There are now as many
of legions and supplemented this fighting force cities as there were once solitary cot
with troops recruited from the provincial peoples. tages.... Wherever there is a trace of life,
Even with forces combined, the emperor could there are houses and human habitations,
count on having only about 300,000 troops, which well-ordered governments, and civilized
was not enough to defend a border with a length of life, > J
about 4,000 miles (6,440 km). Therefore, by A.D. 160, —Tertullian, Concerning the Soul, c. A.D. 180
invasions by peoples outside the empire had
become a continuing problem.
The Empire's Economy
Tertullian's description of economic growth
Roman Civilization under the empire was not exaggerated. In the first
century A.D., artisans in Italy made pottery, woven
From about 31 B.C. to A.D. 180, the Roman cloth, blown glass, and jewelry for sale throughout
world enjoyed a period of prosperity known as the the empire. The provinces in turn sent to Italy lux
Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. The stability of the ury items, such as silk cloth and spices, gathered in
Pax Romana boosted trade, raised standards of liv trade with China, India, and Southeast Asian coun
ing, and generated many achievements in the arts. tries. Dockworkers at Rome's harbor, Ostia,
The Latin author Tertullian described this time: unloaded raw materials such as tin from Britain,
Citizens of Pompeii were almost instantly

overwhelmed by volcanic ash and fire. A plaster
cast of victims serves as a stern reminder of
Vesuvius's power.
1. Why were so many artifacts from Pompeii so

well preserved?
2. What do Roman wall paintings in Pompeii reveal
about the lifestyles of upper-class Romans?
167
iron from Gaul, and lead from Spain. Soon skillful Public Amusements
Greek traders within the empire were doing busi Despite these trying conditions, the poor did
ness in distant areas, such as eastern Africa, not rebel against the government, because it offered
Southeast Asia, and China. them both free bread and free entertainment. By
A.D. 160, Romans were celebrating 130 holidays a
Life During the Pax Romana year. On some days, teams of charioteers competed
These economic changes brought changes in in races in the Circus Maximus, an arena seating
lifestyles. The family gradually became less signifi more than 150,000. On other holidays, crowds
cant than it had been during the republic. Romans could watch gladiators fight each other to the death
had fewer children and were likely to divorce and or battle wild animals in stadiums like the
remarry several times. Fathers lost some of the Colosseum.
absolute power they had during the republic, and
wives gained some legal rights. Society became less Architecture, Engineering, and Science
stable. Patricians might go bankrupt, wealthy mili The Romans erected many impressive build
tary officers might sit in the Senate, and a poor man ings during the Pax Romana besides the Circus
might even make a fortune in manufacturing. Maximus and the Colosseum. Between A.D. 118 and
Within each class, a consistent pattern of life A.D. 128, Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon, a temple for
formed. The wealthy often held public office, all the deities, with a soaring dome and a huge sky
owned large farms outside the cities, ran factories, light. To build the Pantheon, the Romans mixed
or directed trading firms. They lived comfortably in concrete—a new building material—with various
luxurious homes with marble walls, mosaic floors, kinds of stone.
iwining water, and baths. The Romans also excelled in road building. The
The prosperity of the Pax Romana sometimes first major Roman road was the Appian Way.
reached people of average means—shopkeepers Constructed in the 300s B.C., it connected Rome and
and artisans. Although fewer people became very southeastern Italy. During the Pax Romana, a net
rich, more became moderately well off. The majori work of roads was built to link Rome with the
ty in Rome, however, were still poor. There were no provinces. Reaching a total length of 50,000 miles
private baths for them; instead they bathed at (80,000 km), the road network contributed to the
crowded public areas built under Augustus and empire's unity.
later emperors. Most Romans lived in flimsy wood As they constructed public buildings and a
en apartment buildings of six or seven stories that vast network of roads, the Romans engineered
readily collapsed or caught fire. aqueducts, or artificial channels for carrying water.
Visualizing Entertainment at the giant arena Circus Maximus, depicted in

Histo this bas-relief, was free to Roman citizens. What new building
material did the Romans use to construct the Pantheon?

NATIONAL
Roman Forum
I he ruins of the Roman Forum are a major ancient Rome, the Colosseum took a decade to con
tourist attraction of modern Rome. In ancient struct and could seat 50,000. Here the Romans
times, the Forum was the center of both pol watched gladiators battle lions and later vanquish
itics and commerce. The Forum contained a Christians.
number of separate buildings: In the foreground the The rise of the Roman state began with the city of
Temple of Castor and Pollux, built in the 400s B.C., Rome itself hundreds of years before the birth of
honored Roman gods. Behind is the Arch of Titus, the Christ. Slowly the Romans consolidated control over
ruler whose military victory is enshrined in the arch Italy and built a great army. By 200 B.C. Rome had
built about A.D 80. Beyond the Arch stand the walls of become a vast empire. Power brought wealth and great
the Colosseum. The largest amphitheater built in monuments such as these in the Forum. ®

These lofty arches built out of stone enabled water to meanings. Nevertheless, Latin remained the lingua
flow into Rome from as far away as 57 miles (about franca, or common language, of Europe as late as
92 km). One Roman-built aqueduct in Segovia, the A.D. 1500s. Latin also forms the basis of the so-
called Romance languages, such as Italian, French,
Spain, was so well constructed that it is still used
today—nearly 1,900 years after it was completed. Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, and supplies
The Romans excelled at adapting the discover the roots for more than half of English words.
ies of others and using them in new and more prac Although Romans learned from Greek litera
tical ways. They made use of the Etruscan arch and ture, during the reign of Augustus Latin literature
dome to build aqueducts and the Pantheon, and achieved an elegance and power of its own. Cicero,
borrowed the Greek design for columns to support a Roman senator, published beautifully written
porches built around city squares. speeches. Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses, verses
Roman scientists also relied upon information based on Greek mythology. Horace, a poet, wrote
that had been gathered from other cultures. The about the shortness of life and the rewards of com
medical ideas of the ancient world compiled by the panionship in his Odes. Horace's friend Virgil
Greek physician Galen formed the basis of Roman wrote the Aeneid, an epic poem comparable to those
medical science. Likewise, the observations of the of Homer. In one passage of this poem, Virgil
Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy formed the founda expresses both the humility and pride of Romans:
tion of Roman astronomy. Galen's works influenced
med'cal science for many centuries, and Ptolemy's £( Others, no doubt, will better mould the
worl made it possible for later astronomers to pre bronze
dict with accuracy the motion of the planets. To the semblance of soft breathing, draw,
from marble,
Roman Education The living countenance; and others plead
The Romans studied their borrowed knowledge With greater eloquence, or learn to measure,
avidly. Wealthy boys and girls received private Better than we, the pathways of the heaven,
lessons at home. Yotmg men from wealthy families The risings of the stars: remember, Roman,
went on to academies—where former Greek slaves To rule the people under law, to establish
often taught—to learn geometry, astronomy, philos The way of peace, to battle down the
ophy, and oratory. The daughters of the wealthy did haughty,
not attend academies. Many upper-class women To spare the meek. Our fine arts, these,
continued to study at home, however, and often forever. J5
became as well educated as Roman men. People in —Virgil, the Aeneid, c. 20 B.C.
the lower classes usually had at least the basic
knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic they Livy, a later writer, wrote a monumental histo
needed to conduct business. ry of Rome that glorified the early Romans. The his
torian Tacitus, in contrast, condemned the tyranny
Language and Literature of the Julio-Claudian emperors with subtle but
Latin, Rome's official language, had a vocabu scathing irony. In Germania, Tacitus contrasted the
lary far smaller than that of Greek or modern robust life of the Germans with what he felt was the
weak and pleasure-loving life of the Romans.
English; thus, many words expressed several
SECTION 3 REVIEW
Rec greatest extent? this expression applies to any

1. Define aqueduct. Critical Thinking aspects of life in the modern
2. Identify Augustus, Pax Romana, 4. Synthesizing Information United States. If so, to what
Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Marcus The expression "bread and cir aspects does it apply?
Aurelius, Galen, Ptolemy, Virgil, cuses" has been used to Understanding Themes
Livy. describe hasty measures taken 5. Change How did Roman fami
3. Use the map on page 165 to by a government to prevent ly life change from the time of
identify Roman expansion. discontent among the poor. the republic to that of the Pax
When did the empire reach its Explain whether you believe Romana?

bra'irf êtct
Jesus preaches unsuccessfully revolt Constantine becomes Christianity
in Palestine. against Roman rule. Roman emperor. becomes Rome's
official religion.
Section 4
The Rise of
Christianity
Setting the Scene /j f^ he early Romans worshiped nature
▶ Terms to Define f spirits. Under Etruscan influence they
t_^ came to think of these spirits as deities.
sect, messiah, disciple, martyr, bishop,
Later, the Romans adopted much of Greek religion,
patriarch, pope
identifying Greek deities with their own. Beginning
▶ People to Meet with Augustus, the government also expected peo
Jesus, Paul, Peter, Constantine, Theodosius, ple to honor the emperor as Rome's chief priest.
Augustine Nevertheless, the empire's people were still
allowed to worship freely, and a variety of religions
What did Jesus of Nazareth teach, flourished.
and how did the early Christians influence the Meanwhile, a new monotheistic religion called
later Roman Empire? Christianity began to be practiced by some of the
Jews in the eastern Mediterranean. At first, both the
Romans and the earliest Christians thought of the
new religion as a sect, or group, within Judaism. As
Storyteller Christians won over non-Jewish followers, howev
How could Justin, a man well versed in philos er, the faith diverged from its Jewish roots and
became a separate religion.
ophy and intellectual pursuits, explain to the
emperor why he had embraced Christianity? He
had opened a school to teach others about this reli
gion, although most educated people dismissed it as Judaism and the Empire
a dangerous superstition. He had to convince the
In A.D. 6 the Emperor Augustus turned the
emperor that, just as the ancient philosophers had
kingdom of Judah into the Roman province of
sought truth, Christians sought it too. Since both Judea. The Romans in Judea still allowed the Jews
scholars and Christians shared this quest, following to practice their religion, but they treated them cru
Christian teachings could only help in the search
elly. Many Jews therefore strengthened their hope
for understanding. He set his pen to paper and that a messiah, or a deliverer chosen by God, would
began to write a defense of the Christian faith. help them regain their freedom. The coming of a mes
—from Apology, Justin, reprinted in siah had long been foretold by Jewish prophets.
Readings in Ancient History from Gilgamesh Believing that God would intervene on their
to Diocletian, Nels M. Bailkey, 1969 behalf, some Jews took matters into their own
hands. In A.D. 66 they rebelled against the Romans
and overpowered the small Roman army in
Mosaic of Jesus
Jerusalem. But only four years later, in A.D. 70, the
as shepherd
Romans retook Jerusalem, destroying the Temple
and killing thousands of Jews.
Then, after another unsuccessful rebellion in
A.D. 132, the Romans banned the Jews from living
fi t 1 !
Visualizing An engraving
Histo of the apos
tles Peter and Paul decorates
the sepulchre of the child
Asellus. Why did the apostles
form churches?
in Jerusalem. The Jews were forced to live in other come, disputed this claim. The growing controver
parts of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. In sy over Jesus troubled Roman officials in Palestine.
their scattered communities, the Jews continued to They believed that anyone who aroused such
study the Torah, the entire body of Jewish religious strong public feelings could endanger Roman rule
law and learning. They set up special academies in the region. In about A.D. 33, the Roman governor
called yeshivas to promote its study. Furthermore, Pontius Pilate arrested Jesus as a political rebel and
between A.D. 200 and A.D. 500, rabbis—scholars ordered that he be crucified—hung from a cross
trained in the yeshivas—assembled their various until dead. This was a typical Roman way of pun
interpretations of the Torah into a book known as ishing criminals.
the Talmud. To this day the Talmud remains an
important book of Jewish law.
The Spread of Christianity
After Jesus' death, his disciples proclaimed that
Jesus of Nazareth he had risen from the dead and had appeared to
A few decades before the Jewish revolts, a Jew them. They pointed to this as evidence that Jesus
named Jesus grew up in the town of Nazareth. was the messiah. His followers began preaching
With deep spiritual fervor, Jesus traveled through that Jesus was the Son of God and the way of sal
Galilee and Judea from about A.D. 30 to A.D. 33, vation. Small groups in the Hellenistic cities of the
preaching a new message to his fellow Jews and eastern Mediterranean world accepted this mes
winning disciples, or followers. sage. Jews and non-Jews who accepted Jesus and
Proclaiming that God's rule was close at hand, his teachings became known as Christians—
Jesus urged people to turn away from their sins and Christos was Greek for "messiah." They formed
practice deeds of kindness. He said that God was churches—communities for worship, fellowship,
loving and forgiving toward all who repented, no and instruction.
matter what evil they had done or how lowly they A convert named Paul aided Christianity's
were. In his teaching, Jesus often used parables, or spread, especially among non-Jews. He traveled
symbolic stories. With the parable below, Jesus widely and wrote on behalf of the new religion.
urged his followers to give up everything so that Paul's letters to various churches were later com
they would be ready for God's coming: bined with the Gospels, or stories about Jesus, and
the writings of other early Christian leaders.
CC The kingdom of heaven is like treasure Together, these works form the New Testament of
lying buried in a field. The man who the Bible.
found it, buried it again; and for sheer joy Meanwhile, other apostles, or Christian mis
went and sold everything he had, and sionaries, spread Christianity throughout the
bought that field. J J Roman world. It is believed that Peter, the leader of
—Matthew 13:44-46 the group, came to Rome and helped found a
church in that city. Other churches were set up in
Jesus' disciples believed that he was the messi Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and later in Gaul and
ah; other Jews, believing that the messiah had yet to Spain.

Persecution and Competition be built in Rome and Jerusalem.
Because of effective missionary work and
Christians taught that their religion was the growing government support, Christianity further
only true faith. They refused to honor the emperor increased in size and influence throughout the
as a god and rejected military service. As a result, entire Roman world. It became as important in the
many Romans accused them of treason. western part of the empire as it was in the eastern
The Romans feared that Christian rejection of part. In A.D. 392 the Emperor Theodosius (THEE»uh
their deities would bring divine punishment. •DOH«shuhs) made Christianity the official religion
Therefore, although they did not hunt out the of the Roman Empire. At the same time, he banned
Christians, if local officials thought Christians were the old Hellenistic and Roman religions. ^^m
causing trouble, they might have the Christians
killed. The Romans frequently threw these
Christian martyrs—people who chose to die rather
than give up their beliefs—into the stadiums to be
The Early Church
killed by wild beasts in front of cheering crowds. From early times Christians recognized that
Such persecution, which lasted until the early their organization, the Church, would prosper only
A.D. 300s, kept many people from becoming if it was united. They also felt that Christian teach
Christians. To win converts, Christians had to over ings had to be stated clearly to avoid differences of
come this obstacle. Christianity also had to compete opinion that might divide the Church. Consequently,
for followers with polytheistic religions and mys Christians turned to important religious thinkers
tery religions—so named for their mythical heroes who attempted to explain many Christian beliefs.
and secret rituals—and with Judaism. Between A.D. 100 and A.D. 500, various scholars
During the A.D. 200s and 300s, Christianity known as Church Fathers wrote books explaining
flourished in the Mediterranean world along with Christian teachings. They greatly influenced later
these other religions. Like Judaism, Christianity was Christian thinkers.
mainly a religion of the cities, while traditional
Roman religions retained their hold in the country Teachings of Augustine
side. Even though the number of Christians was rel Christians in the western part of the empire espe
atively small during this period, their strength in the cially valued the work of Augustine, a scholar born
cities of the Roman Empire gave Christianity an in North Africa in A.D. 354. Augustine is considered
influence that was far beyond its size. to have written one of the world's first great autobi
ographies. In this work called Confessions, Augustine
describes how he was converted to Christianity:
CC I heard from a neighboring house

P O I N T a voice, as of a boy or girl, 1
Romans Adopt Christianity know not, chanting, and oft
repeating, 'Take
According to legend, in A.D. 312, as the Roman up and read; Take up
general Constantine led his army into battle, a and read.'... So ... I
flaming cross appeared in the sky and beneath it in arose, interpreting it to
fiery letters appeared the Latin words /;/ hoc signo be no other than a
vinces: "With this as your standard you will have command from God,
victory." Apparently because of this vision, to open the book [the
Constantine ordered his soldiers to paint the Bible], and read the
Christian symbol of the cross on their shields. first chapter I should
When his army won the battle, Constantine credit find, n
ed the victory to the Christian God.
—Augustine, Confessions,
Named emperor of Rome in A.D. 312, c. A.D. 398
Constantine thus became a protector of
Christianity. A year later, he issued the Edict of Visualizing Constantine became
Milan, which decreed that all religious groups in Histo a defender of
the empire, including Christians, were free to wor Christianity. How did the status of
ship as they pleased. Constantine attended meet Christians living in the Roman Empire
ings of Christian leaders and ordered churches to change under the rule of Constantine?
Visualizing The walls of Roman catacombs host many depictions of
Histo Christian art such as the Eucharistic Banquet version of
the Last Supper. What kind of literature was the City of God?
So powerful was Augustine's influence that he The bishops of the Christian Church met in
became a leading church official in North Africa. In councils to discuss questions and disputes about
this post he wrote books, letters, and sermons that Christian beliefs. The decisions they reached at
shaped Christian thought during his own time and these councils, such as that at Nicaea in A.D. 325,
afterward. For instance, he wrote City of God—the came to be accepted as doctrine, or official teach
first history of humanity from the Christian ings. The points of view the council did not accept
viewpoint. were considered heresy, or false doctrine.
During the A.D. 400s, the bishop of Rome began
Church Structure to claim authority over the other patriarchs.
By Augustine's time, Christian leaders had Addressed by the Greek or Latin word papa, his
organized the Church as a hierarchy—into levels of name today is rendered pope in the English language.
authority, each level more powerful than the level Latin-speaking Christians in the West regarded the
below it. Local gatherings of Christians, called pope as head of all of the churches. Greek-speaking
parishes, were led by priests. Priests conducted Christians in the East, however, would not accept the
worship services and supervised parish activities. authority of the pope over their churches. The bish
Several parishes together formed a diocese, each ops of Alexandria and Antioch claimed to exercise a
overseen by a bishop. Bishops interpreted Christian paternal rule equal to that of the pope. Eventually
beliefs and administered regional church affairs. these churches and those of the Latin West separated
The most powerful bishops governed Christians in from each other. In time, the Latin churches as a
the empire's larger cities. The bishops of the five group became known as the Roman Catholic
leading cities—Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Church. The Greek churches as a group became
Antioch, and Jerusalem—were called patriarchs. known as the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• 1 SECTION 4 REVIEW
Recall Church by the time of Augus strong feelings among the

1. Define sect, messiah, disciple, tine. What were the functions Jewish people?
martyr, bishop, patriarch, pope. of bishops? Of priests? Understanding Themes
2. Identify the Talmud, Jesus, Critical Thinking 5. Innovation List some of the
Paul, Peter, Constantine, 4. Evaluating Information Why ways in which Christianity
Theodosius, Augustine. might the Romans in Judea diverged from Judaism to
3. Use a chart to describe the especially have responded become a distinct religion
hierarchy of the Christian harshly toward anyone arousing rather than a sect.

WWmnm German
Diocletian becomes Constantine moves Theodosius soldier Odoacer
Roman emperor. divides Roman
capital to Byzantium, seizes Rome.
renamed Constantinople. Empire.
Section 5
Roman Decline
Setting the Scene tiring the A.D. 200s, while Christianity
▶ Terms to Define was spreading through the Roman
inflation Empire, Germanic tribes began to over
run the western half of the empire. Many inhabi
▶ People to Meet tants in this area reported widespread devastation
Diocletian, Constantine, Theodosius I, and chaos. The Germanic tribes had always been a
Alaric, Attila threat to the empire. Why were they so much more
▶ Places to Locate successful now than they were during the times of
Marcus Aurelius?
Constantinople
What caused the decline of

the western Roman Empire? The Empire's Problems
The Romans had a brief rest from political vio
lence during the reign of the five Good Emperors.
Storyteller When Marcus Aurelius died in A.D. 180, however, a
new period of violence and corruption brought the
The old world had ended. There was no longer Pax Romana to an end.
any doubt of that. Gregory, whose family had for
countless generations served Rome as Senators Political Instability
and consuls, looked out the window at the city The time of confusion began with the installa
which had once ruled the world. Now it was in the tion of Emperor Commodus, Marcus Aurelius's
hands of warlike tribes who had no appreciation son. Like Nero, he spent so much state money on
for Roman virtue, achievements, or culture. his own pleasures that he bankrupted the treasury.
"Cities are destroyed," he mused, In A.D. 192 Commodus's own troops plotted to kill
"fortifications razed, fields devas him.
tated. Some men are led away cap From A.D. 192 to A.D. 284, army legions installed
tive, others are mutilated, others 28 emperors, only to kill most of them off in rapid
slain before our eyes." The pride of succession. During this time of political disorder,
Rome was reduced to memo Rome's armies were busier fighting each other than
ries of a vanished glory. they were defending the empire's borders. Germanic
tribes such as the Goths, the Alemanni, the Franks,
—from Homiliarum in and the Saxons repeatedly and successfully attacked
Ezechielem, Pope the empire.
Gregory I, reprinted in
Sources of the Western Economic Decline
Tradition, Marvin Perry, Political instability led to economic decline.
Joseph Peden, Warfare disrupted production and trade. For arti
and Theodore sans and merchants, profits declined sharply, forc
Von Laue, 1991 ing many out of business. Warfare also destroyed
farmland, causing food shortages that sent food
Marcus Aurelius prices soaring.

To cope with falling incomes and rising prices, empire's decline. Their reforms preserved the gov
the government minted more coins. It hoped the ernment in the eastern part of the empire for more
increase would make it easier to pay its soldiers. than 1,000 years. In the west, they succeeded only
However, because the government had already in briefly delaying the Germanic tribes' invasion of
drained its stores of gold and silver, the new coins Rome.
contained less of the precious metals—cutting their
value. To continue getting the same return for their Diocletian
goods, merchants raised prices. Thus, the govern General Diocletian came to power in A.D. 284
ment's policy sparked severe inflation—a rise in by slaying the murderer of the preceding emperor.
prices corresponding to a decrease in the value of To hold back invasions, he raised the number of
money. legions in the army and spent his time traveling
The spiraling decline in wealth affected almost throughout the empire to oversee defenses.
all parts of the empire. To sustain a fighting force, Recognizing, however, that the empire was too
the Roman government had to continually raise large for one person to govern, Diocletian divided
soldiers' wages. Taxing landowners heavily seemed the empire into two administrative units.
the only way to meet this expense, but as increased Diocletian set himself up as coemperor of the east
taxes made farming less profitable, more and more ern provinces and set up General Maximian as
farmers abandoned their lands. As a result, the out coemperor of the western provinces.
put of crops shrank even more, worsening the food Diocletian also tried to stop the empire's
shortage. economic decline. To slow inflation, he issued an
order called the Edict of Prices. In this
edict, Diocletian froze wages and set maximum
Unsuccessful Reforms prices for goods. Yet, even though the penalty for
breaking the law was death, his effort failed com
During the late A.D. 200s and early A.D. 300s, pletely. Citizens merely sold their goods through
two emperors—Diocletian (DY»uh»KLEE«shuhn) illegal trade. To stop farmers from leaving their
and later, Constantine—struggled to halt the lands and heavily taxed people from changing their
Visualizing As this relief sculpture shows, tax collectors in Roman

Histo times were very visible. Why did the Roman government have to
increase taxes?

professions to avoid taxa Germanic Invasions A.D. 200-500
tion, Diocletian required
farmers who rented land 15CW
never to leave their prop

erty and all workers to
remain at the same job
throughout their lives.
Constantine
When Diocletian re
tired in A.D. 305, civil wars
broke out again. They con
tinued until Constantine
came to power in A.D. 312.
Constantine worked
to stabilize the empire
once more by reinforcing
Diocletian's reforms. He
made it legal for landown
ers to chain their workers
to keep them on the farm.
He declared most jobs
hereditary; sons had to fol
low their fathers' occupa
tions. In A.D. 330 he •k Battle site
moved the capital of the J Empire of the West
eastern empire to the '2S°N. | Empire of the East
Greek town of Byzantium
—an ideal site for trade %
and well protected by nat Between AD. 410 and A.D. 476 Visigoths, Huns, and Vandals
ural barriers—and re ™ * P i n v a d e d I t a l y.
named it Constantinople. 9XUOy Movement What was the area of origin and the destination
of the Angles and Saxons during this period?
Theodosius
After Constantine's
death in A.D. 337, civil war
flared anew until Theodosius I succeeded better grazing land. Others crossed the empire's
Constantine. During Theodosius's rule, the empire borders wanting a share of Rome's wealth. Most,
still suffered internal problems, and again the west however, came because they were fleeing the Huns,
ern half suffered more. To lessen the problems, fierce nomadic invaders from central Asia.
Theodosius willed upon his death that the eastern
and western parts should be separate empires. In Warrior Groups
A.D. 395 this division came to pass. To distinguish Germanic warriors lived mostly by raising cat
the two, historians refer to the eastern empire as the tle and farming small plots. Despite their interest in
Byzantine Empire—after Byzantium, the town that the empire's goods, they themselves had little sur
became the capital—and the western empire as the plus to trade and were poor compared to the
Roman Empire. Romans. Each warrior group consisted of warriors,
their families, and a chief. This chief governed the
group and also led the warriors into battle. As the
Barbarian Invasions bands of warriors were numerous, so too were the
chiefs. Often the only unifying factor among these
Germanic tribes entered the Roman Empire for Germanic groups was their language, which to the
many reasons. Beginning in the late A.D. 300s, large Romans sounded like unintelligible babbling. The
numbers of Germanic peoples migrated into the Romans labeled the Germanic peoples barbarians, a
empire because they sought a warmer climate and reference to the sounds they made.

then they moved north into Gaul. In A.D. 451 the
Sassanids Establish Romans and the Visigoths combined to fight and
an Empire stop the Huns in central Gaul. Foiled in the
provinces, Attila turned upon Italy. There his horde
Persia, a.d. 200s
Ardashir I, king of Persis, defeated the Parthian plundered the larger cities and terrified the people.
Eventually plague and famine took their toll on the
army in a decisive victory, then entered the capital Huns. After Attila died in A.D. 453, they retreated to
of Ctesiphon in triumph. There he was crowned eastern Europe.
King of Kings and established the Sassanid Empire, The end of the empire of the Huns brought new
which lasted until AD. 651. Ardashir founded or troubles to the Romans. Wandering Germans,
rebuilt many cities and made Zoroastrianism the
Persians, Slavs, and Avars battered continually at
state religion. A rock carving at Naqshi-Rustam the Roman Empire's eastern frontier. Diplomacy,
shows Ardashir
bribery, and warfare kept them at bay for only a
taking the symbol short time.
of royalty from the
supreme Zoroastrian
god.
End of the Western Empire
With the Huns gone and Italy devastated, noth
ing remained to prevent Germanic tribes from tak
ing over. The Vandals raided and thoroughly
sacked Rome in A.D. 455. Franks and Goths divided
The Visigoths Gaul among themselves. Finally, in A.D. 476, a
During the late A.D. 300s and A.D. 400s, a vari German soldier named Odoacer (OH»duh»WAY
ety of Germanic groups extended their hold over •suhr) seized control of Rome and overthrew the
much Roman territory. They were the Ostrogoths, young emperor, Romulus Augustulus. Odoacer
Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, Angles, and Saxons. then named himself king of Italy.
The Visigoths, at first, were the most important of Because Odoacer called himself king and never
these groups. In A.D. 378 they rebelled against named a substitute emperor, people today refer to
Roman rule and defeated a large Roman army at A.D. 476 as the year in which the Roman Empire
Adrianople in the Balkan Peninsula, killing the "fell." However, this event no more signifies the
eastern Roman emperor. His successor managed to collapse of the empire than any other event. Its end
buy peace by giving the Visigoths land in the was caused by a complex interaction of events
Balkans. Then in A.D. 410 the Visigothic chief, between A.D. 200 and A.D. 500.
Alaric, led his people into Italy, capturing and sack More accurately, the western Roman Empire
ing Rome. After Alaric's death the Visigoths retreat ended in the late A.D. 400s. Yet it did not mean the
ed into Gaul. end of Roman culture, for the new Germanic rulers
accepted the Latin language, Roman laws, and the
The Huns Christian Church. In the Byzantine Empire, howev
The next threat to the empire was invasion by er, aspects of Roman culture were gradually sup
the Huns. This nomadic group streamed westward planted by Hellenistic culture. By the A.D. 700s,
from the grasslands of central Asia. Led by their Greek had even replaced Latin as the language of
chief, Attila, the Huns raided the eastern empire; the Byzantine Empire.
SECTION 5 REVIEW
Re< event occurred there during the Roman Empire, internal dif
1. Define inflation. the time of the "fall" of the ficulties or outside invaders?
2. Identify Diocletian, Roman Empire? Why?
Constantine, Theodosius I, Critical Thinking Understanding Themes
Alaric, Attila, Odoacer. 4. Synthesizing Information 5. Change How did warfare both
3. Locate Adrianople on the map Which do you think had a create and destroy the Roman
on page 177. What significant greater impact on the fall of Empire?

Critical Thinld Til
SK2MS
Decision Making
4. The Emperor Theodosius made Christianity
taking an art class or a music class during the official religion of the Roman Empire in
Suppose
youryou
freehave
periodbeen given How
at school. the choice
will youof A.D. 392.
decide which class to take? 5. Beginning in the late A.D. 300s, large num
bers of Germanic peoples migrated into the
Roman Empire.
Learning the Skill
When you make a decision, you are making
a choice between alternatives. In order to make
that choice, you must be informed and aware.
There are five key steps you should follow that
will help you through the decision-making
process.
1. Identify the problem. What are you being
asked to choose between?
2. Identify and consider various alternatives
that are possible.
3. Determine the consequences for each alterna
tive. Identify both the positive and the nega
tive consequences.
4. Evaluate the consequences. Consider both
the positive and negative consequences for
each alternative.
5. Ask yourself: Which alternative seems to
have more positive consequences? Which
seems to have more negative consequences?
Then make your decision.
Applying the Skill
Use a newspaper or magazine to find a cur
Practicing the Skill rent issue that directly affects your life. Identify
Decisions throughout history have affected
the issue, and then review the facts and what
the outcome of events, and defined history as
we know it today. Identify the alternatives and you already know about the issue. Identify
various alternatives, and then determine the
describe their consequences for each of the fol
consequences for each alternative. Use this infor
lowing events that occurred during the time of mation to evaluate both positive and negative
ancient Rome. Each of these events took place as
a result of a decision made by a person or a consequences. Make a sound decision about
which alternative would be best for you.
group of people.
1. The Twelve Tables became the basis for all
future Roman law in 451 B.C.
2. During the Third Punic War, in 146 B.C., the For More Practice
Romans burned Carthage. Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
3. In 27 B.C., Augustus Caesar became Rome's Review on page 181 for more practice in
first emperor. decision making.

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW

Historical Significance The Ro of many provincial cities. Latin language, which provided
mans established a common cul Frequent civil wars triggered a the root of the Romance lan
ture among the diverse peoples chain of events that ultimately guages; its engineering skills; its
of the Mediterranean world. led to the Roman Empire's transmission of Greek culture;
Their legal system, forms of economic and political ruin. and Christianity. Today, the city
government, engineering feats, The lasting legacies of the of Rome is still the center of the
and arts formed the foundation Roman Empire, however, are its Roman Catholic Church.
Using Key Terms

Imagine that you are cither a young
a. indemnity h. patricians Roman legionary stationed in a remote
b. bishop i. triumvirate
outpost of the empire in A.D. 130 or you
c. plebeians j. messiah are a friend of the legionary, awaiting
d. sect k. pope his return to Rome. Write a letter
e. i n fl a t i o n I. consul
describing what you have been doing in
f. aqueducts m. dictator the past week.
g. republic
I ■■ 1
1. After years of rule by kings, the Romans
declared their city-state a , a form of gov
ernment in which people elect their leaders.
2. In 60 B.C. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar Reviewing Facts
formed a , a group of three persons 1. Science Identify Roman achievements in science
with equal power, to control the government. and engineering, and discuss their impact.
3. After their defeat, the people of Carthage 2. Government Describe how Rome's political sys
agreed to pay the Romans a huge , or tem changed under Augustus Caesar.
payment for damages. 3. Citizenship Trace the development of Roman
4. Early Christianity was thought of as a , law and its influence on Western civilization.
or group, within Judaism. 4. Government Discuss how Roman governors
5. The majority of people in the Roman Republic made provincial cities more like Rome.
were —nonaristocratic landowners, mer 5. Geography Explain the geographic factors that
chants, shopkeepers, small farmers, and laborers.
helped Rome to dominate the Mediterranean.
Technology Activity
Critical Thinking
Creating a Multimedia Presen
tation Search a computerized 1. Apply In what ways did the Roman Republic,
card catalog or the Internet for in its structure and growth, affect later govern
information about the early Etruscans. Using ments in western Europe and America?
multimedia tools, create a short presentation 2. Analyze What evidence suggests that Roman
about the Etruscan culture. Incorporate images society was more stable during the republic
from the Internet. Before you begin, plan the than during the time of the empire?
3. Evaluate In what ways did the Romans' treat
type of presentation you want to develop and
the steps you will take to make the presenta ment of the peoples they conquered differ from
tion successful. Indicate tools you will need the ways in which other victors usually treated
and cite all electronic resources. the peoples they conquered? How might Roman
attitudes have strengthened the empire?

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
4. Analyze The vase

shown here incorpo Understanding Themes
rates the Etruscan 1. Change How did the Roman government
alphabet. Why have change from the time of the Etruscans to
scholars been unable Augustus Caesar?
to tell the full story 2. Conflict Evaluate a conflict between nations
of Etruscan history? that has occurred in the recent past, and analyze
the ways in which it is similar to conflicts
between the Romans and other peoples of the
Mediterranean region.
^KDî"a@\>ii 3. Cultural Diffusion How might Roman roads
have helped to foster cultural diffusion?
4. Innovation In what way did Constantine's vic
tory in battle in A.D. 312 change the religious
life of the Roman Empire? How did his reli
gious policies later shape die future course of
religion in Western civilization?
5. Change How did Roman architecture reflect the
Geography in History political and social changes that transformed
Rome from a republic into an empire?
1. Location Refer to the map below. Which area
(east or west) was more heavily influenced by
Christianity by A.D. 200? inking Past
-(... j Present
2. Movement What major body of water did
many early missionaries cross in their efforts to The United States government operates
spread Christianity? on the system of checks and balances, in
3. Place According to the map below, which city which each branch of government limits the
in western Europe had the largest concentration
of Christians by A.D. 200? power of the other branches. Did this system
operate in the Roman Republic? Why or
why not? Use examples from Roman history
to support your answer.
The Spread of Christianity
I I Christian area, a.d 200
I 1' Expansion
1 of Christianity,
ad. 200-400 Skill Practice
\
Reread page 160 about the Punic Wars. For
each of the three wars, identify the decision that
affected the outcome of each. Explain the conse
nstantinOTle^-nJ
quences of each decision, and how they affected the
outcome. Examining the decisions and final out
comes of each war will help you see alternatives that
might have been available to the decision makers at
the time. Discuss some of the alternatives and their
consequences for each war. How would history
have changed if different decisions had been made?

Chapter
7 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500
Flowering of African
Civilizations
vXtoryteller
The Yoruba—West Africans living by the Niger River—
gather each winter to hear storytellers recount a legend that tells
of how their ancestors struggled to clear their land with tools
made of wood and soft metal. Even orishas, or gods, could not
Chapter Themes cut through vines or trees with these tools until the god Ogun
▶ Movement Migrations of Bantu-
speaking people influence Africa's appeared, carrying his bush knife.
cultural development. Section 1 "He slashed through the heavy vines, felled the trees and
▶ Cultural Diffusion Africa's trade
contacts with Europe and Asia cleared the forest from the land.... So [the people] made [Ogun]
affect African cultures. Section 2 their ruler.... He built forges for them and showed them how to
▶ Innovation East African city-states
make spears, knives, hoes, and swords."
develop a new culture based on
African and Arab cultures. Legends such as this describe experiences that early people
Section 3
valued most. Early Africans built civilizations that have left rich
traditions for today's peoples.
Historical Significance
How did early Africans use the natural resources of
their environment to develop trade networks? What impact
did their cultures have on other lands?
1500 B.C.
Uliiî Gold/salt trade

Kush becomes an crosses northern Africa.
independent kingdom.
HfT';r'î>. *
HBP
History Prehistoric cave art from

[&Art Tassili N'Ajjer Plateau, Algeria

Cottstdt a historical atlas, attd draw
an outline map ofAfinca showing early
African kingdoms, the dates when they
existed, and tnajor trade routes. Write
and answer questiotts based on the map's
data.
Chapter 7 Flowering of African Civilizations 183

PFTTmi Merchants from Christianity
Kushite kings becomes Axum's
Egypt, Rome, Persia, and official religion.
rule over Egypt. India trade with Axum.
Section 1
Early Africa
▶ Terms to Define /J frica's earliest civilizations left few
oral tradition, plateau, savanna, matrilineal,
/ff~) written records of their existence. It
age set ^_y \Jy was through oral traditions—leg
▶ People to Meet ends and history passed by word of mouth from
one generation to another—that early African peo
Piankhi, Ezana, the Nok
ples communicated knowledge about their culture.
▶ Places to Locate Thus, archaeologists and historians have had to
Nubia, Kush, Axum rely on legends and artifacts to learn about the cul
ture of African civilizations between 1100 B.C. and
ind Out What kinds of societies emerged in A.D. 1500.
early Africa? Archaeologists have discovered that early
African cultures developed technologies and trade
based on regional natural resources. Civilizations
rose and declined, and were influenced by the
Storyteller movement of people and by the way in which nat
African oral tradition contained stories full of ural resources were developed.
wisdom, to be enjoyed by all. For example, where
did death come from? A myth from Madagascar
gave this answer. One day God asked the first cou Geography and Environment
ple what kind of death they wanted, one like that of
the moon, or that of the banana? The couple was Africa's geography and climate are a study in
contrasts. Africa, the world's second-largest conti
puzzled. God explained: The banana creates young
nent, is three times larger than the United States.
plants to take its place, but the moon itself comes Within its huge expanse lie desolate deserts, lofty
back to life every month. After consideration, the
mountains, rolling grasslands, and fertile river
couple prayed for children, because without chil
valleys.
dren they would be lonely, would have to do all the
work, and would have no one to provide for. Since Regions of Africa
that time, human life is short on this earth. The African continent can be divided into five
—freely adapted from regions based on location and environment: North
The Humanistic Tradition, Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and
Gloria K. Fiero, 1992 Southern Africa.
North Africa consists of a thin coastal plain,
Kilimanjaro bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and an inland
desert area. Coastal North Africa has mild temper
atures and frequent rainfall. In contrast, the area
south of this green belt is a vast expanse of sand:
the Sahara, the world's largest desert. Extending
more than 3,500 miles (5,630 km) across the conti
nent, the Sahara is a region of shifting dunes and
jagged rock piles.
■Win n~gyw-.rt--"»a'.' ae—
w
History Wall painting from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City,
[ & A r t New York. Four late Bronze Age Nubian princes offer rings and gold
to an Egyptian ruler. In what ways did Nubian culture resemble Egyptian culture?
TheSahel fertile highland in Southern Africa.

South of the Sahara, the continent of Africa is The African continent has provided rich
dominated by a great central plateau—a relatively resources for its people. Early cultures developed
where rainfall was plentiful, or near lakes or along
high, flat area known as the Sahel. This region
receives moderate rainfall to sustain the savannas, rivers like the Nile.
or treeless grasslands, that cover the plateau. The
savannas south of the Sahara constitute about 40 Nubia and Kush
percent of Africa's land area.
In East Africa, the Sahel descends into a deep By 3000 B.C., a people called the Nubians estab
crack known as the Great Rift Valley. The valley lished a kingdom called Nubia in the southern part
extends 40 miles (65 km) in width and 2,000 feet of the Nile River valley in present-day Sudan. The
(610 m) in depth. It runs 3,000 miles (4,827 km) from Nubian people mastered the bow and arrow and
the Red Sea in the north all the way to Southern became warriors. With their military skills, they
Africa. Rising above the Sahel plateau east of the conquered smaller neighboring communities in the
valley are two mountain peaks—Mount Kenya and Nile Valley.
Kilimanjaro. Kilimanjaro is Africa's highest moun The Nubians maintained close contacts with
tain, with an elevation of 19,340 feet (5,895 m). Egypt to the north. Archaeologists have uncovered
In West Africa, the Sahel descends to a narrow the tombs of Nubian kings, which contained pre
coastal plain that has a relatively unbroken coast cious stones, gold, jewelry, and pottery. These are as
line. The major rivers that do flow through the ornate as those found in Egypt from the same peri
coastal plain—the Niger and the Zaire (Congo)— od. Some scholars believe that political ideas, such
are navigable only for short distances. The few nat as monarchy, and various objects, like boats and
ural harbors and limited river travel isolated early eating utensils, reveal the early beginnings of the
African civilizations and made foreign invasions close cultural links between Nubia and Egypt.
difficult in some areas. By 2000 B.C., the Nubian river civilization had
Central Africa near the Equator has lush tropi developed into the kingdom of Kush. After defeat
cal rain forests so thick that sunlight cannot reach in warfare, Kush was under Egyptian rule for 500
the forest floor. Although the rain forest climate is years. Egyptian pharaohs stationed soldiers in Kush
hot and humid, 1,500 miles (2,413 km) farther south to collect duties on goods moving through the region.
the land again turns into a desert—the Kalahari. The people of Kush used their location along
Still farther south, the Kalahari gives way to a cool, the Upper Nile River to develop a strong trade

economy. The Kushite cities of Napata and Meroe' skins, and ebony for goods from the Mediterranean
stood where trade caravans crossed the Nile, bring and the Red Sea regions. They also conducted busi
ing gold, elephant tusks, and timber from the ness throughout the Indian Ocean area. Meroe's
African interior. This strategic location brought merchants used their wealth to construct fine hous
wealth to the merchants and kings of Kush. es built around a central courtyard and public baths
Around 1000 B.C. Kush broke away from Egypt modeled after ones they had seen in Rome.
and became politically independent. In time Kush For about 150 years, the Kushite kingdom
grew strong enough that a Kushite king named thrived. Then a new power—Axum, a kingdom
Piankhi (pee«AHNK«hee) in 724 B.C. led a power located near the Red Sea—invaded Kush and
ful army from Kush into Egypt and defeated the ended Kushite domination of northeastern Africa.
Egyptians. After this victory, Kushite kings ruled
over both Egypt and Kush from their capital at
Napata. The city boasted white sandstone temples, Axum
monuments, and pyramids fashioned in styles sim
ilar to those of the Egyptians. Because of its location along the Red Sea, Axum
In 671 B.C. the Assyrians invaded Egypt, easily also emerged as a trading power. During the 200s
defeating die Kushites, whose bronze weapons were B.C., merchants from Egypt, Greece, Rome, Persia,
no match against Assyrian iron swords. The Kushites and India sent ships laden with cotton cloth, brass,
were forced to leave Egypt and return to their home copper, and olive oil to Axum's main seaport at
territory at the bend of the Upper Nile. In spite of Adulis. Traders exchanged their goods for cargoes
their defeat, the Kushites learned from their enemies of ivory that the people of Axum hauled from
the technology of making iron. They built a new Africa's interior.
capital at Meroe that became a major center for iron Through trade Axum absorbed many elements
production. Kush merchants traded iron, leopard of Roman culture, including a new religion:
Visualizing . Church of St. Mary of Zion. According to tradition, this church

H i s t o r y contains the original tablets of Moses, brought by King Menelik I
to Axum. Menelik, the legendary founder of Axum's monarchy, was reputed to
be the son of the Israelite king Solomon and the Arabian queen of Sheba. How
did Christianity come to Axum?
186 Chapter 7 Flowering of African Civilizations

Christianity. A remarkable event led to the conversion
of Axum's King Ezana to Christianity. Shipwrecked Kingdoms of Kush and Axum
20'°E^"'--'-^30°E
off the coast of Ethiopia, two Christians from Syria
were picked up and brought to King Ezana's court,
where they lived for several years. The young
men convinced Ezana that he should become a
Christian. About A.D. 330 the king made Christianity
the official religion in Axum. During this time,
Christianity also became dominant in other areas of
northeastern Africa—Kush and Egypt.
Axum declined after the rise of the religion of
Islam during the A.D. 600s. Its Red Sea ports lost
their importance as links to the Mediterranean
world, and Axum's rulers—confined to the remote
interior of East Africa—set up the Christian king
dom of Ethiopia.
South of the Sahara

Between 700 B.C. and 200 B.C., during Axum's The kingdoms of Kush and Axum
rise to power, a West African culture called the Nok - developed along the Nile River
had already established itself in the fertile Niger *W°y and the Red Sea.
and Benue River valleys. In the 1930s archaeolo Location Because of its location, Axum was
gists working in present-day central Nigeria found influenced by merchants and traders from what
terra-cotta, or baked clay, figurines that provided areas of the world?
evidence of the Nok culture. Working in the Nok
sites and other areas of West Africa, archaeologists
also unearthed iron hoes and ax-heads. This latter
discovery provided evidence that metal production eastern coastal plain grew new crops, such as
had enabled African cultures south of the Sahara to bananas and yams that had been brought to East
farm their land more effectively. Africa by traders from Southeast Asia.
As West African farmers used their iron tools to As people pushed into new areas, they met other
produce more food, the population increased. In time, African groups that adopted their ways of life. In
arable land became scarce, causing widespread time, Bantu-speaking peoples became the domi
food shortages. Small groups of Africans began to nant group in Africa south of the Sahara. (^^m
migrate from West Africa to less populated areas.
Other groups followed. Over about a thousand years Village Life
a great migration took place. Africans who spoke Bantu languages became
divided into hundreds of ethnic groups, each with
its own religious beliefs, marriage and family
8= POI] customs, and traditions. Ethnic groups living
around A.D. 1000 formed close-knit communities
Bantu Migrations where most families were organized into large
Historians call this mass movement the Bantu households that included descendants of one set of
migrations because descendants of the people who grandparents.
migrated throughout the continent share elements Many villages were matrilineal societies in
of a language group known as Bantu. The Bantu which villagers traced their descent through mothers
migrations did not follow a single pattern. Some rather than through fathers. However, when a girl
villagers followed the Niger or other rivers, settling married, she became a member of her husband's
in one spot to farm for a few years and moving on as family. To compensate the bride's family for the loss
the soil became less fertile. Other groups penetrated of a member, the husband's family gave the bride's
the rain forests and grew crops along the riverbanks. family gifts of iron tools, goats, or cloth.
Still others moved to the highland savannas of East Even before marriage, specific jobs were
Africa and raised cattle. Groups that settled on the assigned to groups of males and females of a similar

Many Africans also believed that spirits of dead
Rebuilding of ancestors lived among the people of the village and
the Kremlin guided their destiny.
The religious beliefs and family loyalties of
Moscow, a.d.1 340 most Africans maintained stability and support
Many medieval Russian cities were built around a within villages. Most communities expected their
kremlin, or fortress, surrounded by a wall and a members to obey the social rules they believed to
moat. The Moscow Kremlin originally was built of
have come from the supreme god.
wood in A.D. 1156. In the A.D.1300s it was rebuilt
in brick. It is triangular in shape and has four
Although African communities relied heavily
on religious and family traditions to maintain a sta
gateways. Its back gate conceals a secret passage ble social structure, outside influences through
to the Moscow River. Italian architects
trade and learning still affected them. North
designed some of the Africans absorbed influences from the Arab world,
Kremlin's impressive whereas African people south of the Sahara adapt
towers and ed to Persian, Indian, and later, European influ
cathedrals in the
ences. From these outsiders, African communities
late A.D.1400s.
adopted many new customs, ideas, and languages.
The Arts
Various arts developed throughout Bantu-
speaking Africa. Sculpture was an important art
form. African sculpture included figures, masks,
age, called age sets. Boys younger than 10 or 12 decorated boxes, and objects for ceremonial and
herded cattle; girls of the same age helped their everyday use. Most of these items were made of
mothers plant as well as tend and harvest crops. At wood, bronze, ivory, or baked clay. The wearing of
about 12 years old, boys and girls took part in cere masks at ceremonial dances symbolized the link
monies initiating them into adulthood. A boy between the living and the dead. Those wearing the
remained with his age set throughout his life. After masks and performing the dances called upon
marriage, a girl joined an age set in her husband's ancestral spirits to guide the community.
village. Music rich in rhythm was interwoven with the
fabric of everyday African life. It included choral
Religious Beliefs singing, music performed at royal courts, and
To most Africans, marriage customs and all songs and dances for ceremonies. In villages, where
other social laws and traditions were made by a sin many activities were performed by groups, music
gle supreme god who created and ruled an orderly often provided the motivation and rhythm for var
universe. The god rewarded those who followed ious tasks, such as digging ditches or pounding
social rules with abundant harvests and the birth of grain. African musicians used a variety of drums as
healthy children, and punished those who violated well as harps, flutes, pipes, horns, and xylophones.
tradition with accidents, crop failures, or illness. Early Africa excelled in oral literature passed
Beneath the supreme god were many lesser down from one generation to another. The stories
deities who influenced the daily affairs of men and included histories, fables, and proverbs. Oral litera
women. These deities were present in natural phe ture not only recorded the past but also taught tra
nomena such as storms, mountains, and trees. ditions and values.
SECTION 1 REVIEW
Re the map on page 187. Why did of the kingdom of Axum.

1. Define oral tradition, plateau, the Nubians settle in the Upper Understanding Themes
savanna, matrilineal, age set. Nile Valley? 5. Movement How do the Bantu
2. Identify Sahel, Nubia, Kush, Critical Thinking migrations in early Africa com
Piankhi, Axum, Ezana, the Nok, 4. Applying Information pare with the Aryan migrations
Bantu. Explain how Mediterranean in early South Asia?
3. Locate the Nile River valley on trade influenced the economy

Ghana begins
to build a trading empire.
jJSHEJi kssmi
Mali conquers Askia Muhammad
surrounding territory. begins rule in Songhai.
Section 2
Kingdoms in
West Africa
Setting the Scene diverse environment provided rich
natural resources for the early king
▶ Terms to Define
^ doms of West Africa. Africans living
monotheism, ghana, mosque in this region between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1500 mined
▶ People to Meet gold and other mineral resources. An active trade
Sundiata Keita, Mansa Musa, Askia developed between them and peoples outside West
Muhammad Africa who practiced a religion called Islam. Islam
▶ Places to Locate preached monotheism, or the belief in one God,
and spread throughout the Middle East, North
Ghana, Mali, Timbuktu, Songhai
Africa, and Spain during the A.D. 600s and A.D.
700s. Through their trade contacts with Muslims,
How was trade carried out in the followers of Islam, African cultures gradually
West Africa?
adopted Islamic cultural elements such as language
and religion.
Storyteller
The poets of Mali preserved the history of Kingdom of Ghana
their people. Hear one speak: "I teach kings the The kingdom of Ghana became one of the rich
history of their ancestors so that the est trading civilizations in West Africa due to its
lives of the ancients might serve them as location midway between Saharan salt mines and
an example, for the world is old, but the tropical gold mines. Between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1200
future springs from the past. My word is the kings of Ghana controlled a trading empire that
pure and free of all untruth.... Listen to stretched more than 100,000 square miles (260,000 sq.
my word, you who want to km). They prospered from the taxes they imposed on
know, by my mouth, you will goods that entered or left their kingdom. Because
learn the history of Mali. By the ghana, or king, ruled such a vast region, the land
became known by the name of its ruler—Ghana.
my mouth you will get to There was two-way traffic by caravan between
know the story of the ances
cities in North Africa and Ghana. Muslim traders
tor of great Mali, the story of
from North Africa sent caravans loaded with cloth,
him who ... surpassed even
metalware, swords, and salt across the western Sahara
Alexander the Great.... to northern settlements in Ghana. Large caravans
Whoever knows the history of from Ghana traveled north to Morocco, bringing
a country can read its future." kola nuts and farming produce. Ghanaian gold was
—from Sundiata: An Epic of traded for Saharan salt brought by Muslim traders.
Old Mali in The Humanistic Salt was an important trade item for the people
Tradition, Gloria K. Fiero, 1992 of Ghana. They needed salt to preserve and flavor
their foods. Using plentiful supplies of gold as a

medium of exchange, Ghanaian merchants traded to the kingdom. Muslim influence increased and
the precious metal for salt and other goods from many Ghanaians converted to Islam.
Morocco and Spain. At the end of the A.D. 1000s, an attack on
Masudi, a Muslim traveler, writing about A.D. the Ghanaian trade centers by the Almoravids, a
950, described how trade was conducted: Muslim group from North Africa, led to the decline
of Ghana as a prosperous kingdom. Groups of
CC The merchants ... place their wares and Ghanaians broke away to form many small Islamic
cloth on the ground and then depart, and states.
so the people of [Ghana] come bearing
gold which they leave beside the
merchandise and then depart. The owners
of the merchandise then return, and if Kingdom of Mali
they are satisfied with what they have Mali, one of the small states to break away from
found, they take it. If not, they go away Ghana, became a powerful kingdom that eventually
again, and the people of [Ghana] return ruled much of West Africa. The word Mali means
and add to the price until the bargain is "where the king resides" and is an appropriate name
concluded. 55 for a kingdom that gained much of its power and
influence from its kings. Sundiata Keita, one of Mali's
Ghana reached the height of its economic and early kings, defeated his leading rival in A.D. 1235
political power as a trading kingdom in the A.D. and began to conquer surrounding territories. By
800s and A.D. 900s. The salt and gold trade moving the late A.D. 1200s, Mali's territory included the old
through Ghana brought Islamic ideas and customs kingdom of Ghana.
Images
°fthe Times The Great Mosque at Timbuktu
Founded around A.D. 1100, the city
of Timbuktu became a major cen
Africa's Religious Heritage ter of trade and site of an impor
tant Islamic school.
Religion played a central role in the development
of African cultures. Islam became the dominant
religion in the north.
Bb&W
Wk~ <! ~',^B
Wf; ■ j/M-: --•.. ' 9ST ' -
K^s*H
ISwÎSJs?
{■■■ ^,v yJ 'j '- "f3!
w>_îiSjwj|ii^-" .. 1 JH
[SS^^-JS^ ^*?^3
Altar of the Hand, Benin 8'.
Beginning in the A.D. 1200s the . £
kingdom of Benin emerged as a
wealthy trading state. The oba, or ■
king, became the political, econom
ft Vk» JaV
liEi i
ic, and spiritual leader of the people. ' S i L L . -■ wIF^SbJB-\ *V -»«•.
'..:
i'^M*WH"-v^H
WnEr^ |;; "iBSK

f ';Tm£ KgiÊ'! rajS
jte-N^_jT E^tf • iuu ^P* a :■ m*!2d
nSferfS
In \H0
/ ' -r^HMBt' 1
-
^ l i & V ^
190
Sundiata worked to bring prosperity to his new bars of gold. Musa gave away so much gold on his
empire. He restored the trans-Saharan trade in gold journey that the world price of gold fell. At Makkah,
and salt that had been interrupted by the Almoravid Musa persuaded a Spanish architect to return with
attacks and he restored agricultural production. him to Mali. There the skilled architect built great
Sundiata ordered soldiers to clear large expanses of mosques—Muslim houses of worship—and other
savanna and burn the grass that had been cleared to fine buildings, including a palace for Musa in the cap
provide fertilizer for crops of peanuts, rice, sorghum, ital of Timbuktu (TIHM»BUHK»TOO). Timbuktu
yams, beans, onions, and grains. With the benefit of became an important center of Muslim art and cul
rainfall, agriculture flourished in Mali. With larger ture mainly through the efforts of Mansa Musa, who
tracts of land under cultivation, farmers produced encouraged Muslim scholars to teach at his court.
surplus crops that Mali's kings collected as taxes. Two hundred years later, the North African scholar
Mali's greatest king was Mansa Musa, who and traveler Hassan ibn Muhammad (known in the
ruled from A.D. 1312 to A.D. 1332. By opening trade West as Leo Africanus) described Timbuktu's con
routes and protecting trade caravans with a power tinuing intellectual brilliance:
ful standing army, Musa maintained the economic
prosperity begun by Sundiata. He also introduced CC Here are great store of doctors, judges,
Islamic culture to Mali. priests, and other learned men that are
A Muslim himself, Musa enhanced the prestige bountifully maintained at the king's cost
and power of Mali through a famous pilgrimage to and charges. And hither are brought
Makkah in A.D. 1324. Arab writers report that Musa diverse manuscripts or written books out
traveled in grand style. He took with him 12,000 of [North Africa], which are sold for more
slaves, each dressed in silk or brocade and carrying money than any other merchandise. ^^
Terra-cotta heads, c. early

1600s, commemorate the
deceased members of the royal
family among the Akan peoples
of southern Ghana.
1. How did religion influence the arts and other

aspects of culture in Africa?
2. In what ways did Africans honor royalty?
191
NATIONAL
West African Empire

corners of the Islamic world—from North Africa to
back to the A.D. 1300s, when the town China and back. He returned home three decades later
thrived as a center of trade and Islamic as one of history's great travelers and travel writers.
This turreted mosque
learning. in Djenne,
A masterpiece Mali, harks
of African-Muslim His journeys totaled 75,000 miles (121,000 km)—
architecture, the great mosque boasts massive mud three times the distance logged by his European pre
ramparts broken by patterns of protruding beams. Its decessor, Marco Polo. Ibn Battuta's final journey
tall spires are crowned not with the traditional brought him here to the West African empire of Mali
Islamic crescent but with ostrich eggs, symbol of fer where he praised the piety of the Muslims. Battuta
tility and fortune. Every year, after the rainy season, sought out the ruler, Mansa Sulayman, at his capital
the town turns out 4,000 people to replaster the walls but was not impressed with the king's generosity.
of the mosque with their bare hands. The job is done Mansa Sulayman, he wrote, "is a miserly king."
in a day. Battuta also traveled to Timbuktu—about a hundred
Almost two centuries before Columbus set off for years before the city really started to prosper. At its
the Americas, an Arab traveler and author named Ibn height, in the A.D. 1500s, the city could boast three
Battuta began his travels in A.D. 1325 to the far universities and perhaps 50,000 residents. ®

After Mansa Musa died in A.D. 1332, the
Kingdoms of Africa A.D. 1000-1500
empire came under attack by Berbers, a people
living in the Sahara region to the north. They
raided Mali and captured Timbuktu. From the
south, warriors from the rain forest also attacked
Mali. Inside the kingdom, people living in the
Songhai region of the Niger River valley resented
losing control over their region and rebelled against
the empire. By the middle of the A.D. 1500s, Mali
had split into several independent states.
Kingdom of Songhai
The rebellious Songhai, who were skilled
traders, farmers, and fishers, were led by strong
leaders. During the late A.D. 1400s their ruler,
Sunni Ali, fought many territorial wars and man
aged to conquer the cities of Timbuktu and
Djenne, expanding his empire to include most of
the West African savanna. Sunni Ali was a Muslim
ruler, but when he died, rule fell to his son, a
non-Muslim. The Muslim population of Songhai
overthrew Ali's son and brought a Muslim ruler
to the throne.
Under the new ruler, Askia Muhammad, the
Songhai Empire reached the height of its glory.
Ruling from A.D. 1493 to A.D. 1528, Askia
Muhammad divided Songhai into five huge
provinces, each with a governor, a tax collector, a
court of judges, and a trade inspector—very much judges, assuring that Islamic laws would be upheld.
like the government structure of China in the A.D. In A.D. 1528 Askia Muhammad was over
1400s. The king maintained the peace and security thrown by his son. A series of struggles for the
of his realm with a cavalry and a navy. Timbuktu throne followed, leading to a weakened central
was a center of Muslim learning. government. Around A.D. 1589 the rulers of
Devoted to Islam, Muhammad introduced laws Morocco sent an army across the Sahara to attack
based on the teachings of the holy book of Islam, the Songhai gold-trading centers. Moroccan soldiers,
Quran (kuh«RAHN). Lesser crimes were sometimes armed with guns and cannons, easily defeated the
overlooked, but those who committed major crimes Songhai forces fighting with only swords, spears,
such as robbery or idolatry received harsh punish and bows and arrows. By A.D. 1600 the Songhai
ments. Askia Muhammad appointed Muslim Empire had come to an end.
■ l S E C T I O N 2 R E V I E W «■■■
Recall become an important center of Understanding Themes

1. Define monotheism, ghana, Islamic art and learning during 5. Cultural Diffusion What
mosque. the AD. 1300s? goods were traded, and how
2. Identify the Almoravids, Critical Thinking did trade between West Africa
Sundiata Keita, Mansa Musa, 4. Analyzing Information and the Islamic world influence
Askia Muhammad. Why was trade vital to the the development of West
3. Locate Timbuktu on the map economies of the West African African cultures between
on this page. How did Timbuktu kingdoms? A.D. 900 and A.D. 1500?

•I'M Arab and Persian b^'WIW Kilwa People of
merchants trade in East Africa. thrives as East African Karanga build stone
walled fortresses.
coastal city-state.
Section 3
African Trading
Cities and States
Setting the Scene uring the same time that West African
▶ Terms to Define kings ruled their empires, important
trading communities developed along
monopoly, multicultural the coast of East Africa and in the interior of Central
▶ Places to Locate and Southern Africa. Inland African kingdoms
Kilwa, Malindi, Mombasa, Sofala, Zanzibar, mined copper and iron ore and traded these miner
Karanga, Great Zimbabwe als and ivory with city-states that had developed
along the East African coast. There Muslim traders
How did areas in East, Central, and brought cotton, silk, and Chinese porcelain from
Southern Africa develop as a result of inland and India and Southeast Asia to exchange for the prod
overseas trade? ucts from Africa's interior. As in West Africa, trade
contacts with the Muslim world enabled East
African coastal areas to adopt the religion of Islam
and Islamic cultural practices.
vXtoryteller
The first trained engineer ever to see the
ruins of the Great Zimbabwe reported: "For fifty East Africa
miles I saw the ruins.... The ruins are principally As early as 500 B.C., coastal areas of East Africa
terraces, which rise up continually from the base were trading with the Arabian Peninsula and South
to the apex of all the hills.... The terraces are all Asia. Using dhows (Arab sailboats), East Africans
made very flat and of sailed with the monsoon winds across the stretch of
dry masonry.... The Indian Ocean separating Africa from India. By the
way the ancients seem A.D. 900s Arab and Persian merchants had settled on
to have levelled off the the East African coast and controlled the trade there.
contours of the various Traders from the interior of Africa brought ivory, gold,
hills around which the iron, and rhinoceros horn to the east coast to trade for
water courses are laid Indian cloth and Chinese porcelain.
is very astonishing, as
Coastal City-States
they seem to have been
levelled with as much By A.D. 1200 small East African trading settle
exactitude as we can ments had become thriving city-states taxing the
accomplish with our goods that passed through their ports. The port of
Kilwa had a virtual monopoly, or sole control or
best mathematical
instruments." ownership, of the gold trade with the interior.
Malindi and Mombasa, both ports farther north on
Ruins of the Great Zimbabwe —from The Mystery of the coast, were also important centers, as was
the Great Zimbabwe, Sofala, a port in what is present-day Mozambique.
Wilfrid Mallows, 1984 The iron mined in the surroundings of these three

city-states was widely used in the Arabian or African chieftains. They used coral from Indian
Peninsula and South Asia. Ocean reefs to build mosques, palaces, and forts.
The island of Zanzibar was also an important cen
ter of trade. Sailors from the islands of Southeast Asia
as well as India and China came to Zanzibar in search The Bantu Kingdoms
of ivory and gold, which was brought to Zanzibar
ports from the coastal city-states of East Africa. The Indian Ocean trade was not limited to the
coastal trading states. It reached far inland, con
Blending of Cultures tributing to the rise of wealthy Bantu kingdoms in
By the A.D. 1300s, the city-states of East Africa Central and Southern Africa. The inland kingdoms
had reached the height of their prosperity. They had mined rich deposits of copper and gold. During the
become truly multicultural centers—populated by A.D. 900s, traders from the East African coast made
a variety of cultural groups. Within each city-state, their way to the inland mining communities in
Islamic and African cultures blended. For the most Central Africa and began an active trade among the
part, Arab and Persian merchants ruled the trading people living there. The traders brought silk and
states. They converted many Africans to Islam. porcelain from China, glass beads from India, carpets
Arab merchants married local women who had from Arab lands, and fine pottery from Persia. They
converted to Islam. Families having members with traded these goods for minerals, ivory, and coconut
African and Islamic cultural backgrounds began oil. They also acquired enslaved Africans for export.
speaking Swahili, a Bantu language that included
Arabic and Persian words. The people of the East Great Zimbabwe
African coastal city-states also developed an Arabic The people of Karanga, a Bantu kingdom locat
form of writing that enabled them to record their ed on a high plateau between the Zambezi and
history. Limpopo Rivers, built nearly 300 stone-walled
East African rulers were either Arab governors fortresses throughout their territory between A.D.
East African Trading Cities

In the A.D. 700s Arab immigrants preserving its old town and traditions, the
arrived on East Africa's coast to set up a modern city of Mombasa ranks as one of
flourishing trade in gold, ivory, and tortoise Africa's busiest seaports and the second-
shells. Descendants of the Arab immigrants largest city in the nation of Kenya. It handles
and the local African inhabitants became most of the international shipping of Kenya
known as the Swahili (an Arabic word for as well as that of the neighboring, land
"people of the coast"). By the late A.D. 1100s, locked nations of Uganda, Rwanda, and
thriving Swahili port cities, such as Kilwa, Burundi, to which it is linked by rail. East
Malindi, and Mombasa, served as trading African agricultural products, such as coffee,
links between the gold and ivory producers tea, sisal (a plant fiber used for twine), cot
of East Africa's interior and traders from ton, sugar, and coconuts are exported from
Port of
India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and China. Cotton, Mombasa, as well as petroleum products
Mombasa, Kenya
porcelain, and pottery were the produced from the foreign oil refined at
major imports. By the 1500s Mombasa's refinery.
China's withdrawal from foreign
trade and the coming of Euro inking Past ACTIVITY
*, Present
pean rule to East Africa con
tributed to a serious decline in Compare and contrast
East Africa's international trade. Mombasa's trade in the A.D. 1200s
Today, the East African coast with that of the city today. What
has become an important link in factors have contributed to any
the global trading network. While changes?
Chapter 7 Flozvering of African Civilizations 195

Visualizing _ This view shows the circular stone ruins of the Great Zimbabwe
History with an exterior wall more than 800 feet in circumference.
What functions did this "stone house" serve?
1000 and A.D. 1500. The largest was called the Great other Bantu states grew wealthy from their control
Zimbabwe—meaning "stone house"—and served of the chief routes between the gold mines and the
as the political and religious center of the kingdom. sea. However, during the A.D. 1400s, Bantu states in
The oval stone wall of the Zimbabwe enclosure was Southern Africa struggled in civil wars that brought
30 feet (9.15 m) high. Within the wall was a maze of disorder to the kingdoms and disrupted trade.
interior walls and hidden passages that protected The Changamire Empire became stronger than
the circular house of the Zimbabwe chief. Near the the Monomotapa Empire. Changamire rulers took
house, archaeologists have uncovered a platform over Great Zimbabwe and built the fortress's
with several upright stones that may have been the largest structures. At the same time, European
place where the chief held court. explorers arrived along the African coasts. Eager to
control the sources of gold, ivory, and copper, the
Territorial Divisions Europeans threatened the survival of the African
For nearly five centuries, Karanga and the civilizations in the continent's interior.
SECTION 3 REVIEW
Re Africa prospered. familiar to you? What parts

1. Define monopoly, Critical Thinking might seem different?
multicultural. 4. Synthesizing Information Understanding Themes
2. Identify Kilwa, Malindi, Mom Imagine that you are an Arab 5. Innovation What new aspect
basa, Sofala, Zanzibar, Karanga, merchant visiting an East of cultural life developed in the
Great Zimbabwe. African coastal city-state in the city-states of East Africa as a
3. Explain why the Bantu king A.D. 1300s. What aspects of the result of African and Middle
doms of Central and Southern people's culture would be Eastern contacts?

Critical
sraEftS
Interpreting Point of View
' uppose you are interested in seeing a new
€€ Sulayman came close to matching his
.science fiction movie, but you are hearing brother's [Mansa Musa's] reputation for
mixed reviews from your friends. Opinions Islamic leadership and piety. Moreover,
range from "terrific" to "boring." People often he ruled Mali in prosperity and peace.
have different opinions about the same people, He was the sort of king from whom Ibn
events, or issues because they look at them from Battuta had come to expect an honor
different points of view. able and large-hearted reception. . . .
Later, when Ibn Battuta had returned to
Learning the Skill his house, one of the scholars called to
A point of view is a set of beliefs and values tell him that the sultan [Sulayman] had
that affects a person's opinion. Many factors affect sent along the requisite welcoming gift.
an individual's point of view, including age, sex,
racial or ethnic background, economic class, and T got up, thinking that it would be
religion. In order to determine the accuracy of a robes of honor and money, but behold!
It was three loaves of bread and a piece
description or the objectivity of an argument, first
you must identify the speaker's point of view. of beef fried in gharti [shea butter] and a
To interpret point of view in written material, gourd containing yoghurt. When I saw
read the material to identify the general subject. it I laughed, and was long astonished at
Then gather background information on that their feeble intellect and their respect for
author that might reveal his or her point of view. mean things.' J5
Identify aspects of the topic that the author
chooses to emphasize or exclude. Look for emo According to Dunn, Ibn Battuta found
tionally charged words such as cruel, vicious, Sulayman to be "a miserly king from whom no
heartrending, drastic. Also notice metaphors and great donation is to be expected," while Mansa
analogies that imply an opinion such as, "If this Musa had been "generous and virtuous."
budget can work, then pigs can fly."
If you are uncertain of an author's point of
view, read a selection on the same topic by anoth Applying the Skill
er author with a different backgrotmd. By com In a newspaper, find an editorial, column, or
a letter to the editor that expresses a point of view
paring works on the same subject, both points of
view may become clear. This may not always be that conflicts with
an easy task. your own. Write a cFlie (JtollMlblUt ■ •■. ■ DiO patch
brief paragraph JOHN F. WOLPE.
Intt, i. ;.■.'/
oh.f. PiaMiMnt «"iU CEO
CUI1TIN, Editor
Practicing the Skill analyzing the EDITORIALS

author's point of
Read the following excerpt from Ross E.
view and compare
Ballot issue
Workers' conip to steal thunder from schools
Dunn's book The Adventures of Ibn Battuta and then it to your point of
answer these questions. view. Explain why you agree or disagree with
1. What is the general subject of the excerpt?
the viewpoint of the author.
2. What do you know about Ibn Battuta that
might reveal his point of view? For More Practice
3. What emotionally charged words and phrases
indicate his point of view? Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
4. Which aspects of Islamic leadership are praised Review on page 199 for more practice in
and which are not? interpreting point of view.

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW

Historical Significance Through iron, and other minerals from South Asia, and East Asia into
out the early history of Africa, the land and then turned the contact with each other and
civilizations developed reli raw ores into trade items. encouraged the exchange of
gious beliefs, agriculture, and Others grew surplus crops to ideas and practices. This set the
trade networks in harmony sell at local markets. stage for the later development
with their environment. Some Trade networks brought of global trading links.
African peoples mined gold, Africa, Europe, the Middle East,
Using Key Terms

Write the key term that completes each sentence. Using Your History Journal
Then write a sentence for each term not chosen. On your map of Africa draw in the
modern states where each ancient kingdom
a. multicultural f. oral traditions that you identified was located. Use the
b. matrilineal g. monopoly map of Africa in the Atlas of your text.
c. plateau h. age sets
d. savanna i. monotheism
e. ghana j. mosque
1. Africa south of the Sahara includes a large cen
tral —a relatively high, flat area called the Reviewing the Facts
Sahel.
2. Early African peoples communicated knowl 1. Geography List the five major regions of Africa.
2. History Discuss how archaeologists and histori
edge about their culture through
ans have learned about early Africa.
—legends and history passed by word of mouth 3. Culture Identify the Nok people, their location,
from one generation to another.
3. Much of Africa's landscape is covered by , and their major cultural achievements.
or treeless grasslands. 4. Economics Explain Ghana's wealth.
4. The city-state of Kilwa had a near , or 5. History Summarize the major accomplishments
sole control, of the gold trade along the East of Mansa Musa in Mali.
African coast. 6. Culture Name the city that became a major
5. A society is said to be when center of trade and learning in Mali.
it has people of many different cultural back 7. Government Explain how Askia Muhammad
grounds. kept order and control over his huge empire.
8. Economics List the products traded in the
coastal city-states of East Africa.
Technology Activity 9. Culture State how the language of Swahili
• originated.
Using a Computerized Card 10. Geography Name the three areas of Africa that
Catalog Choose a modern-day
African country to research. prospered from the Indian Ocean trade.
11. Culture Identify Great Zimbabwe and discuss
Use a computerized card catalog to find infor
its importance to Karanga.
mation on that country from its early history to
the present. Then create a bulletin board about
that country, including an illustrated time line
of significant events of the country's history. Dis Critical Thinking
play current information about culture, nation 1. Apply How do climate and geography affect
al resources, demographics, and government.
the development of a civilization?

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
2. Evaluate The Bantu languages changed as Skill Practice

people moved into central, eastern, and south
ern regions of Africa. Why do you think this Read the following African proverbs carefully.
happened? Then answer the questions for each proverb.
3. Making Comparisons Compare the causes for • Familiarity breeds contempt; distance
the decline of each of the three West African breeds respect.
kingdoms. • When you follow in the path of your father,
4. Synthesize Discuss how family and social life you learn to walk like him.
in a typical Bantu-speaking village was 1. What is the general subject of each proverb?
organized around A.D. 1000. 2. Describe the point of view expressed in each
5. Analyze What two cultural proverb.
values does this artifact of a 3. Do you agree with the point of view? Make sure
West African horn player you are able to support your answer.
reveal?
Horn player, Geography in History

Benin 1. How does the continent of Africa compare
with the United States in land area?
2. Refer to the map below. Why has communica
tion and travel always been difficult between
the northwest African interior and northeast
Africa?
Understanding Themes 3. Why has Egypt had nearly continual contact
with peoples of Asia and Europe?
1. Movement How did population movements
affect the development of early Africa?
2. Cultural Diffusion What were major political Africa
and cultural developments in each of the
following early African territories: Nubia,
Axum, Songhai, Kilwa, and Karanga?
3. Innovation What two examples can you give
that illustrate how the peoples of coastal East
Africa and of the interior of Central Africa and
Southern Africa made creative use of their
resources?
-'inking Past
a Present
1. Gold helped make Ghana a powerful

empire. Name another natural resource that
has made African countries wealthy today.
2. Ancient peoples adapted to their environ ATLANTIC
ments in order to survive. Explain ways we OCEAN
adapt today.
3. How do strong central governments affect a
nation's economic and social structures?
What factors often lead to a weakening of
central governments?

Chapter
8 1500 B.C.-A.D. 500
India's Great
Civilization
Storyteller
The Mahabharata, an epic poem of ancient India, relates
an amazing event. A battle raged, but the prince Arjuna did not
want to fight. After all, among his foes were relatives. Arjuna
took his case to the god Krishna: "O Krishna, when I see my
Chapter Themes own people ... eager for battle, my limbs shudder, my mouth is
▶ Movement Aryans invade the
Indian subcontinent and bring new dry, my body shivers, and my hair stands on end.... I can see no
ideas and practices. Section 1 good in killing my own kinsmen/'
▶ Innovation Hinduism and Bud
dhism emerge and become the
Krishna answered, "As a [warrior], your duty is to fight a
dominant religions in much of Asia. righteous battle.... Arise, O Arjuna, and be determined to fight.
Section 2
▶ Cultural Diffusion Mauryan and Get ready for battle without thought of pleasure and pain, gain
Gupta rulers bring unity to north and loss, victory and defeat."
ern India and encourage cultural
achievements. Section 3
As a warrior, Arjuna understood Krishna's words. A war
rior must fight. It was his duty.
What were the achievements of India's early civiliza
tion? What religions emerged from early India that have
shaped the cultures of Asia and, in many ways, the rest of
the world?
1500 b.c 500 B.C, A.D.500
The Mauryan
rxmum m - r - f A - f r m E m p i r e c o l l a p s e s . E E fl O G u p t a
Aryans invade ffFHTffl Siddhartha Gautama dynasty begins,
India. Aryan priests introduces Buddhism.
prepare Rig-Veda.
200
Visualizing Hindus communicated their beliefs through poems, tales,
f fi s t o
songs, and art. This painting of Vishnu on a bird
honors one of the three main gods of Hinduism.

Using a recent edition of an almanac,
tnake a chart of the world's tnajor religions,
including the number of people who today
are adJjeretits of each religion.
Chapter 8 India's Great Civilization 201

Vedic Age begins. Rig-Veda records Religious thinkers
Aryan legends. compile the Upanishads.
Section 1
Origins of
Hindu India
/ ,y nto the Indus River valley raced horse-
Setting the Scene
^~-sf drawn chariots carrying tall, light-
▶ Terms to Define ^_S skinned warriors. These warriors, known
rajah, epic, varna, jati, dharma, reincarnation, as the Aryans, were an Indo-European group from
karma, ahimsa areas north of the Black and Caspian Seas. The inva
▶ People to Meet sion began around 1500 B.C. For several generations,
the Aryans waves of Aryans swept through passes in the moun
tains known as the Hindu Kush into the Indus
▶ Places to Locate River valley and from there into northern India.
Hindu Kush, Ganges Plain
fpEmSM I How did the cultures of the Aryans

and the peoples they conquered develop into the Aryans
culture of Hindu India? After conquering the people of the Indus River
valley, the Aryans moved southeast into the
Ganges Plain. There they subdued the local inhab
Storyteller itants and developed a new civilization that even
tually spread over much of South Asia. Aspects of
The bleeding warrior lay helpless with a bro this civilization endure today.
ken arm. Only proper words and medicines could
save him now. The priest, sprinkling him with Ways of Life
water and herbs chanted: "He who drinks you, The Aryans were loosely organized into tribes
medicine, lives. Save the man. You are mender of of nomadic herders. Each tribe was led by a rajah,
wounds inflicted by club, arrow, or flame. Mend or chief. Ancient Aryan legends and hymns
this man. O most beautiful one, go to the fracture." describe people who delighted in waging war,
Next would come the grass and termite mud mix gambling on chariot races, and singing and dancing
at festivals. Cattle were the basis of their diet and
ture to drink, then water in a cow's horn, and
pepper-corns to eat. The economy, even serving as money. Wealth was mea
sured in cattle, and so the Aryans raided each
zvarrior breathed quietly,
other's herds. They were often at war.
thankful that he had The fertile Indus Valley was ideal for farming,
found a healer who knew and the Aryans soon settled down into an agricul
the ritual. tural way of life. Dozens of Aryan words describe
—adapted from Religious cattle, indicating their continued prominence in
Healing in the Veda, Aryan life. Cattle provided meat, fresh milk, and
Kenneth Zysk, 1985 ghee, or liquid butter. The Aryans also hunted
game and butchered sheep and goats from their
herds. Later, their herds would be considered so
Hindu Kush sacred that a ban was placed on eating meat. The
202 Chapter 8 India's Great Civilization

Aryans also ate cucumbers, bananas, and barley and over they repeated the legends, striving for
cakes. complete accuracy.
Men dominated the Aryan world. Although a Eventually, the Aryans developed a written
woman had some say in choosing a husband, the form of Sanskrit. Priests collected the hymns,
man she married expected no challenge to his poems, legends, and religious rituals into holy
authority. Even so, women took part in religious cer books known as Vedas (VAY»duhz), or "Books of
emonies and social affairs, and they were allowed to Knowledge," which formed the basis of Aryan reli
remarry if they were widowed—freedoms they gious practices.
would lose in the centuries to come. Both girls and Indeed, the Vedas are extremely valuable
boys from families of high rank attended school, sources of knowledge, for without them historians
where they learned Aryan traditions. would know little about the Aryans. Unlike the
Indus River valley people, the Aryans left no arti
Language and Traditions facts or structures. Whatever we know of their life
As a nomadic people, the Aryans had no writ and culture we know from the Vedas. Indeed,
ten language. Sanskrit, their spoken language, Indian history from 1200 B.C. to 500 B.C. is known as
evolved slowly and became one of the major lan the Vedic Age. The oldest of the four Vedas, the Rig-
guages of India. As part of the great Indo-European Veda, dates from around 1000 B.C. It records legends
language family, Sanskrit has many of the same that tell us about Aryan life. The Rig-Veda is one of
root words as English, Spanish, French, and the world's oldest religious texts still in use.
German. It also includes many words from the lan
guages of the peoples living in India before the Social Structure
Aryan invasions. The Vedas reveal the complex social system of
The Aryan warrior-herders sang rousing ancient India. The invading Aryans brought a sys
hymns and recited epics, long poems celebrating tem of four main social classes, or varnas. At first
their heroes. For centuries these hymns and poems the warriors, called Kshatriyas (KSHA»tree«uhz),
were passed by word of mouth from generation to were the most honored varna. They were followed
generation. Families of warriors and priests were by the priests, or Brahmans; merchants, artisans,
responsible for preserving this oral heritage. Over and farmers, called Vaisyas (VYSH»yuhz); and
Early India's Social System
hllMH'.'.U'.H Priests
Study and teach the Vedas, perform religious ceremonies
to please Aryan deities and ensure welfare of people
Kshatriyas Warriors, rulers

Study the Vedas, lead government, and head army
jj Common people: merchants, artisans, farmers

Tend herds, care for land; make and sell useful products
hVT-17 A Unskilled laborers, servants

Serve other varnas Each group as a proportion
of the total population
Slaves
Perform tasks considered unclean
Va r n a s Group outside varnas
In early India, a person's duties were based on his or her varna, or social class.
Which varna was the most favored? Why? To which group did most Indians belong?
Study

unskilled laborers and servants, known as Sudras By 500 B.C. the division among the four varnas
(SHOOdruhz). had become more rigid. Varnas were divided into
Only priests and warrior families were allowed smaller groups known as jati. Jati were formed
to hear and recite the Vedas. Over the years, rituals according to occupations: shoemakers, potters,
grew more secret and complex, and priests replaced farmers, and so on. Priests were higher than culti
warriors as the most honored members of society. vators, and cultivators were higher than carpenters,
The priests alone knew how to make sacrifices for example. Jati had their own rules for diet, mar
properly and to repeat the appropriate hymns. The riage, and social customs. Groups lived in separate
social system changed to reflect the importance of neighborhoods and did not mix socially with
priests. others.
Each varna had its own duties and took pride in Centuries later, Europeans named the Indian
doing them well. The Brahmans performed the system of varnas and jati the caste system. The word
elaborate rituals and studied the Vedas; only they caste has no one definition, but how it worked is
could teach the Vedas. As warriors, Kshatriyas took clear. Within the system people were always
charge of the army and the government. They led ranked. They were born into a group, and that
the councils of elders who ran small villages. group could not be changed. People married with
Kshatriyas could study the Vedas but were not in their own group. Moreover, that group deter
allowed to teach them. Vaisyas had the important mined a great deal about people's everyday lives.
tasks of tending the cattle, lending money, trading Members of the group lived in the same neighbor
goods, and caring for the land. The Sudras' job was hoods and did not mix socially with those outside.
to serve the other varnas. They worked in the fields Outside the system of varnas and jati were a
and acted as servants. group later called the pariahs. They did work that
Images
of ^ Times
Hindu Beliefs
The three main gods of Hinduism are
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Brahma is
creator of the world, Vishnu is preserver,
and Siva is destroyer. These three are part of
the same universal spirit.
Meeting to read holy writings such as

the Mahabharata is a long-standing custom
among Hindus in India.
204
was considered unclean, such as skinning animals appropriate for his class. He then took a wife, and
and tanning their hides for leather. Sometimes assumed responsibility for a family. In old age, he
called "outcastes" or "untouchables," the pariahs retired. As he neared death, he withdrew from his
lived outside the villages and were shunned by friends and family to pray. A woman was educated
most other people. in household tasks. She married and served her
husband and family until he died or retired, at
Concept of Duty which time she was expected to retire from active
The Vedas outlined the dharma, or duties, of life and be taken care of by her sons and daughters-
the males who belonged to each varna. Members of in-law. This concept of duty affected every member
each varna were urged to do their duty. The epic of society.
poem called the Mahabharata (muh«HAH»BAH
• ruh»tuh) makes the concept clear. One eloquent India's Two Epics
section, called the Bhagavad Gita (BAH«guh»VAHD Two epics addressed the concepts of good and
GEE •tun), or "Song of the Lord," includes the story evil and became the spiritual forebears of India's
you read at the beginning of this chapter. Arjuna's main religions. The tale of Arjuna is a small part of
decision—to fight no matter what the personal the Mahabharata, which is 100,000 verses in length—
cost—illustrates the importance of dharma in as long as the first five books of the Bible. The epic—
Indian life. As a warrior, Arjuna had to do his duty, like the Bible—is a collection of writings by several
even if it meant fighting against family. authors. Some characters are historical, while others
The concept of dharma included doing what represent human ideals and various deities. Woven
was proper for one's age. For instance, a male into the story of two families' struggle for power are
student would follow an occupation that was discussions of religion and philosophy.
Much of India's fine art is

related to its religions.
Hindus built elaborate tem
ples, such as this Mehsana
Sun Temple (interior shown).
This sculpture of Ganesha, god of

good fortune and auspicious beginnings,
was done in the A.D. 1700s.
1. How did Hinduism contribute to the develop

ment of fine art in India?
2. What epic describes the concept of duty that
affects every member of Hindu society?
One passage tells of how the need for a king elaborate rituals and offered sacrifices to appease
arose when dharma no longer guided people in the gods and win their favor.
Over the centuries, as political and social orga
everyday life:
nizations evolved, the Aryan religion slowly
CC Bhishma said: ... Neither kingship nor changed into Hinduism and became the national
king was there in the beginning, neither religion of India.
scepter nor the bearer of the scepter. All
Universal Spirit
people protected one another by means of
Hinduism was not founded on the teachings of
righteous conduct (dharma). Thus, while
one person, nor did it have one holy book. Instead
protecting one another by means of right
eous conduct, O Bharata, men eventually it was based on different beliefs and practices,
fell into a state of spiritual lassitude many of which had their roots in the Vedas and the
[weariness]. Then delusion overcame Indian epics. As a result, Hinduism became a com
them ... their sense of righteous conduct plex religion of many deities. Three gods, however,
was lost. When understanding was lost, eventually emerged as the most important:
all men ... became victims of greed. JJ Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and
Siva, the Destroyer.
Later, the God Vishnu chooses "... that one per Other ideas that became part of Hinduism
son among mortals who alone is worthy of high came from religious thinkers who looked for a sin
eminence." A man named Virajas is brought forth, gle religious truth behind the many Hindu deities
and he becomes the first king. and rituals. Between 800 B.C. and 400 B.C., their per
A second epic, the well-loved Ramayana, grew sonal searches and philosophies were reflected in
to 24,000 verses before it was written down. It pre the religious writings known as the Upanishads
sents the moving tale of Rama and Sita (SEE»ruh). (oo»PAH»nih«SHAHDZ).
Rama was the ideal king; Sita, his faithful wife. The Upanishads tell of a universal spirit present
within all life, "a light that shines beyond all things
Vividly describing the struggle between good and
evil, the Ramayana tells how the demon Ravana on earth." According to these writings, all living
captures Sita. When Rama finds that she is missing, things—including gods, humans, and animals—
he cries: have souls. All souls, say the Upanishads, are part of
the one eternal spirit, sometimes called Brahman
££ Sita! Gentle Sita! If you have Nerguna. Their bodies tie them to the material
wanted to prove my love, if you are hid world, but only for a short time. To know true free
ing from us, let the agony of my fear suf dom, a soul must be separated from the material
fice. Come to me, my love, come to me!" world and united with Brahman Nerguna: "As a
He stood there, both his arms held lump of salt thrown in water dissolves, and cannot
wide, as though half hoping she might be taken out again as salt, though wherever we
run forward to his embrace. The country taste the water it is salt."
The authors of the Upanishads taught that forms
lay very still around him. Only the old
tree shivered in every leafy spray and of self-denial such as fasting helped people achieve
seemed to wring its hands for pity. union with the universal spirit. They encouraged
the practice of yoga, a discipline that combines
Slowly that gleam of hope quite faded,
and his arms fell to his sides. J5 physical and mental exercises designed to help one
achieve a state of tranquility.
Rama at first doubts Sita; but later she is saved,
and they reunite. Like other Indian epics, the Cycle of Rebirth
Another idea that came from the Upanishads
Ramayana ends with good winning over evil.
was that of reincarnation, or the rebirth of the soul.
Hindus believe the soul passes through many life
times before it finally achieves union with the uni
Hinduism versal spirit. The Upanishads offer this picture of
The Aryan conquerors believed in many deities rebirth:
and thought their gods and goddesses had power
over the forces of nature. They worshiped Agni, the CC As a caterpillar, having reached the end of
god of fire; Indra, the god of thunder and war; and a blade of grass, takes hold of another
Usha, the goddess of dawn. Aryan priests created blade, then draws its body from the first,

so the Self, having reached the end of his
body, takes hold of another body, then
draws itself from the first. J^
The cycle of rebirth is determined by a principle

called karma. According to this principle, how a
person lives his or her life determines what form
the person will take in the next life. To move
toward the universal spirit, one must live a good
life and fulfill one's dharma. For example, a consci
entious diplomat, a Kshatriya, might be reborn as a
Brahman. The souls of those who fail to fulfill their
dharma, however, might be reborn in a lower
varna, or perhaps even as snakes or insects.
The concept of karma creates the desire to live
a good life, for "By good deeds a man becomes
what is good, by evil deeds what is bad." Out of
that desire arose the practice of nonviolence toward
all living things—still important to Hindus today.
Called ahimsa (uh«HIHM«SAH), this practice
requires the believer to protect humans, animals,
and even insects and plants.
The cycle of reincarnation continues until a
person reaches spiritual perfection. The ultimate
aim of life is moksha, or release from the pain and
suffering of rebirth after rebirth. In moksha a person
finds freedom from reincarnation in a state of com
plete oneness with Brahman Nerguna. Hindus
teach that a life committed to prayer, religious ritu
als, strict self-denial, and rejection of all worldly
possessions will help a person to achieve the final
goal of moksha. History, Siva, ringed by a circle of flames, dances
[&Art on the back of the dwarf Apasmara. Why
Jainism do Hindus regard animals as sacred?
As Hinduism evolved, many holy people
stressed different aspects of Hindu belief and prac
tice. The teacher Mahavira (muh»hah»VEE«ruh)
placed a special emphasis on the practice of ahimsa. the sacredness of all life, the Jains, as Mahavira's
Born a noble in northern India, Mahavira gave up followers were called, used brooms to sweep aside
his wealthy lifestyle and traveled for many years insects so they would not step on them. They
throughout the country. About 500 B.C. Mahavira refused to farm for fear of plowing under living
founded Jainism, a new religion that rejected sacri things. Instead, they turned to commerce and
fices and rigid Hindu social divisions. Believing in gained great wealth and influence.
SECTION I REVIEW
Recall Upanishads. dharma by telling the story of

1. Define rajah, epic, varna, jati, 3. Explain how geography affect the warrior-prince Arjuna.
dharma, reincarnation, karma, ed the life of the Aryan groups Understanding Themes
ahimsa. that invaded India. 5. Movement How did the
2. Identify the Aryans, Sanskrit, Critical Thinking Aryan invasion beginning about
Vedas, Mahabharata, Bhagavad 4. Applying Information Illus 1500 B.C. affect the develop
Gita, Ramayana, Hinduism, trate the Hindu concept of ment of Indian culture?

IEEEEU Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama begins
(the Buddha) dies.
Gautama is born. spiritual search.
Section 2
Rise of
Buddhism
Setting the Scene fr) ^Turing the 500s B.C., changes occurred in
v_^yy Indian religious life. Many devout
▶ Terms to Define <^£s Hindus became dissatisfied with exter
nirvana, stupa nal rituals and wanted a more spiritual faith. They
▶ People to Meet left the towns and villages and looked for solitude
Siddhartha Gautama in the hills and forests. Through meditation, many
of these religious seekers developed new insights
and became religious teachers. Their ideas and
Why did Buddhism appeal to many practices often led to the rise of new religions. The
most influential of the new religions was
people in India, Southeast Asia, and East Asia? Buddhism.
Storyteller The Buddha

Siddhartha stood still, as if a snake lay in his
Siddhartha Gautama (sih-DAHR-tuh GOW
path. Suddenly the icy thought stole over him: he •tuh»muh), the founder of Buddhism, began his life
must begin his life completely afresh. "I am no as a Kshatriya prince. Born around 566 B.C.,
longer what I was, ...I am no longer a hermit, no Gautama was raised in luxury. As a young man he
longer a priest, no longer a Brahmin. How can I continued to live a sheltered life, shielded from
return home? What would I do at home with my sickness and poverty. Tradition states that one day
father? Study? Offer sacrifices? Practice medita Gautama's charioteer drove him around his estates,
tion? All this is over for me now." He and for the first time Gautama saw sickness, old
realized how alone he was. Now age, and death. Shocked at these scenes of misery,
he was Siddhartha, the awak Gautama decided to find out why people suffered
ened. He must begin his life and how suffering could be ended. Around the age
afresh. He began to walk of 29, he left his wife and newborn son and wan
dered throughout India.
quickly, no longer home
wards, no longer looking For seven years Gautama lived as a hermit,
back. seeking the truth through fasting and self-denial.
This did not lead him to the truth, however. One
—from Siddhartha, day, while meditating under a tree, Gautama
Herman Hesse, translat
gained a flash of insight that he felt gave him an
ed by Hilda Rosner, answer to the problem of suffering. He began to
1957 share with others the meaning of his "enlighten
ment." Dressed in a yellow robe, he preached his
message to people and began to gather followers.
Gautama, the His closest friends began calling him the Buddha,
Buddha or "Enlightened One."

NATIONAL
The Buddha's First Sermon

The Buddha began India's second religion, after
a village in northern India, the Buddha is said the far older Hindu religion had become entrenched.
to have delivered his first sermon. Once a He lived in a unique moment of history. The 500s
smallstupa,
From this village,orIsipatana
domed isshrine,
now Sarnath, a sub
in Isipatana, B.C. gave birth not only to Buddhism in India but
urb of the city of Varanasi. Here, Buddhists believe, also to Confucianism in China and to new rational
in the 500s B.C. the Buddha delivered his first ser ist philosophies in Greece. Buddhism became one of
mon to five followers. A large monastery, which the world's major religions and the Buddha one of the
once housed 1,500 monks, was founded on this most notable spiritual leaders in the history of the
sacred spot. Today the shrine stands empty. world. ®

Four Noble Truths
The Buddha developed a new religious philos
i= POINT
ophy. He outlined his main ideas in the Four Noble
Truths. First, as he had discovered, all people suffer
and know sorrow. Next, said the Buddha, people Spread of Buddhism
suffer because their desires bind them to the cycle The Buddha spent 40 years teaching the Four
of rebirth. He told his followers: Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. He gathered
thousands of disciples around him. After their mas
CC The thirst for existence leads from rebirth ter's death, traveling monks carried the new reli
to rebirth; lust and pleasure follow. Power gion beyond India to other parts of Asia, especially
alone can satisfy lust. The thirst for to China, Japan, Korea, and the Middle East.
power, the thirst for pleasure, the thirst for
existence; there, O monks, is the origin of Architecture and the Arts
suffering. J J The rise of Buddhism led to a flowering of
architecture and the arts. Buddhist architects built
The third truth, said the Buddha, was that peo stupas, or large stone mounds, over the bones of
ple could end their suffering by eliminating their Buddhist holy people. Stupas were known for their
desires. And according to the fourth truth, one could elaborately carved stone gateways. Paintings and
eliminate desire by following the Eightfold Path. statues of the Buddha, carved of polished stone or
wood covered with gilt, adorned stupas and cave
The Eightfold Path temples. Exquisite smaller statues were made from
The Buddha urged his disciples to do eight fine porcelain. Books about the Buddha's life and
things: know the truth, resist evil, say nothing to teachings were often beautifully illustrated.
hurt others, respect life, work for the good of oth
ers, free their minds of evil, control their thoughts, Divisions
and practice meditation. By avoiding extremes and As Buddhism spread, disagreements devel
following the Eightfold Path, a person could attain oped among the Buddha's followers. Two distinct
nirvana, a state of freedom from the cycle of rebirth. branches of Buddhism soon arose. One branch,
Nirvana is not a place, like heaven, but a state of known as Theravada, was established in South Asia
extinction. In fact, the root meaning of the word and Southeast Asia. It remained fairly close in prac
nirvana is a "blowing out," as of a candle. In nir tice to the original teachings of the Buddha, regard
vana, a person would be in a state of oneness with ing him as simply a teacher.
the universe. The other branch of Buddhism was known as
The Buddha rejected the varna system. He Mahayana. It became dominant in China, Korea,
taught that a person's place in life depended on the and Japan. Mahayana encouraged the worship of
person, not on the person's birth. He taught that the Buddha as a divine being and savior.
anyone, regardless of caste, could attain enlighten Today, only a few Indians are Buddhists. Most
ment. He did not believe in the Hindu deities. He are Hindus. Muslims, Jains, Christians, and others
believed in reincarnation but taught that one could make up the rest of the population. Recently, how
escape the cycle of suffering and reach nirvana by ever, Buddhism has gained new followers in India,
following the Eightfold Path. as well as in the West. ^^_
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Re Malaysia, Indonesia. How did and practices the Buddha

1. Define nirvana, stupa. monks and merchants help to accepted and which he rejected
2. Identify Siddhartha Gautama, assure the survival of Buddhism in his teaching.
Four Noble Truths. as a worldwide religion? Understanding Themes
3. Locate on a map in the Atlas Critical Thinking 5. Innovation Decide how your
the Asian countries to which 4. Synthesizing Information own life and goals would be
monks and merchants carried Compare the religions of different if you tried to live by
the teachings of the Buddha: Hinduism and Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths and the
China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, explaining which Hindu beliefs Eightfold Path.

gTJEJ Chandragupta Maurya lEBS^B Asoka sends Buddhist
founds Mauryan dynasty. missionaries throughout Asia. Chandragupta II
unites northern India.
Section 3
Indian Empires
Setting the Scene espite the high mountain barriers in the
▶ Terms to Define north, India has never been completely
"Arabic numerals" cut off from other lands. The Aryans
marched through the mountain passes to invade
▶ People to Meet the Indus River valley; later, others followed. In the
Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka, Chandragupta I, 500s B.C., Persian ruler Darius I conquered lands in
Chandragupta II the Indus River valley. Alexander the Great invad
▶ Places to Locate ed the same area in 327 B.C., and Indian merchants
carried on a busy trade with the Roman Empire. In
Magadha
all that time, however, no Indian king or foreign
ind Out What were the cultural achieve conqueror had ever succeeded in uniting the sepa
rate kingdoms into one Indian nation.
ments of the Mauryan and Gupta Empires?
At the time of Darius's invasion, one Indian
kingdom, Magadha, was expanding in the north.
King Bimbisara, who ruled Magadha from 542 B.C.
Storyteller to 495 B.C., added to its territory by conquest and
It troubled King Asoka that criminals contin marriage. Although Magadha declined after
Bimbisara's death, it was to become the center of
ued their wrongdoing within his empire. Therefore India's first empire.
he was proud of his latest merciful decree, carved
on stone monuments: "Thus speaks the Beloved of
the Gods.... This is my instruction from now on:
Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are
The Mauryan Empire
to be given three days At the time of Alexander's invasion, Magadha
respite. Thus their relations was only one of many small warring states
trelativesl may plead for in northern India. Then, in 321 B.C., a military
their lives, or, if there is no officer named Chandragupta Maurya (CHUHN
one to plead for them, they •druh»GUP»tuh MAH»oor»yuh) overthrew the
may make their donations or Magadhan king and proclaimed himself ruler.
undertake a fast for a better Chandragupta Maurya was a skilled adminis
rebirth in the next life. For it trator whose achievements included the develop
is my wish that they should ment of an efficient postal system. He kept control
of his empire by maintaining a strong army and by
gain the next world."
using an extensive spy network. He founded a
—from Asoka and the Decline Mauryan kingdom that included most of northern
of the Maunjas, Romila Thapar, and central India and lasted until 184 B.C.
1961
Asoka's Enlightened Rule
Indian civilization blossomed during the reign
of Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka (uh«SHOH
Lion-headed capital atop a • kuh). Asoka's rule began in 274 B.C. with fierce
Rock Edict pillar of Asoka wars of conquest. His merciless armies swept

today as the Rock Edicts, were carved on rocks and
on tall stone pillars throughout the vast empire.
Asoka's public projects reflected the same care
for people. He provided free hospitals and veteri
nary clinics. He built fine roads, with rest houses
and shade trees for the travelers' comfort.
Although he promoted Buddhism, Asoka per
mitted his non-Buddhist subjects to continue to
practice Hinduism if they wished. The Hindu caste
system continued.
Collapse of Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire declined after Asoka's
death in 232 B.C. because his successors were not as
enlightened as he was. They levied heavy taxes on
the goods sold by merchants and seized large por
tions of the crops grown by peasants. Such harsh
policies caused the people to turn against the
Mauryas. When the last Mauryan ruler was mur
dered in 184 B.C., northern India again split into
many small warring kingdoms.
I Routes of Aryan
invaders, 1200 B.c
I Mauryan Empire, 250 B.C.
The Gupta Empire
INDIAN OCEAN
Gupta Empire, a.d. 400 After the Mauryan Empire, 500 years passed
before much of India was again united. About A.D.
Under Mauryan rule, India's borders 310, Chandragupta I began to build an empire. He
. expanded to include new territory; was not related to Chandragupta Maurya, but like
* however, under Gupta rule India's that earlier ruler he made Magadha the base of his
unity was weakened. kingdom.
1. Movement By what route did the Aryans Chandragupta I introduced the Gupta dynasty,
invade India? Where did they come from? which ruled northern India for more than 200 years.
2. Place On what river was Pataliputra located? The arts and sciences flourished, and the Gupta
period would later be called India's Golden Age.
The Guptas governed a much smaller empire
than the Mauryas. They never gained control of the
across the plains and into the forests and cities, Indus Valley or of the Deccan, the broad plateau
hunting down and killing their enemies. He built that forms most of India's southern peninsula. The
an empire that covered two-thirds of the Indian Guptas did manage to build a strong state, however,
subcontinent. and worked to maintain unquestioned authority.
After one particularly brutal battle, Asoka rode They trained soldiers and used spies and political
out to view the battlefield. The experience changed assassins. In short, they did whatever they felt had
his life. As he looked on the bloodied bodies of the to be done to maintain power.
dead and maimed, the Indian ruler was horrified.
Determined never again to rule by force and terror, Gupta Religion
Asoka renounced war. Henceforth, he announced, The Gupta rulers encouraged learning based
he would follow the teachings of the Buddha and on the ideas found in the Upanishads. They made
become a man of peace. Asoka kept his word. Hinduism the religion of their empire. Hindu
During his reign, missionaries spread Buddhism temples were built—elaborate structures with
throughout India and other parts of Asia. brightly painted sculptures depicting tales in the
Asoka issued laws stressing concern for other Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Although each tem
human beings. To make sure these laws became ple had its presiding god or goddess, the Hindus
widely known, Asoka wrote them in the local lan viewed the many deities as different ways of wor
guages rather than in Sanskrit. The laws, known shiping Brahman Nerguna, the eternal spirit.

different instruments, including drums,
flutes, and a stringed instrument known as
a sitar. Their performances often go on for
several hours at a time.
Indian Music Probably the best-known modern
Indian musician is Ravi Shankar, often
Like the other arts of India, Indian called India's "sitar king" and the "godfa
music has a long and rich history. It began ther of world music." Shankar, almost as
in Hindu temples well known in the West as in India, has
and the courts of brought an appreciation of Indian music to
Indian rulers Western audiences. He has worked with
centuries ago. George Harrison of the Beatles and other
Traditionally, musicians, such as violinist Yehudi
Indian musicians Menuhin, flutist Jean-Pierre Rampal, and
play instruments composer Philip Glass.
and sing without
using chords or
other harmonies.
A group of musi inking Past
■i«/Present ACTIVITY
cians starts out
with a basic Discuss the origins of Indian
music and its major characteristics.
melody called a
Ravi Shankar What contribution has Ravi Shankar
raga, which each player then develops with
his or her own spontaneous arrangements. made to world music?
The musicians perform on a number of
Gupta Life to drama to politics. The Sanskrit of the Gupta court

The Gupta Empire reached its height under became the major language in the north.
Chandragupta II, who ruled from A.D. 375 to A.D. In one respect, though, daily life did not
415. Faxian (FAH»SYEN), a Buddhist monk from improve during the Gupta period. The status of
China, traveled to India and recorded in his diary: Indian women had declined since Aryan times.
Aryan women at first often had a say about whom
CC In the Gupta Empire, people are numer they would marry. By Gupta times, parents were
ous and happy; only those who cultivate choosing mates for their children, and child mar
the royal land have to pay [in] grain.... If riages were common. Women and mothers were
they want to go, they go; if they want to
stay, they stay. The king governs without
decapitation [cutting off heads] or corpo
Highway Rest Stops
ral [bodily] punishment.... The leaders of Footnotes
to History Asoka's highway rest stops
Vaisya families have houses in the cities
for dispensing charity and medicine. 55 were marked by stone pil
lars engraved with Buddhist teachings. On one of
Faxian may have exaggerated the benefits of these pillars, Asoka explained:
Gupta rule, but he provided a useful glimpse into / have ordered banyan trees to be planted along
Indian life. By easing tax burdens, Chandragupta II the roads to give shade to men and animals. I
gave people more freedom. Of all the Gupta mon- have ordered mango groves to be planted. I have
archs, he was the most chivalrous and heroic.
ordered wells to be dug every [half-milej, and I
Though he expanded the empire, he is remembered
for more than conquest. Gupta rulers believed they have ordered rest houses built.
had reached a high level of civilization. They began —The Edicts of Asoka
to write down rules for everything, from grammar

advances in developing the
principles of algebra. They
also explained the concept of
infinity and invented the
concept of zero. The symbols
they devised for the numbers 1
to 9 were adopted by traders
from the Middle East and so
came to be called "Arabic
numerals" in the West.
Gupta astronomers used
these mathematical discoveries
to advance their understand
ing of the universe. They real
ized that the earth is round,
and they had some knowledge
of gravity. In medicine, Gupta
doctors set bones, performed
operations, and invented hun
Visualizing Buddhist monks carved this 24-foot-long reclining dreds of medical instruments.
Histo Buddha on the wall of the Chai-tya-griha cave in the
Many countries benefited
first century B.C. What do the Ajanta carvings reveal about life in Gupta India? from Gupta achievements, as
both ideas and products trav
eled the land and sea trade
routes that connected India to
highly respected, but they had little power or the rest of the world. Indian exporters traded such
independence. items as gems, spices, cotton, teak, and ebony for
horses from Arabia and central Asia, silk from
Gupta Achievements China, and gold from Rome.
Learning flourished under the Guptas. The
court welcomed poets, playwrights, philosophers, The Golden Age Ends
and scientists. Much of the writing was concentrat After Chandragupta II's death in A.D. 415, the
ed on religion, but folktales were also popular. A Gupta Empire began to fail. As the government
collection of tales called the Panchatantra presented weakened, the Guptas faced invasions along
moral lessons through animals who acted like India's northwestern border. By A.D. 600, the Gupta
humans. Many of these stories eventually spread to Empire had dissolved into a collection of small
the Middle East and the West, where they were states.
retold by other authors. Drama was also important However, much of the culture that was unique
during Gupta times. Kalidasa, the most famous ly Indian survived. Many aspects of India's life
playwright, wrote Shakuntala, a play about roman today grew out of the social structures and
tic love between a king and a forest maiden. religions, the arts and sciences, that were born
Gupta mathematicians contributed significant during the 2,000 years that followed the Aryan
ly to mathematics as it is today, making major invasions.
™ ■ SECTION 3 REVIEW *
Recall and find the Mauryan Empire have an effect on the religious
1. Define "Arabic numerals." and the Gupta Empire. Compare life of the Indian people?
2. Identify Chandragupta and contrast their sizes and Understanding Themes
Maurya, Asoka, Chandragupta I, features. 5. Cultural Diffusion What
Chandragupta II, Panchatantra, Critical Thinking aspects of early Indian empires
Shakuntala. 4. Analyzing Information How have had a lasting impact on
3. Locate the map on page 212, did the rulers of India's empires India and the rest of the world?

Critical Thinking
SC3E&S
Determining Cause and Effect
based on this philosophy. He also built hospitals
to figure out which events or actions and roads and worked to improve conditions for
As you caused
read a themystery
main character
novel, you
to actmay
in try his people. These were direct and indirect effects
specific ways. Understanding history is a similar of Asoka's change of direction.
process. We try to find reasons behind people's Certain words and phrases often indicate
actions. Looking for cause-effect relationships cause-effect relationships; these include because,
unlocks the mystery of history. due to, therefore, as a result of, led to, and brought
about. It can be hard to determine causes and
effects of historical events. Facts may be missing.
Learning the Skill Moreover, we can't test our ideas as we can in sci
To identify cause-effect relationships in histo ence experiments. Instead, we must rely on logic
ry, first select an event. Then examine the situa and common sense.
tion before this event. How was it different? Look
for related problems and actions. These are likely
causes of the event. Suppose you select the fol Practicing the Skill
lowing event: Asoka's renunciation of war. What Read the paragraph below. Then answer the
events preceded Asoka's decision? In earlier questions that follow.
years, Asoka had led many brutal wars of con
quest. Eventually, he was horrified by the bloody ££ Cattle were the basis of the Aryan diet
results of war. This combination of underlying and economy, even serving as money.
and specific events caused him to renounce war Wealth was measured in cattle, and so
altogether. the Aryans raided each other's herds.
Now examine what happened after Asoka They were often at war.... Dozens of
renounced war. He became a Buddhist, promoted Aryan words describe cattle, indicating
Buddhist ideas of compassion, and passed laws their continued prominence in Aryan
life. Later, their herds would be consid
ered so sacred that a ban was placed on
eating meat. 55
1. What were causes of conflict among Aryans?

2. How did the importance of cattle affect the
culture and language of Aryans?
Applying the Skill

Buddha with halo, Reread Section 2, "Rise of Buddhism." Then
Gupta period describe causes of Buddhism's rise in India and
its effects on India and other parts of the world.
For More Practice

Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
Review on page 217 for more practice in deter
mining cause and effect.

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW

Historical Significance The civi also its way of life. Buddhism for peace and human rights. Over
lization that developed in India rejected many Hindu social prac the centuries, the two religions
between 1500 B.C. and A.D. 500 tices and affirmed a disciplined have inspired magnificent achiev
produced two of the world's life to achieve peace and deliv ements in architecture and the arts.
great religions: Hinduism and erance from suffering. The belief Especially since the A.D. 1800s,
Buddhism. Hinduism became in nonviolence has influenced Hindu and Buddhist ideas and art
not only India's major faith but modern leaders in their struggle forms have influenced the West.
Using Key Terms

Refer to a world almanac to deter
mine how many Buddhists and how many
a. ahimsa f. nirvana
Hindus live in each region of the world
b. dharma g. rajah
c. epics h. reincarnation
today. Build a graph or create a world
d. jati i. stupas tnap that illustrates this information.
e. karma j. varnas £Jk
1. The invading Aryans brought to the Indian sub

continent a system of four main social classes, or
Reviewing Facts
2. Hindus believe in , a process of rebirth in 1. History Identify Chandragupta Maurya and his
which the soul resides in many bodies before it role in developing early Indian civilization.
finally unites with Brahman Nerguna, or the 2. Culture Explain in your own words the Four
universal spirit. Noble Truths of Buddhism.
3. A person's determines whether he or she 3. Culture Define ahimsa and describe how it is
will be closer to the universal spirit in the next practiced in Indian society.
life. 4. Culture Identify the Bhagavad Gita.
4. For purposes of prayer, Buddhist architects built 5. Culture Discuss the concept of dharma and how
large elaborate over the remains of holy it affected Indian family life. What were the
people. duties of husbands? Of wives?
5. Each varna was made up of social groups called 6. Science List some of the achievements of Indian
that were defined and ranked by differ mathematicians during the Gupta Empire.
ent occupations. 7. History Describe the achievements of Asoka's
reign and their impact on Indian society.
Technology Activity
Using a Word Processor Search Critical Thinking
the Internet or your local
library to locate information 1. Apply How could a person use the principle
about the following religions of India: of nonviolence, or ahimsa, as a force for social
Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, change?
Christianity, and Islam. Use a word processor to 2. Making Comparisons In what ways are
organize your research into a fact sheet. Include Buddhism and Christianity different? In what
headings such as religion, number of followers, ways are they similar?
basic beliefs, and major figures. Illustrate your 3. Synthesize What might have happened if
chart with symbols of the different regions. Asoka had not been horrified while viewing the
carnage after a fierce battle?

4. Analyze Here, two Brahman cattle stand in a
street of Mumbai, India. Why do Hindus Geography in History
abstain from eating meat? 1. Location What mountain range forms India's
northern border?
2. Movement What routes did the Aryan
invaders take to the interior of India?
3. Region What effect did the invasion of the
Aryans have on the developing culture of India?
4. Human/Environment Interaction What physi
cal features made it difficult for one empire to
unify all of northern and southern India?
Modern India
^S^rO
fg$4[SH
AFGHANrSJ^
CHINA
RAMS
/thar
DESERT
Understanding Themes RANGE

^BAlfeLABfesH
vitî
1. Movement How was India affected by the INDIA , 1 ^-—™-j Bay \s ,
Aryan invasions?
2. Innovation What might make Buddhism attrac y/ Be°
n gf a l \]
tive to people from different cultures? E, DECG4N ,/\
3. Cultural Diffusion Why did Gupta achieve \ $ P L AT E A U X X r

\z (s(
ments in science and the arts spread quickly
to other parts of the world, both Eastern and
Arabian
Sea Vai 1
Western?
SRI
.LANKA
Present
1. The varna system created a huge underclass

that Europeans called "the untouchables." Skill Practice
How do you think this system created prob
lems for modern India? Reread the discussion of "The Gupta Empire" in Sec
2. Religion has always had a major part in tion 3. Then answer the following questions.
Indian society. How have religious differ
ences hindered Indian unity in modern 1. What caused the Gupta rulers to use spies and
times? assassins?
3. Early in the 1900s, India applied the Hindu 2. The Guptas adopted Hinduism as India's reli
principle of nonviolence to help win its gion. What effects did this have on art and
independence from Great Britain. Do you architecture?
think people can still use nonviolence effec 3. What were the effects of Gupta science and
tively to win freedom and human rights? mathematics on world civilization?
a -_—, , , 4. What caused the breakup of the Gupta Empire?

Chapter
9 1100 B.C-A.D. 200
China's Flourishing
Civilization
Storyteller
Whom do you agree with in the following conversation,
dating from the 500s B.C.? What is right, or "straightness," in
this case?
The Governor of She said to Confucius: "In our village
Chapter Themes there is a man nicknamed Straight Body. When his father stole a
▶ Uniformity The Qin and Han
dynasties establish and maintain a sheep, he gave evidence against him." Confucius answered, "In
strong central government. our village those who are straight are quite different. Fathers
Section 1
▶ Innovation The Chinese formulate cover up for their sons, and sons cover up for their fathers...."
ethical philosophies and make This conversation involves a conflict between law and
scientific and technological
advances. Section 2 family. Confucius's view—that family should always take prece
▶ Cultural Diffusion Traders carry dence—reflects an attitude toward families that was dominant
ideas and products along the Silk
Road. Section 3 in Chinese culture for a long time.
How did the ideas of Confucius and other Chinese
thinkers affect behavior in Chinese society for centuries?
How have their ideas influenced China's development and
its relationship with other parts of the world?
600 B.C AJ5.300
irerra
Confucius Han dynasty falls.
is bom. 1K1M Explorer
Zhang Qian returns
Liu Bang founds from the West.
the Han dynasty.
218
Visualizing . The Great Wall of China at Huang Ya Guan, a view of a section of
History the 4,000-mile-long wall

Chinese inventions and discoveries
include many "firsts" such as printed
books, the compass, and gunpowder.
Choose one Chinese invention or discov
ery reported in this chapter and write a
short research report on its early history.
Chapter 9 China's Flourishing Civilization 219

political power Qjn shih ^ Wudi becomes the
begmstodeclme. foundstheQin sixth Han emperor.
dynasty.
Section 1
Three Great
Dynasties
Setting the Scene round 1100 B.C., the Chinese people
were fashioning ideas that would
▶ Terms to Define
cavalry, civil service, mandarin
kJ & result in a unique civilization. From
then until the A.D. 200s, the Chinese lived under
▶ People to Meet three dynasties, or ruling families—the Zhou
Qin Shihuangdi, Liu Bang, Wudi, Zhang Qian (JOH), the Qin (CHIN), and the Han (HAHN). The
first of these, the Zhou, ruled the nation for more
than 800 years, longer than any other Chinese
Great Wall of China, Silk Road
dynasty.
ind Out What major advances did China
make under the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties?
The Enduring Zhou
The Zhou conquered the last Shang dynasty
Storyteller king around 1028 B.C., claiming the Mandate of
Heaven, or heaven's approval. They called their
Seeing the Marquis Chao of Han asleep on king the Son of Heaven, saying that the Shang had
the cold floor, the keeper of the royal hat covered lost the mandate by ruling poorly.
him with a robe. Upon awakening, the marquis Eventually, the Zhou held a vast realm. To con
demanded to know who had covered him. trol their holdings, Zhou kings set up an agricultur
Learning the keeper of the hat was responsible, the al system in which nobles owned the land and
marquis punished the keeper of the robe for failing peasants worked it. They appointed their relatives
to perform his duty. Then he to govern, giving each one a city-state.
Each local lord had total authority on his own
punished the keeper of the hat for
lands and built his own army. At first all the lords
undertaking tasks not his to per
form. The trespass of one official pledged allegiance to the Son of Heaven. In time,
upon the duties of another was though, some grew strong enough to challenge the
considered a great danger. king's authority.
In 771 B.C. the Zhou suffered a severe defeat in
—adapted from Basic Writing of a conflict with their enemies. After that, political
Mo Tzu, Hsiin Tzu, and Han Fei power fell increasingly to local nobles. In the next
Tzu, reprinted in The Global centuries, the nobles fought small wars until by the
Experience: Readings in World 200s B.C., several city-states were locked in a strug
History to 1500,1987 gle that ended the Zhou era.
Even though Zhou rulers lost their power, the
Zhou are remembered for many technological
advances. During the Zhou period the Chinese
built roads and expanded foreign trade. They
obtained horses from western nomads, forrning a
220 Chapter 9 China's Flourishing Civilization

Early Chinese Dynasties
11 0 ° E 120°E 11 0 ° E 120°E
-ION -40°N
Anyang .<' n
WEI ' / {
VALLEY *Luoyang \ w-|-e
_J s
-- -30-N-
ZHOU DYNASTY
1028-256
-20°N
Claiming the Mandate of Heaven, the Zhou conquered the Shang dynasty,
_ establishing a powerful rule that lasted for nearly 800 years.
' Region Which dynasty extended its control over the largest amount of territory?
Why was it able to expand so far?
cavalry, or group of mounted warriors, along with prevented local lords from becoming strong
horse-drawn chariots. The Zhou also added a dead enough to challenge the power of the central gov
ly weapon: the crossbow. They further elaborated ernment—the problem that had led to the downfall
the system of picture writing begun by the Shang, a of the Zhou.
system that is the ancestor of modern Chinese writ The First Emperor made other changes to fur
ing. Under the Zhou, iron plows were invented, ther centralize his control. He devised a system of
irrigation systems were developed, and flood-con weights and measures to replace the various sys
trol systems were initiated. These and other tems used in different regions. He standardized
advances led to population growth, and Zhou China coins, instituted a uniform writing system, and set
became the world's most densely populated country. up a law code throughout China.
Qin had grandiose plans for his empire, and he
used forced labor to accomplish them. Gangs of
The Mighty Qin Chinese peasants dug canals and built roads.
Meanwhile, several small states were strug

gling for control in China. Among them was a state
on the western border ruled by the Qin. By 221 B.C., Court Magic
Footnotes A court magician made a
the Qin had wiped out the Zhou and conquered the to history
rest of northern China, uniting much of the nation potion for Wudi, claiming
under a strong central authority for the first time. that it would give immortality. Before the emperor
Westerners would later call the nation China after
got the potion, a scholar drank it. The scholar was
the Qin, whose first ruler added the title
immediately sentenced to death but told Wudi
Shihuangdi (SHUR.HWONG^DEE), or First
that, if the potion was genuine, Wudi would not
Emperor, to his name.
A tireless ruler, Qin Shihuangdi set out to cre be able to kill him. If the potion was a fake, he
ate a government directly under his control. He had done no harm. Wudi had to agree. Needless
reorganized the empire into military districts, to say, the scholar had exposed a fraud.
appointing officials to govern them. This system

The Great Wall reign of Wudi (WOO.DEE), who ruled from 141
To Qin, one building project seemed especially B.C. to 87 B.C. Wudi, one of the most talented and
urgent—shoring up China's defenses to the north. dynamic rulers in Chinese history, personally
Earlier rulers had built walls to prevent attacks by supervised all aspects of his government.
nomadic invaders. Qin ordered those walls con An ambitious ruler, Wudi extended his empire.
nected. Over several years some 300,000 peasants He sent huge armies against the nomadic invaders
toiled—and thousands died—before the work was and other non-Chinese peoples. He conquered
done. Eventually the wall stretched more than 4,000 lands to the north, including Korea and Manchuria,
miles (6,437 km). Rebuilt by later rulers, the Great south into Southeast Asia, and west as far as north
Wall of China stands today as a monument to Qin's ern India.
ambition and to the peasants who carried out their In 139 B.C. Wudi sent out an expedition led by
emperor's will. Zhang Qian QAHNG CHYEN), a general and
explorer. Thirteen years later, Zhang staggered
Qin's Strict Rule back. His troops had been nearly wiped out by bar
Qin Shihuangdi imposed a new order on barian attacks, and the general had endured more
China. He ended the power of the local lords by than 10 years of captivity.
taking land from many of them and imposing a tax Although he had made no conquests, Zhang
on landowners. He appointed educated men brought back amazing tales he had heard on his
instead of nobles as officials to run his government. travels. He told of a great empire to the west, with
Qin even imposed an early form of censorship, huge cities full of people "who cut their hair short,
clamping down on scholars who discussed books and wear embroidered garments, and ride in very small
ideas. In 213 B.C. he ordered all books burned except chariots." Zhang, who was describing Rome, gave
those dealing with "practical" subjects like agricul Han rulers their first hint of another civilization as
ture, medicine, and magic. In this way he hoped to advanced as their own.
break people's ties to the past. He agreed with his Wudi's new interest in the West, fed by news of
adviser, who said, "anyone referring to the past to crit Zhang Qian's explorations, led to the expansion of
icize the present ... should be put to death." About trade routes later known as the Silk Road. Winding
460 scholars resisted and were executed. past deserts and through mountain passes, the Silk
Qin's subjects saw him as a cruel tyrant who Road linked East and West. It allowed traders to
had lost the Mandate of Heaven. Nobles were exchange China's fine silk for Middle Eastern and
angry because he had destroyed the aristocracy; European products, such as gold, glassware, and
scholars detested him for the burning of books; and wool and linen fabrics.
peasants hated his forced-labor gangs. In 210 B.C. Qin Pax Sinica
died, and soon the dynasty itself came to an end. Even
so, the rule of the Qin brought lasting changes. The Under the Han, China enjoyed a 400-year period
most influential changes were new ways of orga of prosperity and stability, later referred to as the
nizing the nation, establishing foundations for the Pax Sinica (PAHKS SIH-nuh-kuh), the Chinese
Chinese state that would last 2,000 years. Peace. The Pax Sinica coincided with the Pax
Romana in the West.
During the Pax Sinica, Wudi adopted an eco
The Glorious Han nomic policy designed to prevent food shortages
and high prices. Government agents stored surplus
In 207 B.C. Liu Bang (LYOH BONG) overthrew food during years of plenty and sold it when har
the Qin government. A military official from a peas vests were poor. Under this system, China was able
ant background, Liu defeated his most powerful to feed its growing population.
rival in 202 B.C. and declared himself the emperor Before Wudi, emperors had chosen as their offi
of a new dynasty, the Han. cials members of their families or of the aristocracy,
The Han governed China until A.D. 220, more a practice that led easily to corruption in govern
than 400 years. The Han emperors used the same ment. Wudi wanted talented people to govern, and
forms of centralized power that the Qin had set up, but so he initiated changes. First, he asked people to
without the harshness of Qin rule. Han China rivaled recommend candidates for public posts. These can
the Roman Empire in its power and achievement. didates took long, difficult written examinations.
After an official "graded" the tests, the emperor
Advances Under Wudi evaluated the results and appointed those with the
The Han dynasty reached its peak during the highest scores.

GEOGRAPHIC
□ NATIONAL PICTURING HISTORY
^■WW m
Silk Road
caravan of men and You can trace the
mules walk a trail length of the trip on the
that once formed part nuts
accompanying map. A
A of the
T h eold Silk Road,Sa
ilk I t aMl -i gct , V^
Lib.... lmi+al «—*«• ^«Vf . trader setting forth from
network of paths cutting across c - ^ S f f the Chinese city of
Asia from the Pacific coast of Nanjing would soon leave
China to the Mediterranean Sea. Chinese territory and enter
The route, first traveled many years before the a world of Muslim ethnic groups and treacherous ter
Christian era, was the passageway not only for Chinese rain. The trail loops south and north of the scorching
silk but for a great range of products including jade and Takla Makan Desert and rises high through mountain
fruit, ideas and paintings. Today it is still possible to passes across the Pamir Mountains. The whole trip was
see how poles and rocks created the actual highway far too long for a single caravan to undertake. Instead,
over which goods moved throughout many centuries— Chinese or Persian merchants dealt with central Asian
before ships, trains, buses, and airplanes replaced middlemen from lands such as Afghanistan and
mules and packs. Turkestan. ®

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Daoism emerges as ';»»*.•'ji'j Buddhism
JPFFrTT* becomes a popular
Confucius a major Chinese philosophy,
religion in China.
begins to teach.
Section 2
Three Ways of Life

Setting the Scene uring the late Zhou era, scholars sought
solutions to the problems of political
▶ Terms to Define
breakdown and social disorder that
ethics, filial piety, yin and yang were paralyzing China. Their efforts led to the rise
▶ People to Meet of major philosophies, such as Confucianism,
Confucius (Kongfuzi), Laozi Legalism, and Daoism. These philosophies dealt
very little with the supernatural or with eternal life;
What philosophic ideals shaped instead, they focused on life in this world and how
China's government, and how did they shape it? it should be lived. By the latter part of the Han
dynasty, between A.D. 50 and A.D. 100, Buddhism
had reached China, and the Chinese blended its
insights with those of Confucianism and Daoism.
Storyteller
One of the duties of Prince Wei-hui's cook
was to slaughter cattle for the royal table. Wlien ft* POINT
he performed this task, all his movements were
harmonious, like a dance. The prince was amazed Confucianism
and asked his servant how he was able to do such China's most influential scholar was Kongfuzi
heavy work so effortlessly. The cook explained, (KOONG-FOO-DZUH), known in the West as
"What your servant loves is the Tao, which I have Confucius. Born about 551 B.C. to a peasant family,
applied to the skill of carving. I work with my Confucius at first sought a political post but later
mind, and not with my eyes." In this way, the became a teacher. In his teachings, Confucius stated
• toughest cuts yielded easily that social harmony and good government would
before his skill. He had return to China if people lived according to princi
learned how to nurture his ples of ethics—good conduct and moral judgment.
spirit while maintaining his When a student asked Confucius for a single word
livelihood. that could serve as a principle for conduct, he
responded: "Perhaps the word reciprocity will do.
—adapted from A Source Do not do unto others what you would not want
Book in Chinese Philosophy, others to do unto you." This rule is similar to a
reprinted in Lives and familiar teaching of Judaism and Christianity,
Times: A World History sometimes called the Golden Rule: "Do unto others
Reader, James P. Holoka as you would have others do unto you."
and Jiu-Hwa L.
Upshur, 1994 The Five Relationships
Confucius stressed the importance of moral
behavior in five basic relationships: ruler and sub
ject, parent and child, husband and wife, old and
young, and friend and friend. A code of proper con
duct governed each of these relationships. For
example, rulers had a duty to rule justly and to set

an example of right living. In return, subjects Legalism
should be loyal and obey the law.
Opposition to Confucian ideas, however, came
The most basic relationships, however, con from scholars known as Legalists. Legalism, as
cerned the family. Confucius cared especially about their philosophy was called, rejected the Confucian
filial piety, or children's respect for their parents idea of learning by example. Instead, it emphasized
and elders. For Confucius, the family represented the importance of strict laws and harsh punishments.
society in miniature. He said: Legalism developed from the teachings of
Hanfeizi (HAHN»FAY«DZEE), a scholar who lived
•• The superior man spreads his culture to
during the 200s B.C. According to Hanfeizi, humans
the entire nation by remaining at home.... were by nature evil and required a strong, forceful
The teaching of filial piety is a preparation
government to make them attend to their duties.
for serving the ruler of the state; the teach Because of its justification of force and power,
ing of respect for one's elder brothers is a Legalism was favored by many nobles and became
preparation for serving all the elders of the the official policy of the Qin dynasty that unified
community; and the teaching of kindness in China during the 200s B.C. Legalism later gave way
parents is a training for ruling over peo to Confucianism. However, Legalism's influence was
ple....When individual families have reflected in the harsh laws and punishments often
learned kindness, then the whole nation inflicted on China's peasant population, ^tm
has learned kindness. ^J
After Confucius died in 479 B.C., his teachings

were collected in a work called the Analects. During
the Han dynasty, Confucian ethics provided the
Daoism
basis for the civil service system. They would con In spite of their differences, Confucianism and
tinue to shape Chinese society and government Legalism both stressed the importance of an orderly
until the early 1900s. society. Another philosophy called Daoism, however,
rctio^
$ Science and
technology Measuring Earthquakes
People in Han China believed that indicated the tremor's strength.
earthquakes were caused by angry spirits Today we know that shifting in the
expressing their displeasure with society. earth's crust causes earthquakes. This move
Scholars studied quakes closely in hope of ment sends seismic waves across the earth's
finding a divine message. surface much as dropping a pebble in a pond
In A.D. 132 Zhang Heng invented the sends ripples across water. Modern seismo
world's first seismograph, an instrument for graphs have sensors that can detect ground
detecting and measuring earth motions caused by seismic waves from both
quakes. Zhang's device resem near and distant earthquakes. The sensors
bled a domed, cylindrical urn. produce wavy lines that reflect the size of
Each of eight dragons around seismic waves passing beneath them.
the top held a ball in its jaws. At Impressions of the waves are registered on
the base of the urn sat eight paper, film, or recording tape, or are stored
Zhang toads with upturned heads and and displayed by computers.
Heng's open mouths, each directly
seismograph under a dragon. inking Past ACTIVITY
^Present
When a tremor occurred, a mechanism
caused one of the balls to fall into a toad's Contrast the workings of ancient
mouth. This action showed that somewhere and modern seismographs. Then,
an earthquake was taking place. The side of examine the differences in ancient
the seismograph where that toad was sitting Chinese and modern views about the
indicated the quake's direction. As the ball causes of earthquakes.
popped into the toad's mouth, the loudness

emphasized living in harmony with nature. Daoism
rejected formal social structures and the idea that
people must fill specific roles in society.
Daoist Ideas
Daoism traced its origins to the teachings of a
scholar named Laozi (LOW«DZUH), who is
thought to have lived sometime around the 500s
B.C. Laozi's ideas were recorded in the Dao De Jing,
a Chinese classic. His followers, known as Daoists,
believed that people should renounce worldly ambi
tions and turn to nature and the Dao, the universal
force that guides all things. They used examples
from nature to describe how one follows the Dao:
t t The highest good is like water.

Water gives life to the ten thousand things
and does not strive.
It flows in places men reject and so is like
the Dao.
In dwelling, be close to the land.
In meditation, go deep in the heart. History Laozi on his buffalo. Guimet Museum,
In dealing with others, be gentle and kind. [&Art Paris, France. How did the teaching of
In speech, be true. Laozi as recorded in the Dao De Jing influence Chinese arts
In ruling, be just. J5 and poetry?
By emphasizing harmony with nature, Daoists to be in balance. Human life and natural events
deeply influenced Chinese arts, particularly paint resulted from the interplay between yin and yang.
ing and poetry. The concept of yin and yang helped the
Daoist simplicity seems to oppose Confucian Chinese reconcile seeming opposites—like Dao
formalism, but a person could be both a Confucianist simplicity and Confucian formalism. It also helped
and a Daoist. Confucianism provided the pattern for them accept Buddhist ideas brought to China by
government and one's place in the social order, and monks and traders from India.
Daoism emphasized harmony within the individ
ual attuned to nature. Because the emphasis of each
was different, a person could easily be both. Buddhism
Yin and Yang Buddhism reached China just as the Han
A Chinese theory related to Daoist ideas was Empire was collapsing, and its emphasis on per
the concept of yin and yang, the two opposing sonal salvation in nirvana appealed to many people
forces believed to be present in all nature. Yin was seeking an escape from suffering. Confucianists
cool, dark, female, and submissive, while yang was could follow its Eightfold Path, and Daoists
warm, light, male, and aggressive. Everything had admired its use of meditation. By the A.D. 400s,
both elements. For harmony the two elements had Buddhism was widely embraced in China.
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Recall society. What was the goal of Understanding Themes

1. Define ethics, filial piety, y n h i s p h i l o s o p h y ? 5. Innovation How did the
and yang. Critical Thinking concept of yin and yang help
2. Identify Confucius, Laozi. 4. Making Comparisons the Chinese people reconcile
3. Explain why Confucius How would you compare Confu- ideas in the thought of Daoism
believed the five relationsh ps cianists and Daoists in their ideas that seemed opposed to
were important to Chinese and also in their ways of life? Confucianism?

Chinese begin
poems in the Book of Songs. Chinese astronomers Chinese invent paper.
record appearance of
Halley's comet.
Section 3
Society and Culture

Setting the Scene onfucian values governed all aspects of
▶ Terms to Define personal and social life in Han China.
"With harmony at home, there will be
hierarchy, extended family, nuclear family, order in the nation," Confucius had said. "With
acupuncture order in the nation, there will be peace in the
> People to Meet world." And indeed, the family was supreme in
Sima Qian Chinese society. It was the focus of life, bound
together strongly by mutual love, loyalty, and
How was early Chinese society dependence.
organized, and what scientific and technological
breakthroughs took place in early China?
Family Life
The members of a Chinese family of the Han
fctoryteller era lived and worked together. In an ideal family
Wu Phu was a physician, trained by Hua Tho, every member knew his or her role and the duties
that went with it.
an outstanding medical theorist. Hua Tho
impressed upon his pupils the importance of physi
cal exercise as a means ofobtai?iing good health. He
Relationships
Family members did not relate to each other as
compared an exercised body to running water,
equals; instead, the family was a strict hierarchy,
which never became stale. "When the body feels ill,"
organized into different levels of importance. The
he counseled, "one should do one of these exercises. oldest male in the home, usually the father, was
After perspiring, one will sense the body grow light dominant. Next in rank was the oldest son, fol
and the stomach will manifest hunger." There was lowed by all the younger sons and all the females.
merit in those recommendations. Wu Phu had care The mother came before the daughters, and final
fully followed his master's regimen, and although he ly—at the bottom—the youngest daughter or child
was past ninety years of age, his hearing, vision, less daughter-in-law. Each family member expected
and even his teeth were all still excellent. obedience from those who were further down in
the hierarchy, and each obeyed and respected those
—adapted from who were above.
"Hygiene and
Preventive
Family Rules
Medicine in
Strict rules governed the relationships between
Ancient China,"
husbands and wives, parents and grandparents,
reprinted in uncles and aunts, brothers and sisters, and other
Reflections on World relatives. Each family member knew his or her
Civilization, edited
place and understood its duties, and each was care
by Ronald H. ful not to bring dishonor on the family by failing in
Fritze, James S.
those duties. Moreover, the duty to family members
Olson, and Randy
W. Roberts, 1994 did not stop at death; all were expected to pay
Acupuncture chart
respect to departed ancestors.

Typical homes in Han China did not have the
extended families, or families of many generations Aesop's Fables
living together, that would later be typical. Rather,
they had what we call today nuclear families, each Greece, c. 500 b.c
consisting of parents and their children. The father A collection of stories told by an enslaved Greek
assigned his children's careers, determined their named Aesop features animals who talk and act
education, arranged their marriages, meted out
like people. Each of Aesop's fables ends with a
rewards or punishments, and controlled the family
finances. The family also provided support for proverb that teaches a moral. For example, the
members who themselves could not contribute— proverb "The Tortoise and the Hare" teaches that
slow and steady wins the race. Aesop's fables
the aged, the young, the sick, and even the lazy.
were not written down until nearly
No doubt the system offered many opportuni
three centuries
ties for exploiting those further down in the hierar
after his death.
chy. Nevertheless, few fathers were tyrants. Like
other family members, they practiced ethical prin
ciples of kindness and compassion, either from gen
uine love or from fear of the disapproval of others
and the scorn of their ancestors.
Status of Women
Under the Confucian social system, women
were subordinate to men. Confucius himself had
little regard for women, saying, "Women and une more than a few generations. When a family's land
ducated people are the most difficult to deal with." was divided, it went to all the sons, not just the old
Girls began life subservient to their fathers and est, with the result that in time individual landown
brothers. Later their husbands and in-laws were ers had less and less property.
their superiors, and eventually even a mother came Probably 90 percent of the Chinese people were
under the authority of her own sons. Parents val peasants. The wealth that supported the lifestyles
ued baby girls far less than baby boys. A poor fam of the rich was gained from the hard labor of the
ily had to work hard to raise and support a child, peasants who cultivated the land. Unlike Western
and if that child was a daughter, she left home to farmers, who usually lived on the land they
become part of her husband's family as soon as she farmed, most Chinese peasants lived in rural vil
married. lages and worked fields outside their mud walls.
Some women were able to gain respect in Their homes were simple, and they ate a plain diet
Chinese homes. With marriage and motherhood, that featured millet, rice, beans, turnips, and fish.
they became revered. Other opportunities for The peasants raised livestock and toiled long
women, such as education, were limited. In spite of hours in the grain fields. They faced constant
Confucianism's predominance, women fared far threats from floods and from famines. As rent for
better under the Han than they would in later cen the land, peasants turned over part of their produce
turies. They could inherit property, even own it to the landowner. The government required them
after they married, and they could remarry after a to pay taxes and to work one month each year on
husband's death. public works projects such as road building. In
times of conflict, peasants were drafted into the
Society and Economy army as soldiers.
Chinese society consisted of three main classes: At the bottom of the social hierarchy were mer
landowners, peasants, and merchants. Landowning chants—a group that included shopkeepers,
families were wealthy. They lived in tile-roofed traders, service workers, and even bankers. The
mansions with courtyards and gardens. They sur merchants lived in towns and provided goods and
rounded their homes with walls to protect them services for the wealthy. In spite of the great wealth
from bandits. They filled their rooms with fine fur that many merchants accumulated, Chinese society
niture and adorned them with silk wall hangings generally held them in contempt. Confucianism
and carpets. Wealthy families feasted on a rich variety taught that the pursuit of profit was an unworthy
of foods. pastime for the "superior" individual. Merchants
The landholders' wealth was generally limited, were not allowed to take the civil service examina
however, and families rarely kept their holdings for tions and enter government service.

For all the people in Han society except mer and simple, concrete imagery—this one, for
chants, the civil service system provided opportunities example:
for advancement, though the expense of education
blocked most of the poor from competing. Still, CC Near the East Gate
poor but talented individuals sometimes rose to Young women go
positions of power and influence. Like so many clouds all day.
Like drifting clouds
A thought of them
Literature Soon blows away.
Although the Qin burned thousands of books, There. White robe

many survived in royal libraries and secret private col and a blue scarf—
lections. Particularly prized was a collection of books she makes my day.
called the Five Classics, some of which were written
before Confucius. All candidates for the civil service Near the Great Tower and Wall
were required to master them. No better example is Go slender girls
recorded of the Chinese reverence for history. Like reeds by river's edge:
The oldest of the Five Classics, the Book of Like bending reeds
Songs, preserves 305 of the earliest Chinese poems, A thought of them
written between 1000 B.C. and 600 B.C. The poems Soon passes by. J5
deal with political themes, ritual, and romance.
Many seem modern, with their everyday topics The Book of Documents records political speeches
Images
of the Times
Han China
The Han dynasty was a golden
age of Chinese history. Important
political, economic, and cultural
changes took place.
Wudi's examinations
developed into a civil
service system, leading
to a wealthy class of
mandarins who con
trolled the government.
230
and documents from early in the Zhou dynasty, The Han Chinese encouraged literary pursuits
including the earliest statement of the Mandate of and made literature available to everyone. An espe
Heaven. The Book of Changes presents a complex sys cially valuable work produced during the Han
tem for foretelling the future and choosing a course dynasty period was the Historical Record. Written by
of action. In Spring and Autumn Annals Confucius Sima Qian during the reign of Wudi, it is the first
reported major events that occurred in the state of Lu true history of ancient China.
between 722 B.C. and 481 B.C.
The Five Classics were thought to carry solu
tions to most problems. Officials studied them Science and Technology
closely to find support for their positions, such as
the conduct of political leaders. Accounts of solar Besides literature and philosophy, China made
eclipses, meteor showers, and droughts were used major contributions in science and technology. By
to show what terrifying events and disasters could the 300s B.C., Chinese astronomers had calculated
befall poor political leaders. the length of the solar year as 365] days. They
Another great collection of books, the Thirteen gazed through bronze tubes equipped with a
Classics, included the Analects—Confucius's say device that divided the sky into measured seg
ings compiled by his students after his death. Many ments, allowing them to make accurate measure
appeared as answers to questions. For example, ments. They kept valuable records of solar and
Confucius was asked about the gentleman, or the lunar eclipses and comet sightings. In 240 B.C.
"superior man." Among other replies he gave this Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of
one: "What the gentleman seeks, he seeks within the object that would later be called Halley's
himself; what the small man seeks, he seeks in others." comet—many centuries before Halley's birth.
Fine Han bronze ware,

produced during 400 years of
prosperity, served wealthy
landowners and merchants.
A terra-cotta
horseman from
Yang-kia-Wan was
created as a funer REFLECTING ON THE TIMES
ary statuette.
1. What art forms developed in Han China?
2. What do the arts shown here reveal about
upper-class life in Han China?
231
i—••'
save many farm animals. New canals and
improved roadways reduced the cost of
distributing food and permitted ideas to
spread more rapidly.
Inventions
Many inventions in ancient China
were especially vital to Chinese life and
the economy. Made by the Chinese since
prehistoric times, silk was in great
demand as a trade item; its worth was
attested to by the name of one of histo
ry's greatest trade routes—the Silk Road.
Caravans carried the precious cargo as
far as Rome.
Paper was probably invented by 100
Visualizing Women prepare newly woven silk. B.C., although it was officially credited to
Histo Han weavers created beautiful an inventor of about 200 years later. Artisans
damasks of many colors. How did Chinese arts and pounded tree bark, hemp, or rags into a pulp. By
inventions spread to other civilizations? treating it with gelatin, they discovered that they
could then make paper. Used first for wrapping
and clothing, paper was soon recognized as an
Medicine \ ideal writing material.
Chinese physicians recognized nutrition as The invention of paper benefited the bureau
vital and realized that some diseases resulted from cratic Han government. Its centralized structure
vitamin deficiencies. Although they did not identi resulted in an explosion in the number of docu
fy vitamins as such, they discovered and prescribed ments. Most were written on strips of wood, which
foods that would correct some problems. They also were fragile and cumbersome to work with. The
understood that many herbs had medicinal value. use of paper had many obvious advantages.
Chinese doctors treated ailments and relieved Other inventions improved mining and con
pain with acupuncture, a technique in which the struction. Miners, using iron drill bits driven by
skin is pierced with thin needles at vital points. workers on seesaw-like levers, drilled boreholes to
They believed acupuncture restored the balance obtain salt from the earth. Another invention was
between yin and yang in a person's body. the wheelbarrow, which was first used on building
sites around 100 B.C.
Farming and Transport These are only a few examples from a list of
Under the Han, many improvements occurred Chinese "firsts," which also includes the first printed
in agriculture and transportation. Complex irriga books, the earliest technologies for casting bronze
tion systems drained swamps and diverted rivers to and iron, the suspension bridge, the compass, and
quench parched fields. Advances in fertilizing crops gunpowder. Such achievements caused China to
helped farmers produce enough to feed China's remain far ahead of Europe in science and technolo
growing population. Veterinary medicine helped gy until the A.D. 1300s.
■™ l S E C T I O N 3 R E V I E W ^ ^ m
Recall government during the Han era Understanding Themes

1. Define hierarchy, extended reflected the Confucian idea of 5. Cultural Diffusion What
family, nuclear family, order. ideas and products from ancient

acupuncture. Critical Thinking China have become popular in
2. Identify the Five Classics, 4. Making Comparisons Com the West in recent years? What
Spring and /Autumn Annals, the pare a typical Han Chinese fam factors account for their popu
Analects, Sima Qjan. ily with families you consider larity among Western thinkers
3. Explain how families and typical of America today. and consumers?

Critical Thinking
somua
Identifying Central Issues
commonplaces of everyday life in China
trees" refers to someone so focused on sep are saturated with its influence. In going
arate details
The saying that he
"He can't seecannot see theforentire
the forest the through the streets of a Chinese city, one
situation. Sometimes we face this problem when will find, here and there at a street cor
studying history. It is easy to focus on details ner, a fortune teller sitting behind a neat
such as names, dates, and places, thus losing ly covered table, brush and tablet at
sight of the bigger picture. To avoid this, it is hand, ready to draw from the ancient
important to identify the central issues. Central book of wisdom pertinent counsel
issues are the main ideas of historical material. and information on life's minor
perplexities.... JJ
Learning the Skill 1. What is the general subject of the passage?

First, skim the material to identify its general 2. Which idea has the greatest emphasis?
subject. Look for headings and subheadings; 3. What are some details that support this idea?
often they highlight central issues. A central issue 4. Which sentence states the central issue of the
may also appear in the topic sentence of a para passage?
graph. The other sentences in the paragraph usu
ally explain and support the central issue.
When looking for central issues, ask yourself Applying the Skill
these questions: What is the general topic of this Find a newspaper or magazine article that
material? What ideas have the greatest emphasis? interests you. Identify the central issues in this
What main idea holds the details together? If I article and summarize them in your own words.
had to summarize this material in one sentence,
what would it be? If you can answer one or more
of these questions, you can identify central issues.
Practicing the Skill

Read the passage about the Book of Changes
and answer the questions that follow.
CC The Book of Changes—/ Citing in

Chinese—is unquestionably one of the
most important books in the world's lit
erature.... Nearly all that is greatest and
most significant in the three thousand
years of Chinese cultural history has
either taken its inspiration from this
book, or has exerted an influence on the
interpretation of its text.... Indeed, not
only the philosophy of China but its
For More Practice
science and statecraft as well have Turn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
never ceased to draw from the spring of Review on page 235 for more practice in identify
wisdom in the I Ching.... Even the ing central issues.

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW

Historical Significance Confucian total obedience to authority. On ships resulted in a more compas
ideas have had a major impact the positive side, others state that sionate society. Confucius also
on China's development. On the the Confucian emphasis on sta left a revolutionary legacy. He
negative side, some historians bility helped early China build a considered it a society's duty to
point to the Confucian denial of strong government and that overthrow an unjust ruler and to
women's rights and its stress on Confucius's ideas about relation ensure a fair distribution of wealth.
Using Key Terms

write a sentence for each term not chosen. Many of Confucius's sayings cotnpiled
after his death are similar to proverbs.
a. acupuncture f. mandarin Write a set of your own proverbs about
b. civil service g. yin and yang everyday decisions and situations.
c. extended family h. filial piety
d. hierarchy i. cavalry
e. ethics j. nuclear family
1. An consists of parents, children,

grandparents, and other relatives living together
in one household.
Reviewing Facts
2. Chinese doctors treated ailments and relieved 1. Culture Identify Confucius and his ideas.
2. Government Explain how Mandarins came to
pain with , a technique in which the
skin is pierced with thin needles at vital points. shape China's government.
3. A Chinese theory related to Daoism was the 3. Culture List the five relationships in Chinese
society that were identified by Confucius.
concept of , the two opposing 4. Culture Describe the Book of Songs, the Spring
forces believed to be present in all of nature.
and Autumn Annals, and the Historical Record.
4. Confucius taught that individuals should live
5. History Explain why Qin Shihuangdi ordered
according to principles of .
5. The Chinese cared especially about the construction of the Great Wall of China.
or children's respect for their parents. 6. Culture Identify three groups in Han China.
7. Government List the characteristics of China's
government and politics under the Zhou, Qin,
and Han dynasties.
8. Government Analyze how Confucius applied
the idea of filial piety to governments.
Building a Database The teach 9. Culture Explain why Qin rulers strongly
ings of the ancient Chinese
teacher Confucius date back opposed the teachings of Confucius, though
Han rulers like Wudi promoted Confucianism.
to 479 B.C. Many of his teachings are still 10. Technology List three Chinese inventions and
practiced in China today. Search the Internet state how they changed Chinese life.
or your local library for additional information
about Confucius. Build a database of collected
Confucian sayings, or analects. Organize
analects by headings reflecting different cate Critical Thinking
gories according to Confucius's principles or 1. Synthesize Create a time line showing major
ethics. Examples of categories would be a per
events in China from the Zhou to the Han
son's conduct or filial piety.
dynasties.

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
2. Evaluate Was a strong family structure a posi

tive or a negative influence on Chinese society? Understanding Themes
3. Apply How does your society make use of the 1. Uniformity What methods did Qin Shihuangdi
Han concept of appointing officials by ability? use to unify China? What was their impact?
4. Synthesize How would you respond if your 2. Innovation How did the ethical philosophy of
government adopted the social policies of the Confucius influence Chinese society?
Qin dynasty? 3. Cultural Diffusion How did Buddhism reach
5. Compare How is Confucianism different from China?
Christianity and Judaism? How is it similar?
6. Synthesize Think about how merchants were
viewed in Han society and why. How might the inking Past
■^,...1 Present
United States be different if we felt that way
about merchants? 1. The Qin tried to control people's ideas by
limiting the books they could read. Provide
an example of a modern government that
Geography in History limits the information its people receive.
2. All candidates for China's civil service were
1. Movement Refer to the map below. Buddhism
required to master the Five Classics. Can
came to China from which area of the world?
you think of literature from our own culture
2. Location What cities became major Buddhist that everyone should know? Why would it
sites in China? be difficult for Americans to agree on five
3. Region What large area was a major stronghold classics?
of Daoism?
4. Region What Daoist concepts made it possible
for much of China to accept the teachings of
Confucius, Laozi, and the Buddha into a unified Skill Practice
belief system?
Read the passage below and answer the questions that
follow.
Buddhism and Daoism in China GC Females should be strictly grave and sober,
and yet adapted to the occasion. Whether
in waiting on her parents, receiving or
reverencing her husband, rising up or sitting
down, when pregnant, in times of mourning,
or when fleeing in war, she should be perfectly
decorous. Rearing the silkworm and working
cloth are the most important employments of
the female; preparing food for the household
and setting in order sacrifices follow next,
each of which must be attended to. After
that, study and learning can fill up the
time. }}
Book of Changes (I Ching)
1. What is the general topic of this passage?

2. What details are offered on this topic?
3. Which sentence, if any, states the central issue of
this passage?
4. State the central issue in your own words.

UNIT 2
Multimedia Activity
ABCNEWS Turning Points in
MACTV
iE World History
Democracy in Greece
Setting up the Video Hands-On Activity
Work with a group of your classmates to view Organize into cooperative groups. Write and per
"Democracy in Greece" on the videodisc Turning Points form five-minute skits about the importance of voting
in World History. The foundation of present-day democ in a democratic society. Videotape skits to share with
racy can be traced almost 2,500 years ago to ancient other classes.
Greece. Athenians developed the idea of a democratic
government in which the majority rules but the minori
ty still has rights. This program takes a look at the ori
gins of democracy and how it has influenced modern
governments and cultures.
View the video by scanning the bar code or by entering the
Side One, chapter number on your keypad and pressing Search.
Chapter 5 (Also available in VHS format.)
Surfing the "Net"

African Artifacts
The African continent is rich with precious artifacts 3. The search engine should provide you with a num
ranging from tools to jewelry. To find out more about ber of links to follow. Links are "pointers" to differ
African artifacts, look on the Internet. ent sites on the Internet and commonly appear as
blue underlined words.
Getting There
Follow these steps below to gather information What to Do When You Are There
about African artifacts on the Internet. Click on the links to navigate through the pages of
1. Go to a search engine. Type in the phrase African information and gather your findings. Design a bulletin
artifacts. board by printing images of African artifacts that you
2. After typing in the phrase, enter words like those have located on the Internet. Use a word processor to
below to focus your search: create captions explaining what the artifacts are and
• jewelry • pottery where they are from. Include a map of Africa and label
• tools • countries the countries where the various artifacts were found.
236 Unit 2 Flowering of Civilization

Unit ^\
Digest
,-"'
(jjCxom about 2000 B.C. to A.D. 500, major civi-
•Jf lizations arose throughout the world. Al
though each civilization had unique traits, they all Visualizing Chalices from the court of a wealthy
had common features, such as a stable political sys Histo
Mycenaean king. Besides the
tem, one or more major religions, and an interest in
the arts and sciences. These civilizations produced Mycenaeans, what other people influenced the development
of early Greek civilization?
many achievements that still influence the world
today.
Chapter 5
Chapter 4 The Height of Greek
The Rise of Ancient Greece Civilization
Although Greece's mountains protected against During the 400s B.C., Athens became the center
invaders, they also limited travel and communica of Greek civilization. Its classical style of art, arch
tion among the Greeks and prevented them from itecture, and literature have endured in Western
uniting politically. Numerous harbors and closeness civilization. The Athenians expressed their love of
to the sea, however, encouraged the Greeks to beauty and harmony in such buildings as the
become traders, and eventually they founded Parthenon. They decorated their pottery with
colonies around the Mediterranean Sea. paintings and created masterpieces of sculpture.
Greek civilization had its origins in the Minoan The Greeks were the first to write and perform
civilization on the Mediterranean island of Crete and plays—comedies and tragedies.
the Mycenaean civilization on the European main Greek thinkers believed in the power of reason
land. The Greeks provided a record of their legends to explain all things, a belief that became a basic
and early history in two epic poems, the Iliad and the principle of science. Socrates constructed a way of
Odyssey. These epics taught such values as courage, teaching known as the Socratic method. His stu
dignity, and love of beauty. The Greeks worshiped dent Plato studied human behavior and wrote the
gods and goddesses—who were both humanlike first book on political science. Aristotle wrote on
and superpowerful—and imitated their deities by logic and poetry, among other topics. The Greeks
themselves striving for excellence. also produced the first true historians, Herodotus
The polis—the Greek city-state—served as the and Thucydides, and the father of medicine,
center of Greek life. The two major Greek city-states Hippocrates.
were Sparta and Athens. Sparta was a military soci By 330 B.C., a new political leader named
ety that emphasized physical strength and service in Alexander of Macedonia had defeated the Persians
the army. Athens built a much freer society that and conquered an area from Egypt to India. His
stressed education and public service. It also intro goal was to combine the best of Greek and Persian
duced the Western concept of democracy. cultures into one civilization. After Alexander's
During the 400s B.C., the Greeks defeated the death, his empire was divided among three of his
Persians in a series of wars. A golden age of cultural generals.
achievement in Athens followed the Persian con Although Greek political unity had vanished,
flicts. Later, resentment against Athenian power led Greek culture spread and mixed with Middle
to the Peloponnesian War between a Sparta-led Eastern cultures to form the Hellenistic civilization.
alliance of city-states and Athens. The war brought This new civilization, which excelled in the sci
defeat for Athens and a decline for the Greek city- ences, developed in newly built cities, such as
state system. Alexandria, Egypt.
Unit 2 Flowering of Civilization 237

or Augustus, became the first Roman emperor.
Chapter 6 About this time, the Roman Empire entered a
Ancient Rome and Early long period of peace and prosperity known as the
Pax Romana. The Romans of this era developed
Christianity their system of laws and built roads, aqueducts,
and public buildings. Great literary figures includ
In the 500s B.C. the Romans set up a republic ed the poets Horace and Virgil and the historians
ruled by the upper classes but increasingly influ
enced by the common people. To protect their Livy and Tacitus.
During the Pax Romana, Christianity—based on
republic, the Romans formed a powerful army and the life and teachings of Jesus—began as a part of
began to expand their territory. By 264 B.C., Rome Judaism but quickly spread through the Roman
had conquered the entire Italian Peninsula. It then world as a new religion. At the heart of early
fought the Punic Wars against Carthage, finally Christian preaching was the belief that Jesus was
defeating the North African city-state in 146 B.C the Son of God and the way of salvation. After peri
Rome's military conquests brought the Roman odic persecutions, Christianity became the official
Republic wealth but also substituted slave labor on religion of the empire in A.D. 392.
large estates for small, independent citizen-farmers. By the A.D 300s, political chaos, economic crisis,
Mounting social tensions led to civil war and an and Germanic invasions had led to the decline of
increased political role for the army. In 45 B.C, the
the Roman Empire. Reform efforts by Emperors
general Julius Caesar came to power and set up a Diocletian and Constantine helped preserve the
dictatorship. In 27 B.C. his grandnephew Octavian, eastern part of the empire but only delayed the
downfall of the western part of the empire until the
late A.D 400s.
Chapter 7
Flowering of African
Civilizations
Africa's diverse geography influenced the
development of its civilizations. In areas of scarce
rainfall, settlements arose near lakes or rivers, such
as the Nile. Trading civilizations, such as Kush and
Axum in eastern Africa, exchanged ideas and goods
with places as far away as Rome and India. Move
Visualizing ment of peoples, such as the Bantu migrations,
Histo-
Octavian, known as spread culture to other parts of Africa.
In West Africa, a series of kingdoms arose and
Augustus, preferred to
be called "first citizen." prospered between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1500. Ghana,
the first of these territories, traded salt for gold
What was the period that
brought by Arab traders. Mali, a nation that broke
began with his reign
called? away from Ghana, also became powerful. Its king,
Mansa Musa, created a rich trading empire through
his contacts with the Middle East. Islamic culture
spread throughout Africa. Songhai, the last of the
great West African kingdoms, expanded its territory
and developed a strong legal system based on the
religion of Islam.
Trade contacts also brought power and wealth to
city-states along the coast of East Africa. There Arab
traders brought cotton, silk, and Chinese porcelain
from India and Southeast Asia to exchange for ivory
and metals from Africa's interior. Meanwhile, pow
erful kingdoms thrived in Southern Africa. These
238 Unit 2 Flowering of Civilization

inland areas mined rich deposits of copper and gold.
Traders from the East African coast made their way
to the southern African kingdoms and began an
active trade there.
Chapter 8
India's Great Civilization
About 1500 B.C. Aryan invaders conquered
northern India and created a new society. Early Visualizing A treasure of 6,000 terra-cotta sol
Indian religious writings—the Rig-Veda, the Histo diers from the Qin dynasty was
Mahabharata, and the Upanishads—taught the princi uncovered in Shensi Province. What other large struc
ples of Hinduism, India's major religion. Hinduism ture was built during this time?
includes belief in many deities and the concept of an
eternal spirit, reincarnation, and the obligation to
perform the duties of one's social group. Two major philosophies—Confucianism and
During the 500s B.C., Siddhartha Gautama
founded Buddhism, which later spread from India to Daoism—developed in early China. Founded by
Confucius (Kongfuzi), Confucianism stressed basic
East Asia and Southeast Asia. Known as the Buddha, moral rules in human relationships and the ideal of
or Enlightened One, Gautama taught that people can a courteous, well-educated individual. Daoism
free themselves from suffering by eh'minating desire
emphasized living in harmony with nature.
and by following rules of behavior, the Eightfold Chinese society consisted of landowners, peas
Path. Buddhism, as well as Hinduism, had a pro
ants, and merchants. The Chinese family, dominated
found influence on the literature, arts, and architec
by the oldest male, played an important role. It func
ture of Asia. tioned as an economic unit to which all members
The Mauryas, who ruled from 321 B.C. to 184
gave their earnings and which supported the old, the
B.C., founded an empire in northern India, and the
young, and the sick.
Mauryan ruler Asoka helped spread Buddhism. In addition to many literary works, the Chinese
About 500 years later, the Guptas reunited India, and made great contributions in science and technology.
their empire lasted from A.D. 320 to A.D. 600. Under These include the first printed book and the devel
the Guptas, scholars made numerous advances—
opment of paper and gunpowder.
including the development of algebra, the numbers
1 to 9, and the concept of zero.
SURVEYING UNIT 2
1. Chapter 4 How did the people of Athens and

Chapter 9 Sparta differ in their general attitudes toward
China's Flourishing life?
2. Chapter 5 In what ways did the ancient Greeks
Civilization lay the foundation of the arts and sciences of
the West?
Under the Zhou dynasty, which ruled from 3. Chapter 6 How did Christianity begin and later
about 1000 B.C. to 256 B.C., China made many tech
develop?
nological advances and grew in population. Later 4. Chapter 7 Why was trade so important to early
the Qin and Han dynasties set up powerful central African kingdoms and city-states?
governments that brought stability, expanded 5. Chapter 8 What mathematical advances did
Chinese territory, and increased foreign trade. Two
early India pass on to other parts of the world?
notable achievements were the building of the Great 6. Chapter 9 How did the people of early India
Wall to protect against invaders and the creation of a
compare with the people of early China in their
civil service system in which officials were appoint
religious beliefs?
ed on the basis of examinations.
Unit 2 Flowering of Civilization 239

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Uni

2 2500 B.C.-A.D. 500*

Political fclH'I'IM Aryans

500 b.c. A.D.500

klt&a Octavian WM>WiWM Western

Assemblee Nationale, Paris

Unit 2 Flowering of Civilizations 103

What kinds of governments and societies developed in

1600 B.C 1200 b.c. 800B.C. 400 b.c.

JpfiEEESM Where and how did the early

106 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 107

Poets and Heroes

108 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 109

110 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Greeks believed that the 12 most important Festivals

Recall reach Troy and Knossos from

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 111

T*b\*n&M Greek kings ■JIHtliU:!^ Greeks learn

112 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 113

Recall cal functions of an acropolis against changing citizenship?

114 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

What different Greek values did

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 115

The Parthenon crowns

Greek sculptors in the

The goddess Athena,

1. What innovation did Greek sculptors introduce

Visualizing A juror's token is shown above. Athenian courts demonstrated

118 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Rec Critical Thinking propose if you were an Athen

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 119

Storyteller The Persian Wars

—adapted from The Histories, Marathon

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 121

Athenian Daily Life

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 123

Effects of the War

Re Critical Thinking was a "golden age" for Athens.

124 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

Practicing the Skill

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 125

Connections Across Time

Using Key Terms

126 Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece

4. Analyze Shown below, the south porch of the Skill Practice

1. Why did tyrants seize power in ancient • Cretan settlement

Athens during times of unrest? Do you fi Location of Cretan palace

think a tyrant could establish a dictatorship

Chapter 4 The Rise of Ancient Greece 127

800 B.C. 600 b.o. 400B.C. 200 B.c.

Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization 129

Sculpting the Human Body

Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization 131

132 Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization

Chapter 5 The Height of Greek Civilization 133

The Olympic Games

Tb\n&M Greek kings ■JIHtliU:!^ Greeks learn