LEAD

INTRODUCTION

Lead is a dense, soft, low-melting metal which is an important part of a

battery and in the world, about 75% of lead production is consumed by

the battery industry. It is the densest common metal except for gold.

This quality makes lead effective when used as a shield against X-rays

or when used as a sound barrier. It resists corrosion by water, so it has

long been used in the plumbing industry. Lead paint is found in many

older buildings but it is now mostly used on outdoor steel structures

such as bridges to improve their weather ability and when used for

roofing makes a long-lasting roofing material.

Lead production dates back at least 8,000 years. Lead was used in Egypt

as early as 5,000 B.C. and in the time of the Pharaohs it was used in

pottery glazes and as solder. It was also cast into ornamental objects.

White lead paint was also used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

Ancient Rome used lead pipes for its extensive water works. Some of

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the toxic effects of lead were also noted as early as the Roman era,

though lead was also thought to have positive medical qualities. In the

15th and 16th centuries, builders used lead as a roofing material for

cathedrals, and lead was also used to hold together the different panels

of colored glass in stained glass windows. In television picture tubes

and computer video display terminals, lead helps block radiation, and

the inner, though not the outer, portion of the common light bulb is

made of leaded glass. Lead also increases the strength and brilliance of

crystal glassware. Lead is used to make bearings, soldering and it is

important in rubber production and oil refining.

Lead is a health hazard to humans if it is inhaled or ingested,

interfering with the production of red blood cells. This is why the use

of lead must be controlled.

PROPERTIES OF LEAD

(1) MELTING POINT: lead has a melting point of 327.40C.

(2) DENSITY: Lead has a density of 11.34kg/cm3.

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(3) THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: its thermal conductivity is

34.76w/mk.

(4) STANDARD ATOMIC NUMBER: its atomic number is 82.

(5) TENSILE STRENGTH: it has a tensile strength of 29.8mn/m2.

(6) ATOMIC WEIGHT: lead has an atomic weight of 207.2 g•mol−1.

(7) ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY: it has an electrical resistivity of 208

nΩ•m.

(8) THERMAL EXPANSION: Its thermal expansion is 28.9

µm•m−1•K−1.

(9) YOUNG MODULUS: Its young modulus is16 GPa.

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Below is an image of lead.

Below is an image of lead ore.

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 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF LEAD

Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections

especially in young children and can cause blood and brain disorders.

This is known as lead poisoning. It typically results from ingestion of

food or water contaminated with lead but may also occur after

accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead based paint.

Long-term exposure to lead or its salts especially soluble salts or the

strong oxidant (PbO2) can cause nephropathy (a disease or medical

disorder of the kidney) and colic-like abdominal pains. The effects of

lead are the same whether it enters the body through breathing or

swallowing. Almost every organ and system in the body is affected by

lead. The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system, both in

adults and children. Long-term exposure of adults can result in

decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the

nervous system. Lead remains in the body for long periods in

mineralizing tissue (i.e., teeth and bones). The stored lead may be

released into the bloodstream, especially in times of calcium stress (e.g.

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pregnancy, lactation, osteoporosis), or calcium deficiency, and is of

particular risk to the developing fetus. Some effects of lead include:

 Weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles.

 Causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-

aged and older people.

 Causes anemia.

 It has adverse effects on the central nervous system, the

cardiovascular system, kidneys, and the immune system.

 Exposure to high lead levels can severely damage the brain and

kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death.

 It causes nephropathy (a disease or medical disorder of the

kidney).

 It causes colic-like abdominal pains.

 In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause

miscarriage.

 Chronic, high-level exposure in men can damage the organs

responsible for sperm production.

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The concern about lead's role in cognitive deficits in children has

brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been

linked to learning disabilities). Most cases of adult elevated blood lead

levels are workplace-related. High blood levels are associated with

delayed puberty in girls. Lead has been shown many times to

permanently reduce the cognitive capacity of children at extremely low

levels of exposure. There appears to be no detectable lower limit, below

which lead has no effect on cognition.

WAYS IN WHICH LEAD ENTERS THE BODY

(1) INGESTION: This is the most common way in which lead enters

the human body. Lead paint is the major source of lead exposure for

children. As lead paint deteriorates, it peels, pulverizes and then enters

the body through hand-to-mouth contacts or through contaminated

food, water or alcohol. Ingesting certain home remedy medicines may

also expose people to lead or lead compounds. It can also be ingested

through fruits and vegetables contaminated by the high levels of lead

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in the soils while the soil itself is contaminated due to the lead in pipes,

lead dust from old paints and residual lead from gasoline.

(2) INHALATION: This is the second major pathway of exposure,

especially for workers in lead-related occupations. Almost all inhaled

lead is absorbed into the body, the rate is 20-70% for ingested lead

with children absorbing more than adults.

(3) DERMAL EXPOSURE: The rate of exposure may be significant for

a narrow category of people working with organic lead compounds but

is of little concern for the general population. The rate of skin

absorption is also low for inorganic lead.

TREATMENT OF LEAD POISONING

Acute lead poisoning is treated using disodium calcium edetate; the

calcium chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetracetic

acid (EDTA). This chelating agent has a greater affinity for lead than for

calcium and so the lead chelate is formed by exchange. This is then

excreted in the urine leaving behind harmless calcium.

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 MANUFACTURING OF LEAD

RAW MATERIALS

Lead is extracted from ores dug from under-ground mines. More than

60 minerals contain some form of lead but only three are usually

mined for lead production. The most common is called galena. The

pure form of galena contains only lead and sulfur but it is usually

found with traces of other metals in it including silver, copper, zinc,

cadmium, and antimony as well as arsenic. Two other minerals

commercially mined for lead are cerussite and anglesite. Over 95% of

all lead mined is derived from one of these three minerals. However,

most deposits of these ores are not found alone but mixed with other

minerals such as pyrite, marcasite and zinc blende. Therefore, much

lead ore is obtained as a byproduct of other metal mining usually zinc

or silver. Only half of all lead used yearly is derived from mining, as

half is recovered through recycling mostly of automobile batteries.

Besides the ore itself, only a few raw materials are necessary for the

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refining of lead. The ore concentrating process requires pine oil, alum,

lime, and xanthate. Limestone or iron ore is added to the lead ore

during the roasting process. Coke, a coal distillate, is used to further

heat the ore.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF LEAD

(1) MINING THE ORE: The first step in retrieving lead-bearing ore is

to mine it underground. Heavy machineries are used to drill the rock

from deep tunnels or blast it with dynamite leaving the ore in pieces

then they shovel the ore unto loaders and trucks and then haul it to a

shaft. The shaft at a large mine may be a mile or more from the drill or

blast site. The miners dump the ore down the shaft and from there it is

hoisted to the surface.

(2) CONCENTRATING THE ORE: Once the ore has been removed

from the mine, it is taken and treated at a concentrating mill to remove

the waste rock from the lead. To begin, the ore must be crushed into

very small pieces. The ore is ground at the mill, leaving it in particles

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with diameters of 0.1 millimeter or less. This means the individual

granules are finer than table salt. The texture is something like

granulated sugar.

(3) FLOTATION: The principal lead ore, galena, is properly known as

lead sulfide, and sulfur makes up a substantial portion of the mineral.

The flotation process collects the sulfur-bearing portions of the ore,

which also contains the valuable metal. First, the finely crushed ore is

diluted with water and then poured into a tank called a flotation cell.

The ground ore and water mixture is called slurry. One percent pine

oil or a similar chemical is then added to the slurry in the tank. The

tank then agitates, shaking the mixture violently. The pine oil attracts

the sulfide particles. Then air is bubbled through the mixture. This

causes the sulfide particles to form an oily froth at the top of the tank.

The waste rock, which is called gangue sinks to the bottom. The

flotation process is controlled by means of X-ray analyzers. A flotation

monitor in the control room can check the metal content of the slurry

using the X-ray analysis. Then, with the aid of a computer, the monitor

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may adjust the proportion of the chemical additive to optimize

recovery of the metal. Other chemicals are also added to the flotation

cell to help concentrate the minerals. Alum and lime aggregate the

metal, or make the particles larger. Xanthate is also added to the slurry

in order to help the metal particles float to the surface. At the end of the

flotation process, the lead has been separated from the rock and other

minerals too, such as zinc and copper have been separated out.

(4) FILTERING: After the ore is concentrated in the flotation cells, it

flows to a filter which removes about 90% of the water. At this point,

the concentrate contains about 40-80% lead with large amount of

other impurities like zinc and sulfur. At this stage, it is ready to be

shipped to the smelter. The gangue of the rock that was not mineral

bearing must be pumped out of the flotation tank. It may be dumped

into a pond resembling a natural lake and when the pond eventually

fills, the land can be replanted.

(5) ROASTING THE ORE: The lead concentrate fresh from the filter

needs to be further refined to remove the sulfur. After the concentrate

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is unloaded at the sinter plant, it is mixed with other lead-bearing

materials and with sand and limestone. The mixture is now spread on a

moving grate. Air which has been heated to 2,550°F (1,400°C) blows

through the grate. Coke is added as fuel, and the sulfur in the ore

concentrate combusts to sulfur dioxide gas. This sulfur dioxide is an

important byproduct of the lead refining process. It is captured at a

separate acid plant and converted to sulfuric acid, which has many

uses. After the ore has been roasted in this way, it fuses into a brittle

material called sinter. The sinter is mostly lead oxide but it can also

contain oxides of zinc, iron, and silicon, some lime, and sulfur. As the

sinter passes off the moving grate, it is broken into lumps and the

lumps are then loaded into the blast furnace.

(6) BLASTING: At this stage, the sinter falls into the top of the blast

furnace along with coke fuel. A blast of air comes through the lower

part of the furnace combusting the cokes. The burning coke generates a

temperature of about 2,200°F (1,200°C) and produces carbon

monoxide. The carbon monoxide produced reacts with the lead and

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other metal oxides, producing molten lead, nonmetallic waste slag, and

carbon dioxide. Then the molten metal is drawn off into drossing

kettles or molds.

(7) REFINING: The molten lead as it comes from the blast furnace is

95-99% pure. It is called at this point base bullion. It must be further

refined to remove impurities, because commercial lead must be from

99-99.999% pure. To refine the bullion, it is kept in the drossing kettle

at a temperature just above its melting point, about 626°F (330°C). At

this temperature, any copper left in the bullion rises to the top of the

kettle and forms a scum or dross which can be skimmed off. Gold and

silver can be removed from the bullion by adding to it a small quantity

of zinc. The gold and silver dissolves more easily in zinc than in lead,

and when the bullion is cooled slightly, zinc dross rises to the top

bringing the other metals with it.

(8) COSTING: When the lead has been sufficiently refined, it is cooled

and cast into blocks which may weigh as much as a ton. This is the

finished product. Lead alloys may also be produced at the smelter plant.

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In this case, metals are added to the molten lead in precise proportions

to produce a lead material for specific industrial uses. E.g. the lead used

in car batteries, pipes, sheet, cable sheathing, and ammunition. All the

examples given are all alloyed with antimony because this increases the

metal's strength.

Below is a diagrammatic representation of how lead is manufactured.

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During the process of refining lead, certain byproducts are produced.

 The gangue or waste rock for example accumulates as the ore is

concentrated. This rock is not considered as an environmental

hazard by the industry because most of the minerals have been

removed from the rock and can be pumped into a disposal pond

which resembles a natural lake.

 Sulfuric acid is the major byproduct of the smelting process.

Sulfur dioxide gas is released when the ore is roasted at the sinter

plant. To protect the atmosphere, fumes and smoke are captured

and the air released by the plant is first cleaned. The sulfur

dioxide is then collected at a separate acid plant and converted to

sulfuric acid. The refinery can sell this acid as well as its primary

product, the lead itself.

 Most of the solid waste products produced by the smelting

process are a dense, glassy substance called slag. This contains

traces of lead as well as zinc and copper. The slag is more toxic

than the gangue and must be stored securely and monitored so

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 that it does not escape into the environment or come in contact

with populations.

Air pollution can result from lead processing as well. A bag house (a

separate facility to filter and vacuum the fumes so that lead is not

released into the atmosphere) is to be provided for the smelter.

APPLICATIONS OF LEAD IN ARCHITECTURE

In architecture lead is applied in roofs, stained glass windows,

plumbing, paints, lining swimming pools, radiation shielding, noise

abatement, waterproofing,

 Lead sheets are utilized in the construction industry for

weathering, roofing and cladding, to prevent water penetration.

 Lead sheet is used for sound insulation.

 Lead is used in radiation shielding due to its high density.

 It is utilized to form glazing bars for stained glass or other multi-

lit windows.

 It is used in lining swimming pools.

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  It is used in plumbing.

 It serves as a constituent of paint (dryer) which helps speed up

the drying process of paint.

 Lead is used to produce garden ornaments used in landscaping.

 It is used in the construction of electrical conduits

 It is used in welding and soldering.

GENERAL USES OF LEAD

 Lead is used as projectiles for fishing sinkers and firearms due to

its low melting point and cost.

 When molten, it is used as a coolant for lead cooled fast reactors.

 It is used as a base metal for organ pipes and is mixed with

variable amounts of tin to control the tone of the pipe.

 It is used in soldering for electronics.

 It is used as an electrode in the process of electrolysis.

 It is used in high voltage power cables as a sheathing material to

prevent water diffusion into insulation.

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  Lead is used in the manufacturing of tennis racquets to increase

its weight but has to be in the form of strips or tape.

 It is widely used in statues and sculptures and its moldings are

used as decorative motifs.

 Lead telluride, lead antimonide and lead selenide are some of the

lead based semiconductors which are used in photovoltaic (solar

energy) cells and infrared detectors.

 Tetra-ethyl lead is utilized as an anti-knock additive for aviation

fuel in piston-driven aircrafts.

 Lead is used as a coloring element in paint and ceramic glazes,

notably in the colors red and yellow. E.g. White lead, lead

sulphate and lead chromate.

 It is commonly used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic that

covers electrical cords.

 It is also used for the lining of chemical treatment baths, acid

plants and storage vessels.

 It is a major component of the lead acid battery and is commonly

used in a car battery.

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  Lead is used for the ballast keel of sailboats and scuba diving

weight belts due to its high density, weight-to-volume ratio and

resistance against corrosion,

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 COPPER

INTRODUCTION

Copper was the first metal mined and crafted by man and has been the

most important one in the oldest times of history because it was

available in great quantities and was initially extractable almost at the

surface of ground and also because it is easily stretched, molded, and

shaped, resistant to corrosion and conducts heat and electricity

efficiently. It was suitable for crafting weapons and tools, art objects

and ornaments. As a result, copper was important to early humans and

continues to be a material of choice for a variety of domestic, industrial

and high-technology applications today.

Out of all the chemical elements in existence, copper is one of the

basic. Copper is a reddish-orange metal known for its high thermal

and electrical conductivity in its nearly pure state. A wide variety of

products are produced with the use of copper e.g. cooking pots, pipes

and tubes, electrical wire, pans, automobile radiators many others.

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Copper is also used as a pigment and preservative for paper, paint,

textiles, and wood. When combined with tin, brass is produced and

when combined with zinc, bronze is produced.

In about 3000 B.C., large deposits of copper ore were found on

the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea. The Latin name aes

cyprium was given to the metal and was often shortened to cyprium

when the Romans conquered Cyprus. Later this was corrupted to

cuprum, from which the English word copper and the chemical symbol

Cu are derived.

In mythology and alchemy, Copper is associated with the goddess

Aphrodite/Venus in owing to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in

producing mirrors and its association with Cyprus which was sacred to

the goddess. In astrology alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to

the ancients were associated with seven metals also known in antiquity

and Venus was assigned to copper.

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 Below is a picture of copper.

PROPERTIES OF COPPER

(1) TENSILE STRENGTH: Copper has a tensile strength of 215 –

225MN/m2

(2) YOUNG MODULUS: copper has a young modulus of 110–128

GPa.

(3) MELTING POINT: It has a melting point of 1083oC

(4) ATOMIC WEIGHT: Copper has an atomic weight of 63.546g·mol−1

(5) ATOMIC NUMBER: It has an atomic number of 29.

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(6) THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: Its thermal conductivity is 399w/mk.

(7) DENSITY: Copper’s density is 8.94 g/cm−3.

(8) COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION: 16.8 x 10-6/K

(9) HEAT OF FUSION: Its heat of fusion is 13.26 kJ•mol−1.

(10) SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY: (25 °C) 24.440 J•mol−1•K−1.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPER

(1) COLOUR: Copper has a reddish, orange, or brownish color

because a thin layer of tarnish (including oxides) gradually forms on its

surface when gases (especially oxygen) in the air react with it. But pure

copper, when fresh is actually a pinkish or peachy metal. Copper,

caesium and gold are the only three elemental metals with a natural

color other than gray or silver. When copper is just above its melting

point, its pink luster color is retained if enough light outshines the

orange incandescence color.

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(2) ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES: Just after silver, copper has the highest

electrical conductivity of any element i.e. 59.6 × 106 S/m. This high

value is due to virtually all the valence electrons (one per atom) taking

part in conduction. A huge charge density of 13.6x109 C/m3 is

generated as a result of the free electrons in copper. The slow drift

velocity of currents experienced in copper cable is as a result of this

high charge of density.

Below is a combination of electrical bus bars made of copper and

used in distributing power to a large building.

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(3) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

Due to its ductility and malleability, copper is easily worked. Their

electrical property makes it easy for it to be drawn into wire for

electrical works.

Its good thermal conduction makes it useful for heat sinks and in heat

exchangers.

Copper has a good corrosion resistance but not as well as gold.

It has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can also be

welded, although best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.

(4) CORROSION:

 In solutions: Copper reacts with hydrogen sulfide- and sulfide-

containing solutions forming various copper sulfides on its

surface. In sulfide-containing solutions, copper is less noble than

hydrogen and will corrode. This is evident when copper metal

surfaces tarnish after exposure to air containing sulfur

compounds.

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 Copper slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a

layer of brown-black copper oxide but does not react with water.

In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, this oxide layer

stops the further bulk corrosion. A green layer of copper

carbonate, called verdigris can often be seen on old copper

constructions e.g. the Statue of Liberty.

Copper is slowly dissolved in oxygen containing ammonia

solutions because ammonia forms water-soluble complexes with

copper. Copper reacts with a combination of oxygen and

hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides. Copper (II)

chloride (green/blue) when boiled with copper metal undergoes a

symproportionation reaction to form white copper (I) chloride.

(5) OCCURRENCE: Copper is a polycrystal with the largest single

crystals measuring 4.4x3.2x3.2 cm3 and is found as native copper in

mineral form.

Below is a native copper, ca. 4×2 cm.

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(6) GROUP 11 OF PERIODIC TABLE: Copper occupies the same

family of the periodic table as silver and gold, since they each have one

s-orbital electron on top of a filled electron shell which forms metallic

bonds. This similarity in electron structure makes them similar in many

characteristics. All have very high thermal and electrical conductivity,

and all are malleable metals. Among pure metals at room temperature,

copper has the second highest electrical and thermal conductivity after

silver.

(7) GERMICIDAL EFFECT: Copper is germicidal via the oligodynamic

effect. Copper has the intrinsic ability to kill a variety of potentially

harmful pathogens but in colder temperature, longer time is required

to kill bacteria. Copper helps to reduce microbial contamination

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associated with hospital-acquired-infections by covering frequently

touch surfaces with copper alloy.

(8) ISOTOPES OF COPPER: Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in

atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two of these, 63Cu and 65Cu, are stable

and occur naturally, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of

naturally occurring copper. The remaining 27 isotopes are radioactive

and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is 67Cu with a

half-life of 61.83 hours. The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of

approximately 75 ns. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses

below 63 tend to undergo β+ decay, while isotopes with atomic masses

above 65 tend to undergo β− decay. 64Cu decays by both β+ and β−.

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 MANUFACTURE OF COPPER

RAW MATERIALS

Naturally, pure copper is rarely found but is usually combined with

other chemicals in the form of copper ores. There exist about 15

copper ores mine commercially in 40 countries around the world. Most

common among them are sulfide ores in which the copper is

chemically bonded with sulfur while others depending on chemicals

present are known as oxide ores, carbonate ores or mixed ores. Large

quantities of commercially useless material and significant quantities of

gold, silver, nickel, and other valuable metals are contained in many

copper ores.

The most common sulfide ore is chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2, also known as

copper pyrite or yellow copper ore. Chalcocite, Cu 2 S, is another

sulfide ore. Cuprite, or red copper ore, Cu 2 O, is an oxide ore.

Malachite, or green copper ore, Cu (OH) 2 •CuCO 3, is an important

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carbonate ore, as is azurite, or blue copper carbonate, Cu (OH) 2

•2CuCO 3.

Other ores include tennantite, boronite, chrysocolla, and atacamite.

In addition to the ores themselves, several other chemicals are often

used to process and refine copper. These include sulfuric acid, oxygen,

iron, silica, and various organic compounds, depending on the process

used.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF COPPER

The type of ore and the desired purity of the final product vary

according to the process used in extracting copper from copper ores.

Each process consists of several steps in which the concentration of

copper is progressively increased and unwanted materials are

chemically or physically removed. Some of these procedures are either

conducted at separate facilities or at the mine itself. Below are the

procedures followed in the manufacturing process of copper.

(1) MINING:

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  Drilling and blasting with explosives are used in taking sulfide

ores from huge open-pit mines. In this process, the overburden

(material located above the ore) is first removed to expose the

buried ore deposit. This produces an open pit that may grow to be

a mile or more across. A road is constructed which spirals down

the interior slope of the pits which allows for access to

equipments.

 Large powered shovels which are able to load up to 500-

900cubit feet (15-25 meters) in a single bite are used to scoop the

exposed ore. Giant dump trucks also known as Haul trucks are

used to load the ore and are transported up and out of the pit.

(2) CONCENTRATING: This is the process whereby waste materials

are removed from the copper ore because they usually contain a large

amount of dirt, clay, and a variety of non-copper bearing minerals.

This process is usually done using the flotation method. This process is

outlined below:

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  A series of cone crushers are used to crush the ore. Constituents

of a cone crusher include an interior grinding cone which rotates

on an eccentric vertical axis inside a fixed outer cone. As the ore

is fed into the top of the crusher, it is squeezed between the two

cones and broken down into smaller pieces.

 A series of mills are used to ground the crushed ore into even

smaller pieces. First, it is mixed with water and placed in a rod

mill, which consists of a large cylindrical container filled with

numerous short lengths of steel rod. As the cylinder rotates on its

horizontal axis, the steel rods tumble and break up the ore into

pieces about 0.13 in (3 mm) in diameter. This mixture (ore and

water) is further broken up in two ball mills which are like a rod

mill except steel balls are used instead of rods are used to further

break down the mixture of ore and water. Particles about 0.01 in

(0.25 mm) in diameter are found in the fine ground slurry ore

which emerges from the final ball mill.

 Various chemical reagents which coat the copper particles are

now mixed with the resulting slurry. A liquid, called a frother is

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 also added. Pine oil or long-chain alcohol are often used as

frothers. This mixture is pumped into rectangular tanks (flotation

cells) where air is injected into the slurry through the bottom of

the tanks. The copper particles cling to the bubbles as they rise to

the surface as a result of the chemical reagents. The frother forms

a thick layer of bubbles which overflows the tanks and is

collected in troughs. The bubbles are allowed to condense and the

water is drained off. The resulting mixture, called a copper

concentrate contains about 25-35% copper along with various

sulfides of copper and iron plus smaller concentrations of gold,

silver and other materials. The remaining materials in the tank

are called the gangue or tailings. They are pumped into settling

ponds and allowed to dry.

(3) SMELTING: The remaining copper concentrate must undergo

several chemical reactions to remove the iron and sulfur. This is done

once the waste materials have been physically removed from the ore

and this process is called smelting. This process traditionally involves

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two furnaces but though some modern plants utilize a single furnace

which combines both operations. The two traditional furnaces are

described below:

 A silica material called flux is fed into the furnace along with the

copper concentrate. Oxygen-enriched flash furnaces are utilized

by most smelters in which preheated oxygen-enriched air is

forced into the furnace to combust with fuel oil. The melted

copper concentrate and flux is collected at the bottom of the

furnace. Much of the iron in the concentrate chemically

combines with the flux to form a slag which is skimmed off the

surface of the molten material. Oxygen is combined with much of

the sulfur in the concentrate to form sulfur dioxide which is

exhausted from the furnace as a gas and is further treated in an

acid plant to produce sulfuric acid. The matte is the name given to

the remaining material at the bottom of the furnace. It is a

mixture of copper sulfides and iron sulfides and contains about

60% copper by weight.

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  The molten matte is drawn from the furnace and poured into a

second furnace called a converter. Additional silica flux is added

and oxygen is blown through the molten material. The chemical

reactions in the converter are similar to those in the flash furnace.

The silica flux reacts with the remaining iron to form a slag, and

the oxygen reacts with the remaining sulfur to form sulfur

dioxide. The slag may be fed back into the flash furnace to act as a

flux, and the sulfur dioxide is processed through the acid plant.

After the slag is removed, a final injection of oxygen removes all

but a trace of sulfur. The resulting molten material is called the

blister and contains about 99% copper by weight.

(4) REFINING: High enough levels of sulfur, oxygen, and other

impurities are contained in the copper blister even though it is 99%

copper which hampers further refining. To remove or adjust the levels

of these materials, the blister copper is first fire refined before it is sent

to the final electro refining process.

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  A refining furnace which is similar to the converter is used to

heat the blister copper. Some impurities are oxidized by blowing

air into the molten blister. A sodium carbonate flux may be added

to remove traces of arsenic and antimony. A sample of the molten

material is drawn and an experienced operator determines when

the impurities have reached an acceptable level. The molten

copper which is about 99.5% pure is then poured into molds to

form large electrical anodes which act as the positive terminals

for the electro-refining process.

 An individual tank or cell which is made of polymer-concrete is

where each copper anode is placed. There may be as many as

1,250 tanks in operation at one time. A sheet of copper is placed

on the opposite end of the tank to act as the cathode, or negative

terminal. The tanks are filled with an acidic copper sulfate

solution, which acts as an electrical conductor between the anode

and cathode. When an electrical current is passed through each

tank, the copper is stripped off the anode and is deposited on the

cathode. Most of the remaining impurities fall out of the copper

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 sulfate solution and form a slime at the bottom of the tank. After

about 9-15 days, the current is turned off and the cathodes are

removed. The cathodes now weigh about 300 lb (136 kg) and are

99.95-99.99% pure copper.

 The slime that collects at the bottom of the tank contains gold,

silver, selenium, and tellurium. It is collected and processed to

recover these precious metals.

(5) CASTING: After refining process, the copper cathodes are

melted and cast into ingots, cakes, billets, or rods depending on the

final application.

 Ingots are rectangular or trapezoidal bricks, which are remelted

along with other metals to make brass and bronze products.

 Cakes are rectangular slabs about 8 in (20 cm) thick and up to 28

ft (8.5 m) long. They are rolled to make copper plate, strip, sheet,

and foil products.

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  Billets are cylindrical logs about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter and

several feet (meters) long. They are extruded or drawn to make

copper tubing and pipe.

 Rods have a round cross-section about 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in

diameter. They are usually cast into very long lengths, which are

coiled. This coiled material is then drawn down further to make

copper wire.

Once this process is followed, copper of very high purity is produced.

To ensure this purity, samples are analyzed at various steps to

determine whether any adjustment to the process is required.

In the manufacture of copper, some byproducts are produced.

 Waste products include the overburden from the mining

operation, the tailings from the concentrating operation, and the

slag from the smelting operation. This waste may contain

significant concentrations of arsenic, lead, and other chemicals,

which pose a potential health hazard to the surrounding area.

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  The recovery of sulfuric acid from the copper smelting process

not only provides a profitable byproduct but also significantly

reduces the air pollution caused by the furnace exhaust.

 Gold, silver, and other precious metals are also important

byproducts.

Below is diagrammatic representation of the manufacturing process of

copper.

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 APPLICATIONS OF COPPER

The element copper is being used in almost all spheres of life. These

include:

(1) ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILDING INDUSTRY

 Copper is used to prevent a building being directly struck by

lightning. High above the roof, copper spikes (lightning rods) are

connected to a very thick copper cable which leads to a large

metal plate underneath the ground. The voltage is dispersed

throughout the ground harmlessly instead of destroying the main

structure.

 Copper is used as water-proof roofing material.

 Copper compounds in liquid form are used as wood preservatives

particularly in treating original portion of structures during

restoration of damage due to dry rot.

 It is used in statuary.

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  Alloyed with nickel and used as a corrosive resistant material in

shipbuilding.

 Copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing

materials to discourage the growth of moss.

(2) COMPUTERS: One of the vital components needed for a computer

to work is copper. It is used in the production of integrated circuits,

chips and the printed circuit boards of the computer.

(3) ELECTRICITY: Compared to silver, copper is the second best

conductor of electricity and is inexpensive which is why almost all

electrical devices rely on copper wiring. The reason why copper is a

good conductor is because there are a lot of free electrons that can

carry the flowing current efficiently. These free electrons do not remain

permanently associated with the copper atoms instead they form an

electron ‘cloud’ around the outside of the atom and are free to move

through the solid quickly.

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(4) CURRENCY: Copper is used as a component in coins often as

cupronickel alloy or some form of brass or bronze.

(5) BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS: In the health sector, two

radioactive isotopes of copper are used in medicine. These isotopes are

copper-64 and copper-67.

 Copper-64 is used to study brain function and to detect Wilson’s

disease (disease that occurs when a person cannot eliminate

copper from his or her body).

 Copper-67 treats cancer. When the isotope is injected into the

body it goes to cells that are cancerous and gives off radiation that

can kill the cancerous cells.

(6) PIPING: Due to its ease of fabrication, soldering as well as high

heat conductivity, copper is used extensively in making water pipes,

refrigerator and air conditioner equipment.

(7) HOUSE HOLD PRODUCTS: Copper is used in the production of

house hold products such as frying pans, bathtubs, sinks, slug tape,

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water heating cylinders, door knobs and other fixtures in the house,

plumbing fittings and compression tubes, roofing, guttering and

rainspouts on buildings.

(8) CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS:

 Compounds, such as Fehling’s solution have applications in

chemistry.

 As a component in ceramic glazes and to color glass.

 Copper acetate [Cu2O (C2H3O2)2]: Uses to treat artritis in patients,

used as an insecticide and also u sed as a fungicide.

 Copper Sulfate (CuS): Used to correct copper deficiency in

animals, used as a mulluscicide to kill slugs and snails stimulates

growth for fattening pigs and broiler chicks and it is also used to

control fungus disease.

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References

 Google search engine.

 Arc. Lekjep’s building material (II) lecture note.

 Microsoft Student Encarta 2008.

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Building materials II Page 47