applied

sciences
Article
The Design and Investigation of a Cooling System for
a High Power Ni-MH Battery Pack in Hybrid
Electric Vehicles
Aihua Chu 1,2, * , Yinnan Yuan 1,3,4, *, Jianxin Zhu 2,5 , Xiao Lu 2 and Chenquan Zhou 2
1 Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212000, China
2 Corun CHS Technology co., LTD, Shanghai 201501, China; zhujianxin@sjtu.edu.cn (J.Z.);
luxiao@chstec.com (X.L.); zhouchenquan@chstec.com (C.Z.)
3 Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
4 Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
5 Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
* Correspondence: chueva@126.com (A.C.); yuanyn@suda.edu.cn (Y.Y.); Tel.: +86-137-6402-6565 (A.C.)




Received: 15 January 2020; Accepted: 26 February 2020; Published: 1 March 2020


Featured Application: Authors are encouraged to provide a concise description of the specific
application or a potential application of the work. This section is not mandatory.

Abstract: High power cylindrical Ni-MH battery cells have a heavy heat load because of their high
discharge rate and large equivalent internal resistance. This heavy heat load, together with an
imbalanced flow in parallel liquid cooling systems, can lead to variances in the temperature of each
cell in the entire battery pack, thereby reducing the life cycle of the battery pack. In this paper,
a parallel-series combined liquid cooling system for a 288V Ni-MH battery pack was designed,
and several parameters that influence the flow balance of the system by heat transfer and fluid
dynamics were calculated. Then, a thermal-fluid simulation was executed with different parameters
using StarCCM+ software, and the simulation results were validated by a battery pack temperature
experiment on a bench and in a vehicle. The results indicate that the cell’s temperature and
temperature differences can be kept within an ideal range. We also determined that within the
battery power requirements and structural spacing limits, the total flow rate of the cooling liquid,
the cross-sectional area ratio of the main pipe to the branch pipes, and the number of internal
supporting walls in each branch pipe need to be large enough to minimize the cell’s maximum
temperature and temperature differences.

Keywords: hybrid electric vehicle; high power battery; liquid-cooling system; Ni-MH; heat calculation
and simulation

1. Introduction
In recent years, the market of novel energy vehicles, including electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles, has grown fast [1,2]. Power batteries, as one of the most important parts in electric vehicles
(EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) [3], have attracted the majority of attention from researchers
and engineers. A whole battery pack in a vehicle commonly contains several single cells connected
serially or in parallel [4]. A large quantity of battery cells will generate a large amount of heat and
cause temperatures to rise during the charge and discharge process [5,6]. A cell’s voltage, energy,
efficiency, and life cycle are deeply influenced by its operating temperature [7,8]. Further thermal
runaway and safety issues can occur if the heat is not able to be dissipated effectively [9]. In addition,
the temperature difference between each cell can lead to a variable capacity descending rate, which also

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660; doi:10.3390/app10051660 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 2 of 22

reduces the life cycle of a battery pack. At temperatures exceeding 50 ◦ C, charging efficiency and
battery life deteriorate the most rapidly due to heat [10,11]. Therefore, it is necessary to pay more
attention to the research of battery thermal management system (BTMS), which is very important for
battery performance, life and safety. Pesaran et al. [12] noted that Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries’ ideal
operating temperatures range from 25 to 40 ◦ C, and the temperature differences between the cells
within a battery pack should be below 5 ◦ C.

1.1. Literature Review

Plenty of works have been done in the field of battery thermal management system for commercially
sold EVs and HEVs in the market, such as direct air cooling, liquid cooling, phase change material,
heat pipes, hybrid cooling system and other emerging cooling technologies.
The air-cooling system uses air as the heat exchange medium to let the air sweep across the
battery surface to take away the heat generated by the battery. The air-cooling system is the most
widely used cooling mode with simple structure, light weight, low cost and convenient maintenance.
Chen YF et al. [13] showed that the thermal conductivity of Li-ion battery was low, and air cooling
alone could not meet the requirements of thermal management. Harmel et al. [14] and Chen et al. [15]
analyzed the thermal balance of li-ion batteries and found that when the wind speed reached a
certain degree, increasing the wind speed had little effect on the heat dissipation effect of the batteries.
Nelson et al. [16] have shown that the cooling effect of an air-cooling system is poor when the ambient
temperature is high. In addition, the air-cooling system has a large volume and poor protection level,
which limits its application in battery packs with a large scale.
The liquid-cooling system uses the circulating flow of the coolant to take away the heat generated
in the battery. The coolant has higher specific heat capacity and higher heat exchange efficiency,
which makes it easier to meet the cooling and heating requirements of the battery comparing with air.
The research of Pesaran et al. [7] and Nelson et al. [16] confirmed this point of view. The liquid-cooling
system has been widely studied and applied in recent years because of its good cooling effect and
reasonable cost, which has allowed the technology to develop rapidly. Huo et al. [17] showed that the
number of channels, flow rate and liquid flow direction have an important impact on the cooling effect
of the straight cooling channel, and gave suggestions on the number of channels and the requirement
flow rate. Jarrett et al. [18] studied the influence of different serpentine structures on the temperature
uniformity and average temperature of the cooling plate. However, their research only focuses on
a single cooling plate corresponding to several cells, not on the real, large-scale battery thermal
management system, which comprehensively considered the flow distribution, pressure drop and
temperature difference. Moreover, the effect of heat generation and heat dissipation under different
current ratio is worthy of further study.
The heat pipe is a technology of thermal management based on the principle of phase change heat
transfer. Flexible geometry, low maintenance requirements and good thermal conductivity make it
attractive as a BTMS option [19–21], however, the complex manufacturing process and high cost limit
the large-scale use of heat pipe [22]. The PCM cooling system uses phase change materials to absorb
the heat generated by the battery in the form of latent heat, which has the advantages of excellent
uniform temperature effect and large heat storage capacity [23,24], but with the disadvantages of
low thermal conductivity and volume change affecting the application and promotion of PCM [25].
The independent passive phase change material system and heat pipe system are only conducive
to heat transfer and storage. For large-scale or high-power battery systems, it is difficult to transfer
the heat to the outside of the battery pack by itself in the natural state. It is necessary to combine
independent cooling technology into a hybrid heat management system [26], for example, PCM and
air-cooling combination [27], PCM and liquid cooling combination [28], PCM, HP and air-cooling
combination [29], etc. The hybrid thermal management system combines the advantages of various
cooling technologies, but the design cost and material cost are too expensive, and the implementation
of the system is very complex.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 3 of 22

Several other emerging cooling technologies have been studied recently, such as thermoelectric
coolers (TECs) [30], thermo–acoustic refrigerators (TARs) [31], active magnetic regenerators (AMRs) [32],
and internal cooling in battery cells [33]. These techniques offer many advantages, but they require
much more works before they can be commercially applied in vehicles. Technology readiness level
(TRL), designed by NASA in the late 1990s is a useful evaluation towards the market (Table 1). The TRL
index can be used as a rough estimation of the required costs, time to market, risks taken, and so
on [34]. With the increase of TRL, the technical is more mature and close to mass production.

Table 1. Technology readiness level (TRL) of battery thermal management system (BTMS) in vehicles.

Technology Readiness Level Air Liquid PCM HP Emerging

TRL 9—Complete industrialization O O
TRL 8—Optimization O O
TRL 7—Entry into production O O
TRL 6—Application development in product O O O O
TRL 5—Verification in production equipment O O O O
TRL 4—Verification in representative prototype O O O O
TRL 3—Verification in the laboratory O O O O O
TRL 2—Feasibility and profitability analysis O O O O O
TRL 1—Investigation of the fundamentals of technology O O O O O

In conclusion, although different thermal management systems have their own advantages and
disadvantages, liquid cooling is generally the best solution of thermal management systems. Qu [35]
evaluated the battery thermal management system by the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) proposed
by Saaty [36], a famous American operational research scientist. The results also prove the advantages
of a liquid-cooling system comprehensively considering technology, maturity, consumption, cost and
other factors. The global market sales data shows the absolute advantages of air-cooling and liquid-
cooling systems. The battery pack of HEVs is small and arranged inside the vehicle, and air cooling is
basically adopted, such as in the Toyota Prius; the battery pack of EVs and PHEVs is large and arranged
outside the vehicle, and liquid-cooling system is basically adopted, such as in the Tesla Model 3.
The research object of this paper is a Ni-MH battery pack applied to a hybrid sport utility vehicle
(SUV), which has a higher current ratio than Prius and is mounted on the bottom of the chassis to
obtain a flat trunk space. In order to achieve better thermal management performance, a liquid-cooling
system is selected and applied.

1.2. Contributions and Organization

Pesaran et al. [37] systematically put forward the design process of BTMS: (1) determine the
design objective and layout boundary; (2) determine the heat generation rate and thermal characteristic
parameters of the battery; (3) determine the channel structure and preliminary formulation scheme;
(4) determine the feasibility scheme through numerical simulation; and (5) experiment verification and
design optimization.
In this paper, a performance-optimized and engineering-oriented properly liquid cooled plate
was designed to meet the requirements of a battery pack in a certain hybrid SUV. In addition to
the five steps before, this paper particularly emphasizes the role of theoretical calculation, which,
together with numerical simulation, effectively reduces development costs, shortens development
cycle, and improves development success probability and maturity. The organization of this study is
introduced in Figure 1.
The internal parameters of this cooling plate, including the cross-sectional area ratio of the
main pipe to the branch pipes and the number of internal supporting walls in the branch pipe,
were analyzed and studied. In addition to these inner parameters, the boundary conditions for
the flow uniformity, pressure loss, flow rate, differential currents, differential inlet temperatures,
and temperature performance of the pipe-based mixed parallel-series liquid-cooling system were also
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 4 of 22

analyzed and studied. Three-dimensional finite element models of the packs’ cooling systems and
batteries were set up and numerically simulated. Then, a temperature test platform with the battery
Appl.
pack,Sci.battery
2020, 10,tester,
x FOR PEER REVIEW tank was established to verify the theoretical design and simulation.
and cooling 4 of 23

Figure 1. Organization of the study.

The internal parameters of this cooling plate, including the cross-sectional area ratio of the main
pipe to the branch pipes and the number of internal supporting walls in the branch pipe, were
analyzed and studied. In addition to these inner parameters, the boundary conditions for the flow
uniformity, pressure loss, flow rate, differential currents, differential inlet temperatures, and
temperature performance of the pipe-based mixed parallel-series liquid-cooling system were also
analyzed and studied. Three-dimensional finite element models of the packs’ cooling systems and
batteries were set up and numerically simulated. Then, a temperature test platform with the battery
pack, battery tester, and cooling tank was established to verify the theoretical design and simulation.
Organizationofofthe
Figure1.1.Organization
Figure thestudy.
study.
2. Preliminary Design
2. Preliminary Design
The internal parameters of this cooling plate, including the cross-sectional area ratio of the main
2.1. Parameters of the Battery Pack
pipe to the branch
2.1. Parameters of thepipes
Batteryand Packthe number of internal supporting walls in the branch pipe, were
analyzedThe battery pack was
and studied. installed to
In addition in these
a fullyinner
hybrid SUV, in which
parameters, the electricconditions
the boundary power system requires
for the flow
The battery
a voltage rating ofpack was
288loss,
V and installed
40 kW inpeak
a fully hybrid
power. SUV, in which
Considering the electric
the safety ofinletpower
NiMH system and
batteries requires
the
uniformity, pressure flow rate, differential currents, differential temperatures, and
a voltage rating
advantages of aofwide
288 Vtemperature
and 40 kW peak range, power.
a Considering
NiMH battery the
was safety of NiMH
selected to batteries
meet the and the
system
temperature performance of the pipe-based mixed parallel-series liquid-cooling system were also
advantages of
requirement athe
wide temperature range, a project.
NiMH battery was selected to meet
wasthe system requirement
analyzed andofstudied.vehicle in this research
Three-dimensional Each single
finite element modelsbattery
of the cell
packs’ acooling
cylinder type and
systems and is
of the vehicle
used in HEVs, in this research
including project.
the Toyota Prius Each single
I, Hondabattery cell
Insight, was a cylinder
and Honda type and is600
usedthousand
in HEVs,
batteries were set up and numerically simulated. Then, a temperature testCivic;
platformaboutwith the battery
including
sets have the Toyota
been massand Prius I, Honda
produced so far. Insight,
The and Honda of
manufacturer Civic; about 600 thousand sets have been
pack, battery tester, cooling tank was established to verifythis
the battery
theoretical used to beand
design Shonan Corun
simulation.
mass produced so far. The manufacturer of this battery used to
Energy Co., Ltd. (Kanagawa, Japan), but it was acquired and is now produced by Hunan Co-power be Shonan Corun Energy Co., Ltd.
2.(Kanagawa,
EVPreliminary Japan),
Battery co., Design but it was acquired and is now produced by Hunan Co-power
Ltd. (Changsha, China). The shape of the battery cells are shown in Figure 2a, and the EV Battery co., Ltd.
(Changsha,
electrical China). The
parameters areshape
shownofinthe battery
Table cellscell
2. Each are has
showna 6 in
AhFigure
rated 2a, and thea electrical
capacity, 1.2 V rated parameters
voltage,
are
2.1. shown
andParameters in Table 2. Each
of the Battery
a peak discharge powerPack cell
of 185 W. A total of 240 battery cells were connected in serial todischarge
has a 6 Ah rated capacity, a 1.2 V rated voltage, and a peak meet the
power of
system 185 W. A total of of 240 batteryTocells were connected in serial to meet the system requirements of
Therequirements
battery pack was the vehicle.
installed improve
in a fully hybridtheSUV,
integration
in which efficiency,
the electrica commercial
power system L5 requires
module,
the vehicle. To improve the integration efficiency, a48commercial L5weremodule, formed by modules
welding are five
aformed
voltagebyrating
welding fiveVcells
of 288 andin 40series,
kW peak and a total of
power. L5 modules,
Considering the safety used.
of NiMHThese L5
batteries and the
cells in series,
designed to of and a total
be ainstalled of 48 L5 modules,
in two identical were used. These L5 modules are designed to be installed
advantages wide temperature range,battery
a NiMH modules.
batteryEach wasbattery
selected module
to meet contains 24 L5
the system
in two identical
modules, which battery
are modules.
arranged in Each
two battery
layers with module
12 L5 contains 24
modules in L5 modules,
each layer. which
One of aretwo
the arranged
battery in
requirement of the vehicle in this research project. Each single battery cell was a cylinder type and is
two
moduleslayers with 12
with aincludingL5 modules
cooling plate in
is showneach layer.
in Figure One2b. Insight, and Honda Civic; about 600 thousandis
of the two battery modules with a cooling plate
used in HEVs, the Toyota Prius I, Honda
shown in Figure 2b.
sets have been mass produced so far. The manufacturer of this battery used to be Shonan Corun
Energy Co., Ltd. (Kanagawa, Japan), but it was acquired and is now produced by Hunan Co-power
EV Battery co., Ltd. (Changsha, China). The shape of the battery cells are shown in Figure 2a, and the
electrical parameters are shown in Table 2. Each cell has a 6 Ah rated capacity, a 1.2 V rated voltage,
and a peak discharge power of 185 W. A total of 240 battery cells were connected in serial to meet the
system requirements of the vehicle. To improve the integration efficiency, a commercial L5 module,
formed by welding five cells in series, and a total of 48 L5 modules, were used. These L5 modules are
designed to be installed in two identical battery modules. Each battery module contains 24 L5
modules, which are (a) arranged in two layers with 12 L5 modules in each (b) layer. One of the two battery
modules withFigure a cooling
2. Theplate
shape is shown in Figure
of the battery. 2b.battery cells; (b) the L5 battery module.
(a) The
Figure 2. The shape of the battery. (a) The battery cells; (b) the L5 battery module.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. The shape of the battery. (a) The battery cells; (b) the L5 battery module.
 Normal Voltage (V) 1.2 6 288
Capacity (Ah) 6 6 6
Energy (Wh) 7.2 36 1728
DC-IR (mΩ) 2.5 12.5 600
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 Discharge power 1 (W) 185 925 40,000 2 5 of 22
125 °C, 50% SOC, 10 s. 2 The total power of the battery pack is smaller than the theoretical value
because of the consistency of the battery cells.
Table 2. Basic performance parameters of the NI-MH cells and pack.

2.2. Structure of the Cooling

ItemsPlate Cell L5 Module Pack

To ensure aNumber long lifeof cells

cycle, good capacity 1 performance, 5 and good power 240 performance, the
Normal Voltage (V) 1.2 6 288
battery is designed to operate at a target temperature range (25 to 45 °C), and the temperature
Capacity (Ah) 6 6 6
difference betweenEnergy the cells
(Wh)should be within 7.25 °C. Considering 36 the overall cost, 1728system complexity,
heat transfer performance,
DC-IR (mΩ) etc., a liquid-cooling
2.5 system was designed
12.5 and is presented
600 in Figure 3.
1 (W) 2
The whole batterypower
Discharge pack consists of two185battery modules, 925and the cooling 40,000system also includes
two cooling
1 ◦
25 C, 50%modules.
SOC, 10 s.The
2 Thetwo
totalcooling
power ofmodules
the battery were
pack isconnected
smaller thanin
theparallel,
theoreticalas shown
value in of
because Figure
the 3a.
Eachconsistency of the battery
cooling module cells.
cools one battery module, as shown in Figure 3b. The cooling module consists
of one inlet pipe, one outlet pipe, and five serpentine pipes. Five serpentine pipes were connected in
2.2. Structure
parallel, and of
thetheinlet
Cooling
was Plate
designed at a lower horizon than the outlet to facilitate expelling bubbles.
A total of 24 battery cells were
To ensure a long life cycle, good placed in contact
capacity with each and
performance, serpentine pipe and
good power cooled one
performance, bybattery
the one in
series, and thermal silica gel pads were added between the cells
◦ and cooling
is designed to operate at a target temperature range (25 to 45 C), and the temperature difference pipes to improve the
thermal the
between contact. This structure
cells should be within forms
5 C.a Considering
◦ mixed parallel-series
the overallcooling system.complexity, heat transfer
cost, system
performance, etc., a liquid-cooling system was designed and is presented in Figure 3.

Ti,j H i, Q i

Tout Tin, Qtotal

(a) (b)

Sb(i), N=4

(c) (d)
Figure3.3.Liquid-cooling
Figure Liquid-coolingsystem.
system. (a)(a)
A 3DA 3D
viewview oftwo
of the the cooling
two cooling modules,
modules, including
including therubber
the in/out in/out
rubber
pipes pipes connected
connected in parallel;
in parallel; (b) schematic
(b) schematic of themodule;
of the cooling cooling module; (c) schematic
(c) schematic side viewside view
of the of the
cooling
cooling and
module module and the
the battery battery
cell; cell; (d) cross-sectional
(d) cross-sectional view of theview of thepipe
serpentine serpentine pipe (with
(with internal internal
walls).
walls).
The whole battery pack consists of two battery modules, and the cooling system also includes
two cooling modules. The two cooling modules were connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3a.
Each cooling module cools one battery module, as shown in Figure 3b. The cooling module consists of
one inlet pipe, one outlet pipe, and five serpentine pipes. Five serpentine pipes were connected in
parallel, and the inlet was designed at a lower horizon than the outlet to facilitate expelling bubbles. A
total of 24 battery cells were placed in contact with each serpentine pipe and cooled one by one in
series, and thermal silica gel pads were added between the cells and cooling pipes to improve the
thermal contact. This structure forms a mixed parallel-series cooling system.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 6 of 22

In addition, because the cross-section was rectangular with a large width to height ratio
(30 × 2.75 mm), this structure required support walls inside to prevent deformation under stress.
This stress occurs because of two phenomena: the first is that the straight pipe is extruded into the
curved pipe during the production process, and the other is that the pipe is always under the pressure
of the battery cells and the bracket during the operation process. According to the section size of the
pipes mentioned in this paper, about 3~4 internal supporting walls can overcome this stress to prevent
deformation. The internal supporting walls will divide the flow into several independent flow paths
and form a harmonica-like structure. Parameter N represents the number of internal walls within one
serpentine pipe (e.g., in Figure 3d N = 4). The number of internal walls will affect the heat transfer and
pressure drop of the pipes. How to choose a suitable number of internal walls is of great significance
and will be studied and analyzed in Section 4.

3. Theoretical Analysis
To improve the temperature’s uniformity and reduce the maximum temperature between battery
cells, despite the assembly errors and production errors of cells and structural components, it is
necessary to reduce the flow unevenly between pipes and increase the temperature along each pipe.
Since the serpentine pipe cannot be changed much, only the inner diameter (D) of the main (in/out)
pipe was adjusted to improve flow consistency.
We next define the cross-sectional area ratio δ:
Sa
δ= (1)
5Sb

where Sa and Sb are the cross-sectional area of the main pipe and serpentine pipe, respectively.
The bias rate of flow β is defined as the maximum relative flow rate difference between each
branch (Qi denotes the mass flow rate in branch i):

Qi,max − Qi,min
β= (2)
Qi,min

In this section, a thermal model of the heat transfer process of each cell at a steady state is
developed, and then the thermal–hydraulic performance of each cooling channel is investigated.
The related symbols are defined in Nomenclature.

3.1. Heat Generation Process

As shown in formula (3), the heat generation of Ni-MH batteries includes electrochemical reaction
heat (Φr ), polarization heat (Φp ), side reaction heat (Φs ), and Joule heat (Φj ) [38]. The operation process
is divided into two phases: the normal charge–discharge phase and the overcharge phase. The calorific
value is related to the magnitude and direction of the current (I). Because the SOC working range is
controlled within 30%~70% to avoid overcharging in HEVs, the sub reaction heat is approximately
zero. According to the exothermic charge and endothermic discharge, the total reaction heat can be
ignored by using alternating current.

Φ = Φr + Φp + Φ j + Φs
= (±)0.547I + 3.6I2 Rp + 3.6I2 Re + 5.334I (kJ/h) (3)
≈ 3.6I2 Rp + 3.6I2 Re = 3.6I2 Rt (kJ/h) = I2 Rt (W )

Therefore, the calorific value mainly comes from the polarization heat and Joule heat. Since the
polarization resistance (Rp ) and electronic resistance (Re ) cannot be calculated directly, the total internal
DC resistance (Rt ) is used for the equivalent calculation, which is the sum of the polarization resistance
and electronic resistance. The internal resistance of the cells is treated as a constant, which means that
it does not vary with changes in the state of charge (SOC), temperature, or other parameters.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 7 of 22

3.2. Heat Transfer Process

All heat generated in this process is transferred to and taken out by a coolant. The heat transferred
from cell to cell and from cell to ambient is neglected. A schematic structure of the single cell cooling
model is shown in Figure 4a, including the heat flow transferred from conduction in the cell, conduction
in the silicon layer, conduction in the aluminum pipe wall, and convection at the solid–liquid interface.
The heat transfer process from the cell–silicon interface to the coolant can easily be simplified to a
one-dimensional heat transfer problem and represented as thermal resistance, as in Figure 4b. The heat
transfers from the coil to the pipe by conduction. According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the
heat flow is:
∆T
Φ = kA (4)
t
and the conduction heat resistance, R, is defined as:

t
R= (5)
kA
where k, A, and t are the heat conductivity, heat conduction area, and thickness of the medium,
respectively. Thus, for R1 , R2 , and R3 , we find:

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW tpvc

tpad twall
R1 = ; R2 = ; R3 = (6)8 of 23
kpvc A kpad A kwall A

Tc

Coil R1
φ T1
Shell
R2

PVC T2
R3
Thermal Pad Tw
Wall of Pipe R4

Fluid Tf

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 4. A single
4. A single celltransfer
cell heat heat transfer
model.model. (a) Schematic
(a) Schematic of theofheat
thetransfer
heat transfer pass
pass of of a single
a single cell (b)
cell (b)
presented
presented as heatasresistance.
heat resistance.

FromAdditionally,
pipe to fluid, the convection
inside the cell,heat flow, using
ignoring the equation
the heat from
transfer in theNewton’s law of we
axis direction, cooling,
find is:
a two-
dimensional conducting problem with the heat source. Since the temperature distribution within
Φ = hA
each cell is not investigated in this article, (Twflow
heat ) be written as heat resistance:
− T fcan (7)

T  Ts
Thus, the convection heat resistance at the pipe–fluid R4 , is:
  c interface, (12)
Rc
1
R4 = (8)
where Rc is the equivalent heat resistance within
hA f the battery cell and is determined by the cell’s
materials, components, and dimensions. Tc is the maximum temperature in the cell, Ts is the
For a smooth rectangular
temperature pipe,steel
of the battery’s the shell,
convective
and Φheat transfer
is the coefficient
heat flow at the at the inner
contact wall of the pipe
surface.
can be obtained from the Nusselt number Nu, its hydraulic diameter
The bending characteristic is neglected in the thermal calculation. d H , and the heat
Theconductivity of
serpentine pipe is
kf , using Equation
fluid considered (8):
to be straight. For one cell j on serpentine pipe i, the cell’s maximum temperature Tc,i,j, can
be obtained by the following equation: kf
h = Nu (9)
dH

Tc,i, j  Tf ,i , j   Rc  R1  R2  R3  R4  (13)

where the local fluid temperature at the corresponding battery is:

T f ,i , j 
1
T in ,i , j  Tout ,i , j  (14)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 8 of 22

The laminar flow in pipes is calculated according to the Sieder and Tate correlation [39], where Nu is
!1
µf
!0.14
3
d
Nu = 1.86 RePr f H (10)
Lb µw

Lb is the length of the branch pipe, and µ is the dynamic viscosity (subscript f and w represent the
fluid temperature and wall temperature, respectively). The Reynolds number Re and Prandtl number
(for the temperature of the fluid) Prf are:

VdH µCp
Re = , Pr f = . (11)
ν k
For pipes with inner support, assuming the temperature on the supporting walls is uniform and
neglecting the heat transfer at the opposite surface, R4 can also be calculated from Equations (7)–(10).
Additionally, inside the cell, ignoring the heat transfer in the axis direction, we find a
two-dimensional conducting problem with the heat source. Since the temperature distribution
within each cell is not investigated in this article, heat flow can be written as heat resistance:

Tc − Ts
Φ= (12)
Rc

where Rc is the equivalent heat resistance within the battery cell and is determined by the cell’s materials,
components, and dimensions. Tc is the maximum temperature in the cell, Ts is the temperature of the
battery’s steel shell, and Φ is the heat flow at the contact surface.
The bending characteristic is neglected in the thermal calculation. The serpentine pipe is considered
to be straight. For one cell j on serpentine pipe i, the cell’s maximum temperature Tc,i,j , can be obtained
by the following equation:

Tc,i,j − T f ,i,j = Φ(Rc + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ) (13)

where the local fluid temperature at the corresponding battery is:

1 
T f ,i,j = Tin,i,j + Tout,i,j (14)
2
On each serpentine pipe, 24 cells are cooled in series, so:

Tin,i,1 = Tin , Tin,i,j = Tout,i,j−1 (15)

In addition, the temperature rise of the coolant can be calculated by the following energy equation:
.
Φ = Cp m(Tout − Tin ) (16)

Putting Equations (4)–(16) together, we can determine the maximum temperature of each cell
under a certain heat generation, coolant flow rate of the pipe, and inlet temperature. A pre-defined
working state, heat generation, total coolant flow rate, and inlet temperature could be calculated to
choose a reasonable range, but in order to obtain the temperature consistency of all the batteries,
further calculations would be needed.

3.3. Thermal–Hydraulic Performance

In a parallel flow system with n branches, the pressure loss or head loss in each branch is equal
according to the Bernoulli equation [40]:

H1 = H2 = . . . = Hi . . . = Hn (17)
 In a parallel flow system with n branches, the pressure loss or head loss in each branch is equal
according to the Bernoulli equation [40]:

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660

H1  H 2  H i ...  H n (17)
9 of 22

For each cooling module, n = 5, and for branch i, there is [41]:

For each cooling module, n = 5, and for branch
2 i, there is [41]:
2
V lV
Hi  
X 2Vg2
  ldV22g
X (18)
Hi = ξ + λ (18)
local loss，2g
H local
local friction dloss,
2g H
fri
fri
} }
local loss,Hlocal friction loss, Hfri
The head loss consists of two parts, the local loss and the friction loss. For the ith branch, the
local The
loss head
contains
loss the loss at
consists oftwo
twothree-way connectors
parts, the local and
loss and theatfriction
24 bending
loss. positions
For the ithon the serpentine
branch, the local
pipe
loss contains the loss at two three-way connectors and at 24 bending positions on the serpentineofpipe
(in contact with the 24 battery cells, see Figure 3c) along the flow pass. A representation the
local loss factor
(in contact ξ of24the
with the three-way
battery connectors
cells, see is shown
Figure 3c) in Figure
along the 5. The
flow pass. loss for the ithofbranch
A representation is
the local
represented in Figure 6.
loss factor ξ of the three-way connectors is shown in Figure 5. The loss for the ith branch is represented
in Figure 6.

V22 V22

ξ1-2 V33 V33 ξ2-1

1-2 2-1

ξ1-3
1-3 ξ3-1
3-1

V11 V11

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Schematic
Schematic of
of the
the three-way
three-way connector.
connector. (a)
(a) Separate
Separate flow;
flow; (b)
(b) convergence
convergence flow.
flow.

Figure 6. Schematic of the head loss for the ith branch.

Figure 6. Schematic of the head loss for the ith branch.
Then, the sum of the local head loss between in and out for branch i is:
Then, the sum of the local head loss between in and out for branch i is:
Hlocal,i = H1−2,1 + H1−2,2 + . . . + H1−2,i−1 + H1−3,i + 24Hbend,i + H3−1,i + H2−1,1 + H2−1,2 + . . . + H2−1,i−1 (19)

where the local three-way loss is: (a–b represent 1–2, 1–3, 3–1, 2–1)

ξa−b,i 2
Ha−b,i = V (20)
2g main,i
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 10 of 22

where the local loss factor ξa–b is calculated from the experimental equations in [42,43]:
!2 !2 ! !2 !2 !
V2 V3 V2 V3 V V
ξ1−2 = 0.35 1 − , ξ1−3 = 0.5 + 1, ξ2−1 = 0.5 1 − , ξ3−1 = − 2 + 0.5 1 − 2 (21)
V1 V1 V1 V1 V1 V1

The local loss at each bending position on the serpentine pipe is:

ξbend 2
Hbend,i = V (22)
2g i

where the local loss factor ξbend is calculated from the experimental equations in [42,43]. L/2 is the
bending radius (half of the cell’s center distance L in Figure 3c).

dH 3.5 60◦
ξbend = [0.131 + 0.163( ) ] ◦. (23)
L/2 90

The sectional average speed V can be represented by the volumetric flow rate Q divided by the
cross-sectional area Sa and Sb, so:
n
P
Qm
m=i Qi
Vmain,i = , Vi = , (24)
Sa Sb

where
n
X
Qm = Qn + Qn−1 + . . . + Qi . (25)
m=i

From Equations (20)–(25), the local head loss through the ith branch is:
 P n 2  Pn 2  Pn 2  Pn 2
i−1
 Qm   Qm   Qm  i−1
 Qm  !2
X ξ1−2,i  m=i

 + ξ1−3,i  m=i
 

 + ξ3−1,i  m=i
 
  X ξ2−1,i  m=i

 + 24 ξturn Qi

Hlocal,i =   +  (26)
2g  Sa  2g  Sa  2g  Sa  2g  Sa  2g Sb
      
i=1       i=1  

The friction loss Hfri,i comprises the loss along each segment in the main pipe and branch pipe for
the cooling plate in Group Set A:

i−1
X λ La 2 λ Lb 2
Hfri,i,A = 2 Vmain,i + V . (27)
2g d 2g dH i
i=1

For the cooling plate in Group Set B, there are two segments of additional main silicone tube inlets
and outlets with a length of LC , so:

i−1
X λ La 2 λ Lb 2 λ Lc 2
Hfri,i,B = 2 Vmain,i + Vi + 2 V . (28)
2g d 2g dH 2g d main,1
i=1

Since the coolant flow in our system is within the laminar range, the friction loss factor λ is:

64 Vmain,i d Vd
λ= , Remain,i = , Rei = i H . (29)
Re ν ν
From Equations (27)–(29), the friction head loss for the cooling plate in Group Set A is:
n
P
i Qm
X 32νLa m=1 32νLb Qi
Hfri,i,A = 2 + (30)
i=1
d2 g Sa dH 2 g Sb
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 11 of 22

The friction head loss for the cooling plate in Group Set B is:

Pn n
P
i Qm Qm
X 32νLa m=i 32νLb Qi 32νLc m=1
Hfri,i,B =2 + +2· 2 (31)
i=1
d2 g Sa dH 2 g Sb d g Sa

Thus, a mathematical relationship between Hi and Q1 ~Qn has been established, and the flow
of different channels (the bias flow rate β) can be obtained by iterative calculations according to
Equation (17). According to the heat transfer formula introduced in Section 3.2, the maximum
temperature and temperature difference corresponding to different flows can also be calculated.
In this section, based on the cooling structure proposed in Section 2, heat transfer calculations
and thermal hydraulic calculations are performed using theoretical Formulas (1)–(31). The design
parameters of the cooling plate and the reasonable values of the boundary conditions are thus obtained,
thereby providing theoretical guidance for the simulation and reducing the number of combinations
required for the simulation. In order to ensure that the battery temperature does not exceed 45 ◦ C,
and the temperature consistency does not exceed 5 ◦ C, the parameter range was estimated through
theoretical calculations, as follows:

• Five diameters of the main pipe were used: D = 12 mm (δ = 0.484), D = 14.5 mm (δ = 0.707),
D = 17 mm (δ = 0.973), D = 19.5 mm (δ = 1.278), and D = 22 mm (δ = 0.1627).
• The boundary conditions for the simulation were as follows: The maximum current must not
exceed 35 A, the maximum inlet temperature of the coolant must not exceed 30 ◦ C, and the coolant
flow must be greater than 5 L/min.

Subsequently, three sets of currents (25 A, 30 A, 35 A), two sets of inlet coolant temperatures (25 ◦ C,
30 ◦ C), and two sets of coolant flow (5 L/min, 10 L/min) were orthogonally combined for simulation
and verification.

4. Numerical Simulation

4.1. Geometry Model and Parameter Settings

The battery model is divided into three parts: the PVC film, the steel shell, and the battery core.
For thermal conductivity, the PVC film and steel shell are isotropic materials, and the battery core
is an anisotropic material. The following four types of contact surfaces have coupled heat transfer
relationships: the coolant liquid and aluminum alloy liquid cold plate, the aluminum alloy liquid
cooling plate and thermal silica gel pad, the thermal silica gel pad and battery surface, and the battery
core and aluminum alloy liquid cold plate. The relationship between the rest of the parts and the air in
the box is a natural convective heat transfer relationship, which refers to a relationship between the
shell and the external environment. The physical properties of the materials of each part of the model
are shown in Table 3. The mesh system was generated in the commercial CFD software StarCCM+.
A three-dimension finite element model of the packs’ cooling system and batteries was then set up and
is shown in Figure 7a.

Table 3. Physical properties of the materials.

Specific Heat Capacity Thermal Conductivity

Material Density kg/m3
J/(kg·K) W/(m·K)
50% ethylene glycol 1082 3300 0.4
Cell material 3270 1537 15.1(Axial)/1(Radial)
Surface steel 7870 448 80
Polyvinyl chloride film 1140 1670 0.2
Thermal silica gel pad 2600 2190 1.5
Aluminum alloy cooling plate 2700 903 237
 A steady flow with a certain temperature at the inlet;
 Free flow at the outlet with zero pressure;
 A conjugated boundary at the solid–fluid interface;
 Uniform heat generation in the cells;
 Appl.Adiabatic
Sci. 2020, 10,at1660
all other outer surfaces of the cells and pipes. 12 of 22

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure7.7.
Geometry models:
Geometry (a)(a)
models: battery cells
battery with
cells a cooling
with plate;
a cooling (b)(b)
plate; single-battery heat
single-battery transfer
heat model
transfer model
(grid level 1).
(grid level 1).

4.2. Grid
TheIndependence
boundary conditions in this study are as follows:

• AAsingle-battery
steady flow with heat atransfer
certain model, Figureat7b,
temperature theisinlet;
applied to assess the grid independence of the
computational
• domain. The meshes
Free flow at the outlet with zero pressure;mainly consist of polyhedral meshes. Locale mesh refinement
with
• prism
A conjugated boundary at the solid–fluid interface;applied within the narrow fluid domain to
layer meshes on the solid–liquid interface is
better
• computeheat
Uniform the generation
boundary layerin the flow
cells; and enhance accuracy. A grid independence study was
conducted
• at the condition of Qtotal = 5 L/min, I = 25 A, N = 0. The seven different levels of grid systems,
Adiabatic at all other outer surfaces of the cells and pipes.
with grid numbers ranging from 3000 to 260,000, are presented in Table 4. Figure 8 shows a grid
sectional
4.2. Gridview at the mid-symmetry plane of grid level 1, 4, and 7. The Nusselt number Nu, pressure
Independence
loss Δp, and maximum temperature Tmax on the battery surface were selected to be the parameters of
A single-battery
validation. The results heat transfer
obtained by model, Figure 7b,
these systems areisshown
applied
in to assess9a.
Figure theItgrid
can independence
be seen that when of the
computational
the grid numberdomain. exceedsThe meshes
50,000 (i.e.,mainly
when consist
the grid of polyhedral meshes.significantly),
number increases Locale mesh refinement
all three
parameters change slightly. Thus, to balance the accuracy and computationalnarrow
with prism layer meshes on the solid–liquid interface is applied within the cost, a fluid
level domain
4 grid
to better compute the boundary
system was selected for the numerical models. layer flow and enhance accuracy. A grid independence study was
conducted at the condition of Qtotal = 5 L/min, I = 25 A, N = 0. The seven different levels of grid
systems, with grid numbers ranging fromTable 3000 to 260,000, are presented in Table 4. Figure 8 shows
4. Grid.
a grid sectional view at the mid-symmetry plane of grid level 1, 4, and 7. The Nusselt number Nu,
Gridloss
pressure level∆p,No.
and maximum 1 temperature 2 Tmax3 on the battery
4 5 were 6selected to7 be the
surface
Numberofofvalidation.
parameters grids The3698 9850 by 29,978
results obtained 47,426
these systems 79,335
are shown 159,777
in Figure 258,299
9a. It can be seen
Number of prism layers 1 2 3 4 5
that when the grid number exceeds 50,000 (i.e., when the grid number increases significantly), all three6 7
Appl. Sci. 2020,change
parameters 10, x FORslightly. Thus, to balance the accuracy and computational cost, a level 4 grid system
PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
was selected for the numerical models.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Sectional
Sectional view
view of
of the
the grids
grids at
at the
the mid-symmetry
mid-symmetry plane:
plane:(a)
(a)grid
gridlevel
level1;1;(b)
(b) grid
grid level
level 4;
4; (c)
(c)
grid
grid level
level 7.
7.

21 52 36.0 10 4

20 51 35.7 8
3
)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 13 of 22

Table 4. Grid.
(a) (b) (c)
Grid level No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 8. Sectional view of the grids at the mid-symmetry plane: (a) grid level 1; (b) grid level 4; (c)
Number of grids 3698 9850 29,978 47,426 79,335 159,777 258,299
grid level 7.
Number of prism layers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21 52 36.0 10 4

20 51 35.7 8
3

Δp(kPa)
Tmax(°C)
Δp(Pa)
6

Nu
19 50 35.4
Nu

2
4
18 49 35.1

Nu Nu0 Nu 1
2
17 Δp 48 34.8 Δp0 Δp
Tmax
0 0
16 47 34.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
4
10
5 Q (L)
Number of Grids

(a) (b)
Figure9.9.Grid
Figure Grid independence.
independence. (a) Nusselt
(a) Nusselt number,number,
pressurepressure
loss, andloss, and maximum
maximum temperaturetemperature
calculated
calculated
by differentby different
grid grid
systems; (b)systems; (b) comparison
comparison of the
of the Nusselt Nusselt
number andnumber
pressureand
losspressure loss of the
of the theoretical
theoretical and numerical
and numerical results. results.

To
Toverify
verifythethe
numerical model,
numerical a single-pipe
model, model ismodel
a single-pipe established under constant
is established under wallconstant
temperature
wall
boundary
temperatureconditions to compare
boundary the results
conditions from thethe
to compare numerical
results simulation
from the and theoretical
numerical calculations,
simulation and
according
theoreticaltocalculations,
Equations (10) and (18)
according to in Section 3.
Equations (10)The
andresults
(18) inare shown
Section in Figure
3. The results9b,
arewhere
shown the
in
theoretical
Figure 9b, results
where are
the represented
theoretical results ∆prepresented
as Nu0 ,are 0 , and the numerical
as Nu0, Δpresults
0, andare represented
the numerical as Nu, ∆p.
results are
The results show
represented good
as Nu, Δp.agreement, andshow
The results the relative errors are within
good agreement, and the10%. Further,
relative the Nusselt
errors number
are within 10%.
results
Further,forthe
theNusselt
numerical simulation
number resultsare
forlarger than thosesimulation
the numerical for the theoretical
are largersimulation
than those based
for on
the
Sieder–Tate correlation.based
theoretical simulation The main reason thatcorrelation.
on Sieder–Tate the pipe appears to bereason
The main a straight
that pipe in Equation
the pipe appears to(10)
be
but has a serpentine-like
a straight pipe in Equationshape(10)
in practice
but hasisatoserpentine-like
enhance the heat exchange.
shape The heat
in practice is totransfer
enhance coefficient
the heat
or Nusselt number
exchange. The heatoftransfer
a curvedcoefficient
pipe’s surface is largernumber
or Nusselt than that
of of a straight
a curved pipe surface
pipe’s under the same inlet
is larger than
conditions. Thus, pipe
that of a straight the results
underare
thereasonable.
same inlet conditions. Thus, the results are reasonable.

4.3.
4.3.Study
StudyofofInternal
InternalParameters
Parameters
The
Thewhole
wholepack model
pack model is then set set
is then up and solved
up and with with
solved different δ and δNand
different values, separately,
N values, at certain
separately, at
boundary conditions.
certain boundary conditions.
Figure
Figure1010presents
presentsthe
theinfluence
influence of of thethecross-sectional
cross-sectional area ratio
area δ onδ bias
ratio raterate
on bias β, pressure ∆p,
loss loss
β, pressure
and
Δp, cell
andtemperature Tmax and
cell temperature TmaxTand
diff atTadiffflow
at arate Q = of
of rate
flow 5 L/min
Q = 5when = 0. When
L/minN when N = 0.theWhen
cross-sectional
the cross-
area ratio δ increase, the bias rate β, the pressure loss ∆p, the maximum
sectional area ratio δ increase, the bias rate β, the pressure loss Δp, the maximum temperature temperature Tmax , and Tthe
max,
temperature difference T
and the temperature difference
diff all decrease. The bias rate β and pressure loss ∆p tend to become
Tdiff all decrease. The bias rate β and pressure loss Δp tend to become smaller as
increases,
δsmaller as δand when δ is
increases, andlarge
whenenough,
δ is largethe trend gradually
enough, the trendbecomes slower.
gradually Similarly,
becomes the maximum
slower. Similarly,
temperature T and the temperature
the maximum temperature Tmax and the temperature
max difference T diff also become smaller as δ increases;
difference Tdiff also become smaller whenas δδ
= 0.484, Tmax exceeds 40 ◦ C, and Tdiff exceeds 5 ◦ C. Considering the influence of δ on the cooling
performance and actual size of the main cooling pipe, the final selection of δ is 0.973.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
increases; when δ = 0.484, Tmax exceeds 40 °C, and Tdiff exceeds 5 °C. Considering the influence of
δincreases; whenperformance
on the cooling δ = 0.484, Tmax
and exceeds 40 °C,
actual size and
of the Tdiff
main exceeds
cooling 5 °C.
pipe, theConsidering theofinfluence
final selection δ is 0.973.of
δ on Sci.
Appl. the2020,
cooling performance and actual size of the main cooling pipe, the final selection of δ is 14
10, 1660 0.973.
of 22

50 2.0 43 6.0
50 2.0 43 6.0
β 5.5
40 Tmax
Δβp 1.8 42 5.5
40 Tmax
Tdiff
1.8 42

(°C)
(°C)
Δp 5.0

Δp(kPa)
Tdiff

(°C)
(°C)
30 5.0
β (%)

Δp(kPa)
1.6 41

Tdiff
Tmax
30 4.5
β (%)

1.6 41

Tdiff
Tmax
20 4.5
20 1.4 40 4.0
1.4 40 4.0
10 3.5
10 1.2 39 3.5
1.2 39 3.0
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
0 3.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 δ
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 δ
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
δ δ

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. The effect of δ on several parameters, at Q = 5 L/min, N = 0: (a) β and Δp; (b) Tmax and Tdiff.
Figure 10.
10. The effect
effect of
ofδδon
onseveral parameters,atatQQ==55L/min,
severalparameters, L/min,NN==0:0:(a) and∆p;
(a)ββand Δp;(b)
(b)TTmax and TTdiff
max and diff..

Next, the heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop increase with a different number of
internal Next, the
theN,
walls, heat
heat transfer
transfer
is studied enhancement11). Inand
enhancement
(Figure andpressure
general, pressuredropdrop
the effect increase withwalls
increase
of different awith
different
Naon number
different
the of internal
number
pressure drop of
walls,
internal
Δp N,walls,
is largeris than
studied
N,ratio (Figure
is studied 11).
the In
δ, but(Figure general,
11). In
effects β,the
ongeneral,effect
Tmax, andof
the Tdifferent
effect walls N
of different on the
walls N on pressure
the pressure
diff are smaller than ratio δ. When the wall
∆p is
drop drop
larger
Δp is than
larger ratio
than δ, but
ratio the
δ, effects
but the on
effects
β, T on
max
number N increase, the bias rate β, the maximum temperature , and
β, T T
max, and
diff areT smaller
diff are than
smaller ratio
thanδ. When
ratio δ.the wall
When
Tmax, and the temperature difference number
the wall
N increase,
Tnumber the bias rate the maximum temperature
N increase, the bias rate β, the maximum temperature
β,
diff all decrease, but the pressure loss Δp increases dramatically.
T max , and the temperature
Tmax, and
When N =the difference
temperature
9, the T
maximumdifference diff all
pressure
decrease,
T
loss reachesbut
diff all decrease,
3.75thekPa,
pressure
but the
thereby loss
pressure ∆ploss
increases
exceeding Δpthe dramatically.
increases
maximum dramatically.WhenWhen
acceptable N = 9,Nthe
pressure 9,maximum
=loss the maximum
limit. pressure
Thus, loss
pressure
we fixed
reaches
loss 3.75
reaches kPa,
3.75 thereby
kPa, exceeding
thereby the
exceeding maximum
the maximumacceptable
N at medium number 6 to balance the maximum heat transfer and pressure loss. acceptablepressure loss
pressure limit.
loss Thus,
limit. we
Thus,fixed
we N
fixedat
medium
N number
at medium 6 to balance
number the maximum
6 to balance the maximum heat transfer
heat transferand pressure
and pressureloss. loss.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure11.
11.The
Theeffect
effect of N on
onseveral
severalparameters
parametersat at
QQ = 5=L/min, δ =δ0.973:
5 L/min, = 0.973: (a)and
(a) β ∆p; (b)
β and Δp;T(b)
maxTand
max and
Tdiff .
TFigure
diff.
11. The effect of N on several parameters at Q = 5 L/min, δ = 0.973: (a) β and Δp; (b) Tmax and
4.4. Study
Tdiff. of Boundary Conditions
4.4. Study
The of Boundary Conditions
temperature field of the batteries and coolant under a working condition of an effective
4.4. Study of Boundary Conditions
current
The at 25 A and δfield
temperature = 0.973,
of the = 5 L/min,
Q batteries = 6 is shown
andNcoolant under in Figure 12.
a working It can be
condition of seen that the
an effective
currentThe
maximum temperature
at 25 temperature field
A and δ = 0.973, of=the
difference
Q batteries
Tdiff N
5 L/min, 6and
on= the coolant
same
is shown in under
Figure a12.
monitoring working
surface
It can be condition
between
seen thattheof battery
the an effective
cells
maximum
current
is below at 3 ◦ C,
25 A and
and δ =
the 0.973,
maximum Q = 5 L/min, N
temperature= 6 is shown
T of in Figure
the 12.
battery It
is can
36.86be◦seen
C. that
The the maximum
maximum and
temperature difference Tdiff on the same monitoring maxsurface between the battery cells is below 3 °C,
temperature
minimum
and difference
cell temperatures
the maximum Tdiff
temperature on the
(at thesame
Tmaxsurfacemonitoring
of the opposite surface
battery isthe between
cooling
36.86 the battery
area)maximum
°C. The cells
exist at theand is below
twominimum 3 °C,
corners ofcell
the
and the
pack.
temperaturesmaximum
Because (atthe
the temperature
flow consistency
surface Tmax
opposite of the
inthe
each battery
branching
cooling isserpentine
area) 36.86at°C.
exist The
thepipe maximum
twowas of and
optimized
corners the inminimum cell
the Because
pack. previous
temperatures
section, the (at the
temperature surface opposite
difference
the flow consistency in each branching T i the cooling
between cells area) exist
corresponding at the
to two
the corners
different of the pack.
branching
serpentine pipe was optimized in the previous section, the Because
serpentine
the flow
pipes
temperature consistency
is well controlled.
difference inTieach
The branching
temperature
between serpentine
difference pipe
cells corresponding Tj to was
between optimized
the cells
the different in the previous
increases
branching section,
pipesthe
as the temperature
serpentine is
temperature
of the coolantdifference Ti between
in the cooling cells
channel corresponding
gradually to the
increases, butdifferent
the totalbranching
temperatureserpentine pipes
difference is
Tdiff
correctly meets the design expectations.
meets the design expectations.
Using the same methods and parameters, simulations were also performed at other boundary
conditions, including different flow rates, different root mean square (RMS) currents, and different
coolant temperatures. A matrix list of these simulations is shown in Table 5. The simulation results
will be
Appl. Sci.compared
2020, 10, 1660and discussed together with the test results in the next section of the experiment.
15 of 22

(a) (b)
Figure 12. The
The temperature field
field at
at the
the worst
worstworking
workingcondition
conditionwith
withan
aneffective
effectivecurrent
currentatat2525AAand
andδ
= =0.973,
δ 0.973,QQ==55L/min, andNN==6:6:(a)
L/min,and (a)batteries;
batteries;(b)
(b)coolant.
coolant.

Using the same methods Tableand parameters,

5. Matrix simulations
list with variable wereconditions.
boundary also performed at other boundary
conditions, including different flow rates, different root mean square (RMS) currents, and different
Group 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
coolant temperatures. A matrix list of these simulations is shown in Table 5. The simulation results
Irms (A)
will be compared 25 together
and discussed 25 25 the 25
with 30 in the
test results 30 next section
30 30 the experiment.
of 35 35
Heat Power (W) 375 375 375 375 540 540 540 540 735 735
Rate (W/m3) 30,791
Table 5. 30,791 307,91
Matrix list 30,791 boundary
with variable 44,339 44,339 44,339 44,339 60,350 60,350
conditions.
Tinlet (°C) 25 25 30 30 25 25 30 30 25 30
Coolant Group 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q (L/min) 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 10 10
Irms (A) 25 25 25 25 30 30 30 30 35 35
1 Group NO.1 was described in detail as an example.
Heat Power (W) 375 375 375 375 540 540 540 540 735 735
Rate (W/m3 ) 30,791 30,791 307,91 30,791 44,339 44,339 44,339 44,339 60,350 60,350
5. Experiment
Tinlet (◦ C) 25 25 30 30 25 25 30 30 25 30
Coolant
Q (L/min) 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 10 10
1 Group NO.1 was described in detail as an example.
5.1. Test Sample and Experiment Preparation
According to the research results of Section 3 and 4 of this paper, a cooling plate sample was
5. Experiment
made by selecting δ = 0.973, N = 6. The branch pipe width was 30 mm, the height was 2.75 mm, and
the wall thickness was 0.45 mm. The main pipe diameter was 17 mm, and the wall thickness was 1.5
5.1. Test Sample and Experiment Preparation
mm. Two cooling plates were connected in parallel and housed in two horizontally placed modules.
The plastic mounting
According to thebrackets
researchwith V0 of
results class flame3 retardant
Section capability
and 4 of this paper,and sufficient
a cooling yield
plate strength
sample was
are
made used
by to
selecting δ = 0.973,
fix the battery = 6.cooling
cellsNand plate together
The branch within
pipe width wasreasonable
30 mm, the spacing,
heightso as to
was ensure
2.75 mm,
the
andmechanical performance
the wall thickness and mm.
was 0.45 avoidThe
thermal
mainrunaway of the was
pipe diameter battery pack and
17 mm, [44]. the
Besides
wall these two
thickness
modules,
was the Two
1.5 mm. battery pack plates
cooling also included a high voltage
were connected boxand
in parallel (HVhoused
BOX) and a battery
in two management
horizontally placed
system
modules. (BMS). The HV
The plastic BOX wasbrackets
mounting used forwith
highV0
power
classoutput management,
flame retardant and the
capability and BMS was used
sufficient to
yield
monitor
strength the
are battery’s
used to fixstatus in real cells
the battery timeand(as shown
coolinginplate
Figure 13a). within reasonable spacing, so as to
together
ensure the mechanical performance and avoid thermal runaway of the battery pack [44]. Besides these
two modules, the battery pack also included a high voltage box (HV BOX) and a battery management
system (BMS). The HV BOX was used for high power output management, and the BMS was used to
monitor the battery’s status in real time (as shown in Figure 13a).
To obtain the temperature field distribution of the battery pack under actual working conditions,
the temperature monitoring distribution map was determined based on the simulation results of the
battery pack temperature field, and the arrangement of the temperature points was minimized to reduce
its influence on the heat transfer process (Figure 13b). Twenty T-type thermocouples (accuracy: ±0.5 ◦ C)
were distributed on the surface of the battery pack (separately on the upper and lower batteries of the
two A/B battery modules).
 Group Set A Group Set B
PressBoard

HV
Group Group BOX

Top View
Appl. Set A 10, 1660Set B
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2020,
2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
BMS
16
16of
of22
23

Thermocouple
Battery Pack Group Set A Group Set B
PressBoard

View View
Cooling Plate
HV

Bottom
Group Group BOX
Main Pipe Section
Set A Set B
BMS

Top
Branch Pipe Section

Thermocouple
(a)Battery Pack (b)

Bottom View
Figure 13. Battery pack with a cooling plate under a test: (a) the battery pack’s internal structure and
Cooling Plate

the cooling plate in details; (b) the thermocouple placement and fixing method.
Main Pipe Section

To obtain the temperature field distribution of the battery pack under actual working conditions,
Branch Pipedistribution
the temperature monitoring Section map was determined based on the simulation results of the
battery pack temperature field, and the arrangement of the temperature points was minimized to
(a) (b)
reduce its influence on the heat transfer process (Figure 13b). Twenty T-type thermocouples
Figure±0.5
(accuracy:
Figure 13.Battery
13. Battery
°C) were pack
pack withaacooling
distributed
with cooling plate
on plate
the underaaof
surface
under test: (a)
the(a)
test: thebattery
battery
the battery pack’s
packpack’s internalon
(separately
internal structure and and
the upper
structure and
the
the cooling
cooling plate
plate in
in details;
details; (b)
(b) the
the thermocouple
thermocouple
lower batteries of the two A/B battery modules). placement
placement and
and fixing
fixing method.
method.

5.2. Experiment Environment

To obtain Environment
the temperatureSetup
field distribution of the battery pack under actual working conditions,
5.2. Experiment Setup
the temperature
In order tomonitoring
verify thedistribution
temperature mapperformance
was determined based
under on the simulation
variable boundary results of the
conditions,
In order
battery pack to verify the
temperature temperature
field, and the performanceof under
arrangement the variable boundary
temperature points wasconditions,
minimized an
to
an experimental platform was setup, as shown in Figure 14. The temperature data were displayed
experimental
reduce its platform
influence was
on setup,
the as
heat shown
transfer in Figure
process 14. The
(Figure temperature
13b). Twenty data were
T-type displayed and
thermocouples
and recorded by a Hioki (LR8401) data recorder. The battery pack was operated in an environmental
recorded
(accuracy:by a Hioki (LR8401) data recorder. The battery pack was operated in an
onenvironmental
chamber. A±0.5 °C) were
Digatron distributed
(BTS-600) on the
battery surface
tester was of theto
used battery pack
provide (separately
charge/discharge the upper
power to and
the
chamber.
lower A Digatron
batteries of the (BTS-600)
two A/B battery
battery tester
modules). was used to provide charge/discharge power to the
battery. Coolant (50% ethylene glycol solution) was supplied to cooling plate of battery pack by a
battery. Coolant (50% ethylene glycol solution) was supplied to cooling plate of battery pack by a
Sentrick GE522A multifunction cooling tank at a constant temperature and flow rate.
Sentrick GE522AEnvironment
5.2. Experiment multifunction cooling tank at a constant temperature and flow rate.
Setup
In order to verify the temperature performance under variable boundary conditions, an
experimental platform was setup, as shown HIOKI
indata
Figure 14. The temperature data were displayed and
Recorder
recorded by a Hioki (LR8401) data recorder. The battery pack was operated in an environmental
chamber. A Digatron (BTS-600) battery tester wasThermocouples
used to provide charge/discharge power to the
battery. Coolant (50% ethylene glycol solution) was supplied to cooling plate of battery pack by a
Digatron BTS-600
Sentrick GE522A multifunction cooling tank
battery tester at Pack
Battery a constant temperature and flow rate.
Coolant

HIOKI data
Recorder Sentrick GE522A
multifunction
Thermocouples cooling tank

Digatron BTS-600
battery tester
Battery Pack
Coolant
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Schematic
Schematic of
of the
the battery
battery pack
pack temperature
temperature test
test platform.
platform.
Sentrick GE522A
The
The experimental
experimental condition
condition settings
settings were
were the
the same
same as
as those of
of the
the matrix
matrix list
thosemultifunction list for
for the simulation
the simulation
present in
in Table
Table 5.
5. A
A total
total of
of ten
ten experiments
experiments were were conducted.
conducted. The cooling tank
present The whole
whole battery
battery pack
pack was
was first
first put
put
into
into an environmental chamber
an environmental chamber setset at
at aa temperature
temperature of of 40
40 °C.
◦ C. Here,
Here, wewe will
will introduce
introduce inin detail
detail the
the
experimental steps used during the first set of experiments. First, the battery was quickly
experimental steps used during the first set of experiments. First, the battery was quickly self-heatedself-heated
to 40 ◦ C by charging and discharging with a cycling working schedule, which has a current root mean
Figure 14. Schematic of the battery pack temperature test platform.
square value of 25 A. The charging/discharging process was then stopped, and we waited for the
difference in temperature to reduce to below 3 ◦ C. Then, the working schedule was applied again,
The experimental condition settings were the same as those of the matrix list for the simulation
and the cooling tank was opened to provide the necessary coolant flow. After the system reached
present in Table 5. A total of ten experiments were conducted. The whole battery pack was first put
into an environmental chamber set at a temperature of 40 °C. Here, we will introduce in detail the
experimental steps used during the first set of experiments. First, the battery was quickly self-heated
5.3. Bench Test Results
By providing a certain flow rate and a certain temperature to the coolant, we were able to
decrease and stabilize the temperature of the battery. The temperature values of the 20 thermocouples
after stabilization
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660are shown in Figure 15b. The highest temperature was the thermocouple No. 17 of18
22
(38.72 °C) and the cell located in the middle of the lower layer of Group Set B. The lowest temperature
was found for the No. 4 thermocouple (35.75 °C) and the cell located in the middle of the upper layer
a thermally
of Group Setequivalent state, the
A. The maximum temperature
temperature data were
difference recorded,
was 2.97 °C. and the experiment was stopped.
The whole process for the first set of experiments is shown in Figure 15a.

40 Top Layer Bottom Layer Top Layer Bottom Layer

T1 Grpup Set A Grpup Set A Grpup Set B Grpup Set B
Standby Cycle Loop Chamber Open Thermostat Open T2 39 38.72
45 T3 38.43
38.1 38.24
T4
37.85
T5 38 37.74 37.71
37.62 37.59
Temperature (℃)

37.5

Temperature (℃)
T6 37.39 37.37 37.33 37.22
40 T7 37.08
T8 37 36.72 36.64
36.35 36.44
T9
T10
35 T11
36 35.75

T12
T13 35
T14
30 T15
T16 34
T17
T18
33
25 T19
T20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 32
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (s) Temperature sensor number

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Temperature
Figure 15. Temperaturetest
testresult
result
onon a vehicle:
a vehicle: (a) temperature
(a) temperature curvecurve
duringduring the complete
the complete test
test process;
process; (b) temperature histogram of 20 thermocouples after temperature
(b) temperature histogram of 20 thermocouples after temperature equilibration. equilibration.

5.3. Bench Testtheoretical

Both the Results calculation and simulation analysis results show that the temperature of the
coolantBy gradually
providing increases along
a certain flow ratetheandwater flow temperature
a certain direction, and to the temperature
the coolant, of the
we were battery
able cells
to decrease
also gradually increase due to the heat exchange between the cells and
and stabilize the temperature of the battery. The temperature values of the 20 thermocouples after the coolant; this trend is
observable
stabilizationand
areobjectively correct.
shown in Figure However,
15b. we encountered
The highest temperaturetwo wasrelatively large interference
the thermocouple factors
No. 18 (38.72 ◦ C)
in practical application: one is the installation deviation of the temperature sensor
and the cell located in the middle of the lower layer of Group Set B. The lowest temperature was found on the surface of
the
for cylindrical battery, which(35.75
the No. 4 thermocouple has a relatively
◦ C) and the small
cell impact;
located in thethe
other is theofdeformation
middle of theofbattery
the upper layer Group
module mounting bracket, which leads
Set A. The maximum temperature difference was 2.97 C.to poor contact ◦ and has a large impact. Each battery module
is fixed together
Both by threecalculation
the theoretical plastic supports above andanalysis
and simulation below results
the module.
show These brackets
that the need to
temperature of
overcome
the coolant the slight bending
gradually increasesback forcethe
along of water
the L5flowbattery moduleand
direction, andthethetemperature
static pressure (at battery
of the a 40%
compression rate) ofincrease
cells also gradually the thermal
due conductive silicone pad.
to the heat exchange Therefore,
between there
the cells is athe
and certain deformation
coolant; this trendof is
the plastic bracket, especially at the 1/4 and 3/4 area of the module. Consequently,
observable and objectively correct. However, we encountered two relatively large interference factors a press-board was
design to be application:
in practical installed, as shown
one is intheFigure 13a. Although
installation deviation theofmeasured temperature
the temperature sensordistribution was
on the surface
somewhat random, the maximum temperature and maximum temperature
of the cylindrical battery, which has a relatively small impact; the other is the deformation of the difference were kept
within
batteryamodule
reasonable range that
mounting was consistent
bracket, which leads with the simulation
to poor contact and results.
has a large impact. Each battery
Table 6 presents a comparison of all the experimental
module is fixed together by three plastic supports above and below the module. results and numerical results. need
These brackets The
numerical results agree well with the experimental results, and the temperature
to overcome the slight bending back force of the L5 battery module and the static pressure (at a 40% difference between
these two methods
compression rate) ofwas within 2conductive
the thermal °C. Considering
siliconemanufacturing
pad. Therefore, errors,
there isassembling errors, and
a certain deformation
testing errors, this theoretical conclusion is reasonable in practice.
of the plastic bracket, especially at the 1/4 and 3/4 area of the module. Consequently, a press-board
was design to be installed, as shown in Figure 13a. Although the measured temperature distribution
was somewhat random, the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference were kept
within a reasonable range that was consistent with the simulation results.
Table 6 presents a comparison of all the experimental results and numerical results. The numerical
results agree well with the experimental results, and the temperature difference between these two
methods was within 2 ◦ C. Considering manufacturing errors, assembling errors, and testing errors,
this theoretical conclusion is reasonable in practice.
At the same time, the simulation and test results also showed that when the root mean square
current is greater than 30 A, it is difficult to achieve the temperature control target by adjusting
the coolant flow rate and temperature, and the temperature difference will be further amplified.
Through simulation and experimentation, we have fully determined the heat dissipation capability of
the battery pack cooling system, allowing the battery pack to be cooled and used more efficiently.
 Table 6. Comparison of the experimental results and numerical results.

Boundary Conditions Simulation Experiment

Test Order Judgment
Irms (A) Tinlet (°C) Q (L/min) Tmax (°C) Tdiff (°C) Tmax (°C) Tdiff (°C)
1 1 10, 1660
Appl. Sci. 2020, 25 5 37.6 3.0 38.7 3.0 Pass 18 of 22
2 25 10 36.8 2.8 38.3 2.9 Pass
25
3 30 5 41.1 2.7 42.3 2.6 Pass
Table 6. Comparison of the experimental results and numerical results.
4 30 10 40.2 2.1 41.3 2.4 Pass
Test
5 Boundary
25 Conditions
5 40.4 Simulation
3.5 41.3 Experiment
3.2 Pass
Judgment
Order
6 Irms T25inlet 10
Q 40.2 Tdiff2.9 Tmax
Tmax 41.1 2.8
Tdiff (◦ C)
Pass
30
(A) ( ◦ C) (L/min) ( ◦ C) ( ◦ C) ( ◦ C)
7 30 5 43.9 3.1 45.1 2.9 Pass
1 25 5 37.6
81 30 10 43.2 3.0 2.5 38.7 44.8 3.0
2.7 Pass
Pass
2 25 10 36.8 2.8 38.3 2.9 Pass
9 25 25 10 45.3 3.9 46.3 4.1 Fail
3 35 30 5 41.1 2.7 42.3 2.6 Pass
104 30
30 10
10 48.6 2.1 4.0
40.2 41.3 49.7 3.8
2.4 Fail
Pass
5 The process and 25
results of the
5 NO.1 experiments
3.5 are described
41.3 in detail3.2
as examples.Pass
1
40.4
6 25 10 40.2 2.9 41.1 2.8 Pass
30 the simulation and test results also showed that when the root mean square
At the7 same time, 30 5 43.9 3.1 45.1 2.9 Pass
current is greater
8 than 30 A,30it is difficult
10 to achieve
43.2 the
2.5 temperature
44.8 control2.7
target by adjusting
Pass the
coolant flow
9 rate and temperature,
25 and10 the temperature
45.3 3.9difference
46.3will be further
4.1 amplified.
FailThrough
35
simulation and experimentation, we have fully determined the heat dissipation capability of the
10 30 10 48.6 4.0 49.7 3.8 Fail
battery pack cooling system,
1 The process allowing
and theNO.1
results of the battery pack toarebedescribed
experiments cooled inand used
detail more efficiently.
as examples.

5.4. Experiment on a Vehicle

5.4. Experiment on a Vehicle
The previous simulation and bench tests were performed for the quantitative analysis at a
The previous simulation and bench tests were performed for the quantitative analysis at a constant
constant heating power and a stable coolant temperature and cooling flow. In order to observe the
heating power and a stable coolant temperature and cooling flow. In order to observe the battery pack
battery pack temperature trends when these boundary conditions change dynamically, the battery
temperature trends when these boundary conditions change dynamically, the battery pack was tested
pack was tested on a hybrid SUV. This experiment was carried out by driving 30 km (about 1.2 h in
on a hybrid SUV. This experiment was carried out by driving 30 km (about 1.2 h in the summer) when
the summer) when the ambient temperature was 33 °C~39 °C. The vehicle speed and battery current
the ambient temperature was 33 ◦ C~39 ◦ C. The vehicle speed and battery current curve are shown in
curve are shown in Figure 16a. The maximum charging current was about 79.6 A, while the maximum
Figure 16a. The maximum charging current was about 79.6 A, while the maximum discharging current
discharging current was about −127.8 A. The root mean square current, including charging and
was about −127.8 A. The root mean square current, including charging and discharging, was 26.5 A
discharging, was 26.5 A during the whole testing process. The cooling flow varied between 5 and 10
during the whole testing process. The cooling flow varied between 5 and 10 L/min, and the inlet
L/min, and the inlet temperature was dynamically adjusted◦between 25 and~30°C.
temperature was dynamically adjusted between 25 and~30 C.

43 5
Vehicle Speed (km/h)

80 80
42 Delta Temp
60 60
4
41
40 40
Temperature (℃)

20 20 40
Delta Temp
3
0 0 39
100 80
70 38
50 2
Current (ARMS)

60
Current (A)

50 37 Temp1
0
40 Temp2
36 Temp3
-50 30 Temp4 1
20 Temp5
-100 35 Temp6
10
0
-150 34 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure16.
16.Test
Testconditions
conditionsand
andtest
testresults
resultsof
ofthe
thetemperature
temperature on
onvehicles:
vehicles: (a)
(a)road
roadspectrum,
spectrum,transient
transient
current
currentspectrum,
spectrum, and
andRMS
RMScurrent
currentover
overten
tenminutes;
minutes;(b)
(b)ambient
ambienttemperature
temperatureinside
insidethe
thebattery
batterypack
pack
temperature
temperature trends
trends from
from six
six sensors,
sensors, and
and temperature
temperature difference curves.

The temperature
The temperature test
test positions
positionsin
inthe
thebattery
batterypack
packwere
weredetermined
determined according
accordingto to
thethe
results of the
results of
bench test, covering the highest and lowest temperature points. The temperature
the bench test, covering the highest and lowest temperature points. The temperature and temperature
temperature
difference curves are shown in Figure 16b. At the beginning of the test, the maximum temperature
of the battery pack was 41.3 ◦ C. After the cooling system was turned on, the battery temperature
dropped rapidly and eventually stabilized at around 39.3 ◦ C. During the test, the temperature difference
of the battery pack was 2.87 ◦ C at first; then, the temperature difference gradually became larger,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 19 of 22

but eventually stabilized at 4 ◦ C. This result shows that the maximum temperature and temperature
difference of the whole battery pack were effectively controlled.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a performance-optimized and engineering-oriented properly liquid cooled plate
was designed to meet the requirements of a battery pack with a high C-rate current in a certain hybrid
SUV. This plate is able to disperse heat and effectively minimize the temperature difference between
each cell. The achievements of this research are as follows:
• A simplified one-dimensional heat transfer model from the battery interface to the coolant was
established; the mathematical relationship between head loss Hi and coolant flow Q1 ~Qn was
also established, and the flow Qi in each serpentine pipe was calculated iteratively. The design
parameters of the cooling plate and reasonable ranges of boundary conditions were obtained
through these two models, which provided theoretical guidance for the simulation and reduced
the number of combinations required for the simulation.
• The cross-section ratio affects the flow rate deviation β and results in temperature differences.
As the cross-section ratio δ increases from 0.484 to 1.627 at Qtotal = 5 L/min, the flow rate deviation
β decreases by about 40%, and the temperature difference decreases by about 2.5 ◦ C. The inner
support wall N can enhance heat transfer to reduce the maximum temperature but will cause
a definite increase of the pressure drop in the pipeline. The pressure drop in the pipe when N
= 9 (Qtotal = 5 L/min) increases by 2.5 kPa compared to that when N = 0, while the maximum
temperature decreases by 3 ◦ C.
• The optimized cross-section ratio is δ = 0.973 (D = 17 mm), and the number of supporting walls is N
= 6. The maximum RMS current allowed by the cooling plate does not exceed 30 A, the maximum
inlet temperature of the coolant does not exceed 30 ◦ C, and the coolant flow is greater than 5
L/min at least. The ranges of the solution at various input conditions provide the basic data for
BMS dynamic control.
Under the constraint of the actual project implementation, the experiment also objectively gives
an acceptable deviation, which is worth further research and improvement.

7. Patents
There is a Chinese utility patent resulting from the work reported in this manuscript.
• Patent: A kind of Power Battery Module;
• Applicant: Corun CHS Technology Co., Ltd. (2880 Wanfeng Road, Fengjing town, Jinshan District,
Shanghai, China);
• Inventor: Minghuan Zhang, Faping Zhong, Aihua Chu, Chunhua Wu, Wei Tan, Chenquan Zhou,
Yunpeng Zong;
• Application No.: 201720406483.4;
• Application Date: 2017-04-18

Author Contributions: A.C. and X.L. conducted the main work of the design, calculation, simulation, and
analysis of the optimization results; A.C. designed the liquid cooling battery system and also wrote the paper; X.L.
contributed to the modeling of cooling system and simulation process; C.Z. contributed to the battery pack testing
and verification; J.Z. and Y.Y. provided insightful suggestions and revised the paper. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Advanced subject construction project of Jiangsu Province (BY2015047-2); National 863 Project
(2011AA11A201); National Science and Technology Support Project (2011BAG02B10)
Acknowledgments: Thanks to Corun CHS Technology Co., Ltd. for allowing me to participate in this research
project and providing test samples and test equipment. I am grateful to Associate Professor Peiyong Ni of Nantong
University and Associate Professor Yelin Deng of Soochow University for helping to review the paper and provide
valuable advice.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 20 of 22

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A area of the contact region between the battery and serpentine pipe (m2 )
Af area of the pipe—fluid interface (m2 )
Cp heat capacity (J (kg K)−1 )
d diameter of the main pipe (m)
dH hydraulic diameter of the serpentine pipe (m)
g gravity acceleration (m s−2 )
h heat transfer coefficient of convection (W (m−2 ·K−1 ))
H head loss (m)
k coefficient of heat conductivity (W (m−1 ·K−1 ))
L length (m)
.
m mass flow rate (kg s−1 )
N the number of internal walls within one serpentine pipe
Nu Nusselt number
∆p pressure loss (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number
q heat generation in the battery cell (W)
Qtotal total volume flow rate in one water bag (m3 ·s−1 )
Qi volume flow rate in serpentine pipe i (m3 ·s−1 )
Re Reynolds number
Sa Section area of the main pipe (m2 )
Sb Section area of the serpentine pipe (m2 )
t thickness of the serpentine pipe wall (m)
Ti,j average temperature on cell j, serpentine i (K)
Tf,i,j average fluid temperature corresponding to cell j, serpentine i (K)
Tin,i,j average inlet temperature corresponding to cell j, serpentine i (K)
Tout,i,j average outlet temperature corresponding to cell j, serpentine i (K)
V velocity of fluid in the system (m·s−1 )
DC-IR DC internal resistance (Ω)
Greek letters
β bias rate of the flow in serpentine pipes
ratio of the section area of the main pipe to the total section area of
δ
serpentine pipes
λ frictional loss coefficient of pipes
µ dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
ν kinematic viscosity (m2 ·s−1 )
ξ local loss coefficient of pipes
ρ density (kg·m−3 )
Subscripts
a main pipe
b serpentine pipe
diff difference
s steel shell of battery
f fluid
i index of the serpentine pipe in one module
j index of the cell along one serpentine line
max maximum
pvc Polyvinyl chloride layer of the battery
pad thermal pad of Silicon layer
total total
turn turning of pipes
wall wall of pipes
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1660 21 of 22

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