Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Connecting theory to practice: Using preservice teachers' beliefs,

theories and video-recorded teaching to prompt a cycle of praxis
Jane Tilson*, Susan Sandretto, Keryn Pratt
University of Otago College of Education, 157 Union Street East, P.O Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand

h i g h l i g h t s

 How to prompt preservice teachers' praxis.

 PSTs' beliefs, theory and teaching recursively inform one another.
 Details interactions where PSTs affirm and/or change their practice.

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history: PSTs discussed their beliefs and theories as they viewed their video
Received 23 September 2016 recorded teaching, did this prompt a cycle of praxis that supported
Received in revised form them to make informed decisions about their practice? And, (2):
18 July 2017 How did the PSTs reflect on their video recorded teaching?
Accepted 21 July 2017
Available online 1 August 2017
Praxis as a term has its origins in Ancient Greece and captures a
moral propensity to act in a just and wise manner, a disposition
named by Aristotle as phronesis (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Phronesis
expresses itself in praxis as “informed committed action” (Carr &
Kemmis, 1986, p. 190). A distinction between informed
committed action and habitual taken-for-granted action, is when a
1. Introduction practitioner is prepared to place their practice and theories in a
critical framework of understanding (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Praxis,
A perennial challenge for teacher educators is how to support thus requires a conscious theorising of one's practice, and where a
preservice teachers (PSTs) to make meaningful connections be- practitioner is prepared to take a critical stance on both their
tween theory and practice. This challenge has recently been exac- practice and the theories underpinning their practice. Praxis em-
erbated by international trends in initial teacher education (ITE) phasises the dialectical relationship between theory and practice,
which have seen some programmes place a greater emphasis on where theory and practice have potential to cyclically inform and/
school-based experiences (Alcorn, 2014; Mayer, 2014; Murray & or reconstruct the other. While theory and practice may recursively
Passy, 2014; Zeichner, 2014). Such a pathway might mean PSTs inform each other in praxis, any changes to either are always guided
receive only a few weeks of university-based theory and the by a moral disposition to act wisely and prudently in any given
remainder of their course involves a preparation of observation and moment of time (Carr & Kemmis, 1986).
teaching in schools (Anderson & Freebody, 2012). A key issue with In education, praxis is a term synonymous with the social
ITE programmes that are largely school based is the diminished activist Paulo Freire (1921e1997). In his words the term praxis in-
opportunities for PSTs and teacher educators to articulate and un- volves “reflection, and action upon the world in order to transform
derstand how theory informs practice and practice informs theory. it” (Freire, 1999, p. 33). His notion of reflection is underpinned by
Within this context, to ensure ITE programmes remain significant criticality wherein people were taught how to read societal in-
for PSTs, it is imperative teacher educators support PSTs to make equalities, and were then encouraged to take action against unjust
meaningful connections between theory and practice. situations to create change (Freire, 1999). To create societal change
The primary purpose of this paper was to explore how to sup- required people's reflection and action, and for Freire, praxis en-
port PSTs to make meaningful connections between theory and compasses both. Praxis involved carefully considered and
practice using video recorded teaching. We have two foci: (1) When consciously theorised action, in his words praxis “requires theory to
illuminate it” (Freire, 1999, p. 106). Freire's notion of praxis reflects
its original Greek meaning to take informed action underpinned by
* Corresponding author. social justice. The focus on social justice firmly locates praxis in the
E-mail address: jane.tilson@otago.ac.nz (J. Tilson).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.07.012
0742-051X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463 455

family of theories known as critical theory (Kincheloe & McLaren, little or no impact on teacher candidates (Korthagen, 2010), or that
2005). In summary, praxis engages a metacognitive process theory became washed out during school experiences (Zeichner &
(Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, & Lo
pez, 2003), where teachers can Tabachnick, 1981).
consider and re-consider the theories (personal and formal) that To impact PSTs, theory needs to be perceived be useful. Dewey
inform their teaching. When teachers engage in praxis, they criti- (1904) described formal theory as a tool practitioners may use to
cally reflect on their practice in order to act in productive ways for inform and reflect on the merits of their practice. Richardson (1990)
their students. (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Freire, 1999). expanded on Dewey's view, advising that teachers need to critically
This paper proposes that in order for PSTs to make warranted examine both their personal and formal theories in order to either
assertions about their practice (Gelfuso, 2016), they need to be affirm or reject particular practices. In this way, critical reflection on
supported to make connections between their personal beliefs, both one's personal and formal theories become a site from which
formal theories and their teaching practice. While a number of one can make warranted assertions about one's practice (Gelfuso,
studies have researched teachers’ beliefs in regard to their practice 2016). However, because of the highly contextualised nature of
(Fives & Buehl, 2012; Pajares, 1992; Zheng, 2013), we have been teaching, when considering the usefulness of theory, PSTs must first
unable to locate empirical studies that have explicitly explored determine its merits, or lack of, for their particular context (Luke,
teachers’ beliefs and formal theories around their video recorded 2000).
teaching practice, and whether such discussion prompted a cycle of In terms of usefulness, theory has potential to be practical
praxis. Praxis provides a strong theoretical platform for this paper, (Lewin, 1945). To illustrate, through theory PSTs are typically
from which to examine how theory and practice interact when PSTs introduced to a range of pedagogies to enact in their practice, how
are repeatedly asked to consider their theories in relation to their to teach reading and writing and so forth. By introducing PSTs to
video recorded teaching practice. mainstream educational ideas and practices, teacher education
programmes risk reinscribing current practices or the status quo.
2. Literature review Ball (1995), however, suggests theory may embody quite the
opposite function, theory offers the “possibility of disidentification”
The literature review examines key constructs that were pivotal (p. 267) from hegemonic everyday practices, and may invite one to
to this research inquiry; first we explore the importance of teach- imagine possibilities beyond one's current field of vision
ers’ theories (personal and formal), followed by a rationale for using (Villaverde, 2004). That is to say, theory may offer teachers possi-
PSTs' video recorded teaching to capture examples of their practice. bilities of practice and ways of thinking beyond the status quo.
This section concludes with a justification of why this research While Zeichner and Gore (1990) suggested it is hard for PSTs to
project used Larrivee's (2008) typology of four reflective lenses to impact established patterns of practice in schools, this paper pro-
examine how PSTs were reflecting on their videorecorded teaching. poses introducing PSTs to cutting edge theory carries the potential
to position them as agents of social change, or whose practice may
2.1. Personal beliefs transcend the status quo in schools (Tilson, 2014).
This project asked PSTs to discuss whether or not their personal
PSTs arrive in teacher education programmes with eclectic be- beliefs and formal theories were evident in their video recorded
liefs shaped by years of observation in classrooms (Lortie, 1975). teaching, and examined if such discussion prompted them to affirm
These beliefs carry many tacit assumptions, for example, how or shift their teaching practice as part of a cycle of praxis. As such,
students ought to behave in school, or their expectations for stu- both their beliefs and formal theories became a metacognitive
dents' learning. Their personal beliefs act as “personal practical source (Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, & Lo
pez-Torres, 2003) from which to
theories” (Levin, He, & Allen, 2013, p. 202) which powerfully guide illuminate their practice, and in turn where their practice became
and shape their classroom practice. There is a danger that if PSTs' an expression of theory. PSTs’ video recorded teaching was used to
beliefs or personal theories are left unspoken with no room for prompt this cycle of praxis.
critique or debate, they may remain taken-for-granted (Fives &
Buehl, 2012) and resistant to change (Korthagen, 2010). It has 2.3. Why use video recorded teaching?
also been suggested in order for PSTs to shift or transform their
teaching; they first need to understand how their beliefs are As early as the 1970s, video recorded teaching has been iden-
influencing their teaching (Fives & Buehl, 2012; Zheng, 2013). In tified as a useful strategy with which to support teachers to reflect
line with these assertions, PSTs were asked to discuss their personal on their practice (Fuller & Manning, 1973). Since the 1970s, video
beliefs around how best to support students’ learning, and to technologies have become more user-friendly and accessible,
repeatedly examine whether their beliefs were evident in their making the technology increasingly desirable for teacher educators
video recorded teaching. (Tripp & Rich, 2012). Studies have shown multiple benefits of
employing video recorded teaching; for example, opportunities to
2.2. Formal theory observe and articulate connections between theory and practice
(Harford, Gerry, & McCartan, 2010), and to collaboratively decon-
Teacher education programmes introduce PSTs to an array of struct and reconstruct practice in dialogue with an other (Calandra,
competing and at times conflicting formal theories; possibly as Brantley-Dias, & Dias, 2006; Harford & McRuaire, 2008). Being able
diverse as the personal theories they arrive with. How to support to pause and repeatedly watch video recorded teaching affords
PSTs to connect theory and practice in meaningful ways remains a opportunities for focused analysis (Tan & Towndrow, 2009), where
key challenge for teacher educators (Korthagen, 2010). Carr and teachers can notice, reflect, and re-consider specific moments and
Kemmis (1986) describe both theory and practice as practical un- aspects of their practice (Hamilton, 2011; van Es & Sherin, 2008).
dertakings that are guided by a practitioner's reflective conscious- Even the opportunity to deconstruct one's more challenging or
ness, whereby a practitioner's reflective consciousness is in itself an mediocre lessons has potential benefits, where teachers gain
act of theorising. However, none of this is simple when traditionally insight into the challenges of teaching, prompting problem-solving
academics outside of classrooms develop theory for teachers to and changes in practice (Marsh & Mitchell, 2014).
adopt and use in classrooms. A number of studies have found In education, video technologies have been operationalised in
traditional theory-to-practice teacher education models have had diverse ways, for instance: case studies involving examination of an
456 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463

'other' (Beck, King, & Marshall, 2002; Newhouse, Lane, & Brown, useful in that they provide teacher educators with potential
2007), of exemplary practice (Ethell & McMeniman, 2000), or frameworks and a metalanguage with which to explain an other-
focused on a teacher's own practice (Calandra et al., 2006; Clarke, wise complex and obscure concept (Jay & Johnson, 2002). Based on
1995; Harford & McRuaire, 2008). This research study positioned an extensive review of the literature, Larrivee (2008) identified
the PST as the subject of the video. This decision was informed by three levels that most reflective practice typologies incorporate,
Scho€ n's (1983) conceptualisation that reflective practice is comprising;
personally constructed, and is situated in the immediacy of the
action setting, and studies which recommend strengths in  an initial level focused on teaching functions, actions or skills,
capturing one's own practice on video, and subsequently analysing generally considering teaching episodes as isolated events;
one's video recorded teaching (Clarke, 1995; Harford & McRuaire,  a more advanced level considering the theory and rationale for
2008; Orland-Barak & Rachamim, 2009; Sharpe et al., 2003; current practice;
Zhang, Lundeberg, Koehler, & Eberhardt, 2011). Other studies have  a higher order where teachers examine the ethical, social and
compared the benefits of teachers watching their own videotaped political consequences of their teaching, grappling with the ul-
teaching versus watching other teachers' videotaped practice and timate purposes of schooling. (p. 342)
have recommended watching one's own practice has the most
potential to impact teachers' reflective thinking and teaching The levels Larrivee (2008) identified encompass a continuum of
(Seidel, Prenzel, Schwindt, Kobarg, & Meyer, 2005; Zhang et al., reflective thinking and practice, that arguably move from trivial to
2011). more profound, including pre-reflection, technicist, theoretical and
Given the focus of this project was to prompt a cycle of praxis, critical lenses. While some authors dispute the notion of levels
using video recorded teaching offered opportunities for PSTs to where technical reflection might be regarded as a poor cousin to
examine the difference between their espoused theories (Argyris & critical reflection (Bleakley, 1999; Fendler, 2003), others argue that
Scho€ n, 1974) and their actual video recorded teaching. This is in line because a teacher's daily work engages with technical, practical and
with previous studies that emphasised how exposing dissonance ethical events, teachers in fact need multiple reflective lenses to
between teachers’ espoused and their actual teaching practices make sense of their work (Killen, 2003).
created powerful leverage for change in their reflective thinking In order to track changes in PSTs' reflective thinking, we
and/or practice (Orland-Barak & Rachamim, 2009; Rosaen et al., employed Larrivee's (2008) typology of reflective practice with its
2010). As such, this study asked PSTs to identify congruence and/ four levels of pre-reflection, technical, pedagogical and critical
or dissonance between their espoused theories and video recorded reflection. Larrivee defined the four levels as follows: pre-reflection
teaching practice, and examined whether or not this prompted where students' needs are not considered and teachers' actions are
their use of a range of reflective lenses with which to discuss their taken-for-granted; technical reflections focus on strategies to ach-
practice, and/or prompted them to affirm or make changes in their ieve predetermined goals with no recourse to others' perspectives
practice. or theory; pedagogical reflections draw upon personal and/or
Despite their affordances, video technologies are far from a formal theories to make sense of one's practice, and may identify
neutral intervention. Student feedback reported in Sharpe et al. congruence and/or dissonance between one's espoused beliefs and
(2003) and Wing-mui So's (2012) studies foregrounded a number actual practice; at the fourth level of critical reflection, one is aware
of potential perils, such as; the artificiality of video footage where of how wider factors (historical, institutional social, cultural, po-
children being filmed may present their best or worst behaviour, litical) are impacting one's practice. Larrivee's (2008) typology
feelings of stress and self-consciousness sharing video footage, and enabled us to chart how PSTs were reflecting on their practice.
the time required to view and comment one's own or others'
teaching. The students' comments from these studies highlight this 3. Methodology
is brave and vulnerable work, and researchers need to create a safe
environment when using video technologies. This paper reports findings from a wider qualitative research
project (Tilson, 2014) situated in a New Zealand undergraduate
2.4. Charting changes in PSTs’ reflective practice three-year (primary) teacher education degree programme. This
paper presents findings from three participants who were all in
An outcome of asking PSTs to discuss their beliefs and theories their final year of a three-year (primary) teaching degree. In qual-
around their video recorded teaching was their reflective practice. itative research, there is a marriage between the theoretical
The secondary focus of this paper was how the PSTs were reflecting framework and the methodology, where each recursively inform
on their practice. Reflective practice has long been described as the each other (Guba & Lincoln, 2008). As seen in sections 3.2 and 3.3,
hallmark of professional competence for teachers (Zeichner & praxis has informed our design of the methods, namely the data
Liston, 2014), and recognised as a central component in a teach- construction (interview questions) and the data analysis.
er's daily work (El-Dib, 2007). The desire to prepare reflective
teachers has become an aspirational professional standard, leading 3.1. Participants and contextual information
many ITE programmes internationally and in New Zealand to adopt
reflective practice as the foundation of their programmes (Alcorn, The three participants for this paper were selected from the
2014; Thompson & Pascal, 2012). In New Zealand, a number of wider study (Tilson, 2014), using the following rationale. In the
policy documents, for example, the Code of Ethics for Certificated wider study, the original six participants drew upon theory to make
Teachers (New Zealand Teachers Council, 2015a) and the Gradu- sense of their practice in surprisingly diverse ways. The six par-
ating Teacher Standards (New Zealand Teachers Council, 2015b) ticipants' continuum of responses ranged from; a total reluctance to
both name reflective practice as a required standard in the teaching discuss theory unless requested to do so, resistance to listen to and/
profession. or use theory as part of course work, a preference for learning from
Within academic literature the term reflection carries diverse their associate teacher's practice and/or their peers, using theory as
and contested meanings (Jay & Johnson, 2002; Loughran, 2002; a point of resistance and/or affirmation, to blending theory with
Spalding & Wilson, 2002) with multiple typologies or ways of practice to the point where theory had become an embedded part
thinking about reflective practice (Tilson, 2014). Typologies are of their practice. While it is regrettable that we cannot share all
 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463 457

participants' research experiences, the three selected for this paper interviews using video recorded teaching (VI1, VI2, VI3).
richly illustrate the breadth of that continuum and how they did, or Each participant's interview set was coded in its entirety.
did not use theory to inform their practice. The first author initiated analysis by reading and re-reading
To protect the participants’ anonymity, they are hence coded as: transcripts, and generating codes using HyperRESEARCH. The first
Participant A (PA), Participant B (PB) and Participant C (PC). In terms cycle of analysis generated codes focussed on identifying when
of gender, PA and PC are female and PB male, and at the time of the participants were drawing upon their personal and formal theories
study their ages were; PA 36, PB 21 and PC 20. When asked about to make sense of their video recorded teaching practice (Reported
ethnicity, PA identified as New Zealand M aori and PB and PC as of in section 4.1). In addition, the first cycle generated codes to capture
New Zealand European descent. While all three participants in when participants identified dissonance and/or congruence be-
their final year taught students in either year seven or eight (stu- tween their espoused theories and actual practice (Reported in
dents aged 10e13 years) their state (or public) schools included a section 4.2). The first cycle of analysis examined instances of praxis
mix of intermediate and full primary settings. In New Zealand, in- where interactions between theory and practice where made
termediate schools comprise only year seven and eight students. PA explicit in the participants’ reflective dialogue.
and PB were located in separate intermediate schools, PA taught a The second cycle of analysis considered how participants were
year seven, and PB a year eight class. PC was placed at a full primary reflecting on their practice. This was coded using Larrivee's (2008)
with students from years one-eight (aged five-13 years), and taught typology of pre-reflection, technical, pedagogical and critically
a year eight class. Their schools were all in an urban location in the reflective lenses. Using Larrivee's typology enabled the first author
South Island of Aotearoa, New Zealand. Their participation was to consistently code how each participant was reflecting on their
voluntary and prior to beginning, university procedures for gaining practice. The second cycle of analysis examined how PSTs reflected
informed ethical consent were followed for all parties. on their practice. In the discussion section, we illustrate how par-
ticipants used different reflective lens across their three interviews
3.2. Data construction using video recorded teaching.
A number of strategies were enacted to build trustworthiness
In order that participants could reflect on artefacts of their own across the data analysis process (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Using the
teaching (Harford & McRuaire, 2008), each participant was video professional qualitative data management tool HyperRESEARCH
recorded teaching a lesson on three occasions in March, May and enabled a vast amount of interview data to be coded and re-coded
September. Participants chose the curriculum area/s for their three using recognised methods in the qualitative data analysis process
video recorded lessons and each lesson lasted 30e40 minutes. After (Saldan~ a, 2009). To further the trustworthiness of the study, the
each video recorded lesson, participants met with the first author second author coded a random selection of transcripts indepen-
to discuss their video recorded lesson, with each interview lasting dently to confirm the codes from the first cycle of analysis, and the
between 35 and 60 minutes (See Appendix for interview guide). In third author repeated this process to confirm the codes from the
order to desensitise seeing themselves on film, participants had the second cycle of analysis (Saldan ~ a, 2009).
opportunity to privately view their video recorded teaching
(Hennessy & Deaney, 2009), prior to their one-on-one interviews.
When time permitted, participants took up this opportunity, it 4. Discussion and findings
enabled them to think about which parts of the video recorded
lessons they wished to focus on prior to their interview, and to We next share snapshots of three participants’ research expe-
become accustomed to seeing and hearing themselves on video. riences with two different foci. The first section examined what
In the wider project (Tilson, 2014) from which this paper is happened when participants were repeatedly asked to discuss their
drawn, all participants engaged in five interviews coded as follows: personal beliefs and theories in relation to their video recorded
initial interview (II), three interviews (VI1), (VI2) and (VI3), and an teaching. The second section explored what transpired when par-
exit interview (EI) using video recorded artefacts of their teaching ticipants identified moments of dissonance between their
to prompt a cycle of praxis. This paper reports findings from each of espoused theories and their video recorded teaching.
the participant's three interviews using video recorded teaching.
The interview (see Appendix A) comprised a mix of unstructured 4.1. Beliefs, theory and video recorded teaching
and semi-structured elements (Kvale, 1996). The unstructured
section enabled participants to set the agenda for discussion where An unanticipated finding of the wider research project (Tilson,
they had agency to pause, fast forward or rewind the video (Clarke, 2014) was the diverse ways participants reflected on their per-
1995), in order to focus on areas of personal interest. The semi- sonal beliefs and formal theories to make sense of their video
structured section asked a homogenous set of questions focused recorded teaching practice. Excerpts from participants’ research
around this paper's research inquiry, and asked participants to experiences next illustrate that diversity.
discuss their personal beliefs and formal theories in relation to their
video recorded teaching, in order to prompt a cycle of praxis. The
questions listed in Appendix A were modified slightly after each 4.1.1. Participant A: “Theory is shaping who I am” (VI1)
participant's interview to respond to their individual commentary In her first interview using video recorded teaching, PA stated
across interviews. The first author transcribed all interviews and she valued theory highly; “theory can show you what you're
participants had the opportunity to edit transcripts, to ensure they thinking and feeling … and it gives it a name” (PA, VI1). Theory not
captured as much as possible a verbatim record of the dialogue only gave PA a language with which to reflect on and name her
prior to analysis. teaching practice, her statement “theory is shaping who I am” (PA,
VI1), illustrated how theory was also informing her emerging
3.3. Data analysis teaching practice. It was important for PA that theory needed to
align with her personal beliefs, which, in her words, were strongly
All interview transcripts were imported into to a qualitative data underpinned by social justice. One belief in particular was her
analysis tool HyperRESEARCH, which operates on a case basis. One desire to support student autonomy, and this belief led to her
case was constructed for each participant containing all of their resistance of some ideas presented in her course:
458 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463

PA: In our recent paper …, the psychology paper where they talk practices that might otherwise have become an engrained part of
about the authoritative teacher? his practice. PB's focus on theory, however, was not sustained.
When asked to discuss theory in his third video recorded lesson, he
Interviewer: Yes
was unable or chose not to make any theory to practice connec-
PA: I don't want to be a teacher that is controlling and over- tions, stating, “Yeah, can't really, it's been so long since we've been
bearing, I want to be one that allows freedom within the at class and learnt about that stuff” (PB, VI3). His comment sug-
learning. (VI2) gested PB may only have valued theory for his course work and
exams, and perhaps only when directly prompted would connect
theory to his classroom practice.
Here, PA's critique of a theory prompted her to employ peda-
gogies that were more commensurate with her personal beliefs.
4.1.3. Participant C: “It's a new way of teaching and learning” (VI3)
When discussing her third video recorded lesson, she explicitly
When asked to discuss theory in relation to her video recorded
commented on how her teaching was becoming more congruent
teaching, PC stated that theory needed to work in context for her
with her personal beliefs around supporting student autonomy and
students, “where I'm doing it for a reason, like theory has become
agency. For example, she had allowed students to choose the moot
part of what I do” (PC, VI2), noting that if theory “didn't work, I'd
for a class debate, and how they presented their outcomes, because
adapt it or go back to something else” (PC, VI2). Her dialogue
“I don't want to over-power because they're in control” (PA, VI3).
around her video recorded teaching often focused on her peda-
Across these two interview transcripts, we evidenced a shift in PA's
gogy; this was not surprising when she was often trialling
reflective thinking from a pedagogical lens to a critically reflective
teaching strategies for the first time. For example, in her third
lens (Larrivee, 2008), underpinned by her belief in social justice.
lesson PC employed a critical multiliteracies pedagogy, where her
Her resistance to a particular theory also prompted a cycle of praxis,
students were asked to identify five semiotic systems (linguistic,
where her beliefs, theory and practice recursively informed one
audio, visual, gestural and spatial) in order to deconstruct how a
another. Across her video recorded lessons, PA could identify and
multimodal television commercial communicated meaning
verbalise how her beliefs were informing her practice and the
(Anstey & Bull, 2006). To enact such practices she drew upon
changes she was making to her practice as a result of her reflective
future focused literacy theory from her teacher education course
dialogue.
(Sandretto & Tilson, 2014). She recognised her practice engaged “a
new way of teaching and learning” (PC, VI3) and that theory not
4.1.2. Participant B: “It's been so long since we've been at class and only “put a name to it” (PC, VI3), but gave her confidence to trial
learnt about that stuff” (VI3) literacy practices beyond those in her classroom teacher's literacy
When initially asked which theories he drew upon to make programme.
sense of his video recorded practice, PB was reluctant to make any Her critical reflections (Larrivee, 2008) on her practice reveal
connections with theory, instead stating he preferred to “do what her courage and knowledge that she had potential to move beyond
feels natural to me as a teacher …, without trying to think too the status quo of how literacy is traditionally taught in New Zealand
deeply about what I'm supposed to be doing as such” (PB, VI1). primary schools. While Zeichner and Gore (1990) suggested it is
Despite his tentativeness, the first author persisted in asking him to difficult for PSTs to impact established patterns of practice within
make theory to practice connections as he discussed his video schools, we have included this example to illustrate how PC's
recorded teaching across his interviews. introduction to future focused literacy theory and her willingness
In his second lesson, he focused on footage where he had to trial new practices positioned her as a potential agent of change
employed one of his classroom teacher's management strategies, within her school (Tilson, 2014).
the use of a marble jar. This strategy involved adding or removing
marbles from a jar to coerce students' positive behaviour (Edwards 4.1.4. Summary
& Watts, 2008). Whilst discussing this strategy, PB drew upon the Across the three participants, we have evidenced how asking
work of Kohn (1993), whose work critiques schools' use of extrinsic PSTs to repeatedly discuss their theories in relation to their video
rewards and punishments. He commented, “you know based on his recorded teaching prompted a cycle of praxis, wherein they were
theory …, I would probably have never thought about it otherwise able to draw upon theory to either affirm and/or shift their practice.
…, I've started to question the whole thing” (PB, VI2), and he However, even in this small number of participants, their pro-
described how the marble jar was not working for his year eight pensity to make theory to practice connections could not be
students. Making connections to formal theory prompted PB to re- assumed, and we argue it was the act of repeatedly asking them to
imagine his practice (Ball, 1995) in ways beyond his current context. do so in relation to their video recorded teaching that supported
In his final video recorded lesson he had replaced the marble jar them to consider how theory might productively inform their
with a system of house points, which he only used to reward, rather practice. As evidenced in their resultant dialogue, participants used
than punish students' behaviour. This shift in his practice more theory in diverse ways: PA used theory as a point of resistance and
strongly aligned with his personal beliefs, where he did not want to identified in her final lesson how her pedagogies were becoming
see “the whole class … punished for one student's [behaviour]” (PB, more congruent with her personal beliefs around student auton-
VI3). omy; when PB was repeatedly asked to discuss theory, he replaced
While we evidenced a cycle of praxis across this sequence, observed management practices to better reflect his personal be-
where PB's critical reflections on his personal beliefs and formal liefs around social justice; and PC drew upon theory to name and
theories incited changes in his practice, it must be viewed with affirm her future focused literacy practices.
scepticism. In his course work, the first author had introduced PB to
the work of Kohn and a critical reading suggests he was naming 4.2. The power of dissonance in triggering a cycle of praxis
theory he knew his lecturer valued. However, her persistence of
repeatedly asking PB to make theory to practice connections was We next illustrate what happened when participants identified
powerful; he had used Kohn's work to critique and resist observed moments of dissonance between their espoused theories (personal
 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463 459

€ n, 1974) in
and formal) and their theories-in-use (Argyris & Scho focus shifted from herself to her students.
relation to their video recorded teaching.
PA: I want to encourage them, like the students to make sense of
their own learning …, instead of me just plopping information
into their minds
4.2.1. Participant A: “I think language and explaining exactly what I
wanted, wasn't clear” (VI1) Interviewer: Mmm hmm
Across her three interviews using video recorded teaching, PA
PA: Um, I can't even remember what that one's called, it is
identified she needed to build an explicit curriculum language base
theory but that they just grasp it and manipulate it and move it
with which to support her teaching:
around try and make sense of it themselves
PA: I was trying to explain to them to pick something out of it,
Interviewer: You've kind of talked about that watching your
it's the whole language, I really struggled with how to explain
lesson haven't you, like how do you get it back to them, to get
what I really wanted them to do, about finding an issue in that
them doing it?
[news] paper.
PA: Yeah
Interviewer: Mmm, hmm.
Interviewer: In a variety of ways …, and revisiting it and
PA: Getting that um, and them trying to … um, see, still can't
building their memory and they have to own it, don't they?
find the words now … so yeah, I think language and explaining
exactly what I wanted, wasn't clear PA: Yeah so they can, it's slightly higher order thinking and they
can critique it themselves
Interviewer: Wasn't as clear as you liked?
Interviewer: Metacognition, is that what you're thinking about?
PA: Good enough, yeah. (VI1)
You're theorising your own practice here, aren't you?
PA: Yeah
Drawing upon Larrivee's (2008) reflective lenses, PA's discussion
of her use of language functioned at a technical level; she noted Interviewer: All good
because of her mediocre instructions students were unsure of their
PA: I am, cool. (V2I)
task. While she was prepared to critique her practice, she did so in a
surface or technicist manner (Larrivee, 2008). Nonetheless, seeing
and hearing herself teach was powerful and incited her goal of In this excerpt, PA drew upon both personal and formal theories
building an explicit curriculum language base with which to inform to make sense of her practice. Her personal belief of having enough
her teaching. specialist language and content knowledge had shifted from a focus
The focus of PA's second video recorded lesson was geometry, on herself to supporting her students, and she emphasised it is her
specifically the teaching of angles. This was an unfamiliar area to PA role to ensure students know, remember and can use specialist
that required her in-depth research of both content knowledge and language. In her statement rather than “simply plopping informa-
pedagogy prior to teaching. She sought collegial help from school tion in their minds” (V2I), PA resisted traditional transmission
and university staff, and immersed herself in the specialist lan- models of teaching that position students as passive learners
guage of angles, and how to use a protractor and interactive (Richards & Richards, 2013). In keeping with her personal beliefs,
whiteboard resources to inform her teaching. After viewing her she suggested alternative pedagogies to support students' greater
geometry lesson, her dialogue revealed how insights from her first independence. Across her first and second video recorded lessons,
video recorded lesson actively informed her second lesson, and PA's reflective discussion shifted from a technicist lens to a peda-
what had changed. gogical lens (Larrivee, 2008). PA drew upon both her personal be-
liefs and formal theories as “intertwining tendrils of knowledge”
PA: Well just my demeanour, I think. It's different
(Griffiths & Tann, 1992, p. 71), which actively grew and fed her
Interviewer: And you can see that? practice. Her courage in identifying dissonance between her
espoused theories and theories in-use (Argyris & Scho €n, 1974),
PA: Yeah, yeah, and I think in my first one if I remember
sparked a cycle of praxis prompting shifts in practice across her
correctly, I was worried about content knowledge, language
lessons. This recursive process meant her teaching became more
Interviewer: Yep and you've certainly done all your homework aligned with her personal beliefs and formal theories, and she was
here …, very evidently able to draw upon both to rationalise her practice.
PA: Yeah, and so I know what, and why I lack confidence, and it
was content, and getting quite knowledgeable about geometry, 4.2.2. Participant B: “Timing, it's probably my weakest spot” (VI1)
because I actually knew nothing about geometry before that When asked to identify areas of dissonance between his per-
posting, I had to go and learn it all pretty much from scratch, um sonal beliefs, theories and video recorded practice, in his first lesson
so, definitely content knowledge is the go. (V2I) PB's dialogue focused on what at first appears a technical or
mundane aspect of his practice, his timing.
In this excerpt, PA noticed a change in her teacher presence; that PB: I think at the end I was becoming … probably see it in the
she now looked and felt more confident as a teacher. She under- tape later on, but I become a bit worried about the, yeah worried
stood her preparation and secure content knowledge were crucial about time, I think I was watching the clock a bit by the end
in fostering her emerging self-confidence. Her dialogue (and
Interviewer: It is yeah
practice) underpinned by recourse to formal theory operated at a
pedagogical level (Larrivee, 2008). The act of seeing herself teach PB: Yeah. I always find um, when I'm planning, yeah timing it's
across video recorded lessons supported her to name and own probably my weakest spots. Um the lesson either goes a lot
resultant changes. faster than I, you know than I'd planned for or it would drag on
In the same geometry lesson, PA theorised her practice and her for a lot longer
460 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463

Interviewer: It is, it's a really hard thing and without experience skills that cannot be assumed. At a micro level every minute counts,
it is very difficult PB knew this, and now confidently signalled to students that they
had 5 minutes to prepare before being called upon for whole class
PB: Yeah it's hard to, it's hard to know how the children will,
sharing, and that this was non-negotiable. This conscious shift in
how they'll cope with the task, how long they'll need. Okay,
his practice motivated students to complete tasks in a given time
maybe a task that would you know, seems simple to you or me,
period and reinforced his more confident teacher persona. At a
we could do it a matter of minutes, but to a child it's
macro level he now understood he needs to work within a school
Interviewer: It could take a lot longer than you think? wide timetable with 50 minutes timeslots for curriculum areas,
revealing his critical reflection (Larrivee, 2008) on wider institu-
PB: Yeah. (V1I)
tional forces that he was learning to work productively within.
Across these two video recorded lessons, PB's identification of
His reflective dialogue captured his anxiety around timing and dissonance around a technical and often taken-for-granted aspect
his uncertainty of predicting how long an activity might take. An of his practice prompted a cycle of praxis; wherein he shifted his
affordance of video is how one can select a particular lens with practice in beneficial ways for his students and his emerging
which to focus (Tan & Towndrow, 2009), and PB was able to pause teaching practice.
and rewind the footage to scrutinise the timing of sections of his
lesson, for example, the lesson introduction, body and conclusion.
In his dialogue we evidenced PB's conflict; on the one hand, he 4.2.3. PC: “It looks like I'm sort of lecturing them” (VI1)
knew his introduction needed enough substance so students knew PC's first lesson was video recorded near the beginning of the
what to do, and conversely if it was too long, he risked disen- school year and captured her first whole class lesson. Using an
franchising their interest. His introduction was 5 minutes in length, interactive whiteboard and PowerPoint, she modelled for her year
and he commented how his nervousness in front of his year eight eight class how to write a science report. In the opening scenes, she
class was also a factor in keeping it brief (PB, V1I). Across video identified dissonance between her personal beliefs and practice.
recorded lessons he focused on improving his timing and in his
When I first watched it back I could immediately see I've spent
second video recorded lesson, we illustrate how this prompted
far too long explaining and talking about report writing, and
benefits for his confidence and practice.
there's not enough doing, so the people on the mat would've
PB: I've given an instruction that they will have five minutes to switched off sort of thing, some of them would've still been
discuss as a group their views. And after that they will be engaged, yet looking back I, you know about ten minutes in, I
sharing their views with the class could, could've sent them off to do an activity and then brought
them back. (PC, V1I)
Interviewer: Yes
PB: So giving them that time limit means they have to get on to
Her dialogue focused on multiple aspects of her teaching she
it
wished to refine and change. She noted how her long introduction
Interviewer: Absolutely, that sounds like a very good idea and imbalance of teacher-student talk had risked disengaging
students’ interest, and how her actions positioned students in a
PB: I've found with other lessons I haven't been clear in setting
passive rather than agentic role. Her following commentary was
time, and it just goes on, it never ends
similarly critical.
Interviewer: And they don't get things finished do they?
When I look at it, I think it looks like I'm sort of lecturing them,
PB: No and sort of like the teaching style of lecturing, whereas next
time I would like to sort of have them go and do something and
Interviewer: So I think using a clock is one of your great
then bring it back, and then have them work independently on
strategies
their own. (PC, V1I)
PB: Yeah, time management has been one of the things I have
been working on and that's improving
Here, she bravely critiqued her use of a pedagogy, that in her
Interviewer: Excellent, and it is about watching the clock when words, resembled the lecturing style of teaching she had at times
you know you have a given amount of time to get things done been subject to within her university course. Her critique carried a
double-edged sword, she both critiqued her own practice and
PB: When I first started teaching I couldn't believe how fast the
speaks back to the academy resisting traditionalist styles of
time goes, and how little time you really have
teaching where the teacher is positioned as the source of all
Interviewer: Mmmm knowledge and students as passive recipients (Richards & Richards,
2013). PC realised her lesson needed to be more interactive where
PB: But uh, I think now in my third year I am starting to get used
students were engaged with tasks more quickly. It is our belief that
to that and especially in lessons like English and maths that are
PC's critique subtly asks teacher educators to critically reflect on
so structured and the same everyday I am starting to get used to
their own delivery of formal theory, least we see pedagogies not
that and I know I have 50 minutes per lesson
designed for the primary classroom mirrored back to us by students
Interviewer: So pace, you have to pace whom we have taught.
Her second lesson was video recorded in May when she had
PB: And I know how long each lesson takes yeah, so I will get
established more in-depth relationships with her class, “in the first
used to it. (V2I)
video I did a lot of guess work, I didn't know as much as I know now,
so that would bring [it] back to my knowledge of the learner, and
While timing might be considered a taken-for-granted aspect of how important it is” (PC, V2I). Her personalised knowledge of
a teacher's practice, PB's dialogue revealed multiple and complex learners meant her lesson was now tailored to meet students'
diverse needs, and her practice in-action (Scho € n, 1983) better
 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463 461

aligned with her personal beliefs. Her critique of her pedagogy in This paper offers teacher educators a way forward to support
her first video recorded lesson had instigated changes in her PSTs to draw upon theory to richly inform their practice via a cycle
practice. In her second lesson she observed, “so seeing … thinking of praxis. Praxis requires one to make “informed committed action”
of the difference, it's quite different [she laughs], and I'm used to (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 190) and this paper has argued making
sending them away and getting them back and sharing ideas, connections between theory and practice is pivotal in such action. A
because it is now quite interactive” (PC, V2I). PC's identification of key strategy employed in this research project involved providing
dissonance between her beliefs and practice in her first lesson was PSTs multiple opportunities to discuss their theories (personal and
powerful; instead of passive recipients, her students were now formal) in relation to their video recorded teaching. Participants’
positioned as interactive and independent, and with video as a research experiences have highlighted three key findings teacher
mirror on her practice, she could chart productive changes in her educators may draw upon to support PSTs to engage in a cycle of
practice. praxis.
In her third video recorded lesson PC noted how her teaching The first finding was the surprisingly diverse ways participants
had become more relaxed and with stronger relationships estab- drew upon theory to make sense of their practice; for example, as a
lished with her students, she enacted a more playful, even drama- point of resistance, as a fulcrum from which to re-consider and shift
like role. one's practices, and as a source from which to name and affirm
one's practices. Importantly, theory for all participants invited them
Interviewer: Were you happy with your own teaching on that
to re-imagine their practice (Ball, 1995), and when used in a cycle of
video?
praxis, enabled them to affirm and/or shift their teaching practice
PC: Yes, because I feel like I can when I do give the examples or, in productive ways. We suggest when working with theory that
I'm sort of careless like when … teacher educators create multiple spaces in which PSTs can affirm
and resist theory, and that PSTs are supported to critically consider
Interviewer: Mmm
the usefulness of theory in terms of their context (Luke, 2000).
PC: I'm giving the example of Harvey Norman [advertisement] I The second finding relates to the power of dissonance. The
don't mind [she giggles] switching into that role and making the strategy of repeatedly asking PSTs to identify dissonance between
sound of the coke and things their espoused theories (personal and formal) and their video
recorded lessons (Argyris & Scho € n, 1974), was powerful. This
Interviewer: So, you can be a bit carefree?
strategy prompted a cycle of praxis in which participants selected a
PC: I think because we've built good relationships and things, specific aspect of their practice to refine and change, and where
they enjoy that across time they were able to find greater congruence between
their personal beliefs, theories and practice. We argue enabling
Interviewer: They definitely do
participants repeated opportunities to observe their teaching, and
PC: And even when I'm when I was giving the examples of the that they, rather than an expert other, targeted areas to refine were
video I'm looking at their faces to see, to see how they're key factors in initiating a cycle of praxis (Tilson, 2014). In this way,
watching the movie, whether they're enjoying it. Yeah, cause theory became a source from which to illuminate their practice
that's what it's all about having a bit of fun. (V3I) (Freire, 1999), and in turn their practice became an expression of
theory (Carr & Kemmis, 1986).
These two findings underscore the inseparable nexus of theory
Across her video recorded lessons, PC's initial critiques of her
and practice (Carr & Kemmis, 1986), where theory acted as a
pedagogy have prompted productive changes for herself and stu-
fulcrum against which participants could affirm and/or change
dents. Video afforded her the opportunity to closely examine her
their practice. However, none of this is simple, and one participant's
own practice (Tan & Towndrow, 2009), and to observe her students'
comment regarding theory still troubles the researchers, “… it's
engagement and reactions to her teaching in a way normally un-
been so long since we've been at class and learnt about that stuff’
available to her extended gaze. In her words, she described her
(PB, VI3). While PB is but one voice from a group of six PSTs, we
teaching “as far more like myself” (PC, VI3), where her beliefs,
suggest that teacher educators may potentially have one PB in
theories and practice now worked in greater harmony.
every cohort with whom they work. PB's candid remark provides a
salient reminder that we cannot assume that all PSTs will inde-
4.2.4. Summary pendently value or make any connections between their teaching
Across all three participants' research experiences we have practice and theory. The cycle of praxis modelled in this paper is
evidenced how discussing dissonance between one's espoused designed to support teacher educators and PSTs to work together to
theories and actual practice prompted a cycle of praxis leading all achieve that goal.
participants to change their practice in productive ways for them- A third finding from this paper relates to the reflective lenses;
selves and their students. Dissonance acted as a trigger that sup- technical, pedagogical and critical (Larrivee, 2008) participants
ported all participants to find greater congruence across their employed as they discussed their video recorded teaching. In a
personal beliefs, theories and practice. recursive cycle across lessons, their use of one reflective lens often
incited them to employ another, and it appeared regardless of
5. Concluding reflections which reflective lens participants employed, their dialogue ignited
a cycle of praxis from which they either affirmed and/or targeted
How teacher educators can support PSTs to make meaningful areas to change in their teaching practice. Providing repeated op-
connections between theory and practice has formed the central portunities for PSTs to see and make sense of their teaching was
focus of this paper. Such work remains imperative, particularly crucial in this process. We suggest that PSTs need multiple lenses
against the spectre of recent international trends, which appear to with which to make sense of their work, and that technical,
increasingly privilege apprenticeship-based models of teacher ed- pedagogical and critical lenses are equally useful (Killen, 2003).
ucation (Anderson & Freebody, 2012). Apprenticeship based A limitation in the methodology of this paper was the large
models problematically diminish opportunities for teacher educa- investment of time needed to conduct the interviews both for
tors to support PSTs to connect theory with practice (Alcorn, 2014). participants and the first author. The time commitment involved
462 J. Tilson et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 67 (2017) 454e463

would make it difficult to replicate with a larger group of partici-  If unsure: prompt relevant aspects of their videotaped practice
pants. However, the research design could be modified by having to consider, for example their choice of pedagogies, the way in
participants, prior to their interviews, pre-select an aspect of their which they support children's dialogue etc.
video recorded teaching to discuss with the researcher, reducing  How has (formal) theory from your course impacted your
the one-on one time for each interview, or alternatively they could teaching practice?
work with a peer, or small group of peers. We propose the rewards  What is it that causes you to maintain or change your formal
realised in practice for both PSTs and teacher educators warrant theories?
further research.  Do you, or do you not value theory, and can you give a rationale
This paper has demonstrated the potential benefits of support- for your position?
ing PSTs to engage in a cycle of praxis. While findings cannot be
generalised from only three PSTs, nonetheless, the process 4. Can you name any broader institutional, cultural, social or
described and implemented in this study has been evidenced as political factors, (for example, recent government initiatives) which
productive. Ultimately praxis requires both reflection and action impact on the way you reflect on your teaching?
(Freire, 1999); in this paper we have evidenced asking PSTs to make
connections between their theories and practice supported them to  How can we reflect on such wider forces, in order to work
take informed committed action in the classroom (Carr & Kemmis, productively with them?
1986), in productive ways for their students. Praxis also supported
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