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General
Mathematics
Second Quarter
Module 17: Validity and
Falsity of Real-Life
Arguments

Republic of the Philippines

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 Department of Education
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SCHOOLS DIVISION OF SIQUIJOR
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 11
General
Mathematics
Second Quarter
Module 17: Validity and
Falsity of Real-Life
Arguments

Introduction
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This module is written in support of the K to 12 Basic Education Program to
ensure attainment of standards expected of you as a learner.

This aims to equip you with essential knowledge on validity and falsity
of real-life arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms and fallacies.

This includes the following activities/tasks:

 Expected Learning Outcomes – This lays out the learning

outcome that you are expected to have accomplished at the end
of the module.

 Pre-test – This determines your prior learning on the particular

lesson you are about to take.

 Discussion of the Lesson – This provides you with the important

knowledge, principles and attitude that will help you meet the
expected learning outcome.

 Learning Activities – These provide you with the application of

knowledge and principles you have gained from and enable you
to further enhance your skills as you carry out prescribed tasks.

 Post-test – This evaluates your overall understanding about the

module.

With the different activities provided in this module, may you find this
material engaging and challenging as it develops your critical thinking skills
and problem solving skills.

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 What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using

logical propositions, syllogisms and fallacies.

What I Know
To find out what you already know about the topic to be discussed in
this module, take the Pre-test. Write your answers on your notebook.

I. Directions: Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

Show your solution in your notebook. (Note: 2 points each)

1. If n is a real number with n ¿ 2 , then n2 > 4.

Suppose n ≤ 2.
Thenn2 ≤ 4 .

2. If Jason has a Ph.D. and has done a considerable amount of research,

then he is qualified for the research professor position.
He was informed that he is qualified for the research professor
position.
Therefore, Jason has a Ph.D. and has done a considerable amount of
research.

3. If quadrilateral ABCD is a square, then it is also a rectangle.

Quadrilateral ABCD is not a rectangle.
Therefore, it is not a square.

4. Either Derrick was not informed about the meeting or he made the
decision not to attend.
Derrick was not informed about the meeting.
Thus, he did not decide not to attend the meeting.

5. If x is an odd integer, then 2x + 1 is also an odd integer.

If 2x + 1 is an odd integer, then 3(2x + 1) is an odd integer.
Therefore if x is an odd integer, then 3(2x + 1) is an odd integer.
What`s In

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Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer in
your notebook.

1. It is committed when the ambiguity of a term or a phrase in an

argument which has occurred at least twice is exploited or deliberately
misused.
a. Fallacy of composition c. Fallacy of amphiboly
b. Fallacy of equivocation d. Fallacy of false dilemma

2. What kind of fallacy limits unfairly an arguer to only two choices, as if

the choice is on black or white?
a. Fallacy of equivocation c. Fallacy of false dilemma
b. Fallacy of composition d. Fallacy of amphiboly

3. It is committed when the characteristics of some are transferred to

another.
a. Fallacy of amphiboly c. Fallacy of composition
b. Fallacy of equivocation d. Fallacy of false dilemma

4. It is the ambiguity due to syntax structure.

a. Fallacy of equivocation c. Fallacy of false dilemma
b. Fallacy of composition d. Fallacy of amphiboly

5. It is committed when an arguer begins with a concept that is supposed

to be the end of the argument.
a. Fallacy of composition c. Fallacy of amphiboly
b. Fallacy of equivocation d. Circular

6. It is a set of three categorical propositions that make use of three

terms.
a. Categorical Syllogism c. Tautology
b. Fallacy d. Argument

7. What variable is used to represent the predicate of the conclusion?

a. A b. E c. O d. P

8. What variable represent the subject of the conclusion?

a. O b. S c. E d. A

9. What variable represent the proposition not found in the conclusion?

a. M b. E c. A d. O

10. The three terms that is used in categorical syllogism are;

a. Subject, Predicate, Conclusion
b. Fallacy, Tautology, Argument

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 c. Major Term, Minor Term and Middle Term
d. None of the above

11. What is the order of categorical syllogism when presented in standard

form?
a. conclusion, minor premise, major premise
b. conclusion, major premise, minor premise
c. minor premise, major premise, conclusion
d. major premise, minor premise, conclusion

12. What do you call a proposition that is always false?

a. Fallacy b. Argument c. Contradiction d. Tautology

What`s New

Rules of Categorical Syllogisms

1. A syllogism must have exactly three terms.

2. Each term must occur in two of the three propositions.
3. The major and the minor terms may not be universal or
distributed in the conclusion unless they are universal or
distributed in the premises.
4. The middle term must be universal or distributed at least once.
5. If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be
affirmative.
6. If one premise and the other premise is negative, the conclusion
must be negative.
7. If both premises are negative, no valid conclusion can be drawn.
8. If premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.
9. At least one premise must be universal.

Direction: Determine the validity of each syllogism by applying the Rules of

Categorical Syllogisms. Write your answer in your notebook.

1. All Ilocanos are Filipinos.

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 All Cebuanos are Filipinos.
Therefore, all Cebuanos are Ilocanos.

2. All sampaguita are white.

No rose is sampaguita.
Therefore, no rose is white.

What Is It

Basic Idea of Proofs. The goal of the proof is to show that the
conclusion logically follows from the given propositions (or premises). As for
the content of the proof, each proposition must be a valid assertion: they
must be based on a given statement (i.e. a premise), or they must follow from
the premise via logical equivalences or rules of inferences.

Example 1: Prove the validity of the following argument.

An even number m is a number than can be written as m =2k,

where k is an integer.
The numbers x and y are even.
Therefore, x + y is even.

Solution

Since x is even, then the first premise ensures that x can be

written as x = 2 k 1 , where k 1 is an integer. Similarly, since y is
even, then we can write y = 2 k 2 , where k 2 is an integer.

We compute for x + y:

x + y = 2 k 1 +2 k 2= 2(k 1+ k 2 ¿ .

Since k 1+ k 2 is an integer, then x + y is even. This is the

conclusion when Modus Ponens is applied to the first premise.

Example 2: Prove that the following argument is valid.

If a quadrilateral has three right angles, then it is a rectangle.

In quadrilateral ABCD, m ¿ A=90 ° , m ¿ B=90 °, and m ¿ C=85 ° .
Then, ABCD is not a rectangle.

Solution.

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 Thinking process: The only way for to be a rectangle is if
m ¿ D=90° , so that there would be three triangles. We will prove
that this is not the case.

Proof: The sum of the interior angles in a rectangle is 360° .

Therefore,
m ¿ A+m< B+m<C+ m< D=¿360°

Substituting the values given, we have

90 ° +90 °+85 ° +m< D=¿360°

m< D=95° .

Therefore, ABCD has only two right angles.

This also means that ABCD is not a rectangle (using Modus
Tollens on the definition stated in the first premise).

Indirect Proof: Assume that ABCD is a rectangle.

Then it has three right angles.

But since ¿ C is not a right angle,
then the three right angles must be ¿ A ,< B , ¿ D , and .

Solving for m¿ C in the equation:

m ¿ A+m< B+m<C+ m< D=¿360°

(given m ¿ A=90 °, m ¿ B=90 °, and m ¿ D=90° ),

we find that m ¿ C=90 ° .

This contradicts the fact that m ¿ A=85 ° , which is the given.

Therefore, ABCD is not a rectangle.

What’s More
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Directions: Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it is
valid, then identify the rule of inference which justifies its validity. Write
your answer in your notebook. Otherwise, state a counterexample or
identify the type of fallacy exhibited by the argument.

1. If it rains today, then 2 x 2 = 4.

It rained today.
Therefore, 2 x 2 = 4.

2. Either Lina or Lino will take the trash to the recycling center.
Lina did not take the trash to the recycling center.
Hence, Lino must have taken the trash to the recycling center.

What I Have Learned

I learned that:

 the Rules of Categorical Syllogisms

 Basic Idea of Proofs. The goal of the proof is to show that

the conclusion logically follows from the given propositions
(or premises).

 for the content of the proof, each proposition must be a

valid assertion: they must be based on a given statement
(i.e. a premise), or they must follow from the premise via
logical equivalences or rules of inferences.

 a categorical syllogism is a set of three categorical

propositions that make use three terms.

What I Can Do
Directions: Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it
is valid, then identify the rule of inference which justifies its validity.

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Otherwise, state a counterexample or identify the type of fallacy
exhibited by the argument.

1. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.

Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina.
2. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina.

3. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.

Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.

Assessment

Post-test:

I. Determine whether the following arguments are valid using rules of

inference. If the argument is invalid, provide a counterexample. Show
your solution in your notebook. (Note: 3 points each)

1. The set of natural numbers is finite or the set of negative

integers is finite.
It is known that the set of negative integers is infinite.
Therefore, the set of natural numbers is finite.

2. If triangle T1 and T2 are congruent, then they are similar.

Triangles T1 and T2 are congruent.
Therefore, triangles T1 and T2 are similar.

3. An odd integer m is a number that can be written in the form m

= 2k + 1, where k is an integer.
It is known that x and y are odd integers.
Therefore, x + y is even.

4. Mary is studying computing or Mary is not studying math.

If Mary is studying math, then Mary is not studying computing.
Therefore, Mary is studying computing.

5. An odd integer m is a number that can be written in the form

m = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.
We know that n is odd.
Therefore, n2 is odd.

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6. If monsters roam the Earth, then all people will buy weapons.
If Earth experiences tremors from beneath the surface, then all
people will evacuate.
Monsters roam the Earth and people are evacuating.
Therefore, all people bought weapons, and the Earth experienced
tremors from beneath the surface. (Invalid: A true, B true, C
false, D true)

Answer Key

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What I Know
I.
1. This is valid by the Law of Syllogism.
2. This is not a valid argument as it exhibits the Fallacy of the Converse.
3. This is valid by Modus Tollens.
4. This exhibits the affirmation of the disjunct, and so it is not a valid
argument.
5. The argument is invalid, as it exemplifies the Fallacy of the Inverse.
Hence, the argument is unsound.

What’s In

1. b 4. d 7. d 10. c
2. c 5. d 8. b 11. d
3. c 6. a 9. a 12. c
What’s New
Solution:
1. The middle term Filipinos takes the role of a predicate in both
premises. Hence it is undistributed in the premises. This violates Rule
3. Thus, the syllogism is invalid.

2. The major term “white” is the predicate of a negative conclusion (E).

But “white” is also the predicate of a universal affirmative major
premise which violates the rule on the distribution of terms. Therefore,
the syllogism is invalid.

What’s More

1. Solution: Let p: “It rains today” and q: 2 x 2 = 4. In proposition form,

the argument assumes the form [(p → q Ʌ p] → q. Hence, the argument
is valid by virtue of Modus Ponens.
2. Let p : “Lina will take the trash to the recycling center.” and q: “Lino
will take the trash to the recycling center.” In propositional form, the
argument is [(p ∨ q) Ʌ( p)¿→ q . Thus, the argument is valid by the
Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism.

What I Can Do

1. Solution. Let : “Alvin sings with Nina.” and : “Alvin dances with Nina.”
The given argument is of the form p∨ q
p

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 ∴~ q
This is the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct.
2. The given argument is of the form p∨ q
~q

∴ p

The first premise can be written as q∨ p, by the Commutative Law, and

so we can write q∨ p
~q
∴ p
Which adheres to the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the argument
is valid.
3. In symbols, the argument is of the form ~ (p∨ q)
~p
∴ q
This is the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

Post-test
I.
1. Solution:
The argument is valid by Disjunctive Syllogism. However, it is not
sound because there are infinitely many natural numbers and negative
integers, and this points to the falsity of the first premise.
2. Solution :
The argument is valid by Modus Ponens. Furthermore, we know from
the geometry of triangles that congruent triangles are also similar (but
similar triangles are not necessarily congruent). If it is taken to be true
that T1 and T2 are congruent, then the argument satisfies the truth
condition. Hence, the argument is sound.
3. The first premise is a definition, and can thus be interpreted as an if-
and-only-if statement. Suppose x and y are odd. Then we can write x =
2 k 1+ 1 and y = 2 k 2+ 1 for some integers k 1 and k 2. Thus, x + y =
2 k 1 +1+2 k 2 +1= 2(k 1+ k 2+ 1¿ .
Since k 1+ k 2+ 1 is an integer, then by Modus Ponens on the definition of
even numbers, x + y is even.
4. Let c: “Mary is studying computing.” And m: “Mary is studying Math”.
The argument is not valid since a is not a tautology. A counter
example is when c and m are both false.
5. Suppose n is odd. Then we can write n =2 k 1+ 1 for some integer k.
Furthermore, n2 = (2 k +1)2 = 4 k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2 k 2 + 2k) + 1. Since k is an
integer, then 2 k 2 + 2k is also an integer. Then by Modus Ponens, n2 is
also odd.
6. Suppose m : “Monsters roam the Earth.”, w: ”All people will buy
weapons.”, t: “Earth experiences tremors from beneath the surface.”,
and e: “All people will evacuate.” Constructing a truth table shows that
the case m, w, and e are true and t is false is a counterexample. The
argument is invalid.

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 References

LRMDS, General Mathematics Learner’s Material, 2016

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Orines, Fernando B., Next Century Mathematics 11: General
Mathematics(Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.927 Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City, Philippines:, 2016).

Commission on Higher Education, Teaching Guide for Senior High School:

General Mathematics(Quezon City, Philippines: EC-TECT Commercial,
2016).

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