THE PRINCIPLES OF VOICE PRODUCTION IN CHORAL SINGING;

A GUIDE TO CONDUCTORS

This mini-thesis has been submttted tn

partta1 fu1f11ment of the requirements for
the degree of Ma~ter of Music in the
~., ~' '., . .
Department of Music, University of Natat

PETRONELLA LAIDLAW
Durban
1988
 PART ONE

Chapter 1

The Vocal Mechanism

Although It Is Impossible to learn the technique of correct sQund pro-

duction merely by means of a knowledge of the anatomy of the vocal In-
strument, It Is nevertheless essential to have some knowledge tn this
regard.

The human vocal Instrument functions ldentlcal1y to al1 other musical In-
struments regarding the following three components: an actuator, a vi-
brator and a resonator. An added component which 15 unique to the human
voice Is an articulator. The respiratory muscles, lungs and diaphragm
serve as an actuator whl1e the vocal cords, being the source of sound,
serve as the vibrator. The resonator Includes the pharynx, mouth and nasal
cavity, and the 11ps, tongue, teeth and palate are general1y regarded as the
art lculator.

1. 1 The Breathing Mechanism

Respiration consIsts of two phases; Inhalation, durIng whIch the air

passes through the glottiS, the trachea and the bronchial tubes to en-
ter the lungs; and exhalation, during which the air Is breathed out
through the same channels.

In the normal /state, these two movements succeed one another In a

regular and rhythmical manner, without any Intervention of the wi1I,
as during sleep. In addition to the outward movement of the ribs, the
thorax 1 can expand at Its base, summIt and sIdes durIng InhalatIon. So
there are three respiratory movements, namely: diaphragmatiC,
clavicular and 1ntercostal.

The lungs, formed of a spongy, elastiC tissue, are separated from the
abdominal cav1ty by a convex muscular part1t10n cal1ed the diaphragm,
upon which they rest. Var10us muscles are used during respiration.

lA bony. conical C8f}3. commonly ~nown as the chest cavjty.

 4

Some of the most important are the intercostal muscles t between the
ribs and the diaphragm. In addition some of the throat and shoulder
muscles may also exert some Influence on breathing. For this reason
there are various types of breathing2.

During inha lat ion, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downwards,
while the contraction of the Intercostal muscles raises the ribs. The
combined action of these muscles enlarges the thorax which al10ws
the lungs to fll1 with air. During prolonged expiration, such as singing
a sustained note, the abdominal muscles3 gradual1y contract while the
diaphragm slowly relaxes. The control1ed Interaction of the two op-
posing sets of breathing muscles prevents the air to escape unused.
This activity is also known as support4 The following diagram
Illustrates the difference of the thoracic capacity during inhalation
and exhalations:

.· Inhalation: diaphragm Exhalation: diaphragm high,

descended, chest wider: chest narrow.

1The sp~ between IB:h rib Is f111ed with two layers of muscles the external Intercostal
muscles and the interf181 intenmtal muscles. '

2Part one, pp.1'-12 describe the various methOOs of breathing.

3The ab~lnal waH .Is composed of muscular sheets, one above the other, the fibres of each
waJJ being differently directed. TO;JBther, these muscles form a waH which protects the abOOmen
and supports its various organs in position. They are aJJ attEdled to ribs or rib cartn8jBS above
tJI1d end In J1gaments in the pelvic region below. '

~oseph Klein, Singing TeclJnlque, (New Jersey: D. van Nostrand Company Inc 1967'
reprint ad., 1968), p. 17. ., ,

5Arnold Rose, The Sil1g!1f' lJf1d the YOlO:, (London: Faber & Faber Ltd., 1962; reprint ed.,
1971), p.72.

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 5

Vocal sound is formed when air pressure in the lungs overcomes the
closing force of the vocal cords, and air Is released. When the pres-
sure in the lungs decreases, the vocal folds are sucked together and as
the pressure.rises again the whole process is repeated. This results
in vibration of the,,-ext't~led air. The pitCJl of a ndte is measured by the
-. "_"" _ '._ . . ';" i . •.

number of vIbratIons per second, and Is determIned by the air pressure

in the lungs and the thickness, tension and length of the vocal cords 1.

1.2 The Laryngeal Mechanism

The human voice Is a wind instrument. Its mechanism for sound-pro-

duction is the larynx or vocal box. Its main resonator is the pharynx.
The following diagram vlew~ the vocal instrument from the slde2.

The larynx can be envIsaged as part of a tube within the neCk, forming
a Hnk between the lower air passages (the windpipe and the lungs)
and the upper air passages (the pharynx and the nasal passages).

lJoseph Klein, Singing T6ClJnlqll8, (New Jersey: D. van Nostrand Company Inc 1967'
reprfnt ed.. 1968). pp. 35-36. ., ,

2Luc1e Manan, Tile Art ofSinging (Lonmn: F6ber MUSic Ltd 1974) p.20.
I I I
 6

The larynx is connected by a membrane, and various other muscles, to

a bone inside the root of the tongue, the hyoid bone. Movements of
thfs bone fnfluence the way in which the larynx functions. The larynx
is further attached by muscles upwards to the skuJl, and downwards
to the breastbone. Good voice-production therefore depends on a close
interaction between the muscles of the hyoid bone and those of the
larynx. A low posftion of the larynx is required to attain maximum
relaxation and responsiveness. If the larynx rises, the throat becomes
tight, and the voice begins to sound guttural, hard and cramped. The
practice of deep, low breathing accompanied by good diaphragmatic
support, and the habitual cultivation of a relaxed throat, should help
to maintain the larynx 1n a low position.

The vocal cords are fibrous Ilgaments covered by thin mucous mem-
brane stretched across the middle of the larynx. with the ary-
epiglottic folds as a lid. The false vocal cords lie above the true vo-
cal cords and also bulge out towards the middle of the tube during
singing. Between the true and the false vocal cords there is a small
sac. not shown in the diagram. called the ventricle which is filled
with air during singing, allowing the true vocal cords to vibrate
freely.

Imagine the vocal cords as befng a soft flexfble elastic membrane

stretched across the upper end of the windpipe, like a diaphragm, but
split down the centre to make an opening for the air. In action these
vocal cords come together or move apart with an undulating motion
that. accord1ng to James Lawson 1• could be likened to two well-
trained eels working in perfect harmony.

lJames Lawson, Full-'hr08ledEase, (New York: MiHs Music, Inc., 1955), p.19.

-
 7

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Vocal cords In repose Vocal cords In the production of sound'

Arter taking a breath, the singer mentally pitches the desired sound
and closes the vocal cords. The breath, rushing upwards In a strong
concentrated column and not finding the air passage open, hits against
the closed vocal cords and puts them tnto vibration, ejecting the air
slowly through them.

Vocal cords are capable of changing rapidly in thickness, length and

tenSion, according to the pitch of the note to be sung. They w111 vi-
brate throughout their entire length, breadth and th1ckness during the
singing of low notes. As the Pitch of the notes ascends, the vocal
cords adjust so that only the Inner edges vibrate. This change could
be compared to the change from a thick to a thin string on the violin.
When the highest notes of the voice are produced, the vibrating part of
the cords are much reduced In length, which In tum could be described
as slmt1ar to that of stopping the vibrating part of the vlol1n strlng2.

The fundamental pitCh of a voiced sound 1s based on the number of

puffs of air waves per second passing from the vocal cords. If the
vocal cords open and close rapidly, the pitch of the tone is high; If

I David Slater YoctJl PhyslolOW 8IId the T8tX:hlng ofSinging, (L~: Lowe and Brydene
I

Ltd., n.d.), p.18 & 19.

2Blanche Marchesi, The Sif9Jl''s cattx:hism 8IId Creed. (Lonmn: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.•
1932), p. 13.
 8

slowly, the pitch is low. The parts above the vocal cords act as a
filter and resonator, he1ping to seJect the specific patterns of har-
mon1cs that character1ze the Qual1t1es of the human v01ce. In order to
achieve true pitch, other parts of the voca1 assemb1y must be brought"
into play. These are the resonating chambers of the pharyngeal and
nasaJ cavities.

1.3 The Resonators

On each side and above the vocal cords are cavities that ampHfy and
1ncrease the 1ntens1ty of the v1brat1ons produced by the vocal cords.
The Qual1ty and volume of sound produced is dependant upon the shape
of the cavities in which it resonates. Three different chambers serve
as resonators for the human voice. These are the pharynx, the mouth
and the nasal cav1t1es.

The pharynx is a tube which stretches from the rear of the mouth to
the entrance of the oesophagus and belongs to the respiratory as wen
as to the d1gest1ve tract1. The pharynx 1s the most '1mportant of aJJ
the resonating cavities. The back waJJ of the pharynx 1s supplied with
muscles, by means of which it may be contracted or expanded, thus
altering the size and shape of the cavity. The pharynx, on account of
the numerous shapes 1t can assume. contr1butes to the format1on of
vowe1s as wen as to the varying shades of tone co10ur.

The mouth is bounded extemany by the l1ps and cheeks and is roofed
1n by the pa1ate. W1th1n 1t l1es the teeth and the tongue. The palate 1s
divided into two portions: The hard pa1ate. forming the front portion
of the roof of the mouth, and the soft palate which forms the back
port ion of the roof of the mouth and extends backwards into the
cav1ty of the pharynx. The uvu1a hangs from the centre of the sort
palate. It contains a muscle, by means of which it may be drawn up-
wards and backwards. Its main duty 1s to c10se the nasal passages to
prevent a nasal "twang", but not to stop the nasal resonance which Is
Qu1te a d1fferent matter. As a general rule. the soft palate should be
raised during singing. The mouth functions best as a resonance cham-
ber when all the muscles, including the tongue, are relaxed and the

1Lucie Man~n, TheArtofSinging, (Loncbn: Faber Music ltd., 1974), p.20.

 9

cavity of the mouth is enlarged, allowing an increased resonance

chamber.

The nasal cavities are situated above the hard and soft palates and
communicate with the upper part of the pharynx by means of the pas-
sages which are situated behind the soft palate. They are of immense
value 1n add1ng br1111ance to the v01ce.

1.4 The Articulator

The mouth not only funct10ns as a resonator but partly cons1sts of,
and contains, the organs of articulation, i.e. the lips, teeth, tongue,
soft palate and jaw. Being elastic organs, they can take on numerous
shapes in forming the desired vowels and consonants.

Flexibility of these articulating organs is essential in order to reach

a high interpretative standard in choral singing1.

lRefer to Part 2, p. 76-78 for exercises which should help to develop flexibility in the
voice.