Detailed Notes Topic 6 Organic Chemistry I Edexcel Chemistry A Level

Edexcel Chemistry A-level
Topic 6: Organic Chemistry I

Detailed Notes
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Topic 6A: Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Organic chemistry mainly concerns the properties and reactions of hydrocarbons, compounds
that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are a series of compounds with
similar structures and formulas that can be represented in many different ways.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature is the set of rules that outline how different organic compounds should be named
and how their formulas are represented.
Formulas
There are many different ways of writing and representing organic compounds:
1. Empirical Formula
- The simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.
2. Molecular Formula
- The true number of atoms of each element in a compound.
3. General Formula
- All members of a homologous organic series follow the general formula. For example,
alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.
4. Structural Formula
- Shows the structural arrangement of atoms within a molecule. For example,
CH3CH2COCH3.
5. Displayed Formula
- Shows every atom and every bond in an organic
compound.
6. Skeletal Formula
- Shows only the bonds in a compound and any
non-carbon atoms. The vertices are carbon
atoms and hydrogen is assumed to be bonded to
them unless stated otherwise.
Homologous Series
Organic compounds are often part of a homologous series, in which all members follow a
general formula and react in a very similar way. Each consecutive member differs by CH2 and
there is an increase in boiling points as chain length increases.
Example:
Each series has a functional group that allows that molecule to be recognised as being able to
react chemically in a certain way as a result of that group.
Example: Table of functional groups (ignore ethers)
Naming Compounds
Compounds are named according to rules laid out by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). This ensures each compound is universally named the same -
which helps to avoid potentially dangerous confusion.
As well as being able to name compounds from their structures, you should be able to draw
structures from IUPAC names.
Stem
The prefix of the chemical tells you the length of the longest unbroken chain of carbon
atoms in the compound. The first 10 are given below, using alkanes as an example:
Functional Groups
The ending of the compound’s name tells you the functional group present. If there is more
than one functional group present, they are added as a suffix.
If a halogen is present, it is represented by a prefix:
Functional group Prefix
Fluorine Fluoro-
Chlorine Chloro-
Bromine Bromo-
Iodine Iodo-
Side Chains
Carbon side chains that are branches from the longest carbon chain are represented by a
prefix at the start of the word. These alkyl groups are made using the stems given above
(meth-, eth-, prop-, etc) and the suffix -yl.
General Rules
1. Functional groups and side chains are given, if necessary, with the number
corresponding to the carbon they are attached to.
2. Numbers are separated by commas.
3. Numbers and words are separated by hyphens.
4. If more than one particular side chain or functional group is present then one of the
following prefixes is added: di- (2), tri- (3), tetra- (4), etc.
5. The carbon chain is numbered in ascending order from the end of the chain nearest a
functional group.
6. If multiple prefixes are present, they are included in alphabetical order.
Examples
Example 1: The displayed structure of butan-2,3-diol.
This compound only has single carbon-carbon bonds, so is an alkane. Its longest chain of carbon atoms
is 4, giving the stem butan-, and it has two alcohol functional groups on carbons 2 and 3.
Example 2: The displayed structure of 3-ethyl,5-methylhexan-2-ol.
Example 3: The displayed structure of propanone.
Propan-2-one is also correct, but since the C=O can only be in the 2 position for the compound to be a
ketone, the number is not necessary.
Example 4: The skeletal structure of 1,2-dichloropropane
Reaction Mechanisms
Types of Reactions
Reactions can be classified according to what happens to the reactants during the reaction and
what the end products are. The main types of reaction are:
● Addition - In an addition reaction the reactants combine to form a single product.
● Substitution - In a substitution reaction one functional group is replaced by a different

functional group.
● Oxidation - A species loses at least one electron, and is oxidised.
● Reduction - A species gains at least one electron, and is reduced.
● Polymerisation - A reaction in which many small molecules, known as monomers, join

together to form a long, repeating molecule called a polymer.
Mechanisms
Mechanisms show the movement of electrons within a reaction, shown with curly arrows.
Example:
Mechanisms are used to show the reactions of organic compounds.
Isomerism
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but a different arrangement of
atoms within the molecule.
Structural Isomers
Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but a different structural arrangement of
atoms. They can be straight chains or branched chains but will have the same molecular
formula.
Example:
Position Isomers
Position isomers have the functional group of the molecule in a different position of the
carbon chain.
Example:
Functional Group Isomers
These have the same molecular formula so but the molecules have a different functional
group.
Example:
Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but have a different spatial arrangement of
atoms and bonds. E-Z isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism, which occurs due to the limited
rotation around a double carbon bond. The limited rotation means that groups attached to the
C=C can either be ‘together’ or ‘apart’. The E isomer (german for ‘entgegen’ meaning apart) has
these groups apart. The Z isomer (german for ‘zusammen’ meaning together) has these groups
together on the same side.
Example:
Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) Priority Rules
There is a priority of different groups in molecules that can display E-Z isomerism. The atom
or group on each side of the double bond with the higher Ar or Mr is given the higher priority.
These groups are used to determine if it is the E or Z isomer.
Example:
Therefore this molecule is the Z isomer as the highest priority

atoms are on the same side (both on top).
Cis- and Trans- Isomers

Stereoisomers can be named in the same process as above, but instead using Cis- for when
the groups are on the same side and trans- for when they are different sides. Cis- and trans-
differs from E/Z isomerism in that cis- and trans- can only be used when there are hydrogen
atoms to compare the two other groups to. When there are more groups present, you have to
assign E/Z isomerism by using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules described above.
Topic 6B: Alkanes
Introduction to Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons where all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. They
are part of a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n+2. Cycloalkanes are an
exception to this general formula but are still saturated hydrocarbons.
Fractional Distillation
Crude oil is a mixture of different

hydrocarbons. It can be separated into
the separate molecules by fractional
distillation as the different chain lengths
of molecules result in them having
different boiling points.
Crude oil is separated in the following

way:
1. The mixture is vapourised and

fed into the fractionating column.
2. Vapours rise, cool and

condense.
3. Products are siphoned off for

different uses.
Products with short carbon chains have

lower boiling points, meaning they rise
higher up the column before reaching
their boiling point. Therefore they are
collected at the top of the column.
Products with long carbon chains have higher boiling points, meaning they don’t rise very far
up the column before reaching their boiling point. They condense and are collected at the
bottom of the fractionating column.
The compounds collected from the fractionating column are then broken down further via the
method of cracking.
Some long-chain alkanes are also converted into branched alkanes and cyclic hydrocarbons
in a process known as reforming. These products undergo combustion more efficiently than
straight-chain alkanes.
Cracking
Longer carbon chains are not very useful, so they are broken down to form smaller, more
useful molecules. The carbon-carbon bonds are broken in order to do this, which requires
quite harsh reaction conditions. There are two main types of cracking which result in slightly
different organic compounds.
Examples:
Thermal Cracking
Thermal cracking produces a high proportion of alkanes and alkenes. High temperatures
around 1200 K and pressures around 7000 kPa are used to crack the carbon chains. The
reaction always forms an alkane, and the remaining atoms form at least one alkene, which have
the general formula CnH2n.
Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic cracking produces aromatic compounds with carbon rings. Lower temperatures
around 720 K are used along with normal pressure, but a zeolite catalyst is also used to
compensate for these less harsh conditions.
Combustion of Alkanes
Alkanes make good fuels as they release a lot of energy when burned. With sufficient oxygen
present, they undergo complete combustion to produce carbon dioxide and water.
Example:
If the oxygen present is insufficient, combustion is incomplete and carbon monoxide or

carbon particulates are produced alongside water.
Example:
Carbon monoxide is a toxic, gaseous product that is especially dangerous to humans as it is

odourless and colourless. Carbon monoxide is dangerous because it replaces oxygen in the
blood, starving the brain and other organs of oxygen and causing people to suffocate.
Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are also produced as a byproduct of alkane combustion along
with carbon particulates from unburnt fuel. In clouds, these oxides can react with water and
form dilute acids, which result in acid rain.
Catalytic Converters
These gaseous products can be removed from systems using a catalytic converter. This uses
a rhodium catalyst to convert harmful products into more stable products such as CO2 or H2O.
Example:
Alternative Fuels
Alternative fuels are now being developed such as biofuels that release fewer, less harmful
products when burned. Carbon dioxide is released during the combustion of fuels. It is a
greenhouse gas so causes global warming and contributes to climate change.
Ethanol is a common biofuel. It is said to be carbon neutral as the carbon given out when it is
burned is equal to the carbon taken in by the crops during the growing process. It is produced
by fermentation, where enzymes break down starch from crops into sugars which can then be
fermented to form ethanol. It is produced in batches, meaning it is a relatively slow process
with a low percentage yield. However, the environmental benefits make it viable.
The other advantage of biofuels is that they are sustainable. This means their supply can be
maintained at the rate they are being used, so they will not run-out - unlike fossil fuels.
Chlorination of Alkanes
Alkanes react with halogens in the presence of UV light to produce halogenoalkanes. The UV
light breaks down the halogen bonds (homolytic fission) producing reactive intermediates called
free radicals. Free radicals are indicated with a dot, as shown below.
Free radicals are species containing an unpaired electron which is shown using a single dot.
These attack the alkanes resulting in a series of reactions; initiation, propagation and
termination.
1. Initiation - the halogen is broken down in the presence of UV light.
Cl2 → 2Cl•
2. Propagation - a hydrogen is replaced and the Cl• radical reformed as a catalyst
Cl• + CH4 → •CH3 + HCl

•CH3 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + Cl•
3. Termination - two radicals join to end the chain reaction and form a stable product.
•CH3 + •CH3 → C2H6
The propagation step can continue many times to result in multiple substitutions, this is a
chain reaction. The condition of the reaction can be altered to favour the termination step and
limit the number of substitutions, however, the nature of this reaction to produce multiple
products limits its use in organic synthesis.
Topic 6C: Alkenes
Introduction to Alkenes
Alkenes and cycloalkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon
double bond. They are part of a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n.
Cycloalkanes are saturated and follow this same general formula.
Structure and Reactivity
The carbon double bond is an area of high electron density making it susceptible to attack
from electrophiles (species that are attracted to ∂-areas). It consists of a normal covalent σ
bond and a π bond.
Example:
Bromine water is used to identify an alkene double bond and other unsaturated compounds.
Alkenes cause bromine water to change colour from orange-brown to colourless. This is
because the C=C bond can ‘open up’ to accept bromine atoms, and thus become saturated.
Reactions of alkenes
The carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes makes them reactive. During their reactions, the
double bond opens up to form single bonds to other atoms.
Alkanes
Alkenes can undergo electrophilic addition with hydrogen to produce alkanes. The C=C
bond opens up and forms single bonds to each of the hydrogen atoms. This reaction requires a
nickel catalyst.
Example:
This reaction is also known as a hydrogenation reaction. Catalytic hydrogenation is used in

the manufacture of margarine from unsaturated vegetable oils.
Halogenaoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes are organic compounds with single carbon bonds only and halogen
functional groups. Alkenes undergo addition reactions with halogens to form di-substituted
halogenoalkanes, and with hydrogen halides to form mono-substituted halogenoalkanes.
The mechanism for this reaction is given on the following page of these notes.
Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds with a hydroxyl functional group. Alkenes undergo addition
reactions with steam to form alcohols. This reaction requires an acid catalyst, such as
phosphoric acid.
Example:
CH2CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
Diols, alcohols with two hydroxyl functional groups, can also be formed from alkenes through
an oxidation reaction. The double bond is oxidised by acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(KMnO4). The manganate ions must be cold, dilute and acidified.
Example:
CH2CH2 + H2O + [O] → CH2(OH)CH2(OH)
Electrophilic Addition
Alkenes undergo electrophilic addition about the double bond.
Electrophiles
These are electron acceptors and are attracted to areas of high electron density. Some of
the most common electrophiles are:
● HBr
● Br2
● H2SO4
They can be used in the presence of steam to form alcohols or with hydrogen to produce
alkanes from alkenes.
Electrophilic Addition
Electrophilic addition is the reaction mechanism that shows how electrophiles attack the double
bond in alkenes. When the double bond is broken, a carbocation forms. This is a carbon atom
with only three bonds, meaning it has a positive charge.
Carbocations can have varying stability, with tertiary being the most stable and primary the
least. The more stable the carbocation, the more likely it is to form. Therefore in an addition
reaction, multiple products can form but the major product will always be the one that is formed
via the most stable carbocation intermediate possible.
Mechanisms
Mechanism: Alkene + Halogen → Dihalogenoalkane
The π bond causes the bromine molecule to gain a temporary

dipole so that electrons are transferred.
Mechanism: Alkene + Hydrogen Halide → Halogenoalkane
Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to ethene
Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to propene
Hydrogen bromide is polar due to the difference in the electronegativities of hydrogen and
bromine. The electron pair in the double bond attracts Hδ+
, forming a covalent bond between
carbon and hydrogen. This produces a positively charged carbocation intermediate which
attracts the negatively charged bromide ion.
The hydrogen joins to the carbon atom which is bonded to the most hydrogen atoms. The
bromide ion bonds to the carbon atom which is joined to the most carbon atoms. This is why
2-bromopropane forms more often than 1-bromopropane in the mechanism of propene with
hydrogen bromide.
Addition Polymers
Addition polymers are produced from alkenes where the double bond is broken to form a
repeating unit. Alkenes are short chain monomers which join together to form long chain
polymers.
Example:
The repeating unit must always be shown with extended bonds through the brackets,
showing that it bonds to other repeating units on both sides.
The energy and resources used to make polymers are large. Polymers are made from alkenes
which are obtained from crude oil, a non-renewable resource. The extraction and cracking of
crude oil are both high energy processes and additional energy is then needed to convert these
alkenes into polymers.
Uses of Polymers
Polymers are unreactive hydrocarbon chains with multiple strong, non-polar covalent bonds.
This makes them useful for manufacturing many everyday plastic products such as poly(ethene)
shopping bags.
However, the unreactive nature of the bonds in addition polymers means they are not
biodegradable and cannot be broken down by species in nature.
Disposal of Polymers
Addition polymers are non-biodegradable which means disposal of them can be difficult.
Waste polymers can be processed in different ways. Some can be recycled, some are used as
feedstock for cracking and some are incinerated to produce energy for other industrial
processes. Incineration can release toxic gases which must be removed to reduce the impact
on the environment.
As well as this, scientists are developing biodegradable polymers to overcome these waste
issues.
Topic 6D: Halogenoalkanes
Introduction to Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes contain polar bonds since the halogens are more electronegative than a
carbon atom. This means electron density is drawn towards the halogen, forming ∂+ and ∂-
regions.
Example:
Halogenoalkanes can be classed as primary, secondary or tertiary halogenoalkanes

depending on the position of the halogen within the carbon chain.
Relative Reactivity
Reactivity varies depending on the halogen present in the molecule. Electronegativity of the
halogens decreases down the group, meaning that a carbon-fluorine bond is much more
polar than a carbon-iodine bond. Along with the fact that the carbon-fluorine bond is shorter,
this means that the carbon-fluorine bond is much stronger than the carbon-iodine bond.
The greater the Mr of the halogen in the polar bond, the lower the bond enthalpy. A lower
bond enthalpy means the bond can be broken more easily. Therefore, the rate of reaction
increases for halogenoalkanes as you move down the group.
Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
To Produce Alcohols
Halogenoalkanes can react with aqueous alkali, such as aqueous sodium or potassium
hydroxide, to produce alcohols in a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The hydroxide ion
acts as a nucleophile.
To Produce Alkenes
Halogenoalkanes can react with ethanolic potassium hydroxide (KOH) to produce alkenes in
an elimination reaction. The hydroxide ion acts as a base.
Hydrolysis with Silver Nitrate

Halogenoalkanes can be broken down in their reaction with aqueous silver nitrate and
ethanol. The water in the solution acts as a nucleophile which leads to the break down of the
halogenoalkane, releasing the halide ions into the solution. The halide ions then react with the
silver ions from silver nitrate to form silver precipitates.
The colour of the precipitate allows you to identify the halide ion present. The rate at which the
precipitates forms allows you to identify the relative stability of the halogenoalkanes, because
the faster the precipitate forms, the less stable the halogenoalkane, and therefore the more
quickly it is hydrolysed.
Cl- Br- I-
White precipitate Cream precipitate Yellow Precipitate

(AgCl) (AgBr) (AgI)
Reactivity depends on the strength of the C-X bond (where X is a halogen atom) and not the
bond polarity. Bond strength decreases with increasing Mr. Therefore, iodoalkanes would
react faster than bromoalkanes and chloroalkanes, and bromoalkanes would react faster than
chloroalkanes.
To Produce Amines
Halogenoalkanes can react with alcoholic ammonia (for example, with ethanolic NH3) to form
amines in a nucleophilic substitution reaction. Ammonia acts as a nucleophile.
To Produce Nitriles
Halogenoalkanes can react with alcoholic potassium cyanide (KCN) to form nitriles in a
nucleophilic substitution reaction. The cyanide ion, CN-, acts as a nucleophile. This
reaction adds on a carbon atom, so it can be used in synthesis routes to increase the length of
carbon chains.
Nucleophilic Substitution
Nucleophiles
These species are ‘positive liking’. They contain a lone electron pair that is attracted to ∂+
regions of molecules. Some of the most common nucleophiles are:
● CN:-
● :NH3
-
● :OH
They must be shown with the lone electron pair indicating they are nucleophiles.
Nucleophilic Substitution
This is the reaction mechanism that shows how nucleophiles attack halogenoalkanes. Starting
from halogenoalkanes, aqueous potassium hydroxide is the reactant used to produce alcohols,
potassium cyanide is the reactant used to produce nitriles and ammonia is the reactant used to
produce amines.
The greater the Mr of the halogen in the polar bond, the lower the bond enthalpy meaning it
can be broken more easily. Therefore the rate of reaction for these halogenoalkanes is faster.
Nucleophilic substitution reactions can only occur for 1o (primary) and 2o (secondary) alkanes.
Mechanism - Formation of alcohols
The nucleophile attacks the ∂+ carbon and the electrons are transferred to the chlorine.
Mechanism - Formation of amines
The intermediate has a positively charged nitrogen (N+ ).

Electrons are transferred to the nitrogen by the loss of a hydrogen atom.
Topic 6E: Alcohols

Introduction to Alcohols
Alcohols contain an -OH functional group and follow the general formula CnH2n+1OH. They can
be produced via two main methods of fermentation or hydration. Alcohols are named according
to IUPAC rules and have the suffix -ol. Alcohols can be primary (1o), secondary (2o) or tertiary
(3o) depending on the position of the hydroxyl group.
Example:
Hydration
This method produces alcohols from alkenes in the presence of an acid catalyst, such as
phosphoric acid. The reaction is also carried out in aqueous conditions at 300oC and under
high pressures.
Example:
This process has a very high percentage yield as ethanol is the only product. Therefore the
hydration method is favoured as an industrial process.
Fermentation
In this process, enzymes break down the starch in crops into sugars which can then be
fermented to form alcohol. This method is cheaper than hydration as it can be carried out at a
lower temperature. However, the reaction is carried out in batches, meaning it is a much slower
process with a lower percentage yield.
Ethanol is a common biofuel produced in this way. It is said to be carbon neutral as the
amount of carbon dioxide given out when it is burned is equal to the carbon dioxide taken in by
the crops during the growing process.
Example:
Reactions of Alcohols
Combustion
When burned in air, alcohols react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Alcohols
make good fuels by reacting in this way as lots of energy is also released.
Example:
Reactions with Halogenating Agents

Alcohols can react with halogenating agents via nucleophilic substitution. The -OH group is
replaced by a halogen, producing a halogenoalkane.
PCl5 is used to produce chloroalkanes. This can be used as a test for alcohols because their
reaction with PCl5 produces white steamy fumes that turn damp blue litmus paper red.
A reaction mixture of 50% concentrated sulfuric acid and potassium bromide can be used to
produce bromoalkanes. The potassium bromide reacts with the sulfuric acid to form HBr. This
then reacts with the alcohol to produce the bromoalkane.
CH3CH2OH + HBr → CH3CH2Br + H2O
A reaction mixture of red phosphorus with iodine can be used to produce iodoalkanes. First,
the phosphorus reacts with the iodine to produce phosphorus(III) iodide. This then reacts with
the alcohol to form the iodoalkane.
2P + 3I2 → 2PI3
3CH3CH2OH + PI3 → 3CH3CH2I + H3PO3
Elimination Reactions
Alkenes can be formed from the dehydration of alcohols, where a molecule of water is
removed from the molecule. In order to do this, concentrated phosphoric acid is added as a
reagent.
Oxidation of Alcohols
Primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidised to produce various products but tertiary
alcohols are not easily oxidised.
When primary alcohols are heated in the presence of acidified potassium dichromate(VI),
they are oxidised to aldehydes. Distillation is required to separate the aldehyde product
Example:
When heated under reflux conditions, primary alcohols are oxidised further to carboxylic
acids.
Example:
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised in the presence of acidified potassium dichromate to

produce ketones.
Example:
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
Potassium dichromate(VI) is used in the oxidation of alcohols as the oxidising agent. It is
reduced as the alcohol is oxidised. A colour change from orange to green is observed when
the alcohol is oxidised with potassium dichromate(VI).
Example:
Test for Aldehydes

Aldehydes are tested for using Benedict’s/Fehling’s solution.
A few drops of Fehling’s solution are added and the test tube is gently warmed. If an aldehyde
is present a red precipitate will form. If no aldehyde is present the solution will remain blue.
Ketones will not give a positive result when added to Benedict’s/Fehling’s solution.
Experimental Techniques
There are many different techniques that can be used to prepare and then purify an organic
compound.
Heating under Reflux

Reflux apparatus is used to continually heat the contents of the flask to allow reactions like the
oxidation of primary alcohols to proceed all the way to the formation of carboxylic acids. The
condenser helps ensure the vapours condense and return to the flask for further heating. This
ensures the product vapours can not escape.
Separating Funnel
A separating funnel is used to separate two liquids with different densities. The mixture is
added to the flask and the liquids are allowed to separate into two layers. The tap can then be
opened to collect the bottom, denser liquid in one flask and the second, less dense liquid in a
second flask.
Distillation
Distillation apparatus is used to separate liquids with different boiling points. The pear-shaped
flask is heated and the liquid with the lower boiling point will evaporate first. It rises out of the
flask and into the attached tubing which is surrounded by a condenser. The condenser causes
the vapour to cool and condense back into a liquid, which is then collected in a separate flask.
Drying
A compound can be dried by the addition of an anhydrous (contains no water) salt. The
anhydrous salt will absorb moisture and water present, thus drying and purifying the
compound. A common anhydrous salt used for drying is sodium sulphate.
Boiling Point Determination

Finding the boiling point of a compound and comparing it to a databook value is a way of testing
its purity. The purer a substance, the closer to the databook boiling point value it will be. If a
sample has a low purity, the melting/boiling point will take place over a range of temperatures.
To determine the boiling point, the substance is packed into a Thiele tube which has an
inverted capillary tube in it. The substance is heated to above its boiling point and allowed to
cool. When it condenses into a liquid it will be drawn into the capillary tube and the temperature
at which this change occurs is taken to be the boiling point.

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Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 6: Organic Chemistry I

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Example: Table of functional groups (ignore ethers)

Functional group Prefix

Example 1: The displayed structure of butan-2,3-diol.

Example 3: The displayed structure of propanone.

Example 4: The skeletal structure of 1,2-dichloropropane

● Addition​ - In an addition reaction the reactants combine to form a ​single product.

● Substitution​ - In a substitution reaction one functional group is ​replaced​ by a ​different

● Oxidation​ - A species ​loses​ at least one electron, and is oxidised.

● Reduction​ - A species ​gains​ at least one electron, and is reduced.

● Polymerisation​ - A reaction in which many small molecules, known as ​monomers,​ join

Mechanisms are used to show the reactions of organic compounds.

Therefore this molecule is the Z isomer as the highest priority

Cis- and Trans- Isomers

Crude oil is a mixture​ of different

Crude oil is separated in the following

1. The mixture is ​vapourised ​and

2. Vapours ​rise, cool​ and

3. Products are ​siphoned off​ for

Products with ​short ​carbon chains have

If the oxygen present is insufficient, combustion is ​incomplete​ and ​carbon monoxide or

Carbon monoxide is a ​toxic​, gaseous product that is especially dangerous to humans as it is

1. Initiation​ - the halogen is broken down in the presence of UV light.

2. Propagation​ - a hydrogen is replaced and the Cl• radical reformed as a catalyst

Cl• + CH​4​ → •CH​3​ + HCl

•CH​3​ + •CH​3​ → C​2​H​6

Structure and Reactivity

This reaction is also known as a ​hydrogenation ​reaction. ​Catalytic hydrogenation​ is used in

Alkenes undergo electrophilic addition about the double bond.

Mechanism: ​Alkene + Halogen → Dihalogenoalkane

The π bond causes the bromine molecule to gain a temporary

Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to ethene

Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to propene

Halogenoalkanes can be classed as ​primary, secondary or tertiary ​halogenoalkanes

Hydrolysis with Silver Nitrate

Cl​- Br​- I​-

White precipitate Cream precipitate Yellow Precipitate

Mechanism - Formation of alcohols

The intermediate has a positively charged nitrogen (N+​ ​).

Topic 6E: Alcohols

Reactions with Halogenating Agents

CH​3​CH​2​OH + HBr → CH​3​CH​2​Br + H​2​O

3CH​3​CH​2​OH + PI​3​ → 3CH​3​CH​2​I + H​3​PO​3

Secondary alcohols can be oxidised in the presence of ​acidified potassium dichromate​ to

Test for Aldehydes

Heating under Reflux

Boiling Point Determination

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● Addition - In an addition reaction the reactants combine to form a single product.

● Substitution - In a substitution reaction one functional group is replaced by a different

● Oxidation - A species loses at least one electron, and is oxidised.

● Reduction - A species gains at least one electron, and is reduced.

● Polymerisation - A reaction in which many small molecules, known as monomers, join

Crude oil is a mixture of different

1. The mixture is vapourised and

2. Vapours rise, cool and

3. Products are siphoned off for

Products with short carbon chains have

If the oxygen present is insufficient, combustion is incomplete and carbon monoxide or

Carbon monoxide is a toxic, gaseous product that is especially dangerous to humans as it is

1. Initiation - the halogen is broken down in the presence of UV light.

2. Propagation - a hydrogen is replaced and the Cl• radical reformed as a catalyst

Cl• + CH4 → •CH3 + HCl

•CH3 + •CH3 → C2H6

This reaction is also known as a hydrogenation reaction. Catalytic hydrogenation is used in

Mechanism: Alkene + Halogen → Dihalogenoalkane

Halogenoalkanes can be classed as primary, secondary or tertiary halogenoalkanes

Cl- Br- I-

The intermediate has a positively charged nitrogen (N+ ).

CH3CH2OH + HBr → CH3CH2Br + H2O

3CH3CH2OH + PI3 → 3CH3CH2I + H3PO3

Secondary alcohols can be oxidised in the presence of acidified potassium dichromate to