CONSPIRACY THEORIES IN THE

PATRIOT/MILITIA MOVEMENT
SAM JACKSON
MAY 2017
About the Program on Extremism About the Author
The Program on Extremism at George Washington Sam Jackson is a PhD candidate in the Social
University provides analysis on issues related to Science Doctoral Program at Syracuse
violent and non-violent extremism. The Program University’s Maxwell School of Citizenship and
spearheads innovative and thoughtful academic Public Affairs. He studies the contemporary
inquiry, producing empirical work that patriot/militia movement in the US. He is working
strengthens extremism research as a distinct field on a book-length study of the Oath Keepers, which
of study. The Program aims to develop pragmatic investigates the group’s use of American history
policy solutions that resonate with policymakers, and political ideas. More generally, he studies the
civic leaders, and the general public. ideas that domestic extremists use to justify
breaking the law and the public communication
strategies they use to portray themselves as part
of the American political mainstream.

The views expressed in this paper are solely those

of the author, and not necessarily those of the
Program on Extremism or the George Washington
University.

1
Introduction The Patriot/Militia Movement
“If we do not stop Jade Helm 15 there may be no The patriot/militia movement is diverse,
future for our children.” This is the title of a video encompassing a wide range of groups and actors
posted to the YouTube channel of the motivated by diverse political goals.3 However,
patriot/militia movement Internet radio show those in the movement share several common
known as “The Liberty Brothers Show” in May features. The most important is the perception
2015.1 It suggests a common line of thought in the that America is turning its back on the vision of
patriot/militia movement: the federal government those who founded the nation in the 18th century,
is actively conspiring to steal the liberty—even and that the federal government is becoming
the lives—of Americans, and patriots must act increasingly tyrannical, threatening the rights and
now to defend themselves. liberties of everyday Americans. Members of the
movement therefore declare that they intend to
This paper provides a primer on conspiracy defend the nation from “enemies foreign and
theories in the patriot/militia movement. After domestic.” Other important features include self-
introducing the movement, it describes the basic description as patriots and a conviction that the
features of conspiracy theories. It then walks answers to contemporary political problems can
through several prominent and pervasive anti- be found in the thoughts and writings of 18th and
government conspiracy theories, including those 19th century Americans. For example, those in the
focusing on gun control, the Federal Emergency patriot/militia movement frequently refer to the
Management Agency (FEMA), and the United 2nd Amendment, arguing that this sentence proves
Nations as key components of the threat posed to beyond question that those who wrote the Bill of
the lives and liberty of Americans by the federal Rights believed that the people should be armed
government. It does not cover racist conspiracy with weapons equivalent to those used by the
theories (for example, those positing that Jews military, as an armed citizenry is the best defense
control the federal government, referred to as ZOG against a tyrannical government.
[Zionist Occupied Government or Zionist
Occupation Government]) or the more bizarre ones For many, the obligation to defend the nation
(for example, those positing that the world is entails preparing for a future conflict: training
controlled by a race of subterranean reptilians with a local group in a wide range of paramilitary
who sometimes take human form).2 In closing, it or survivalist skills (primarily firearms training,
offers some thoughts on why conspiracism plays but also emergency medical skills, alternative
an important role in the patriot/militia movement. communications techniques like ham radio, and
other useful skills if modern American society

1
The Liberty Brothers Radio Show, If We Do Not Stop 3
For more on the patriot/militia movement, see
Jade Helm 15 There May Be No Future for Our Mulloy, American Extremism; Churchill, To Shake
Children! Their Guns in the Tyrant’s Face.
2
These conspiracies and more are discussed at length
in Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy.

2
collapses); stockpiling supplies (especially authoritative sources say about the world, and
ammunition and food); and remaining vigilant in operate under the assumption that these sources
identifying allies and enemies for that future are lying, or else hiding important details.
conflict. For others, this obligation to defend the
nation demands that they be more proactive, Conspiracy theories rely on three basic premises:
preemptively taking the fight to the federal nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it
government rather than waiting for the federal seems, and everything is connected.6 The first
government to bring the fight to them.4 premise asserts that every bad outcome is the
Regardless of whether defense only requires result of an intentional decision by an evil actor.
preparation at this point or demands more For example, the federal government didn’t botch
proactive steps, it follows from the common its response to Hurricane Katrina. Instead, the
identification of threats by those in the federal government’s response reveals that it
patriot/militia movement. Often, the description either wanted to see people suffer, wanted to
of these threats constitutes a conspiracy theory. practice for the future imposition of martial law,
or wanted to create background conditions that
would justify an expansion of governmental
Basic Features of Conspiracy
bureaucracy that it could later use to oppress and
Theories control Americans.

Conspiracy theories are attempts to explain

The second premise—nothing is as it seems—
events by identifying a group of actors working in
explains why the conspiracy theory is not common
secret to benefit themselves at the expense of
knowledge: the conspirators hide their actions
others.5 These theories often describe the
from the masses. They fabricate evidence to
activities of this secret group as an existential
distract observers from the truth, as identified by
threat. They differ from other explanations of
those promoting the conspiracy theory. The
threats in that they identify a malevolent actor
conspirators trick unsuspecting people into
(unlike non-conspiracist theories, which warned of
helping with the conspiracy, so that many of those
unintentional Y2K dangers). Generally, theories
involved don’t even realize that they are part of the
about malevolent actors working in secret develop
conspiracy. Thus, for those who believe the
out of a default position of distrust. No matter the
conspiracy theory, any evidence that the
theories’ content, they start from a general
conspiracy isn’t true is actually evidence that the
predisposition to be suspicious of what official or
conspiracy is true: disconfirming evidence must

4
The occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Was Time To Make A Hard Stand’; Closing Arguments
Refuge in Oregon in early 2016 is an example of how Completed In Malheur Trial”; Wilson, “Ammon Bundy
those in the movement might be proactive. The leader Contradicts Previous Testimony On Refuge Takeover.”
of the group that took over the refuge, Ammon Bundy, 5
Uscinski and Parent, American Conspiracy Theories,
repeatedly remarked that “it was time to make a hard 32.
stand” to push back against a federal government 6
Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy, 3–4.
threatening the rights of Americans. Hersher, “‘It

3
have been fabricated by those who don’t want the public, those who promote conspiracy theories
conspiracy to come to light.7 For example, after offer themselves as more accurate, honest, and
then-President Barack Obama released his long- authoritative sources of information—not based
form birth certificate in 2011, conspiracy theories on formal qualifications or training, but on their
that argued that he was not a U.S. citizen added self-described ability to see through the
the new detail that this document must be disinformation spread by the conspirators.
fraudulent, claims that resurfaced in 2016 with a
press conference held by Sheriff Joe Arpaio of The third premise—everything is connected—is
Maricopa County, Arizona.8 more apparent in expansive conspiracy theories
than in those more narrowly focused. These
This treatment of evidence means that conspiracy theories tie together a wide range of events,
theories are non-falsifiable. Though they claim to suggesting that seemingly unrelated occurrences
be “testable by the accumulation of evidence are all part of a larger plot. The most expansive
about the observable world…belief in a conspiracy conspiracy theories suggest that events around
theory ultimately becomes a matter of faith rather the globe are orchestrated by a small group of
than proof.”9 Those promoting conspiracy theories individuals (perhaps the Illuminati, perhaps the
argue that nothing is as it seems to discredit Council on Foreign Relations, perhaps the
authoritative stories about the events they Rothschild family) for their personal gain. Richard
describe, suggesting that they have exclusive Hofstadter noted the prominence of this feature of
access to special information that allows them to conspiracism in American politics: in “the
see past the lies told by the conspirators.10 In paranoid style,” “a ‘vast’ or ‘gigantic’ conspiracy
arguing for the conspiracy theory, conspiracists [is] the motive force in historical events.”11
ask those listening to take it on faith that they Conspiracy theories in the patriot/militia
have access to a hidden truth about the movement include both smaller scale conspiracies
conspiracy. Building from the general that focus on corrupt individuals within
predisposition to distrust authoritative sources, government and larger scale conspiracies that
conspiracists encourage others to ‘wake up’ and depict government itself as corrupt.
see that the government, scientists, and the media
are lying to them. While suggesting that these
traditional authoritative sources are lying to the

7
Sunstein and Vermeule refer to this as the “self- trusted (except, presumably, others in the truth-
sealing quality” of conspiracy theories. “Conspiracy seeking cadre), a society becomes divided between
Theories,” 204. believers in received ideas about what counts as
8
Infowars Nightly News, “Case Closed! Trump Was knowledge and a no-longer-hidden minority of
Right, Obama’s Birth Certificate A Fake.” challengers.” Ibid., 239.
9
Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy, 6–7. 11
Hofstadter, “The Paranoid Style in American
10
This feature of conspiracy theories feeds off and Politics,” 29.
further encourages anti-elitism, anti-expertise, and
anti-intellectualism. As Barkun says, “If no one can be

4
 each completed Form 4473 for 20 years.14 Despite
Prominent Anti-government
this limitation, some conspiracy theories point to
Conspiracies the form as the means by which the government
will confiscate weapons. For example, Michael
Gun Confiscation Vanderboegh, a prominent patriot/militia
Some of the most durable conspiracy theories in movement blogger who founded the Three
the patriot/militia movement assert that the Percenter movement, wrote a short story in 1996
federal government is preparing to confiscate in which concerned gun owners (the heroes of the
privately owned firearms.12 This branch of story) broke into local gun shops and stole or
conspiracism reaches back decades, but it destroyed records including Form 4473 as “an
exploded in the 1990s after the passage of the effective tactic in blunting federal
registration/confiscation schemes.” 15
Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act in 1993
and the Federal Assault Weapons Ban in 1994.
Two ideas are central to this line of thought. First, Expectations that Form 4473 will be used as a
there are malevolent actors within the means for firearms confiscation began before the
government who want to confiscate firearms 1990s, and they extend far into mainstream
because they believe that widespread gun culture. Amidst references to other conspiracy
ownership prevents them from seizing more theories, the 1984 Hollywood action film Red
power.13 Second, any act that could facilitate Dawn briefly mentions the form. After invading a
confiscation will facilitate confiscation. Thus, town in Colorado, the Cuban Colonel Bella orders
those worried about federal gun control warn that a Russian KGB agent to “go to the sporting goods
the government intends to use any sort of gun store [and] from the files, obtain form 4473. These
owner registration (for example, lists of those who will contain descriptions of weapons and lists of
have concealed carry permits) to ensure it knows private ownership.”16 With these few words, the
who it must confiscate guns from in the future. film taps into this conspiracy theory that Form
4473 is a threat to gun owners.
A recurrent feature in these conspiracy theories is
Form 4473, a document that prospective gun Conspiracy theories about gun control often
buyers fill out as part of the background check present so-called “citizen disarmament” of any
process. Federal law prohibits the government kind as a compounding problem. The concern that
from keeping records on gun ownership, but animates these theories is that the government
licensed firearms dealers are required to keep will confiscate firearms to make it easier to steal

12
Churchill, To Shake Their Guns in the Tyrant’s Face, Keepers, one of the most visible groups in the
4. Gun confiscation is also prominent in white patriot/militia movement.
14
supremacist writing. Berger, “The Turner Legacy: The See 18 USC § 926 (2012)
15
Storied Origins and Enduring Impact of White Vanderboegh, “Once Upon a Tea Party.”
Nationalism’s Deadly Bible.” Vanderboegh died in August 2016.
13
Mulloy, American Extremism, 114–32. This 16
Milius, Red Dawn.
argument is prominent in writing from the Oath

5
Americans’ freedom. The Oath Keepers, a the use of soldiers on horseback from Kazakhstan
prominent group in the patriot/militia movement as peacekeepers in the American South, and
whose members participated in the armed widespread resistance to FEMA programs that
standoff with federal agents at the Bundy Ranch purport to help Americans displaced by
in 2014, provides an example. An article on the nationwide conflicts and natural disasters.
group’s website says of a California gun control
law that it “has nothing to do with safety, and FEMA Camps
everything to do with conditioning the public into
The Federal Emergency Management Agency
accepting citizen disarmament as a solution to
(FEMA) is another frequent subject of conspiracy
violence. Of course it’s about control.”17 Matthew
theories. Many conspiracy-mongers argue that,
Bracken’s Enemies Foreign and Domestic trilogy of
under the auspices of FEMA, the federal
novels provides another example. J.M. Berger has
government has plans to intern large numbers of
noted that dystopian fiction can serve as
Americans in detention camps. Typically, these
propaganda for extremists, motivating some
conspiracy theories warn that plans for such
readers to anticipate a novel’s events happening
camps claim to be humanitarian preparation for
in the real world, and perhaps even taking action
future disasters, but that these humanitarian
to ensure that they do.18 Bracken’s writing
plans belie a more nefarious purpose. Stewart
includes this dystopian trilogy, and has also
Rhodes, president of the Oath Keepers, warns
appeared on prominent patriot/militia movement
“there’s always a dual use excuse. It’s going to be
blogs like Western Rifle Shooters Association19
difficult to find a smoking gun that says this camp
and other far-right websites such as Gates of
is for internment of dissidents.”22 Keeping this in
Vienna,20 as well as more widely known online
mind, the patriot/militia community is told to be
outlets like Infowars and PJ Media. In Enemies
wary of government plans to help people, as they
Foreign and Domestic, political turmoil ensues
may be a cover for plans to violate the liberty of
when a rogue, power-hungry ATF (Bureau of
Americans.
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives) agent
orchestrates a mass shooting at a football stadium
Alex Jones, the country’s most prominent
so that he can lead a special task force that
promoter of conspiracy theories, has repeatedly
confiscates firearms.21 What begins in the first
posted documents to his Infowars website that he
novel as government action to restrict gun
claims prove that the government is building FEMA
ownership leads to, in later novels, a war with
Hispanic separatists in the American Southwest,

17
Codrea, “California Gun Seizure Edict a Naked 21
Bracken, Enemies, Foreign and Domestic; Bracken,
Power Grab That Ignores True Danger.” Domestic Enemies; Bracken, Foreign Enemies And
18
Berger, “The Turner Legacy: The Storied Origins and Traitors. See also Berger, “The Patriot Movement’s
Enduring Impact of White Nationalism’s Deadly New Bestseller Tests Their Anti-Racism.”
Bible.” 22
OathKeepersOK, Stewart Rhodes on the “Baldy &
19
https://westernrifleshooters.wordpress.com/ the Blonde Radio Show” discussing Senate Bill 1867.
20
http://gatesofvienna.net/

6
camps to intern Americans.23 A 2011 article As mentioned previously, fiction popular in the
connected alleged contracts held by KBR (a patriot/militia movement also features FEMA
Halliburton subsidiary) to build FEMA camps with camps, where Americans are interned against
the recently passed National Defense their will and forced to surrender their weapons.25
Authorization Act (NDAA) that included language Some in the patriot/militia movement who worry
allowing the government to indefinitely detain about FEMA point to the federal government’s
“unlawful enemy combatants.” The article also response to Hurricane Katrina as evidence that the
connected these FEMA camps to: government will use emergency response to
implement tyranny.26 A 1994 book written by Jim
“National emergency centers” to Keith, a leading conspiracy theorist, contains
be located on military multiple maps alleging to show the location of
installations for the purpose of FEMA detention camps (Figure 1 illustrates an
providing “temporary housing, example).27 According Keith’s narrative, it is not
medical, and humanitarian only the federal government that threatens to
assistance to individuals and intern Americans, though. Foreign actors may be
families dislocated due to an involved as well.
emergency or major disaster,”
according to the bill. In addition
to emergencies, the legislation is
designed to “meet other
appropriate needs, as determined
by the Secretary of Homeland
Security,” an open ended
mandate which many fear could
mean the forced detention of
American citizens in the event of
widespread rioting after a
national emergency or total
economic collapse… [emphasis
added].24

23
It is difficult to overstate Alex Jones’s role in Conspiracy Theorist Extraordinaire, Got Donald
spreading anti-government conspiracy theories. In Trump’s Ear.”
2011, a Rolling Stone article stated that “Jones draws 24
Nimmo and Jones, “Exclusive.”
a bigger audience online than Rush Limbaugh and 25
Bracken, Foreign Enemies And Traitors.
Glenn Beck combined.” In 2016, the Washington Post 26
Smith, “Take These Steps Today To Survive An
reported that Jones claimed 5 million daily listeners. International Crisis.”
His YouTube channel (The Alex Jones Channel) has 56 27
Keith, Black Helicopters over America: Strikeforce
videos with more than 1 million views each. Zaitchik, for the New World Order.
“Meet Alex Jones.” Roig-Franzia, “How Alex Jones,

7
Figure 1: Jim Keith’s map of alleged “FEMA detention camps”

8
The United Nations in (see Libya). Those issues are all
for the American People to decide
The United Nations (UN) is a common enemy in on our own, without any foreign
patriot/militia movement conspiracy theories. influence, whatsoever.”29
Most often, the UN is depicted as the instrument
that a malevolent cabal will use to erode American These conspiracy theories often argue that
national sovereignty and crush Americans’ American government officials are colluding with
individual liberties. Some of these conspiracy United Nations officials to take away Americans’
theories assert that decisions made in the UN will rights.
erode American sovereignty by creating
international laws that overrule the U.S. Some conspiracy theories about the United
Constitution. A common variant here is the idea Nations assume more direct malevolence, arguing
that Agenda 21, a non-binding resolution that the international organization is part of a plot
encouraging nations to “take a balanced and that will bring foreign troops to American soil in
integrated approach to environment and order to replace American democracy with
development questions,” is actually a plot to globalist tyranny. Jim Keith, who provided a map
restrict the property rights of American citizens.28 of FEMA camp locations, also provided a map of UN
A testimonial that appears on the website of the “concentration camps” (Figure 2).30
Oath Keepers provides a typical example of
suspicion of the United Nations: These UN conspiracy theories have influenced
extreme action by American militias. In 1995, for
example, members of the Michigan Militia Corps
“Our Forefathers didn’t fight and plotted to attack a U.S. military base after hearing
die for more than 200 years… just reports of foreign military equipment being
so we could hand our Right of shipped across the country on trains.31 Some
Self-determination over… to a people, including supporters of the patriot/militia
bunch of foreign agents at the movement, had taken this as evidence that
United Nations, letting them supported “a conspiracy theory popular among
dictate to us, as they do, what our far-right groups: that foreign troops under United
domestic policies will be (see UN Nations command are massing to take over the
Agenda 21 and UN Small Arms country.”32
Treaty), or what wars we’ll fight

28
United Nations, “United Nations Conference on 30
Keith, Black Helicopters over America: Strikeforce
Environment & Development: AGENDA 21,” 21. for the New World Order.
29 31
“Testimonial - Mike Baker.” Another post on the Janofsky, “‘Militia’ Man Tells of Plot To Attack
Oath Keepers website describes Agenda 21 as “the Military Base.”
32
UN plan to depopulate the rural areas of America.” An Army spokesperson confirmed the reports,
Krause, “Wilderness Corridors.” noting that “captured foreign military equipment” is

9
 Figure 2: Jim Keith’s map of alleged UN military bases and concentration camps in the United States

used to train American soldiers, and “always travel[s] spokesperson also mentioned that the name of the
on open, uncovered flatcars” to avoid concerns that program is “Chicken Little.” Ibid.
the equipment was part of a secret plot. The

10
False Flags attack.” He argued that the Tsarnaev brothers
were “patsies” and the real culprits were Navy
An increasingly common type of conspiracy theory
Seals, identified by their off-duty uniforms of
identifies incidents of mass killings, including acts
black shirts, black jackets, khakis, and combat
of terrorism, as attacks orchestrated by the
boots. During a press conference in Boston days
government to justify encroachments on civil
after the attack, an Infowars reporter asked
liberties. Conspiracy theorists refer to these as
Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick, “Is this
false flag attacks.33 In the large universe of
another false flag staged attack to take our civil
conspiracy theories about the 9/11 attacks, some
liberties and put more Homeland Security, while
describe those events as a false flag orchestrated
sticking their hands down our pants, on the
by the government. For example, during his
streets?”37
September 11, 2001 broadcast, Alex Jones
declared, “those were controlled demolitions. You
Similar theories emerged about the December
just watched the government blow up the World
2012 shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School
Trade Center.”34 Later, conspiracy theorists
in Connecticut, when Adam Lanza killed 27 people,
described the reports written by the 9/11
20 of whom were schoolchildren. As with false flag
Commission and the National Institute of
conspiracy theories about the Boston Marathon
Standards and Technology as elaborate attempts
bombing, some people (including Alex Jones)
by the government to hide the truth of what
believed that the government hired actors to play
happened on that day.35
the wounded and dead children. Some Sandy Hook
“truthers” harassed the families of victims,
Supporters of the patriot/militia movement saw
challenging parents to prove that their children
two recent events as false flags. In the first hours
really were killed. One conspiracy theorist told
after the bombing of the Boston Marathon in April
Lenny Pozner, whose son Noah was killed, that he
2013, conspiracy theorists began to suggest that
should “exhume Noah’s body and prove to the
the government either faked the bombing and
world you lost your son.”38 While some conspiracy
hired actors to play victims, or directed the
theories question the real story of the Sandy Hook
Tsarnaev brothers to carry it out.36 Perhaps the
shooting without making accusations about a
most prominent false flag conspiracy theory about
malevolent actor allegedly behind the events,
the bombing came from Infowars’ Alex Jones, who
those who do identify a motive for the hoax they
released a video on April 17, 2013 allegedly
describe argue that the government orchestrated
proving that the bombing was a “staged terror
the event to provide cover for plans to encroach

33 36
Mele, “After Orlando Shooting, ‘False Flag’ and Beckhusen, “False Flags, Fake Blood, and Michelle
‘Crisis Actor’ Conspiracy Theories Surface.” Obama.”
34
Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones.” 37
The Alex Jones Channel, PROOF! Boston Marathon
35
Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy, 172–73. Barkun Bombing Is Staged Terror Attack.
38
devotes two chapters of this book to conspiracy Spies, “What Kind of Person Calls a Mass Shooting
theories about 9/11. a Hoax?”

11
on civil liberties, with a particular focus on of which became prominent enough to warrant
expanded gun ownership regulations.39 coverage in news outlets like The New York Times
and USA Today, as well as by fact-checking
The common thread in false flag conspiracy organizations like Politifact.41
theories is that many events that garner wide
public attention are not what they seem. A tragedy Dave Hodges, who hosts a patriot/militia Internet
like the shooting at Sandy Hook might have been radio show called “The Common Sense Show,”
faked, or it might have happened. False flag outlined a conspiracy theory about FEMA camps,
conspiracists suggest that, either way, the Jade Helm 15, foreign troops, and false flags to
government is promoting a false narrative about describe the contemporary situation in America.42
the events it intends to use to justify crackdowns In a conversation with Jason Van Tatenhove, the
on civil liberties. Those promoting the conspiracy National Media Director for the Oath Keepers and
theory claim that only they have access to the co-host of “The Liberty Brothers”, Hodges
truth behind these government lies. They have described alleged government plans to use NSA
‘opened their eyes’ and are spreading the truth to threat-matrix scores to decide whether to execute
stop the government’s plan. American citizens with government death squads,
presumably starting with supporters of the
patriot/militia movement.43 He further asserted
Jade Helm 15 that those planning the operation were keeping
Some conspiracists weave multiple conspiracy the details compartmentalized, in hopes of having
theories together, creating a more encompassing the U.S. military cooperate as long as possible
story about the evil plot to steal the freedom of before foreign troops would be brought in to finish
Americans. Jade Helm 15 was a large scale United the job of imposing tyranny.
States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)
training exercise that took place in several states A series of articles posted on the Oath Keepers
in the Southwest between July 15 and September website also expressed concerns about Jade Helm
15, 2015.40 A host of conspiracy theories about 15. One article stated it could be a:
this exercise developed in the months prior, some

39
Baddour and Selby, “Hillary Clinton Right about Stanglin and Jahner, “Controversial Jade Helm
Alex Jones Naysaying Sandy Hook.” Some conspiracy Military Exercise Opens in Texas”; Belanger, “What Is
theorists who identify the shooting of the Pulse Jade Helm 15.”
42
Nightclub in June 2016 similarly identify “tighter gun Hodges, “World War III, Walmart, FEMA Camps,
restrictions” as the motive for the government to Jade Helm.”
orchestrate the attack. Mele, “After Orlando Shooting, 43
The Liberty Brothers Radio Show, If We Do Not Stop
‘False Flag’ and ‘Crisis Actor’ Conspiracy Theories Jade Helm 15 There May Be No Future for Our
Surface.” Children!
40
Belanger, “What Is Jade Helm 15.”
41
Fernandez, “Conspiracy Theories Over Jade Helm
Training Exercise Get Some Traction in Texas”;

12
 “Portentous government plan, a exercise, and Blue Bell ice cream trucks would be
pre-fabricated and pre- “mobile morgues” used to collect the bodies of
constructed umbrella under American citizens killed during the operation.
which a black op by the Deep Some citizens formed a group they called
State’s compartmentalized “Counter Jade Helm” to monitor the exercise,
agencies could possibly ‘Go Live’ while others purchased extra ammunition or hid
in a fantastic sort of Shock and weapons “just in case.”46
Awe False Flag psycho-coup to jar
the public mind of America As with all conspiracy theories, the theories
through fear into acceptance of surrounding Jade Helm asserted that the official
some nefarious policy the story was a lie. After some individuals began
government desired, such as the expressing concern over leaked details about the
establishment of Martial Law and operation, the military sent officers to talk with
the complete loss of individual residents in communities that would host part of
liberty and our Constitution.”44 the operation. In Bastrop, Texas, a lieutenant
colonel attempted to reassure the community that
Stewart Rhodes instead suggested that Jade Helm there was nothing nefarious about Jade Helm, but
was primarily a chance for the federal government one man in the audience expressed the distrust
to see which parts of the military would go along that underlies this conspiracy: “I didn’t believe a
with domestic deployments. It was also meant to single thing he just said.”47 In keeping with other
condition the parts of the American public who conspiracy theories, those who believed the worst
weren’t aware of governmental plans to take away about Jade Helm 15 argued that they had access
Americans’ liberty to accept the presence of to the secret truth about the government’s plan,
troops on American streets. The exercise was also and evidence that discounted their theory was in
an opportunity to intimidate members of the fact nothing more than evidence of a cover-up.
public who are ‘awake,’ threatening them with a
U.S. military response if they continue to publicly
oppose the government.45 Conspiracy Theories and the
Patriot/Militia Movement
Some Jade Helm 15 conspiracy theories suggested
more features in the conspiracy: closed Walmart None of these theories are supported by direct
locations were in fact stations for underground evidence. At best, they are possibilities supported
tunnels built by the military or detention centers by the weakest of circumstantial evidence, and
for Americans who would be rounded up during the they ignore stronger evidence that would refute

44
Alias, “JADE HELM 2015.” Belanger, “What Is Jade Helm 15”; Stanglin and
45
The Liberty Brothers Radio Show, Stewart Rhodes Jahner, “Controversial Jade Helm Military Exercise
on Jade Helm 15 on The Liberty Brothers. Opens in Texas”; Viser, “Jade Helm.”
46 47
Fernandez, “Conspiracy Theories Over Jade Helm Viser, “Jade Helm.”
Training Exercise Get Some Traction in Texas”;

13
the conspiracy theories. Why, then, are they so is reasonable. It is not that supporters of the
common in the patriot/militia movement?48 patriot/militia movement go searching for
conspiracy theories to justify their political views.
Political extremists of all types are motivated in Instead, their worldview predisposes them to
part by the perception of a crisis that demands quickly see threats, even where others see
action, and they use this to whip up fear and innocuous—or even beneficial—action.
recruit more members.49 Such a crisis may be
readily apparent to everyone, rooted in public Once a person accepts the premise that there are
action rather than the scheming of a cabal acting conspirators who work to hide their actions, even
behind closed doors. But there may not be such an to the extent of creating false evidence to mislead
obvious crisis that is easily recognized by large those who might otherwise oppose them, an
segments of the public. Rarely does public action important barrier to accepting conspiracy theories
by the government pose an obvious and immediate has been removed.50 Believing that it is common
threat to the basic liberties of everyday practice for those in government to scheme about
Americans. how to benefit themselves by harming American
citizens leads to a search for other ways that they
Yet such threats are always on the minds of might be doing so. Quickly, any government
supporters of the patriot/militia movement. program seems like tyranny, and if tyranny is not
Convinced that those in government must be obvious, it must imply there is a cover-up.
pursuing personal power or wealth at the expense
of Americans’ civil liberties, the movement This conspiracism feeds off widespread distrust of
provides explanations of how those in government government, and the government’s past actions
are doing this. If there is no direct evidence for have encouraged this distrust. Kathryn Olmsted
this, that lack of evidence is itself interpreted as argues that real government conspiracies, like
evidence of a cover-up. MKUltra and COINTELPRO, provide the impetus for
Americans to develop and support a range of
The default assumption is that the government conspiracy theories about the government.51 For
must be planning to restrict liberty, an assumption the patriot/militia movement, this distrust of
that leads supporters of the movement to assume government develops into the assumption that
the worst of each government policy or military government is malevolent.
exercise, and to elaborate on why the assumption

48
Mulloy, American Extremism, 165–74. Conspiracy Escalating Demands for Legitimacy Shape and Define
theories certainly aren’t limited to the patriot/militia In-Group and Out-Group Dynamics.”
50
movement. Scholars have noted their surprising Similarly, Swami and colleagues find that “the
prevalence among all Americans. Uscinski and Parent, strongest predictor of whether or not an individual
American Conspiracy Theories. will ultimately accept a conspiracy theory is the
49
Jackson, “Non-Normative Political Extremism.” See presence of earlier conspiracy ideation.” Swami et al.,
also Berger, “Extremist Construction of Identity: How “Conspiracist Ideation in Britain and Austria,” 459.
51
Olmsted, Real Enemies.

14
The most problematic conspiracy theories are not anticipation of a violent conflict with child
the most fantastic, which most people reject. Few abusers.53 Conspiracy theories are not just idle
people believe that closed Walmarts throughout distractions that entertain middle-aged men with
the Southwest were stations for underground too much time on their hands. They often have real
railroads that would be used to transport foreign impacts on public life.
troops during Jade Helm 15. The most problematic
conspiracy theories incrementally encourage In part, this impact is due to the growing
people to assume the worst of the government. prominence of social media. While conspiracists
When individuals see tyranny or martial law have always found ways to disseminate their
behind every policy, they stop viewing the theories through mail-order videos, home-printed
government as a means for American citizens to pamphlets, or late night talk radio, the advents of
come together to solve public problems. Instead, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter provide easy,
they see it as an evil actor that must be resisted accessible platforms that those promoting
at every turn. This breed of conspiracism leads to conspiracy theories can use to churn out a large
armed standoffs between citizens and government volume of material.54 They can even create
employees, and in extreme cases, leads unstable pseudo-citation and -sourcing standards like
individuals to try to start a revolution by killing law those used by academics and journalists; through
enforcement or even civilians.52 a process of layering, one person posts a
conspiracy theory, another person links to it, and
Recent events have demonstrated that conspiracy a network builds of people who support each
theories—including some of those promoted by other’s theories.55 Eventually, the first person that
the patriot/militia movement—continue to have posted about a theory can point to the many others
outsized impact on public life in America. Alex discussing it as confirmation of their idea: surely,
Jones was one of many commentators who they reason, this many people would only be
promoted the conspiracy theory about democrats, talking about it if it were true.
child trafficking, and the Comet Ping Pong pizzeria
in Washington, D.C. Edgar Welch took it upon The patriot/militia movement has grown—in size
himself to investigate these claims, visiting the and prominence—over the past decade.56 There
restaurant on December 4, 2016, bringing an AR- are many reasons for this, but one reason is that
15 rifle and a .38 caliber revolver into the store in supporters of the movement see their country

52
Blasky et al., “Shooters Carried Arsenal, Supplies the public. Barkun, “Conspiracy Theories as
into Sunday Rampage”; Blasky, Botkin, and Lochhead, Stigmatized Knowledge.” See Berlet on older
“Rejected by the Revolution, Jerad and Amanda Miller alternative information networks. “Who Is Mediating
Decided to Start Their Own.” the Storm? Right-Wing Alternative Information
53
Hsu, “Comet Pizza Gunman Pleads Guilty to Federal Networks.”
55
and Local Charges.” Barkun develops this argument further in
54
Barkun points out the increasing ability of “Conspiracy Theories as Stigmatized Knowledge.”
56
conspiracy theorists to bypass traditional media Potok, “The Year in Hate and Extremism.”
gatekeepers, spreading their theories directly with

15
headed in the wrong direction politically,
economically, and morally. Some experience
hardship directly, but all hear stories of friends,
neighbors, or fellow patriots who have had some
bad experience for which they blame the
government. This growth in the movement, in
combination with supporters’ readiness to identify
conspiracy theories describing the government as
a nefarious actor and a conviction that Americans
must be ready to take up arms to defend
themselves, contributes to an environment in
which future hostile interactions between law
enforcement and those in the patriot/militia
movement seem likely. If those in the movement
had experienced hardship and were convinced that
they needed to be ready for violent conflict, but
did not presume that the federal government is a
malevolent actor trying to hurt them, these
conflicts might be less likely. Instead, these armed
Americans have identified their primary enemy,
and they have complex arguments to describe its
actions. Conspiracy theories in the patriot/militia
movement therefore foster antagonism and make
violence between Americans and their government
more likely.

16
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