TQM Unit 3

UNIT - 3
TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES - I

The 7 Basic Quality Tools
Why use tools?
• Measure
• Improve
What are they?
The seven basic tools according to Ishikawa are:
• Check sheets
• Flow charts
• Cause and effect diagram
• Scatter diagram
• Control chart
• Graphs & Histograms
• Pareto diagram
1.Check sheets
• What is a check sheet?
• A form or sheet used to record data.
• Tools for identifying

Function of Check Sheets
According to Ishikawa 1982, check sheets have
the following functions:
1. Production Process distribution checks
2. Defective item checks
3. Defective location checks
4. Defective cause checks
5. Check-up confirmation checks
6. Others
Example of a simple check sheet. (for
car valet operation)
Car type Ford Focus
Car registration W357 PHR
Interior vacuumed √
Upholstery cleaned √
Dash board cleaned √
De odorised √
Body washed √
Washed waxed & Polished √
Under car washed √
Wheels washed √
Tyres blacked √
Comments: Front bumper badly scratched on delivery, this

can not be covered
Performed / Checked by J Date 2 May 2008
Example of a simple process check
sheet. (attributes)
Model XYZC217 Batch
1
failures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Power up
1 2 1
Boot up
6 4 2 1 2
Sink test
2 1 1 1
Case damage
1 1 2
Keyboard damage
Monitor damaged
1 2
Bundled s/w included

3 1 3
Checked by a l l r a
pj m jj [j m m m pj m pj
Tally Lines
Complaints Tally Total
Poor Delivery IIII III 8
Incorrect Invoicing IIII 4
Poor service IIII IIII 10
Irresponsible II 2
Poor Packaging III 3
No qaulity II 2
Flowcharts
2. PROCESS MAPPING
• Process mapping is an essential first step.
• It identifies all of the process activities,

sequence and responsibilities.
• This can either be in a written format, or as a

flowchart.
Flowcharts
PROCESS MAPPING (Written format)
Enquiry handling
Activity Responsibility Associated documents

1. Customer enquiry Sales Director Customers enquiry
received and Customers drawing
logged onto system Work instruction S10
2. Enquiry briefly Sales Director
overviewed and
allocated to sales
estimator for
through.
3. If it cant be done, Sales Director Customers enquiry
return to customer Customers drawing
4. If it has been made Sales Director Customers enquiry

before, prepare a Customers drawing
new quote based on Previous job file
previous job and Current price list
current pricing,
otherwise go to
step 10.
5. Send to customer Sales Director Quotation
for acceptance
6. Review quote Customer Quotation
7. Quote is acceptable Customer Quotation
8. Log as order and Quotation
create order Customer drawing
package Work instruction S30
9. Pass to Production Sales Director
control Order package
10. Allocated to sales Sales director Customers enquiry

estimator Customers drawing
11. . Etc.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Flowcharting
• Flowcharting is a graphical tool for identifying
processes.
• Constructing flowcharts leads to a better
understanding of processes.
• Better understanding of processes is a
essential for improvement
symbol
Event Symbol Description
operations It means an action
storage It is a stage of finished good

or raw material waiting for
action
Delay or It means process has
temporary stopped due to same
storage reason or waiting for next
event
Symbol
Event Symbol Description
Transport Movement
Inspection Checking the Quality
& Quantity
Operation cum Doing the work by

Transport moving
Inspection cum Automatic process

operation
Flowcharts
Some standard symbols
Start or end
An activity
a decision point in the process.
a point at which the flowchart connects

with another process.
An off page connection
All records are identified

FLOWCHART
SM01 Enquiry Handling / Quotation Process
Customer Sales director Estimator
Customer sends Sales department

enquiry receives enquiry
Enquiry entered
into the electronic
Quote log &
Unique serial
number entered
Customer
Can this
informed that we
No enquiry be
are unable to
Quoted ?
quote
Yes
Have the
Enquiry allocated
item (s) been No
to Estimator
made before?
Raise estimate
sheet & plan
process
Quote prepared
from Price guide
Organize contract
review to cover
Quality
Contractual &
Manufacturing
aspects
Quote customer Prepare Quote

Types of process chat or flow chart
• Outline process chart
• Two handled process chart
• Flow chart
Outline process chart
• Data are recorded by using
Two handled process chart
• LH RH
Flow chart
Exercise
Draw a flowchart for one of the following
processes:
– Making a cup of coffee

– Enrolling students
– Wiring a plug.
3.Cause and Effect Diagrams
(Ishikawa)
A method for the identification of the
root cause of a problem.
cause and effect
What is Brainstorming?
• A way to get creative ideas.
• A way to get everyone’s views.
• A way to generate alternatives.

cause and effect
Potential Uses (Brainstorming)
• For identifying areas for improvement.
• For finding potential causes of problems.
• For developing possible preventive actions.

cause and effect
Some Guidelines (Brainstorming)
Do’s Don'ts
• Give wild and unusual • Evaluate or criticise.
ideas. • Stop to soon.
• Aim for quantity. • Allow domination or
• Build on ideas of idea ownership.
others.
• Encourage
participation.
cause and effect
Ranking
Ranking can be used after brainstorming to assess the teams
Priority position on a list of ideas. The basic procedure is:
•Each person privately selects 3 to 5 items from the list

•Each person ranks their selection in order of priority
•The marks are then totalled for each item
•The item having the highest total is then judged to have the
highest priority
cause and effect
What is a Cause and Effect Diagram?
• The process of a cause and effect diagram consists of defining

an effect in terms of possible causes and is normally carried
out in the form of a Brainstorming session.
• The principal causes are typically Man, Materials, Methods or
Machines.
• These are then reduced to sub-causes.
• Finally, the most likely causes are then circled and are subject
to future examination.
• These relationships are displayed pictorially in the form of a
fishbone structure.
cause and effect
Layout:
Man Method
Sub-Cause Sub-Cause
Sub-Cause
Effect
Sub-Cause Sub-Cause
Sub-Cause
Materials Machines
Cause & Effect Diagrams
Sample
Manpower Materials
Inefficient info
Wrong source info
reluctant
Didn’t follow
Wrong purchase order
Incorrect shipping
documents
Corrupt
data
No training
No procedure
Keyboard sticks
No communications
Software problem
Methods Machine
4. Scatter Diagrams
A method for the identification the

relationship (effect) between two
factors (Causes).
Scatter diagrams
What is it used for?
• Validating "hunches" about a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables.
• Displaying the direction of the relationship

(positive, negative, etc.)
• Displaying the strength of the relationship

Scatter diagrams
Constructing scatter diagram
• In order to construct a scatter diagram you need two
variables to be plotted against each other. One on the x
axis the other on the y axis.
• The relationship is then plotted.
Variable b
relationship
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
Constructing scatter diagram
• This process is continued, showing the effect of changes
in one of the variables against the other variable.
Variable b
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
Interpreting a scatter diagram
• The diagram below shows a Strong Positive relationship

between the variables (an in crease in a results in a
positive increase in b, which is almost uniform.)
Variable b
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
• The diagram below shows a Strong Negative relationship

between the variables (an in crease in a results in a
decrease in b, which is almost uniform.)
Variable b
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
• The diagram below shows a Weak Positive relationship

between the variables.
Variable b
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
• The diagram below shows a Weak Negative relationship

Variable b
Variable a
Scatter diagrams
• The diagram below shows a that there is no relationship

Variable b
Variable a
5. Control Charts
A method for monitoring a process

for preventing defects.
Control charts
What are control charts
• Control charting is the most technically sophisticated tool of
the 7 quality tools.
• It was developed in the 1920s by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart of

the Bell Telephone Labs. Dr. Shewhart developed the control
charts as a statistical approach to the study of manufacturing
process variation.
• The purpose was to improve the process effectiveness and

therefore reduce costs.
• These methods are based on continuous monitoring of the

process variation.
Control charts
Why use control charts
• A Control chart is a device for describing in a precise manner
what is meant by statistical control.
• it helps the process perform consistently and predictably.

• it can minimise the variation in output.
• it can help to achieve lower product costs.
• it can help to increase effective capacity.
• it can help to meet customer expectations
Control charts
Types of control charts
• You will come across two types of Control
Charts used in SPC (Statistical Process
Control).
1.Attribute SPC
2.Variable SPC
Control charts
Attribute control charts
• Attribute data is based upon two conditions (pass/fail, go/no-go,
present/absent) which are counted, recorded and analysed.
• Control chart techniques are important for the following reasons:
 Attribute-type situations exist in any process.
 Attribute-type data is already available in many situations –

(existing inspections, repair reasons, reject segregation & sorting) In
these cases, no additional data collection is required, you just have
to convert the data into chart form.
 Where new data must be collected, attribute information is usually

quick and inexpensive to obtain.
Control charts
Variable control charts
• Control charts for variables are used to control
the variation of processes in cases where the
characteristic under investigation is a
measurable quantity.
Control charts
Variable control charts
• Xbar&R CHARTS.
• Xbar&R charts are used as a pair;
Control charts
Example of an Attribute control chart
Control charts
Example of a variable control chart
Moving Range Variable Control Chart (Sub-group Sampling)
Process Characteristic Oven temperature X Bar 181 R Bar UCL R Frequency
ESPC coating Upper Spec: 185.0 Lower Spec 175.0 Upper Control Limit Lower Control Limit 60 Piece Capability Study
190
188
186
UCL
USL
184 2
182 3
X bar
180
xbar
178
176 LCL
LSL
174
172
1
170
15.0
UCL
R bar
10.0
5.0
0.0
X1 182.0 182.0 183.0 176.0 183.5 182 182.5 176.0 183.5 183.0 183.0 184.0 183.0 184.0 183.5 176.0 176.0 176.0 182.0 176.0 178.0 176.0 186.0 187.0 182.0
184.0 183.5 183.0 183.0 170.0 176.0
X2 183.0 176.0 183.0 176.0 176.0 176 182.0 183.5 184.5 184.0 183.5 184.0 183.0 186.0 184.5 183.0 183.0 176.0 176.0 176.0 175.0 176.0 185.0 186.0 176.0
183.5 182.5 182.0 183.0 173.5 176.0
X3 176.0 183.0 184.0 183.5 184.0 182.5 182.0 176.5 184.5 172.0 183.5 176 176.0 184.0 182.5 182.5 180.0 180.0 182.0 184.0 184.0 184.0 183.0 183.0 176.0 175.0 174.0 183.0 183.0 186.0 183.5
X4
X5
X bar 180.3 180.3 183.3 178.5 181.2 183.3 182.7 180.5 183.5 171.8 178.5 178.0 180.2 181.2 183.5 183.2 182.2 182.7 182.7 184.7 184.0 181.0 180.7 178.3 178.0 175.7 175.7 178.3 184.7 186.3 180.5
R 7.0 7.0 1.0 7.5 8.0 1.5 1.5 6.5 1.5 3.5 7.5 6.0 6.5 8.0 2.0 1.5 3.5 4.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 1.0 4.0 7.0 3.0 1.0 7.5
Op R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc R.Mc
Time
Date 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4
NEW CALCULATED LIMITS
X bar 180.823 R Bar 4.6094 UCL X 185.524 LCL X 176.121 UCL R 30.089 Cp 0.61 Cpk 0.51 Sigma 2.7274
6. Graphs & Histograms
Graphs, either presentational or mathematical are
used to allow understanding and analysis of
collected data sets.
Tools for prioritizing and communicating
Graphs
BAR CHARTS
• This is the data set totalled up and shown graphically.
• It immediately identifies the major defects for all to
see.
Defects
16
14
12
Quantity
10
8
6
4
2
0
damaged
Bundled
included
Power up
damage
Keyboard
Boot up
Sink test
damage
Monitor
Case
s/w
Type
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
01/02/03
02/02/03
03/02/03
04/02/03
05/02/03
06/02/03
07/02/03
08/02/03
09/02/03
10/02/03
11/02/03
12/02/03
could be analysed.
13/02/03
14/02/03
15/02/03
Feb production output
16/02/03
17/02/03
18/02/03
19/02/03
20/02/03
21/02/03
22/02/03
23/02/03
24/02/03
25/02/03
26/02/03
27/02/03
28/02/03
• The below graph shows a factory output for
Average
Output %
February. This time it shows specific dates which
Graphs
Graphs
• The graph below shows the major cause for

customer complaint, the use of the pie chart and the
colours enforce the message.
Customer complaints 2007
by qty
15 20
5 Product quality
Shipped Late
Shipped early
Shipped wrong goods
60
Rules for Graphing
• Use Clear titles an indicate when the data was
collected
• Ensure the scales are clear, understandable
and represent the data accurately.
• When possible use symbols for extra data.
• Always keep in mind the reason why the graph
is being used.
Exercise Graphs
• You are the marketing director of XZY automotive, a new

Scottish company. You have organised a local survey to rate
your car against other small cars.
• 30 people were polled and the results are shown below.
• Xzy, ka, Clio, Clio, ka, fiesta, xzy, ka, 206, xzy, fiesta, fiesta, xzy,
polo, fiesta, 206, 206, polo, 206, fiesta, fiesta, fiesta, polo, xzy,
polo, fiesta, xzy, xzy, ka, xzy.
• You recognise the power that graphs produce. And you have
decided to Graph the results as part of you marketing drive.
Explain your choice of graph.
What is a Histogram?
• The Histogram is a graphical representation of
data that is a dimensional measurement of
one feature.
• This is the computer defect data set totalled up and

shown graphically, but is it a histogram?
Defects
Checks/only record failures Total 16

14
Power up 4 12
Quantity
10
Boot up 15 8
Sink test 5 6
4
Case damage 4 2
0
Keyboard damage 0
Keyboard
Bundled
included
Power up
Sink test
damage
s/w
Monitor damaged 3
Bundled s/w included 7
Type
• The answer to the previous question is NO
• The Histogram is a graphical representation of

data that, is a dimensional measurement
of one feature.
When is a Histogram Used?
• To look at one particular set of results
• To check for patterns in a process
• To examine large amounts of data

Histograms
• The following data was collected when measuring the bow
(warp) of a plastic component. The specification is 0 to 8 x10-3
mm.
• At a glance this tells you very little, but it can be plotted as a

histogram because we have quantities data with target limits.
Bow measurements
2 5 8 8 2
4 6 6 6 4
4 7 6 6 4
8 7 7 5 9
Histograms
Bin Frequency 6
0 0
5
1 0
4
2 2
Frequency
3 0 3
4 4 2
5 2 1
6 5
0
7 3
8 3
9 1
Thou
More 0
Exercise
• Sort the following data into appropriate sets,

then plot them.
• The limits are 3 volts ± 0.1
• What can you deduce from this?

Exercise
3.00 2.80 2.85 2.80 2.85

3.00 2.80 2.75 2.65 2.90
2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 2.85
2.85 2.90 2.85 3.00 2.90
2.85 3.05 2.95 3.05 2.95
2.85 2.95 3.00 2.80 2.85
2.90 2.70 2.85 2.85 2.90
2.90 2.90 2.80 2.85 2.85
2.85 3.00 2.85 2.85 2.75
2.80 2.90 3.05 2.85 2.85
7. Pareto Analysis
Arranging data acc to its defects and
causes
80% of defects from 20% of causes –
vital few
Remaining % of defects from various
causes – trivial many/useful many
Pareto
What is Pareto Analysis?
• Pareto analysis is a method for prioritising
data.
• It consists of a Bar Chart displayed either in

order of frequency or relative cost.
Pareto
Example:
The information to be represented on a Pareto diagram should already
have been collected in some sort of record.
Houshold repairs over the last 10 years

Cost £ per Total cost
Problem frequency occurance £
Light bulb fails 100 0.6 60
Broken central heating
pump 1 190 190
Broken window 2 50 100
Leaking taps 16 2.5 40
Faulty central heating
boiler 1 3000 3000
Leaking radiators 3 15 45
Pareto
Pareto Chart
The data are then displayed graphically. Firstly in terms of
frequency.....
House repairs 1998-2008
120
100
Occurance
80 frequency
60
Cum %
40
20
0
bulb fails
window
Broken
Broken
heating
heating
Leaking
Leakiung
central
central
radiators
Faulty
taps
Light
Fault
Pareto
... and then by cost.
House repairs 1998-2008 Total cost £
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500 Total cost £
1000
500
0
Faulty Broken Broken Light Leakiung Leaking
central central window bulb fails radiators taps
heating heating
boiler pump
Exercise Pareto
Plot the following data as a Pareto chart
Model XYZC217 Batch number
Checks/only record failures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Power up
1 2 1
Boot up
6 4 2 1 2
Sink test
2 1 1 1
Case damage
1 1 2
Keyboard damage
Monitor damaged
1 2
Bundled s/w included

3 1 3
Checked by
pj am jj [j lm lm rm pj am pj
The New Seven
Q.C. Tools
A Training Presentation on the N7
By Christopher Diaz
What are the
New Seven Q.C. Tools
Affinity Diagrams
 Relations Diagrams
 Tree Diagrams
 Matrix Diagrams
 Arrow Diagrams
 Process DecisionProgram Charts
 Matrix Data Analysis
History of the
Slide 1 0f 2
 Committee of J.U.S.E. - 1972

 Aim was to develop more QC techniques
with design approach
 Work in conjunction with original Basic
Seven Tools
 New set of methods (N7) - 1977
History of the
Slide 2 0f 2
 Developed to organize verbal data

diagrammatically.
 Basic 7 tools effective for data analysis,
process control, and quality improvement
(numerical data)
 Used together increases TQM effectiveness
What are the
Basic Seven Q.C. Tools?
Flow Charts
 Run Charts
 Histograms
 Pareto Diagrams
 Cause and Effect Diagrams

 Scatter Diagrams
 Control Charts
Relation Between New Seven Q.C.
Tools and Basic Seven Tools
FACTS
Data
Numerical Data Verbal Data

Define problem after Define problem before
collecting numerical data collecting numerical data
The Basic Seven Tools The Seven New Tools
•Analytical approach •Generate Ideas

Organize •Formulate plans
Information
Source: Nayatani, Y., The Seven New QC Tools (Tokyo, Japan, 3A Corporation, 1984)
Benefits of Incorporating
Slide 1 0f 4
Enhanced Capabilities
 Organize verbal data
 Generate ideas
 Improve planning
 Eliminate errors and omissions
 Explain problems intelligibly
 Secure full cooperation
 Persuade powerfully
Slide 2 0f 4
Enhanced Keys to Organizational Reform

 Assess situations from various angles
 Clarify the desired situation
 Prioritize tasks effectively
 Proceed systematically
 Anticipate future events
 Change proactively
 Get things right the first time
Slide 3 0f 4
Five Objectives of Organizational Reform

which will establish a Culture that:
 Identifies problems
 Gives importance to planning
 Stresses the importance of the process
 Prioritizes tasks
 Encourages everyone to think
systematically
Slide 4 0f 4
Unstructured Problem [must be put into solvable form]

The Seven New Tools
Problem is mapped
Problem becomes Thoughts are Plans are Problem becomes

obvious to all easily organized easily laid obvious to all
People understand Problem can be Nothing is Nub of problem

problem clearly articulated omitted is identified
Cooperation is Countermeasures
Things go well
obtained are on target
Problem is in solvable form

Affinity Diagrams
Slide 1 0f 7
For Pinpointing the Problem in a Chaotic

Situation and Generating Solution Strategies
 Gathers large amounts of intertwined
verbal data (ideas, opinions, issues)
 Organizes the data into groups based on
natural relationship
 Makes it feasible for further analysis and to
find a solution to the problem.
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 2 0f 7
Advantages of Affinity Diagrams

 Facilitates breakthrough thinking and
stimulate fresh ideas
 Permits the problem to be pinned down
accurately
 Ensures everyone clearly recognizes the
problem
 Incorporates opinions of entire group
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 3 0f 7
Advantages of Affinity Diagrams (cont.)

 Fosters team spirit
 Raises everyone’s level of awareness

 Spurs to the group into action
Topic
Affinity Statement Affinity Statement Affinity Statement
Data Card Data Card Data Card Data Card Data Card Data Card
Data Card Data Card
Affinity Statement
Data Card Data Card
Data Card
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 4 0f 7
Constructing an Affinity Diagram

Group Method Approach
 Select a topic
 Collect verbal data by brainstorming
 Discuss info collected until everyone
understands it thoroughly
 Write each item on separate data card
 Spread out all cards on table
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 5 0f 7

Group Method Approach (cont.)
 Move data cards into groups of similar
themes (natural affinity for each other)
 Combine statements on data cards to new
Affinity statement
 Make new card with Affinity statement
 Continue to combine until less than 5
groups
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 6 0f 7

 Lay the groups outs, keeping the affinity
clusters together
Next, complete the diagram
Affinity Diagrams
Slide 7 0f 7
Completing an Affinity Diagram
Topic
Affinity Statement Affinity Statement Affinity Statement
Data Card Data Card

Affinity Statement
Data Card Data Card
Data Card
Relations Diagrams
Slide 1 0f 7
For Finding Solutions Strategies by Clarifying

Relationships with Complex Interrelated Causes
 Resolves tangled issues by unraveling the
logical connection
 Allows for “Multi-directional” thinking
rather than linear
 Also known as Interrelationship diagrams
Relations Diagrams
Slide 2 0f 7
Advantages of Relations Diagrams

 Useful at planning stage for obtaining
perspective on overall situation
 Facilitates consensus among team
 Assists to develop and change people’s
thinking
 Enables priorities to be identified accurately
Relations Diagrams
Slide 3 0f 7
Advantages of Relations Diagrams (cont.)

 Makes the problem recognizable by clarifying
the relationships among causes
Tertiary Tertiary
Cause Secondary Cause
Primary Cause Cause
Primary Cause Tertiary

Secondary Cause
Why doesn’t
Cause Secondary
X happen?
Cause
Primary Cause Primary Cause

Secondary 6th level
Cause
Tertiary Cause
Secondary Tertiary
Cause
Cause
4th level Cause 4th level 5th level
Cause Cause Cause
Relations Diagrams
Slide 4 0f 7
Constructing a Relations Diagram

 Express the problem in form of “Why isn’t
something happening?”
 Each member lists 5 causes affecting
problem
 Write each item on a card
 Discuss info collected until everyone
understands it thoroughly
Relations Diagrams
Slide 5 0f 7

 Move cards into similar groups
 Asking why, explore the cause-effect
relationships, and divide the cards into
primary, secondary and tertiary causes
 Connect all cards by these relationships
 Further discuss until all possible causes
have been identified
Relations Diagrams
Slide 6 0f 7

 Review whole diagram looking for

relationships among causes
 Connect all related groups

Tree Diagrams
Slide 1 0f 5
For Systematically Pursuing the Best Strategies

for Attaining an Objective
 Develops a succession of strategies for
achieving objectives
 Reveals methods to achieve the results.
 Also known as Systematic diagrams or
Dendrograms
Tree Diagrams
Slide 2 0f 5
Advantages of Tree Diagrams

 Systematic and logical approach is less likely
that items are omitted
 Facilitates agreement among team
 Are extremely convincing with strategies
4th means
Secondary means 3rd means 4th means
3rd means 4th means
Primary means 3rd means 4th means
4th means
To Secondary means 3rd means
4th means
Accomplish 4th means
Constraints
Tree Diagrams
Slide 3 0f 5
Constructing a Tree Diagram

 Write Relations Diagram topic (Objective card)
 Identifyconstraints on how objective can

be achieved
 Discuss means of achieving objective (primary
means, first level strategy)
 Take each primary mean, write ob-jective
for achieving it (secondary means)
Tree Diagrams
Slide 4 0f 5
Constructing an Tree Diagram

 Continue to expand to the fourth level
 Review each system of means in both
directions (from objective to means and means to
objective)
 Add more cards if needed
 Connect all levels
Matrix Diagrams
Slide 1 0f 7
For Clarifying Problems by “Thinking

Multidimensionally”
 Consists of a two-dimensional array to
determine location and nature of problem
 Discovers key ideas by relationships
represented by the cells in matrix.
Matrix Diagrams
Slide 2 0f 7
Advantages of Matrix Diagrams

 Enable data on ideas based on extensive
experience
 Clarifies relationships among different
elements
 Makes overall structure of problem
immediately obvious
 Combined from two to four types of diagrams,
location of problem is clearer.
Matrix Diagrams
Slide 4 0f 7
Constructing a Matrix Diagram
 Write final-level means from Tree diagram

forming vertical axis
 Write in Evaluation categories (efficacy,
practicability, and rank) on horizontal axis.
 Examine final-level means to identify whom
will implement them
 Write names along horizontal axis
Matrix Diagrams
Slide 5 0f 7
Constructing a Matrix Diagram (cont.)

 Label group of columns as “Responsibilities”
 Label right-hand end of horizontal axis as
“Remarks”
 Examine each cell and insert the
appropriate symbol:
Efficacy: O=good, =satisfactory, X=none
Practicability: O=good,=satisfactory, X=none
Matrix Diagrams
Slide 6 0f 7
Constructing a Matrix Diagram (cont.)

 Determine score for each combination of
symbols, record in rank column
 Examine cells under Responsibility
Columns, insert double-circle for Principal
and single-circle for Subsidiary
 Fill out remarks column and record
meanings of symbol
Arrow Diagrams
Slide 1 0f 7
For Working Out Optimal Schedules and

Controlling Them Effectively
 Shows relationships among tasks needed to
implement a plan
 Network technique using nodes for events
and arrows for activities
 Used in PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method)
Arrow Diagrams
Slide 2 0f 7
Advantages of Arrow Diagrams

 Allows overall task to viewed and potential
snags to be identified before work starts
 Leads to discovery of possible improvements
 Makes it easy to monitor progress of work
 Deals promptly with changes to plan
 Improves communication among team
Arrow Diagrams
Slide 4 0f 7
Constructing an Arrow Diagram
 From strategies on Tree diagram, select one

(Objective of Arrow Diagram)
 Identify constraints to Objective
 List all activities necessary to achieving
Objective
 Write all essential activities on separate
cards
Arrow Diagrams
Slide 5 0f 7
Constructing an Arrow Diagram (cont.)

 Organize cards in sequential order of
activities
 Remove any duplicate activities
 Review order of activities, find sequence
with greatest amount of activities
 Arrange parallel activities

Arrow Diagrams
Slide 6 0f 7
Constructing an Arrow Diagram (cont.)

 Examine path, number nodes in sequence
from left to right
 Record names and other necessary
information
Process Decisions Program
Charts
Slide 1 0f 7
For Producing the Desired Result from Many

Possible Outcomes
 Used to plan various contingencies
 Used for getting activities back on track
 Steers events in required direction if
unanticipated problems occur
 Finds feasible counter measures to
overcome problems
Charts
Slide 2 0f 7
Advantages of Process Decisions Program Charts

(PDPC’s)
 Facilitates forecasting
 Uses past to anticipate contingencies
 Enables problems to pinpointed
 Illustrates how events will be directed to
successful conclusion
 Enables those involved to understand
decision-makers intentions
Charts
Slide 3 0f 7
Advantages of PDPC’s (cont.)

 Fosters cooperation and communication in
group
 Easily modified and easily understood
Start
NO
NO NO
NO
YES YES NO NO
YES
NO
GOAL
Charts
Slide 4 0f 7
Constructing a PDPC
 Select a highly effective, but difficult

strategy from the Tree diagram
 Decide on a goal (most desirable outcome)
 Identify existing situation (Starting point)
 Identify constraints of objective

 List activities to reach goal and potential
problems with each activity
Charts
Slide 5 0f 7
Constructing an PDPC (cont.)

 Review list.Add extra activities or problems
not thought of previously
 Prepare contingency plan for each step and
review what action is needed if step is not
achieved
 Examine carefully to check for
inconsistencies and all important factors
are included
Charts
Slide 6 0f 7
Constructing an PDPC (cont.)

 Examine to make sure all contingency plans
are adequate
Matrix Data Analysis
Slide 1 0f 6
Principal Component Analysis

 Technique quantifies and arranges data
presented in Matrix
 Based solely on numerical data
 Finds indicators that differentiate and
attempt to clarify large amount of
information
Slide 2 0f 6
Advantages of Principal Component Analysis

 Can be used in various fields (market surveys, new
product planning, process analysis)
 Can be when used when Matrix diagram does

not give sufficient information
 Useful as Prioritization Grid
Slide 3 0f 6
Constructing a Prioritization Grid

Source: Foster, S., Managing Quality (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001)
 Determine your goal, your alternatives, and

criteria for decision
 Place selection in order of importance
 Apply percentage weight to each option (all
weights should add up to 1)
 Sum individual ratings to establish overall
ranking (Divide by number of options for average
ranking)
Slide 4 0f 6
Constructing a Prioritization Grid (cont.)

 Rank order each option with respect to
criterion (Average the rankings and apply a completed
ranking)
 Multiply weight by associated rank in
Matrix (in example, 4 is best, 1 is worst)
 Result is Importance Score
 Add up Importance Scores for each option
Slide 5 0f 6
Constructing a Prioritization Grid (cont.)

 Rank
order the alternatives according to
importance
See completed the diagram

Review
Affinity Diagrams
 Relations Diagrams
 Tree Diagrams
 Matrix Diagrams
 Arrow Diagrams
 Process DecisionProgram Charts
 Matrix Data Analysis
Keys to Successfully Using the
Slide 1 0f 5
Mental Attitudes
- Keen awareness to the actual problem
- Eagerness to solve problem
- Be highly motivated for the challenge
Four Specific Keys

 Understand the problem
 Select the right tool for the job
 Obtain appropriate verbal data
 Interpret analytical results
Slide 2 0f 5
4 Specific Keys
 Understand the problem
Stage 1 - problem is unclear and not obvious
what exact issue should be addressed
Stage 2 - problem is obvious, but causes unknown
explore causes and single out valid ones
Stage 3 - problem and causes are known
required action is unknown
strategies and plan must be developed
Slide 3 0f 5
4 Specific Keys (cont.)
 Selecting Right tool for the Job

Stage 1 - Collect verbal information on events
(Affinity Diagram)
Stage 2 - Choose tool to identify causes
(Relations Diagram / Matrix Diagram)
Stage 3 - List strategies and activities
(Tree Diagram / Relations Diagram)
Plan actual activities
(Arrow Diagram / PDPC Chart)
 Obtaining appropriate verbal data

Three types of verbal data:
- Facts; factual observations expressed in words
- Opinions; factual information colored by opinion
- Ideas; New concepts created by analyzing facts
.Group Discussions:
- Ensures common understanding
- All data should be without bias or distortion
- Data should fit objective of the analysis
Slide 5 0f 5
 Interpreting Analytical Results

Information must be obtained for accomplishing
objectives from:
- Completed diagrams; or
- Process of completing diagrams
Analyze actual information obtained:

- Prepare summarized report with findings,
conclusions, and processes used
- Check if necessary data has been obtained, if not
- Discover the cause and take appropriate action
Practical Application of
Example; Relations Diagram

”Abilities Required for Applying New Seven QC Tools”
Complete the following Relations Diagram
- Review notes for clarity
- Get in groups of 4-5 per table (work as a team!)
- Topic - “Using the New Seven QC Tools skillfully”
- “Cause cards”- will be provided (not categorized)
- Arrange cards to complete diagram
(some hints have been provided)
Summary
Benefits of New Seven Q.C. Tools

1- Provide Training in Thinking
2- Raise People’s Problem Solving Confidence
3- Increase People’s Ability to Predict Future Events
Roles of New Seven Q.C. Tools

1- Express verbal data diagrammatically
2- Make information visible
3- Organize information intelligibly
4- Clarify overall picture and fine details
5- Get more people involved
Six Sigma
Set of tools and
techniques for process
improvement
Six Sigma
• Greek Letter represent Standard Deviation in statistics
• Bill Smith - Motorola 1987, manufacturing division
• Jack Welch– GE – 1995 - products
• Techniques – improve the capability and reduce defects
• Perfection
• It allows 3.4 defects/million (99.99% accuracy)
• Defects can be from faulty part to incoorect customer
bill.
Benefits of Six Sigma
Improve the process
Decrease the variation
Maintain consistent quality
Increase in profit, product quality
Customer satisfaction
Organization growth
Concept
Quality Level Meaning
One sigma 6,90,000 defects
Two sigma 3,08,000 defects
Three sigma 66,800 defects
Four sigma 6,210 defects
Five sigma 230 defects
Six sigma 3.4 defects
RDMAICI
Recognize SWOT
Define Goals
Measure Set
Analyze Difference
Improve Tools
Control Monitor
Integrate Communicate
DMAIC
DMADV
Implementation Role
• Quality/Apex Council
• Sponsor/Champion
• Master Black Belt
• Black Belt
• Green Belt
• Team Members
Example
• Call Centre
• Medical & Insurance
• Service Sector
Benchmarking - 1979
Xerox – a photocopy company

• Internal
• Industry
• Competitive
• Relationship
• Best in class
FMEA
FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT

ANALYSIS

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UNIT - 3

TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES - I

• A form or sheet used to record data.

• Tools for identifying

Dash board cleaned √

Washed waxed & Polished √

Under car washed √

Comments: Front bumper badly scratched on delivery, this

Bundled s/w included

• It identifies all of the process activities,

• This can either be in a written format, or as a

Activity Responsibility Associated documents

4. If it has been made Sales Director Customers enquiry

10. Allocated to sales Sales director Customers enquiry

storage It is a stage of finished good

Operation cum Doing the work by

Inspection cum Automatic process

a decision point in the process.

a point at which the flowchart connects

An off page connection

All records are identified

SM01 Enquiry Handling / Quotation Process

Customer Sales director Estimator

Customer sends Sales department

Quote customer Prepare Quote

– Making a cup of coffee

• A way to get everyone’s views.

• A way to generate alternatives.

• For identifying areas for improvement.

• For finding potential causes of problems.

• For developing possible preventive actions.

•Each person privately selects 3 to 5 items from the list

• The process of a cause and effect diagram consists of defining

Wrong purchase order

A method for the identification the

• Displaying the direction of the relationship

• Displaying the strength of the relationship

• The diagram below shows a Strong Positive relationship

• The diagram below shows a Strong Negative relationship

• The diagram below shows a Weak Positive relationship

• The diagram below shows a Weak Negative relationship

• The diagram below shows a that there is no relationship

A method for monitoring a process

• It was developed in the 1920s by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart of

• The purpose was to improve the process effectiveness and

• These methods are based on continuous monitoring of the

• it helps the process perform consistently and predictably.

• Control chart techniques are important for the following reasons:

 Attribute-type situations exist in any process.

 Attribute-type data is already available in many situations –

 Where new data must be collected, attribute information is usually

NEW CALCULATED LIMITS

• The graph below shows the major cause for

• You are the marketing director of XZY automotive, a new

• 30 people were polled and the results are shown below.

• This is the computer defect data set totalled up and

Checks/only record failures Total 16

• The answer to the previous question is NO